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the Evolution of Life and Humans</h1><div class="ds-work-card--work-authors ds-work-card--detail"><a class="ds-work-card--author js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="104673049" href="https://independent.academia.edu/B%C3%B6rjeEkstig"><img alt="Profile image of Börje Ekstig" class="ds-work-card--author-avatar" src="https://0.academia-photos.com/104673049/23588732/22633018/s65_b_rje.ekstig.jpg" />Börje Ekstig</a></div><p class="ds-work-card--detail ds2-5-body-sm">2014, Foundations of Science</p><div class="ds-work-card--button-container"><button class="ds2-5-button js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"continue-reading-button--work-card","attachmentId":73139403,"attachmentType":"pdf","workUrl":"https://www.academia.edu/58999228/Complexity_Natural_Selection_and_the_Evolution_of_Life_and_Humans"}">See full PDF</button><button class="ds2-5-button ds2-5-button--secondary js-swp-download-button" 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data-collection-position="0" data-entity-id="8488872" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/8488872/A_Note_on_Why_Natural_Selection_Leads_to_Complexity">A Note on Why Natural Selection Leads to Complexity</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="178803" href="https://independentresearcher.academia.edu/BillBenzon">Bill Benzon</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs"> Journal of Social and Biological Structures, 1990</p><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">While science has accepted biological evolution through natural selection, there is no generally agreed explanation for why evolution leads to ever more complex organisms. Evolution yields organismic complexity because the universe is, in its very fabric, inherently complex, as suggested by Ilya Prigogine's work on dissipative structures. Because the universe is complex, increments in organismic complexity yield survival benefits: (1) more efficient extraction of energy and matter, (2) more flexible response to vicissitudes, (3) more effective search. J.J. Gibson's ecological psychology provides a clue to the advantages of sophisticated information processing while the lore of computational theory suggests that a complex computer is needed efficiently to perform complex computations (i.e. sophisticated information processing).</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"A Note on Why Natural Selection Leads to Complexity","attachmentId":34870587,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/8488872/A_Note_on_Why_Natural_Selection_Leads_to_Complexity","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/8488872/A_Note_on_Why_Natural_Selection_Leads_to_Complexity"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="1" data-entity-id="37319936" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/37319936/Natural_Selection_and_Complexity">Natural Selection and Complexity</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="11929836" href="https://uned.academia.edu/GiorgioAiroldi">Giorgio Airoldi</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">The alleged Darwinian fundamental tenet that Natural Selection explains the complexity of life is controversial. While adaptationist narratives aims at formalizing it based on the hypothesis that phenotypic traits result from fitness optimization , mechanisms alternative to Natural Selection have been proposed to explain the tendency of organisms towards increasing complex designs. The thesis of this paper is that, in order to clarify to which extent Natural Selection or other forces are the relevant explicans, it is necessary to recognize that there is a wide range of radically different evolutionary facts, to which no univocal definition of complexity increase is applicable. To classify them, we introduce a bi-dimensional space by adding robustness to fitness as the second dimension to measure design and design changes. In this space, it is possible to distinguish the impact of selective and non-selective mechanisms behind each class of evolutionary fact, and the correspondent different classes of complexity increase.</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Natural Selection and Complexity","attachmentId":57276875,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/37319936/Natural_Selection_and_Complexity","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/37319936/Natural_Selection_and_Complexity"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" 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href="https://www.academia.edu/279004/Evolution_of_Complexity">Evolution of Complexity</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="151252" href="https://unam.academia.edu/CarlosGershenson">Carlos Gershenson</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">Artificial Life, 2008</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Evolution of Complexity","attachmentId":1256096,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/279004/Evolution_of_Complexity","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/279004/Evolution_of_Complexity"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="4" data-entity-id="612144" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/612144/The_hierarchical_complexity_view_of_evolution_and_history">The hierarchical complexity view of evolution and history</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="272988" href="https://igc.academia.edu/SaraNoraRoss">Sara Nora Ross</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">World Futures, 2008</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"The hierarchical complexity view of evolution and history","attachmentId":3272257,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/612144/The_hierarchical_complexity_view_of_evolution_and_history","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/612144/The_hierarchical_complexity_view_of_evolution_and_history"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="5" data-entity-id="832509" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title 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class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/832509/The_non_decreasing_character_of_complexity_A_biological_approach"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="6" data-entity-id="35231169" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/35231169/Complexity_and_technological_evolution_What_everybody_knows">Complexity and technological evolution: What everybody knows</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="347528" href="https://tue.academia.edu/KristVaesen">Krist Vaesen</a><span>, </span><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="119392" href="https://tue.academia.edu/WyboHoukes">Wybo Houkes</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">The consensus among cultural evolutionists seems to be that human cultural evolution is cumulative, which is commonly understood in the specific sense that cultural traits, especially technological traits, increase in complexity over generations. Here we argue that there is insufficient credible evidence in favor of or against this technological complexity thesis. For one thing, the few datasets that are available hardly constitute a representative sample. For another, they substantiate very specific, and usually different versions of the complexity thesis or, even worse, do not point to complexity increases. We highlight the problems our findings raise for current work in cultural-evolutionary theory, and present various suggestions for future research.</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Complexity and technological evolution: What everybody knows","attachmentId":55090046,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/35231169/Complexity_and_technological_evolution_What_everybody_knows","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/35231169/Complexity_and_technological_evolution_What_everybody_knows"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="7" data-entity-id="69744411" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/69744411/How_does_complexity_arise_in_evolution_Natures_recipe_for_mastering_scarcity_abundance_and_unpredictability">How does complexity arise in evolution:Nature's recipe for mastering scarcity, abundance, and unpredictability</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="11507755" href="https://independent.academia.edu/PSchuster">Peter Schuster</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">Complexity, 1996</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"How does complexity arise in evolution:Nature's recipe for mastering scarcity, abundance, and unpredictability","attachmentId":79722248,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/69744411/How_does_complexity_arise_in_evolution_Natures_recipe_for_mastering_scarcity_abundance_and_unpredictability","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/69744411/How_does_complexity_arise_in_evolution_Natures_recipe_for_mastering_scarcity_abundance_and_unpredictability"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="8" data-entity-id="720160" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/720160/Complexity_and_its_observer_Does_complexity_increase_in_the_course_of_evolution">Complexity and its observer. Does complexity increase in the course of evolution? </a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="140425" href="https://uni-graz.academia.edu/ManfredF%C3%BCllsack">Manfred Füllsack</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">The paper endeavors to gain a better understanding of the role of the observer in attempts to answer questions like “what is complexity?”, “can it be measured?” and “does it increase?”. Following Murray Gell-Mann and others in considering complexity observer-dependent, conceptions of Spencer-Brown, of Luhmann and of Varela and Maturana are taken to draft a formal conception of observation and to discuss on its base suggestions like informational (Shannon), algorithmic (Solomonov, Kolmogorov, Chaitin), statistical (Crutchfield) and physical (Adami) complexity. Finally, in order to illuminate the concept of the observer further, the presumably indispensable aspect of complexity reduction is illustrated with the help of a Genetic Algorithm.</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Complexity and its observer. Does complexity increase in the course of evolution? ","attachmentId":30851618,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/720160/Complexity_and_its_observer_Does_complexity_increase_in_the_course_of_evolution","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/720160/Complexity_and_its_observer_Does_complexity_increase_in_the_course_of_evolution"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="9" data-entity-id="80697863" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/80697863/How_evolution_guides_complexity">How evolution guides complexity</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="212979" href="https://indiana.academia.edu/LarryYaeger">Larry Yaeger</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">HFSP journal, 2009</p><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">Long-standing debates about the role of natural selection in the growth of biological complexity over geological time scales are difficult to resolve from the paleobiological record. Using an evolutionary model-a computational ecosystem subjected to natural selection-we investigate evolutionary trends in an information-theoretic measure of the complexity of the neural dynamics of artificial agents inhabiting the model. Our results suggest that evolution always guides complexity change, just not in a single direction. We also demonstrate that neural complexity correlates well with behavioral adaptation but only when complexity increases are achieved through natural selection (as opposed to increases generated randomly or optimized via a genetic algorithm). We conclude with a suggested research direction that might be able to use the artificial neural data generated in these experiments to determine which aspects of network structure give rise to evolutionarily meaningful neural compl...</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"How evolution guides complexity","attachmentId":86994446,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/80697863/How_evolution_guides_complexity","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/80697863/How_evolution_guides_complexity"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div></div></div><div class="ds-sticky-ctas--wrapper js-loswp-sticky-ctas hidden"><div class="ds-sticky-ctas--grid-container"><div class="ds-sticky-ctas--container"><button class="ds2-5-button js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"continue-reading-button--sticky-ctas","attachmentId":73139403,"attachmentType":"pdf","workUrl":null}">See full PDF</button><button class="ds2-5-button ds2-5-button--secondary js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"download-pdf-button--sticky-ctas","attachmentId":73139403,"attachmentType":"pdf","workUrl":null}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 20px" translate="no">download</span>Download PDF</button></div></div></div><div class="ds-below-fold--grid-container"><div class="ds-work--container js-loswp-embedded-document"><div class="attachment_preview" data-attachment="Attachment_73139403" style="display: none"><div class="js-scribd-document-container"><div class="scribd--document-loading js-scribd-document-loader" style="display: block;"><img alt="Loading..." src="//a.academia-assets.com/images/loaders/paper-load.gif" /><p>Loading Preview</p></div></div><div style="text-align: center;"><div class="scribd--no-preview-alert js-preview-unavailable"><p>Sorry, preview is currently unavailable. 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