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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Student placement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Student_placement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Student_enrollment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Student_enrollment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Student enrollment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Student_enrollment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Course_delivery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Course_delivery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Course delivery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Course_delivery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Research_on_outcomes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research_on_outcomes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Research on outcomes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Research_on_outcomes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-National_efforts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#National_efforts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>National efforts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-National_efforts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Complete_College_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Complete_College_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5.1</span> <span>Complete College America</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Complete_College_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Achieving_the_Dream" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Achieving_the_Dream"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5.2</span> <span>Achieving the Dream</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Achieving_the_Dream-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Core_Principles_Statement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Core_Principles_Statement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5.3</span> <span>Core Principles Statement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Core_Principles_Statement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Changes_in_North_Carolina" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Changes_in_North_Carolina"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5.4</span> <span>Changes in North Carolina</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Changes_in_North_Carolina-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gates_Foundation_and_Lumina_Foundation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gates_Foundation_and_Lumina_Foundation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5.5</span> <span>Gates Foundation and Lumina Foundation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gates_Foundation_and_Lumina_Foundation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Developmental_education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Developmental_education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Developmental education</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Developmental_education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>In Europe</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-In_Europe-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle In Europe subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-In_Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-European_Framework_of_Transitional_Preparatory/Remedial_Teaching" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#European_Framework_of_Transitional_Preparatory/Remedial_Teaching"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>European Framework of Transitional Preparatory/Remedial Teaching</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-European_Framework_of_Transitional_Preparatory/Remedial_Teaching-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effectiveness" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effectiveness"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Effectiveness</span> </div> </a> <button 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vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Success_factors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Success factors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Success_factors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Online_remedial_education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Online_remedial_education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Online remedial education</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Online_remedial_education-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Online remedial education subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Online_remedial_education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Advantages_and_disadvantages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Advantages_and_disadvantages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Advantages and disadvantages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Advantages_and_disadvantages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Role_of_teachers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Role_of_teachers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Role of teachers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Role_of_teachers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Collaborative_tools" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Collaborative_tools"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Collaborative tools</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Collaborative_tools-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon 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ambox-content ambox-multiple_issues compact-ambox" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/40px-Ambox_important.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/60px-Ambox_important.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/80px-Ambox_important.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="40" data-file-height="40" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span"><div class="multiple-issues-text mw-collapsible"><b>This article has multiple issues.</b> Please help <b><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Remedial_education" title="Special:EditPage/Remedial education">improve it</a></b> or discuss these issues on the <b><a href="/wiki/Talk:Remedial_education" title="Talk:Remedial education">talk 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Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Remedial+education%22">"Remedial education"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Remedial+education%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Remedial+education%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Remedial+education%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Remedial+education%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Remedial+education%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2013</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Globalize plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-globalize" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Globe icon." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/48px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png" decoding="async" width="48" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/73px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/97px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="290" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">The examples and perspective in this article <b>may not represent a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Countering_systemic_bias" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Countering systemic bias">worldwide view</a> of the subject</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> You may <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Remedial_education&action=edit">improve this article</a>, discuss the issue on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Remedial_education" title="Talk:Remedial education">talk page</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Article_wizard" title="Wikipedia:Article wizard">create a new article</a>, as appropriate.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2012</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> </div> </div><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Remedial education</b> (also known as <b>developmental education</b>, <b>basic skills education</b>, <b><a href="/wiki/Compensatory_education" title="Compensatory education">compensatory education</a></b>, <b>preparatory education</b>, and <b>academic upgrading</b>) is assigned to assist students in order to achieve expected competencies in core academic skills such as literacy and numeracy.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Whereas <a href="/wiki/Special_education" title="Special education">special education</a> is designed specifically for students with <a href="/wiki/Special_needs" title="Special needs">special needs</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> remedial education can be designed for any students, with or without special needs;<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the defining trait is simply that they have reached a point of lack of preparedness, regardless of why. For example, even people of high <a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">intelligence</a> can be under-prepared if their education was disrupted,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for example, by <a href="/wiki/Internally_displaced_person" title="Internally displaced person">internal displacement</a> during <a href="/wiki/Civil_disorder" title="Civil disorder">civil disorder</a> or a <a href="/wiki/War" title="War">war</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_Australia">In Australia</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Remedial_education&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: In Australia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The development and implementation of the <b>Special Assistance Program</b> in Victorian Primary Schools during the period 1979–1982 constituted the most significant innovation in the provision of special education services to children experiencing learning difficulties and in addressing declining literacy and numeracy standards. Up until the political directive to initiate this program was given, there had been no policy within the <i>Department of Education and Early Childhood Development</i> directing Principals of Primary Schools to develop special programs for pupils at risk of illiteracy and innumeracy.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Declining_literacy_and_numeracy_skills">Declining literacy and numeracy skills</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Remedial_education&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Declining literacy and numeracy skills"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>From the early 1960s, the Education Department of Victoria (Australia), had developed an extensive range of programs in primary schools that sought to develop the individual ability of each pupil. Also, the ratio of pupils to teachers in schools had been significantly reduced over time and schools had become much more independent in the development of school-based remedial programs. </p><p>In spite of this, there existed large numbers of children in Victorian primary and secondary schools urgently in need of special assistance in the essential skills of literacy and numeracy. This situation was reflected in the <a href="/wiki/Australian_Parliament" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian Parliament">Australian Parliament</a>'s House of Representatives Select Committee on Specific Learning Difficulties in 1976. The committee had commissioned research by the <a href="/wiki/Australian_Council_for_Educational_Research" title="Australian Council for Educational Research">Australian Council for Educational Research</a> (ACER) that found that 15% to 20% of children completing their primary education had not achieved a functional level of literacy.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Government_intervention">Government intervention</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Remedial_education&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Government intervention"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In late May 1979, within a month of being reelected, the Hamer Liberal Government announced Victoria's first major review of its educational policies for more than 50 years. </p><p>Anticipating the new direction, in July 1979, the Assistant Minister of Education, <a href="/wiki/Norman_Lacy" title="Norman Lacy">Norman Lacy</a> established a Ministerial Committee on Special Assistance Programs.<sup id="cite_ref-Lacy,_1981_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lacy,_1981-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The committee consisted of people drawn from school staffs, special education facilities, teacher training institutions and the Education Department administration. The committee's report was the basis upon which the Special Assistance Program was established.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (September 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The process for the establishment of the Special Assistance Program in Victorian Primary Schools<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was outlined in a speech Lacy delivered to <a href="/wiki/Special_Assistance_Resource_Teacher" title="Special Assistance Resource Teacher">Special Assistance Resource Teachers</a> (SARTs) at a seminar held at Hawthorn State College (Victoria, Australia) on 15 December 1980.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In it he announced the most significant development in remedial education in Victoria with a strategic plan for addressing falling literacy and numeracy standards. The totally new component of the Special Assistance Program<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was the provision of 1000 SARTs for "the delivery of services to children with special needs." These designated teachers were given "a major on-site school responsibility for facilitating a productive relationship between parents and pupils and teachers."<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The program involved the training of these primary teachers as SARTs and their placement in schools. Their role was the early detection and remediation of children at risk of illiteracy and innumeracy.<sup id="cite_ref-TheHon_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TheHon-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Special_Assistance_Resource_Teachers">Special Assistance Resource Teachers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Remedial_education&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Special Assistance Resource Teachers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The core element of this substantial change in the delivery of special educational services to children was the new role of the school-based Special Assistance Resource Teacher (SART) which was the focus of this world-first breakthrough in class room integration of pupils experiencing learning difficulties. The role incorporated all the elements of the service previously performed by external consultants visiting schools.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As a result, from the beginning of the 1981 school year SARTs were designated by their schools and appointed to the 575 primary schools with enrolments of greater than 300 pupils. They were mandated to establish the <i>Special Assistance Program</i> in their schools. The Education Department's Special Services Division and the Primary Division monitored the progress of the implementation and produced a number of evaluative reports that were presented to the Minister.<sup id="cite_ref-TheHon_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TheHon-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From the beginning of the 1982 school year, schools with an enrolment of between 150 and 300 pupils designated and appointed a SART to carry out the role on a half-time basis. This resulted in and additional 302 primary schools in Victoria having a school-based resource teacher, bringing the total to 877 schools. It was not planned to designate a SART at schools with less than 150 pupils. At such schools it was planned that the Principal or an appointed staff member would access services from the Special Assistance Resource Centres for children at these schools in need of such services.<sup id="cite_ref-TheHon_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TheHon-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In-service_training_courses_for_SARTs">In-service training courses for SARTs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Remedial_education&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: In-service training courses for SARTs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A major component of stage one was the <a href="/wiki/In-service_program" title="In-service program">in-service education</a> component for the SARTs designated by their schools for the new role. A survey of the qualifications and experience of the 575 designated SARTs was undertaken to assess their training requirements. The responses indicated that 200 of the designated teachers had already completed special education training courses. Of these 102 were also experienced in special education teaching. As well 28 of the 375 remaining designated teachers were experienced special education teachers.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> AREA shared a concern that teachers undertaking SART duties were not qualified in special education, but their proposals to the course committee were rejected.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Special_Assistance_Resource_Centres">Special Assistance Resource Centres</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Remedial_education&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Special Assistance Resource Centres"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Report of the Victorian Ministerial Committee on Special Assistance Programs (1980), in one of its major recommendations, identified the need to reorganise and integrate the range of specialist professional services available (external to the school) into a single co-ordinated service. To implement this recommendation, Lacy established a working party within the Victorian Education Department to examine and report on the means to achieve this objective.<sup id="cite_ref-Lacy,_1981_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lacy,_1981-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Early in 1981, work began on planning for the reorganisation all the relevant special education services provided by the Education Department into a single co-ordinated service delivery system under the Special Assistance Program.<sup id="cite_ref-Lacy,_1981_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lacy,_1981-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As a result, a reorganised multi-disciplinary service was created on a "one-stop" referral basis through 50 statewide Special Assistance Resource Centres allocated one to each Primary Education Inspectoral District throughout Victoria. The professional disciplines offered at each centre included educational psychology, social work, speech therapy and special education. The availability of these services to primary schools was accessed and co-ordinated by the designated SART within each school and in schools with less than 150 pupils by the principal.<sup id="cite_ref-Lacy,_1981_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lacy,_1981-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_Canada">In Canada</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Remedial_education&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: In Canada"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>, the process whereby mature students take secondary school courses so that they can qualify to take post-secondary education is called academic upgrading.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Workers%27_compensation" title="Workers' compensation">Workers' Compensation Board</a> of Nova Scotia defines academic upgrading as "programs offered to adult learners who require the academic pre-requisites needed for entry into many occupational programs." The Alberta Ministry of Enterprise and Advanced Education advises that academic upgrading can be pursued through a post-secondary institution, a <a href="/wiki/Board_of_education" title="Board of education">school board</a> program such as a <a href="/wiki/Storefront_school" title="Storefront school">storefront school</a>, or via <a href="/wiki/Distance_education" title="Distance education">distance learning</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_the_United_States">In the United States</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Remedial_education&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: In the United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the U.S., postsecondary remediation is delivered on both two-year <a href="/wiki/Community_colleges_in_the_United_States" title="Community colleges in the United States">community college</a> and four-year university campuses. The bulk of remedial courses focus on advancing underprepared students' literacy skills (English [<a href="/wiki/Basic_writing" title="Basic writing">basic writing</a>] and reading) or math skills.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, remedial courses can also be offered for other subjects such as science or study skills.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Student_placement">Student placement</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Remedial_education&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Student placement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many students are placed into remedial courses through placement tests such as the <a href="/wiki/ACT_(test)" title="ACT (test)">ACT</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/SAT" title="SAT">SAT</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ACCUPLACER,<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or COMPASS assessments.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Often, each college or university sets its own score thresholds for determining whether a student must enroll in remedial courses. However, some states are moving toward a uniform standard for remedial placement cut scores. Students are required to enroll in remedial courses before advancing to a college-level course in that subject. Colleges review a student's score by subject – math, English, science, etc. – and compare that score to the school's cutoff.<sup id="cite_ref-Crosta_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crosta-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, a college might use a score of 19 on the ACT math section as the threshold for determining whether a student must enroll in a remedial math course or college-level math course. </p><p>Particularly at community colleges – which are open enrollment to any student with a high school degree<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <a href="/wiki/General_Educational_Development" title="General Educational Development">General Educational Development</a> (GED) certificate – multiple semesters of remedial coursework may be available to and required of students who enter with low placement test scores.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Whether placement tests are the most effective method of placing students is an open debate across the US. Some colleges and states are experimenting with using high school <a href="/wiki/Grade_point_average" class="mw-redirect" title="Grade point average">grade point average</a> (GPA) <i>and</i> placement test scores to determine student course referral. A study of placement tests by the <a href="/wiki/Community_College_Research_Center" title="Community College Research Center">Community College Research Center</a> in 2012 found:<i><sup id="cite_ref-Crosta_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crosta-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></i> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Placement test scores are not especially good predictors of course grades in developmental education classes. More importantly, the tests do not have much explanatory power across a range of measures of performance including college GPA, credit accumulation, and success in gatekeeper English and math classes.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Clive Belfield and Peter M. Crosta</cite></div></blockquote> <p>Using GPA with standardized test scores may also improve the accuracy of remedial placement and limit the likelihood of placing students into additional remedial courses they may not need. North Carolina implemented a statewide policy that allows two-year colleges to use both placement test scores and high school GPA to place students.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Student_enrollment">Student enrollment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Remedial_education&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Student enrollment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Estimates on the portion of students in higher education taking remedial courses vary. At two-year colleges the percentage reported of students taking at least one remedial course varies from 41% to as high as 60%.<sup id="cite_ref-Ross_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ross-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Students from low-income households, <a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African American</a> students and <a href="/wiki/Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans" title="Hispanic and Latino Americans">Hispanic</a> students are more likely to enroll in remedial courses.<sup id="cite_ref-Ross_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ross-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> National estimates show that among two-year college students, students age 17–19 are most likely to enroll in remedial courses followed by students age 20–24 and then students age 25+.<sup id="cite_ref-Complete_College_America_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Complete_College_America-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The likelihood of remedial placement varies among states because of high school preparation, student demographics and state policies for assessing and placing students in remedial courses. Previous proportions of recent high school graduates enrolling in remedial courses at <a href="/wiki/Two-year_college" class="mw-redirect" title="Two-year college">two-year colleges</a> range from over 70% in <a href="/wiki/Tennessee" title="Tennessee">Tennessee</a> to 31% in <a href="/wiki/North_Carolina" title="North Carolina">North Carolina</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The proportion of students enrolling in remedial courses on public, four-year college campuses is generally lower, ranging from 35% in South Dakota to 5% in Washington state.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The state of <a href="/wiki/Colorado" title="Colorado">Colorado</a> issued a 2012 report on remedial placement showing that 40% of recent high school students enrolled in remedial courses at both two-year and four-year colleges. 66% of students enrolled in a two-year college and 24% of students at a four-year institution needed remediation.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Educators and researchers also question whether many of the students directed into remediation ultimately need the course work, and some studies have found that the current method of using placement tests to assign students to remedial courses may be related to overplacement.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Course_delivery">Course delivery</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Remedial_education&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Course delivery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There is an active debate on how remedial courses should be delivered to students.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Students who are placed into remedial courses have differing skill levels and needs for support. There is an active debate on whether students that are on the upper end of the skill spectrum may be most successful bypassing remedial coursework and enrolling in college-level courses with additional tutoring. In contrast, students with larger skill deficiencies may require substantial math and English instruction before they can succeed academically. Researchers continue to investigate and make recommendations for effective remedial education models.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Currently, remedial education courses are delivered many ways across the United States: </p> <ol><li>Traditional, semester-long courses;</li> <li>Cohort models that group a class of students together in a series of remedial courses;</li> <li>Placing students in college-level courses with mandated tutoring or supplementary instruction;</li> <li>Modularized courses that target particularly student skills;</li> <li>Intensive, compressed courses that accelerate student readiness;</li> <li>Courses that integrate remedial content with occupational skills;</li> <li>Self-guided computer-based courses that adapt to student skill deficiencies;</li> <li>Online, in computer-based, traditional semester model.</li></ol> <p>In 2011, a nonprofit did a review of studies on remedial education delivery and found that "programs that show the greatest benefits with relatively rigorous documentation either mainstream developmental students into college-level courses with additional supports, provide modularized or compressed courses to allow remedial students to more quickly complete their developmental work, or offer contextualized remedial education within occupational and vocational programs."<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Accelerating the pace at which students progress through remedial courses is a reform now regularly highlighted in academic research and advocacy as effective for increasing student success. Often, remedial courses do not count toward a student's graduation requirements and taking many semesters of remedial education can lengthen a student's path to graduation and take up much needed financial aid. The <a href="/wiki/Community_College_Research_Center" title="Community College Research Center">Community College Research Center</a> has found that accelerating a student's remedial English requirements resulted in a higher likelihood of students completing their remedial sequences, a higher likelihood of enrolling in college-level English courses and a higher likelihood of students receiving a 'C' or better in the college-level course.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some colleges have explored the possibility of providing remedial education courses online for students; however, evidence indicates that completion of online remedial courses is lower across almost every group of students compared to in-person remedial instruction.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is also evidence that students enrolling in online remedial education are less likely than their in-person counterparts to continue on to college-level coursework in the same subject.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The methods for delivering remedial education and whether to deliver remedial education are active debates in the U.S. As Bahr (Bahr 2008a, pp. 420–421) explains, "On one hand, it fills an important niche in U.S. higher education by providing opportunities to rectify disparities generated in primary education and secondary schooling, to develop the minimum skills deemed necessary for functional participation in the economy and the democracy, and to acquire the prerequisite competencies that are crucial for negotiating college-level coursework. On the other hand, critics argue that taxpayers should not be required to pay twice for the same educational opportunities, that remediation diminishes academic standards and devalues post-secondary credentials, and that the large number of underprepared students entering colleges and universities demoralizes faculty. Following from these critiques, some have argued for a major restructuring of remediation or even the elimination of remedial programs altogether.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:UGC" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:UGC"><span title="The material near this tag may rely on a user-generated source. (September 2024)">user-generated source</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Research_on_outcomes">Research on outcomes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Remedial_education&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Research on outcomes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Depending on their skill level upon entering college, students can spend one or more semesters working to fulfill remedial requirements before advancing to college-level courses required for their degree. An example of a full sequence of math remedial courses for low-skill students might include: 1) pre-collegiate math, 2) basic algebra, and 3) intermediate algebra.<sup id="cite_ref-Bailey_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bailey-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are many questions about how this structure both benefits students by increasing their preparation and harms students by increasing the courses required and time needed to complete college. Thomas Bailey from the <a href="/wiki/Community_College_Research_Center" title="Community College Research Center">Community College Research Center</a> describes this in a 2010 report:<i><sup id="cite_ref-Bailey_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bailey-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></i> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>For example, those with the greatest need for developmental math may be expected to enroll in and pass pre-collegiate math or arithmetic, basic algebra, and intermediate algebra, in order to prepare them for college-level algebra.</p></blockquote> <p>Complete College America, a national non-profit working on remedial education reform,<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> reports that among remedial students at two-year colleges 62% complete their remedial course and 23% complete associated college-level courses in that subject within two years (for example, complete math remediation and the college-level math requirements for their degree). On four-year college campuses, 74% of students in remedial courses complete the course, and 37% complete remediation and an associated college-level course in that subject within two years.<sup id="cite_ref-Complete_College_America_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Complete_College_America-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The same report projects that 9.5% of two-year college students starting in remediation will graduate within three years, and 35.1% of four-year college students starting in remedial courses will graduate within six years. </p><p>Similarly, a nationwide study of two year college students participating in remedial education found 46% of students referred to remedial reading and 33% of students in math remediation completed their remedial sequence. A substantial portion of these non-completing students – 29% in math and 16% in reading – did so because they did not pass their remedial course.<sup id="cite_ref-Bailey_45-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bailey-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another 11% of math students and 9% of reading students exited college without ever having failed or completed a remedial course. Students who enrolled in college and were placed into a sequence of three or more remedial courses were the least likely to persist to a college-level course. Like in all education pathways, there are many different points at which remedial students can step out of education. Research from the Community College Research Center at Columbia University suggests that many students do not complete their remedial sequences or do not enroll in the first college-level course in that subject.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="National_efforts">National efforts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Remedial_education&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: National efforts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Over the last several years, a large amount of philanthropic and research attention has been directed at remedial education programs.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Often, focus on remedial education is directed at 1) increasing the successful completion of remedial sequences 2) increasing the overall number of students with college degrees and certificates in the US and 3) decreasing the cost of remedial education to colleges and states.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Complete_College_America">Complete College America</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Remedial_education&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Complete College America"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A national non-profit organization, Complete College America (CCA), was established in 2009 and looks at paths to improving higher education outcomes for all students. The organization has provided large amounts of national data on the proportion of students enrolled in remedial courses across demographic groups. The organization has also worked with states to set goals for increasing college completion and making adjustments to higher education policies. Currently, CCA heavily promotes enrolling more students directly into college-level courses even though they would traditionally test into remedial courses. The organization also heavily promotes better aligning remedial courses with college-level courses, and using diverse measures of student academic standing for remedial placement.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Achieving_the_Dream">Achieving the Dream</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Remedial_education&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Achieving the Dream"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Originally an initiative led by the <a href="/wiki/Lumina_Foundation" title="Lumina Foundation">Lumina Foundation</a>, Achieving the Dream focuses on increasing the success of college students – particularly students of color and students from low-income backgrounds. Starting in 2004, the project funded promising, data-driven approaches to strengthening remedial education coursework. Achieving the Dream is its own national organization with the same mission: "community college student success and completion; focused primarily on helping low-income students and students of color complete their education and obtain market-valued credentials."<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The organization continues to fund positive interventions that move underprepared students through remediation with greater success and features a list of best practices and exemplary colleges from which other higher education administrators can learn. Achieving the Dream promotes many different interventions that can increase the success of students, including first-year student success courses that provide students with the skills to navigate college expectations and academics more effectively, accelerated remedial courses in math and English, student mentoring and coaching, mandatory orientations for new students and supplementary computer tutoring for remedial students.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Achieving the Dream also takes an active role in state policy advocacy and is currently working in 15 states to strengthen student remedial success.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Core_Principles_Statement">Core Principles Statement</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Remedial_education&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Core Principles Statement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In December 2012, the Dana Center at the University of Texas, Complete College America, Education Commission of the States, and Jobs for the Future released "Core Principles for Transforming Remedial Education: A Joint Statement" with seven key principles for strengthening community college remedial programs. The statement's principles included: aligning remedial courses with a student's long-term area of study at the college, using multiple measures to placement students in remedial courses, requiring all students – including under-prepared students – to pick a program of study when they enter college, integrating academic support services into pre-college-level coursework, creating accelerated course models with students with larger skill deficiencies, and measuring completion of remedial courses.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Strategies that accelerate students through remedial coursework and on to college-level (also called gatekeeper) courses are widely promoted as one path to increasing the success of under-prepared students.<sup id="cite_ref-Bailey_45-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bailey-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Changes_in_North_Carolina">Changes in North Carolina</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Remedial_education&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Changes in North Carolina"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 2012, North Carolina underwent a wide-scale redesign of their remedial education programs.<sup id="cite_ref-NC_Community_Colleges_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NC_Community_Colleges-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Branded as 'Success NC', the program's Developmental Education Initiative takes steps to redesign math and reading curricula, move students through remedial courses faster and better assess and place students. North Carolina colleges can now incorporate high school grades into their course placement decisions. Additionally, starting in 2014, all colleges deliver remedial reading and English in three shorter, eight-week modules for some students while allowing higher-level remedial students to enroll in college-level English courses with required supplementary English instruction.<sup id="cite_ref-NC_Community_Colleges_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NC_Community_Colleges-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Gates_Foundation_and_Lumina_Foundation">Gates Foundation and Lumina Foundation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Remedial_education&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Gates Foundation and Lumina Foundation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 2009 the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation appropriated $16.5 million to 15 colleges in five states to promote promising interventions in the remedial education.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fueled by the broader goal of increasing the number of college graduates nationwide, the Gates Foundation promoted remedial interventions that proved successful, particularly low-income students and students of color, through the Lumina Foundation's <i>Achieving the Dream Initiative</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A host of findings, recommendations and best practices – including <i>25 Steps to Effective Remedial Education</i> – from the Gates Foundation and Lumina Foundation investments are available through the Development Education Initiative through Achieving the Dream.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Developmental_education">Developmental education</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Remedial_education&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Developmental education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Developmental education</i> and <i>remedial education</i> are often used synonymously.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were both designed to teach college- and university-level coursework that is designed to make up for knowledge and ability gaps for students considered unprepared for college-level work.<sup id="cite_ref-compositionstudiesjournal_2020-08_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-compositionstudiesjournal_2020-08-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At California-based two-year institutions, such as community colleges, students enrolled in developmental education courses account for 40% of their undergraduates. At California-based four-year institutions, such as CSUs and UCs, every four out of ten students enroll in a minimum of one developmental education course.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From developmental education sprang the Accelerated Learning Program (ALP), which is a formal course of study. This program was initially started in part by Peter Adams at the Community College of Baltimore County. This program places a student who has been declared to need further progression in their education to meet college-level requirements to enroll in a first-year composition class where 50% of the students are ALP students and 50% have been placed in first-year composition. It is reported that 74% of students have passed first-year composition as a result of ALP.<sup id="cite_ref-compositionstudiesjournal_2020-08_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-compositionstudiesjournal_2020-08-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ALP is reported to be a well-known national program that has served as a template for hundreds of colleges across. The community college of Baltimore County is one college that has shown long-term statistics showing the effectiveness of this co-requisite program.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The variety of student demographics and their respective level of preparedness also play a role in the success of developmental education.<sup id="cite_ref-what-we-know-about-developmental-education-outcomes_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-what-we-know-about-developmental-education-outcomes-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A study done at the Community College Research Center at Columbia University found that students who were placed in developmental courses after scoring close to the college-level cutoffs appear to have experienced far more negative or no consequences. In contrast, students who fell just short of the upper- and lower-level developmental course cutoffs and were enrolled in the lower course experienced a higher percentage of beneficial results.<sup id="cite_ref-what-we-know-about-developmental-education-outcomes_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-what-we-know-about-developmental-education-outcomes-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_Europe">In Europe</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Remedial_education&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: In Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While remedial programmes are common in the United States, they are less common in Europe. Nevertheless, several European <a href="/wiki/Higher_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Higher education">higher education</a> institutes have started to offer remedial education programmes as well.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One reason why European universities are starting to develop remedial courses is the different situation in the two continents. In the United States, a common assumption is that remediation attracts underprepared students of low <a href="/wiki/Socioeconomic_status" title="Socioeconomic status">socioeconomic status</a>. Inadequate academic preparation is no longer a barrier to college access. In contrast, in Europe, a large part of the transitional problems are caused by differences among national <a href="/wiki/Secondary_education" title="Secondary education">secondary educational programmes</a>, which are determined on a national level.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, these students are hindered in effectively starting a <a href="/wiki/Bachelor%27s_degree" title="Bachelor's degree">bachelor</a> or <a href="/wiki/Master%27s_degree" title="Master's degree">master programme</a>. Remedial or developmental courses can help to bridge the gap. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="European_Framework_of_Transitional_Preparatory/Remedial_Teaching"><span id="European_Framework_of_Transitional_Preparatory.2FRemedial_Teaching"></span>European Framework of Transitional Preparatory/Remedial Teaching</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Remedial_education&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: European Framework of Transitional Preparatory/Remedial Teaching"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>To be able to compare and assess various preparatory courses in Europe, a European framework of transitional courses is necessary. By developing European Framework for Transitional Preparatory Courses (EFTPC), teachers around Europe can see how their design of their courses fit with the framework. In addition, potential improvements are identified and can be extended with the insights from the field. By using the <a href="/wiki/Wiki" title="Wiki">wiki</a> <a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">technology</a>, each teacher can add his/her suggestions to the EFTPC. This Framework is being developed in frame of European project STEP (Studies on Transitional Electronic Programmes). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Effectiveness">Effectiveness</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Remedial_education&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Effectiveness"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The question that rises is whether successful completion of a remedial course guarantees students' success in college. The literature provides limited evidence for the effectiveness of remedial courses on outcomes such as persistence to graduation, quality of performance in subsequent courses, drop-out, and grade point average. Many researchers claim that very little research has been conducted to investigate the effectiveness of remedial or developmental education and that research concerning the effectiveness of remedial education programs has been sporadic, underfunded, and inconclusive and has serious methodological flaws. Recently, efforts have been made to use more rigorous research designs (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Regression_discontinuity_design" title="Regression discontinuity design">regression discontinuity design</a>) to evaluate remedial effectiveness and suggest that post-remediation classroom composition (e.g., concentrated underpreparedness) moderates developmental education effectiveness efforts.<sup id="cite_ref-Moss1_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moss1-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Metrics">Metrics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Remedial_education&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Metrics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One way of measuring the effectiveness of a developmental/remedial program is to investigate whether the enrolled students actually complete the remedial courses successfully. Several research studies have found that underprepared students who completed remedial coursework achieve greater academic success than underprepared students who did not complete remedial coursework or students who started college academically prepared. Such findings support McCabe's statement that successfully-remediated students perform well in standard college work.<sup id="cite_ref-McCabe_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McCabe-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite the claim that a number of rigorous studies using a regression discontinuity design have found underprepared students who score near placement test cut off scores and enroll in remedial education perform no better than similarly scoring students who place directly into college level courses, several studies have demonstrated developmental education programs provide benefit.<sup id="cite_ref-Jaggars,_S.S_2014_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jaggars,_S.S_2014-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Moss_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moss-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This may in part be due to the "leakage" that often occurs from the beginning of a developmental program to its end. Research from the Community College Research Center indicates that even students who successfully complete a developmental class often drop out of school before entering credit programs.<sup id="cite_ref-Jaggars,_S.S_2014_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jaggars,_S.S_2014-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Acceleration_programs">Acceleration programs</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Remedial_education&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Acceleration programs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>This has led to Acceleration in Developmental Education with the <a href="/wiki/Community_College_of_Baltimore_County" title="Community College of Baltimore County">Community College of Baltimore County</a> and the California Completion Project. These programs merge (in different ways) developmental classes with credit classes. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Success_factors">Success factors</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Remedial_education&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Success factors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Kozeracki (2002)<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> distinguishes seven commonly cited elements that are associated with student success in developmental programs: </p> <ul><li>Orientation, <a href="/wiki/Educational_assessment" title="Educational assessment">assessment</a>, and placement are mandatory for new students</li> <li>Clearly specified goals and objectives are established for courses and programs</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Adult_education" title="Adult education">adult learning</a> theory is applied in the design and delivery of the courses</li> <li>The courses are highly structured</li> <li>The programs are centralized or highly coordinated</li> <li>Counseling, <a href="/wiki/Tutor" class="mw-redirect" title="Tutor">tutoring</a>, and supplemental instruction components are included</li> <li>The social and emotional development of the students is taken into consideration</li></ul> <p>Other research suggests that "bridge" programs that integrate basic skills and remedial education with higher-level content or technical training can produce substantially better results than traditional remedial programs.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Online_remedial_education">Online remedial education</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Remedial_education&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Online remedial education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Online remedial education is defined as an instruction method using <a href="/wiki/Information_and_communication_technologies" class="mw-redirect" title="Information and communication technologies">information and communication technologies (ICT)</a> which helps students to provide knowledge and skills necessary to succeed in university.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This way, foreign students can study in their home country, which reduces their costs while at the same time offering flexibility to develop their <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a> and <a href="/wiki/Skills" class="mw-redirect" title="Skills">skills</a>. ICT has the power to support independent learning as well as to learn irrespective of time and geographical constraints with the widespread implementation of the <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">internet</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Advantages_and_disadvantages">Advantages and disadvantages</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Remedial_education&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Advantages and disadvantages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Advantages and possibilities: </p> <ul><li>Flexible instructional pace and flexible class participation</li> <li>Elimination of barriers of time and space</li> <li>Cost-effectiveness of online courses</li> <li>Electronic <a href="/wiki/Research" title="Research">research</a> availability (digital libraries and online databases)</li> <li>A well-designed online course makes it easy for students to navigate and find the adequate information</li></ul> <p>Disadvantages and problems: </p> <ul><li>Delayed feedback from the instructor</li> <li>Unavailable technical support from the instructor</li> <li>Lack of self-regulation and self-motivation</li> <li>Sense of isolation, caused by the lack of <a href="/wiki/Interpersonal_communication" title="Interpersonal communication">interpersonal communication</a> and <a href="/wiki/Social_interaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Social interaction">interaction</a> among students or between students and the instructor, or caused by the use of monotonous instructional methods</li> <li>A poorly designed course interface makes students feel lost in seeking information</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Role_of_teachers">Role of teachers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Remedial_education&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Role of teachers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In order to provide a positive experience and to ensure the <a href="/wiki/Effectiveness" title="Effectiveness">effectiveness</a> of online remedial courses, the tutor's roles in designing and organizing the learning experience, providing technical advice and support, encouraging and facilitating discussion, encouraging participation, using a variety of forms of instruction, and resolving communication problems are crucial.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_66-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Collaborative_tools">Collaborative tools</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Remedial_education&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Collaborative tools"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A recent development in collaborative working and learning is the use of synchronous tools like web-videoconferences whereby learners meet online at a fixed time (synchronous) in an online classroom.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While web-videoconferencing is not a new phenomenon, tools like <a href="/wiki/Skype" title="Skype">Skype</a>, <a href="/wiki/MSN_Web_Messenger" class="mw-redirect" title="MSN Web Messenger">MSN Web Messenger</a> and <a href="/wiki/Adobe_Acrobat_Connect" class="mw-redirect" title="Adobe Acrobat Connect">Adobe Acrobat Connect</a> allow learners to efficiently communicate using free or low cost <a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">technology</a> such as a simple desktop <a href="/wiki/Computer" title="Computer">computer</a>. Until recently, such basic <a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">technology</a> would only allow for <a href="/wiki/Asynchronous_learning" title="Asynchronous learning">asynchronous learning</a>, as for example in discussion groups. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Remedial_education&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/College-preparatory_school" title="College-preparatory school">College-preparatory school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Learning_disability" title="Learning disability">Learning disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Assistance_Program_(Australian_education)" title="Special Assistance Program (Australian education)">Special Assistance Program (Australian education)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twice_exceptional" title="Twice exceptional">Twice exceptional</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Remedial_education&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns 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a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usnews.com/news/national-news/articles/2018-02-20/researchers-unsure-which-remedial-education-models-work-best-for-students">"Which Remedial Education Models Work Best for Students?"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/U.S._News_%26_World_Report" title="U.S. News & World Report">U.S. News & World Report</a></i>. 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(2006). New evidence on college remediation. <i>Journal of Higher Education</i>, 77, 886–924.</li> <li>Bahr, P. R. (2007). Double jeopardy: Testing the effects of multiple basic skill deficiencies on successful remediation. <i>Research in Higher Education</i>, 48, 695–725.</li> <li>Bahr, P. R. (2008a). Does mathematics remediation work?: A comparative analysis of academic attainment among <a href="/wiki/Community_college" title="Community college">community college</a> students. <i>Research in Higher Education</i>, 49(5), 420–450.</li> <li>Bahr, P. R. (2008b). Cooling Out in the community college: What is the effect of academic advising on students' chances of success? <i>Research in Higher Education</i>, 49(8), 704–732.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarry,_W._J.2011–2012" class="citation web cs1">Barry, W. J. 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(2001). Dropout and stopout patterns among developmental education students in Texas community colleges. <i>Community College Journal of Research and Practice</i>, 25, 767–782.</li> <li>Crews, D. M., & Aragon, S. R. (2004). Influence of a community college developmental education writing course on academic performance. <i>Community College Review</i>, 23, 1–18.</li> <li>Deil-Amen, R., and Rosenbaum, J. E. (2002). The unintended consequences of stigma-free remediation. <i>Sociology of Education</i>, 75, 249–268.</li> <li>Hadden, C. (2000). The ironies of mandatory placement. <i>Community College Journal of Research and Practice</i>, 24, 823–838.</li> <li>Hagedorn, L. S., Siadat, M. V., Fogel, S. F., Nora, A., and Pascarella, E. T. (1999). Success in college mathematics: Comparisons between remedial and nonremedial first-year college students. <i>Research in Higher Education</i>, 40, 261–284.</li> <li>Hoyt, J. E. (1999). 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No One to Waste: A Report to Public Decision-makers and Community College Leaders. Washington, DC: Community College Press.</li> <li>McCusker, M. (1999). ERIC review: Effective elements of developmental reading and writing programs. <i>Community College Review</i>, 27, 93–105.</li> <li>Merisotis, J. P., & Phipps, R. A. (2000). Remedial education in colleges and universities: What's really going on?. <i>Review of Higher Education</i>, 24, 67–85.</li> <li>Moss, B. G., Kelcey, B., & Showers, N. (2014). Does Classroom Composition Matter? College Classrooms as Moderators of Developmental Education Effectiveness. Community College Review, 42(3), 201–220.</li> <li>Moss, B.G. & Yeaton, WH. (2006) "Shaping Policies Related to Developmental Education: An Evaluation Using the Regression-Discontinuity Design," Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 28 (3), 215–229.</li> <li>Moss, B. G. & Yeaton, W. H. (2013). Evaluating Effects of Developmental Education for College Students Using a Regression Discontinuity Design. Evaluation review, 37, 370–404.</li> <li>Moss, B. G., Yeaton, W. H., & Lloyd, J. E. (2014). Evaluating the Effectiveness of Developmental Mathematics by Embedding a Randomized Experiment Within a Regression Discontinuity Design. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 36, 170–185.</li> <li>Oudenhoven, B. (2002). Remediation at the community college: Pressing issues, uncertain solutions. <i>New Directions for Community Colleges</i>, 117, 35–44.</li> <li>Parsad, B., Lewis, L., and Greene, B. (2003). <i>Remedial education at degree-granting postsecondary institutions in Fall 2000 (NCES 2004-010)</i>. Washington, D.C.: National Center for Education Statistics.</li> <li>Perin, D. (2004). Remediation beyond developmental education: The use of learning assistance centers to increase academic preparedness in community colleges. <i>Community College Journal of Research and Practice</i>, 28, 559–582.</li> <li>Perin, D., Keselman, A., & Monopoli, M. (2003). The academic writing of community college remedial students: Text and learner variables. <i>Higher Education</i>, 45, 19–42.</li> <li>Perry, M., Bahr, P. R., Rosin, M., & Woodward, K. M. (2010). Course-Taking Patterns, Policies, and Practices in Developmental Education in the California Community Colleges. A Report to the California Community Colleges Chancellor's Office. EdSource.</li> <li>Rienties, B., Tempelaar, D., Waterval, D., Rehm, M., & Gijselaers, W. H.(2006). Remedial online teaching on a summer course. Industry and Higher Education, 20(5), 327–336.</li> <li>Rienties, B., Tempelaar, D. T., Dijkstra, J., Rehm, M., & Gijselaers, W. H. (2008). Longitudinal study of online remedial education effects. In N. P. Barsky, M. Clements, J. Ravn & K. Smith (Eds.), Advances in Business Education and Training 1: The Power of Technology for Learning (pp. 43–59). Dordrecht: Springer.</li> <li>Saxon, D. P., & Boylan, H. R. (2001). The cost of remedial education in higher education. <i>Journal of Developmental Education</i>, 25, 2–8.</li> <li>Waycaster, P. (2001). Factors impacting success in community college developmental mathematics courses and subsequent courses. <i>Community College Journal of Research and Practice</i>, 25, 403–416.</li> <li>Weissman, J., Silk, E., and Bulakowski, C. (1997). Assessing developmental education policies. <i>Research in Higher Education</i>, 38, 187–200.</li> <li>Worley, J. (2003). Developmental reading instruction, academic attainment and performance among underprepared college students. <i>Journal of Applied Research in the Community College</i>, 10, 127–136.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Remedial_education&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.clasp.org/issues?type=basic_skills_and_workforce_training">Basic Skills and Workforce Training</a>. Center for Law and Social Policy.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.developmentaleducation.org/">Developmental Education.org</a>. Developmental Education resources for researchers, practitioners, policymakers, administrators, students and citizens.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ccrc.tc.columbia.edu/Developmental-Education-and-Adult-Basic-Skills.html">"Developmental Education and Adult Basic Skills"</a>. Teachers College, Columbia University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Developmental+Education+and+Adult+Basic+Skills&rft.pub=Teachers+College%2C+Columbia+University&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fccrc.tc.columbia.edu%2FDevelopmental-Education-and-Adult-Basic-Skills.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARemedial+education" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output 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.navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Education" title="Template:Education"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Education" title="Template talk:Education"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Education" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Education"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Education" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">Education</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-size: 90%;"><div id="Overview" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Overview</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Education" title="Category:Education">General</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_education_terms" title="Glossary of education terms">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_education_articles" title="Index of education articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_education" title="Outline of education">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By perspective</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Educational_aims_and_objectives" title="Educational aims and objectives">Aims and objectives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_anthropology" title="Educational anthropology">Anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_assessment" title="Educational assessment">Assessment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Educational_evaluation" title="Educational evaluation">Evaluation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Course_evaluation" title="Course evaluation">Course evaluation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychometrics" title="Psychometrics">Psychometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standards-based_assessment" title="Standards-based assessment">Standards-based</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standardized_test" title="Standardized test">Standardized test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teacher_quality_assessment" title="Teacher quality assessment">Teacher quality</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_economics" title="Education economics">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_sciences" title="Education sciences">Education sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_education" title="Evidence-based education">Evidence-based</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education" title="History of education">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inclusion_(education)" title="Inclusion (education)">Inclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_leadership" title="Educational leadership">Leadership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedagogy" title="Pedagogy">Pedagogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_policy" title="Education policy">Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_in_education" title="Politics in education">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_psychology" title="Educational psychology">Psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_research" title="Educational research">Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_education" title="Right to education">Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_education" title="Sociology of education">Sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_technology" title="Educational technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instructional_theory" title="Instructional theory">Instructional</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Instructional_design" title="Instructional design">Instructional design</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_education_by_subject" title="List of education by subject">By subject</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_education" title="Agricultural education">Agricultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Art education">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bilingual_education" title="Bilingual education">Bilingual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_education" title="Business education">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemistry_education" title="Chemistry education">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_science_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer science education">Computer science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_education" title="Death education">Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Design_education" title="Design education">Design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_education" title="Economics education">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_education" title="Engineering education">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_education" title="Environmental education">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthenics" title="Euthenics">Euthenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_education" title="Health education">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_education" title="Language education">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_education" title="Legal education">Legal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematics_education" title="Mathematics education">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_education" title="Medical education">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_education_and_training" title="Military education and training">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_education" title="Music education">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nurse_education" title="Nurse education">Nursing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_education" title="Peace education">Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performing_arts_education" title="Performing arts education">Performing arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_education" title="Philosophy education">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_education" title="Physical education">Physical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physics_education" title="Physics education">Physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reading" title="Reading">Reading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_education" title="Religious education">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_education" title="Science education">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_education" title="Sex education">Sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teacher_education" title="Teacher education">Teacher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_education" title="Technology education">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Values_education" title="Values education">Values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vocational_education" title="Vocational education">Vocational</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Alternative_education" title="Alternative education">Alternative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adult_education" title="Adult education">Adult education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autodidacticism" title="Autodidacticism">Autodidacticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_education" title="Democratic education">Democratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_reform" title="Education reform">Education reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gifted_education" title="Gifted education">Gifted education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeschooling" title="Homeschooling">Homeschooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_education" title="Religious education">Religious education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_education" title="Special education">Special education</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/21st_century_skills" title="21st century skills">21st century skills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bloom%27s_taxonomy" title="Bloom's taxonomy">Bloom's taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_load" title="Cognitive load">Cognitive load</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_arrangement" title="Class arrangement">Class arrangement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_thinking" title="Critical thinking">Critical thinking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curriculum" title="Curriculum">Curriculum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hidden_curriculum" title="Hidden curriculum">Hidden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curriculum_studies" title="Curriculum studies">Studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curriculum_theory" title="Curriculum theory">Theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Learning_theory_(education)" title="Learning theory (education)">Learning theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesson_plan" title="Lesson plan">Lesson plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedagogical_pattern" title="Pedagogical pattern">Pedagogical pattern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teacher_look" title="Teacher look">Teacher look</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teacher_retention" title="Teacher retention">Teacher retention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teaching_method" title="Teaching method">Teaching method</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active_learning" title="Active learning">Active learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blended_learning" title="Blended learning">Blended learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemplative_education" title="Contemplative education">Contemplative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demonstration_(teaching)" title="Demonstration (teaching)">Demonstration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialogic_learning" title="Dialogic learning">Dialogic learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experiential_learning" title="Experiential learning">Experiential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrective_feedback" title="Corrective feedback">Feedback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive_learning" title="Passive learning">Passive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peer_instruction" title="Peer instruction">Peer instruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personalized_learning" class="mw-redirect" title="Personalized learning">Personalized</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenon-based_learning" title="Phenomenon-based learning">Phenomenon-based</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem-based_learning" title="Problem-based learning">Problem-based</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project-based_learning" title="Project-based learning">Project-based</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Student-centered_learning" title="Student-centered learning">Student-centered</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socratic_questioning" title="Socratic questioning">Socratic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teaching_philosophy" title="Teaching philosophy">Teaching philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Wikimedia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Subject:Education" class="extiw" title="b:Subject:Education">Books</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/education" class="extiw" title="wikt:education">Definitions</a></li> <li><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Education" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Education">Images</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Education" class="extiw" title="v:Education">Learning resources</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Portal:Education" class="extiw" title="n:Portal:Education">News</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Education" class="extiw" title="q:Education">Quotes</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Education" class="extiw" title="s:Education">Texts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-size: 90%;"><div id="Stages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Educational_stage" title="Educational stage">Stages</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Early_childhood_education" title="Early childhood education">Early childhood education</a></td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Primary_education" title="Primary education">Primary education</a></td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Secondary_education" title="Secondary education">Secondary education</a></td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Tertiary_education" title="Tertiary education">Tertiary education</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;width:20%;"><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Preschool" title="Preschool">Preschool</a><br />→</td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Kindergarten" title="Kindergarten">Kindergarten</a><br />→</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;width:20%;"><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Primary_school" title="Primary school">Primary school</a><br />→</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;text-align:center;width:50%;"><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;">Infant<br />→</td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;">Junior<br />→</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;width:20%;"><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Secondary_school" title="Secondary school">Secondary school</a><br />→</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;text-align:center;width:50%;"><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Middle_school" title="Middle school">Middle school</a><br />→</td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;">High school<br />→</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;width:40%;"><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Higher_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Higher education">Higher education</a><br /> </td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Vocational_education" title="Vocational education">Vocational</a></td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Further_education" title="Further education">Further</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Continuing_education" title="Continuing education">Continuing</a>)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;text-align:center;width:50%;"><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Undergraduate_education" title="Undergraduate education">Undergraduate</a><br />→</td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Postgraduate_education" title="Postgraduate education">Postgraduate</a><br /> </td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Education" class="mw-redirect" title="Portal:Education">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-size: 90%;"><div id="Education_by_region" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Education by region</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-size:88%;"><div id="Education_in_Africa" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Africa" title="Education in Africa">Education in Africa </a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Algeria" title="Education in Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Angola" title="Education in Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Benin" title="Education in Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Botswana" title="Education in Botswana">Botswana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Burkina_Faso" title="Education in Burkina Faso">Burkina Faso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Burundi" title="Education in Burundi">Burundi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Cameroon" title="Education in Cameroon">Cameroon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Cape_Verde" title="Education in Cape Verde">Cape Verde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Central_African_Republic" title="Education in the Central African Republic">Central African Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Chad" title="Education in Chad">Chad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Comoros" title="Education in the Comoros">Comoros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Education in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Education in the Republic of the Congo">Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Djibouti" title="Education in Djibouti">Djibouti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Egypt" title="Education in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Equatorial_Guinea" title="Education in Equatorial Guinea">Equatorial Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Eritrea" title="Education in Eritrea">Eritrea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Eswatini" title="Education in Eswatini">Eswatini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Ethiopia" title="Education in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Gabon" title="Education in Gabon">Gabon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Gambia" title="Education in the Gambia">The Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Ghana" title="Education in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Guinea" title="Education in Guinea">Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Guinea-Bissau" title="Education in Guinea-Bissau">Guinea-Bissau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Ivory_Coast" title="Education in Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Kenya" title="Education in Kenya">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Lesotho" title="Education in Lesotho">Lesotho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Liberia" title="Education in Liberia">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Libya" title="Education in Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Madagascar" title="Education in Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Malawi" title="Education in Malawi">Malawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Mali" title="Education in Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Mauritania" title="Education in Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Mauritius" title="Education in Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Morocco" title="Education in Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Mozambique" title="Education in Mozambique">Mozambique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Namibia" title="Education in Namibia">Namibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Niger" title="Education in Niger">Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Nigeria" title="Education in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Rwanda" title="Education in Rwanda">Rwanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in São Tomé and Príncipe">São Tomé and Príncipe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Senegal" title="Education in Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Seychelles" title="Education in Seychelles">Seychelles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Sierra_Leone" title="Education in Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Somalia" title="Education in Somalia">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_South_Africa" title="Education in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_South_Sudan" title="Education in South Sudan">South Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Sudan" title="Education in Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Tanzania" title="Education in Tanzania">Tanzania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Togo" title="Education in Togo">Togo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Tunisia" title="Education in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Uganda" title="Education in Uganda">Uganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Zambia" title="Education in Zambia">Zambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Zimbabwe" title="Education in Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">States with limited<br />recognition</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_the_Sahrawi_Arab_Democratic_Republic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (page does not exist)">Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Somaliland" title="Education in Somaliland">Somaliland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Dependencies and<br />other territories</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_the_Canary_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in the Canary Islands (page does not exist)">Canary Islands</a> / <a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Ceuta&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Ceuta (page does not exist)">Ceuta</a> / <a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Melilla&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Melilla (page does not exist)">Melilla</a>  <span style="font-size:85%;">(Spain)</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Madeira&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Madeira (page does not exist)">Madeira</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Portugal)</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Mayotte&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Mayotte (page does not exist)">Mayotte</a> / <a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_R%C3%A9union&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Réunion (page does not exist)">Réunion</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(France)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Saint_Helena" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Saint Helena">Saint Helena</a> / <a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Ascension_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Ascension Island (page does not exist)">Ascension Island</a> / <a href="/wiki/Education_in_Tristan_da_Cunha" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Tristan da Cunha">Tristan da Cunha</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(United Kingdom)</span></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-size:88%;"><div id="Education_in_Asia" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Asia" title="Education in Asia">Education in Asia </a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states" title="List of sovereign states">Sovereign states</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Afghanistan" title="Education in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Armenia" title="Education in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Azerbaijan" title="Education in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Bahrain" title="Education in Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Bangladesh" title="Education in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Bhutan" title="Education in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Brunei" title="Education in Brunei">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Cambodia" title="Education in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_China" title="Education in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Cyprus" title="Education in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_East_Timor" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in East Timor">East Timor (Timor-Leste)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Egypt" title="Education in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Georgia_(country)" title="Education in Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_India" title="Education in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Indonesia" title="Education in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Iran" title="Education in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Iraq" title="Education in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Israel" title="Education in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Japan" title="Education in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Jordan" title="Education in Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Kazakhstan" title="Education in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_North_Korea" title="Education in North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_South_Korea" title="Education in South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Kuwait" title="Education in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Kyrgyzstan" title="Education in Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Laos" title="Education in Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Lebanon" title="Education in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Malaysia" title="Education in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Maldives" title="Education in the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Mongolia" title="Education in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Myanmar" title="Education in Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Nepal" title="Education in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Oman" title="Education in Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Pakistan" title="Education in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Philippines" title="Education in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Qatar" title="Education in Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Russia" title="Education in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Education in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Singapore" title="Education in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Education in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Syria" title="Education in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Tajikistan" title="Education in Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Thailand" title="Education in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Turkey" title="Education in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Turkmenistan" title="Education in Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" title="Education in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Uzbekistan" title="Education in Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Vietnam" title="Education in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Yemen" title="Education in Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_states_with_limited_recognition" title="List of states with limited recognition">States with<br />limited recognition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Abkhazia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Abkhazia (page does not exist)">Abkhazia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Northern_Cyprus" title="Education in Northern Cyprus">Northern Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_State_of_Palestine" title="Education in the State of Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_South_Ossetia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in South Ossetia (page does not exist)">South Ossetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Taiwan" title="Education in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">Dependencies</a> and<br />other territories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_the_British_Indian_Ocean_Territory&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in the British Indian Ocean Territory (page does not exist)">British Indian Ocean Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Christmas_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Christmas Island (page does not exist)">Christmas Island</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_the_Cocos_(Keeling)_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in the Cocos (Keeling) Islands (page does not exist)">Cocos (Keeling) Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Hong_Kong" title="Education in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Macau" title="Education in Macau">Macau</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Asia" title="Category:Asia">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Asia" title="Portal:Asia">Asia portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-size:88%;"><div id="Education_in_Europe" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Europe">Education in Europe </a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Albania" title="Education in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Andorra" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Andorra">Andorra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Armenia" title="Education in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Austria" title="Education in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Azerbaijan" title="Education in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Belarus" title="Education in Belarus">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Belgium" title="Education in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Education in Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Bulgaria" title="Education in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Croatia" title="Education in Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Cyprus" title="Education in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="Education in the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Denmark" title="Education in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Estonia" title="Education in Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Finland" title="Education in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_France" title="Education in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Georgia_(country)" title="Education in Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Germany" title="Education in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Greece" title="Education in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Hungary" title="Education in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Iceland" title="Education in Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Education in the Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Italy" title="Education in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Kazakhstan" title="Education in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Latvia" title="Education in Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Liechtenstein" title="Education in Liechtenstein">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Lithuania" title="Education in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Luxembourg" title="Education in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Malta" title="Education in Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Moldova" title="Education in Moldova">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Monaco" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Monaco">Monaco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Montenegro" title="Education in Montenegro">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Netherlands" title="Education in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_North_Macedonia" title="Education in North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Norway" title="Education in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Poland" title="Education in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Portugal" title="Education in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Romania" title="Education in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Russia" title="Education in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_San_Marino" title="Education in San Marino">San Marino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Serbia" title="Education in Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Slovakia" title="Education in Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Slovenia" title="Education in Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Spain" title="Education in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Sweden" title="Education in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Switzerland" title="Education in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Turkey" title="Education in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Ukraine" title="Education in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Education in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">States with limited<br />recognition</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Abkhazia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Abkhazia (page does not exist)">Abkhazia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Kosovo" title="Education in Kosovo">Kosovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Northern_Cyprus" title="Education in Northern Cyprus">Northern Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_South_Ossetia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in South Ossetia (page does not exist)">South Ossetia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Transnistria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Transnistria (page does not exist)">Transnistria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dependencies and<br />other entities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_%C3%85land" title="Education in Åland">Åland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Faroe_Islands" title="Education in the Faroe Islands">Faroe Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Gibraltar" title="Education in Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Guernsey" title="Education in Guernsey">Guernsey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Isle_of_Man" title="Education in the Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Jersey" title="Education in Jersey">Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Svalbard&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Svalbard (page does not exist)">Svalbard</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other entities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_European_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in the European Union">European Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-size:88%;"><div id="Education_in_North_America" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Education in North America</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Antigua_and_Barbuda" title="Education in Antigua and Barbuda">Antigua and Barbuda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Bahamas" title="Education in the Bahamas">Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Barbados" title="Education in Barbados">Barbados</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Belize" title="Education in Belize">Belize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Canada" title="Education in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Costa_Rica" title="Education in Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Cuba" title="Education in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Dominica" title="Education in Dominica">Dominica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Education in the Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_El_Salvador" title="Education in El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Grenada" title="Education in Grenada">Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Guatemala" title="Education in Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Haiti" title="Education in Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Honduras" title="Education in Honduras">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Jamaica" title="Education in Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Mexico" title="Education in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Nicaragua" title="Education in Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Panama" title="Education in Panama">Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis" title="Education in Saint Kitts and Nevis">Saint Kitts and Nevis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Saint_Lucia" title="Education in Saint Lucia">Saint Lucia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines" title="Education in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines">Saint Vincent and the Grenadines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Trinidad_and_Tobago" title="Education in Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_United_States" title="Education in the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Dependencies and<br />other territories</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Anguilla" title="Education in Anguilla">Anguilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Aruba" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Aruba">Aruba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Bermuda" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Bermuda">Bermuda</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Bonaire&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Bonaire (page does not exist)">Bonaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_British_Virgin_Islands" title="Education in the British Virgin Islands">British Virgin Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Cayman_Islands" title="Education in the Cayman Islands">Cayman Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Cura%C3%A7ao&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Curaçao (page does not exist)">Curaçao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Greenland" title="Education in Greenland">Greenland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Guadeloupe" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Guadeloupe">Guadeloupe</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Martinique&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Martinique (page does not exist)">Martinique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Montserrat" title="Education in Montserrat">Montserrat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Puerto_Rico" title="Education in Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Saint_Barth%C3%A9lemy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Saint Barthélemy (page does not exist)">Saint Barthélemy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_the_Collectivity_of_Saint_Martin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in the Collectivity of Saint Martin (page does not exist)">Saint Martin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Saint_Pierre_and_Miquelon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Saint Pierre and Miquelon (page does not exist)">Saint Pierre and Miquelon</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Saba_(island)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Saba (island) (page does not exist)">Saba</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Sint_Eustatius&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Sint Eustatius (page does not exist)">Sint Eustatius</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Sint_Maarten&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Sint Maarten (page does not exist)">Sint Maarten</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Turks_and_Caicos_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in the Turks and Caicos Islands">Turks and Caicos Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_United_States_Virgin_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in the United States Virgin Islands">United States Virgin Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-size:88%;"><div id="Education_in_Oceania" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Education in Oceania</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Australia" title="Education in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Federated_States_of_Micronesia" title="Education in the Federated States of Micronesia">Federated States of Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Fiji" title="Education in Fiji">Fiji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Kiribati" title="Education in Kiribati">Kiribati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Marshall_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in the Marshall Islands">Marshall Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Nauru" title="Education in Nauru">Nauru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_New_Zealand" title="Education in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Palau" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Palau">Palau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Papua_New_Guinea" title="Education in Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Samoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Samoa">Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Solomon_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Solomon Islands (page does not exist)">Solomon Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Tonga" title="Education in Tonga">Tonga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Tuvalu" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Tuvalu">Tuvalu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Vanuatu" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Vanuatu">Vanuatu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Associated states<br />of New Zealand</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Cook_Islands" title="Education in the Cook Islands">Cook Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Niue" title="Education in Niue">Niue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dependencies<br />and other territories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_American_Samoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in American Samoa">American Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Christmas_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Christmas Island (page does not exist)">Christmas Island</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_the_Cocos_(Keeling)_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in the Cocos (Keeling) Islands (page does not exist)">Cocos (Keeling) Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Easter_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Easter Island (page does not exist)">Easter Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_French_Polynesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in French Polynesia">French Polynesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Guam" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Guam">Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Hawaii" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in Hawaii">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_New_Caledonia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in New Caledonia (page does not exist)">New Caledonia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Norfolk_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Norfolk Island (page does not exist)">Norfolk Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Northern_Mariana_Islands" title="Education in the Northern Mariana Islands">Northern Mariana Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Pitcairn_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in the Pitcairn Islands">Pitcairn Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Tokelau" title="Education in Tokelau">Tokelau</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Wallis_and_Futuna&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in Wallis and Futuna (page does not exist)">Wallis and Futuna</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="font-size:88%;"><div id="Education_in_South_America" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Education in South America</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states" title="List of sovereign states">Sovereign states</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Argentina" title="Education in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Bolivia" title="Education in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Brazil" title="Education in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Chile" title="Education in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Colombia" title="Education in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Ecuador" title="Education in Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Guyana" title="Education in Guyana">Guyana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Paraguay" title="Education in Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Peru" title="Education in Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Suriname" title="Education in Suriname">Suriname</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Uruguay" title="Education in Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Venezuela" title="Education in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">Dependencies</a> and<br />other territories</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Falkland_Islands" title="Education in the Falkland Islands">Falkland Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_French_Guiana" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in French Guiana">French Guiana</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Education_in_South_Georgia_and_the_South_Sandwich_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Education in South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands (page does not exist)"><span style="white-space:normal;">South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/School.svg/16px-School.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/School.svg/24px-School.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/School.svg/32px-School.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Schools" title="Portal:Schools">Schools portal</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" 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