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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Substance_or_Cartesian_dualism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Substance or Cartesian dualism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Substance_or_Cartesian_dualism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Emergent_dualism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emergent_dualism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Emergent dualism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emergent_dualism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Thomistic_dualism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thomistic_dualism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Thomistic dualism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thomistic_dualism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Property_dualism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Property_dualism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Property dualism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Property_dualism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Epiphenomenalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epiphenomenalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Epiphenomenalism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Epiphenomenalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Predicate_dualism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Predicate_dualism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Predicate dualism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Predicate_dualism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dualist_views_of_mental_causation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dualist_views_of_mental_causation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Dualist views of mental causation</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Dualist_views_of_mental_causation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Dualist views of mental causation subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Dualist_views_of_mental_causation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Interactionism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interactionism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Interactionism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interactionism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Epiphenomenalism_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epiphenomenalism_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Epiphenomenalism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Epiphenomenalism_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Parallelism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Parallelism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Parallelism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Parallelism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Occasionalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Occasionalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Occasionalism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Occasionalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kantianism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kantianism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Kantianism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kantianism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ancient_Greek_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_Greek_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Ancient Greek philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_Greek_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-From_Neoplatonism_to_scholasticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#From_Neoplatonism_to_scholasticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>From Neoplatonism to scholasticism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-From_Neoplatonism_to_scholasticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Descartes_and_his_disciples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Descartes_and_his_disciples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Descartes and his disciples</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Descartes_and_his_disciples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Recent" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recent"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Recent</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recent-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arguments_for_dualism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arguments_for_dualism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Arguments for dualism</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Arguments_for_dualism-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Arguments for dualism subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Arguments_for_dualism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_subjective_argument" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_subjective_argument"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>The subjective argument</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_subjective_argument-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_zombie_argument" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_zombie_argument"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>The zombie argument</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_zombie_argument-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Special_sciences_argument" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Special_sciences_argument"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Special sciences argument</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Special_sciences_argument-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Argument_from_personal_identity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Argument_from_personal_identity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Argument from personal identity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Argument_from_personal_identity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Argument_from_reason" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Argument_from_reason"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Argument from reason</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Argument_from_reason-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cartesian_arguments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cartesian_arguments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Cartesian arguments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cartesian_arguments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arguments_against_dualism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arguments_against_dualism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Arguments against dualism</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Arguments_against_dualism-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Arguments against dualism subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Arguments_against_dualism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Arguments_from_causal_interaction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arguments_from_causal_interaction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Arguments from causal interaction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arguments_from_causal_interaction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Replies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Replies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.1</span> <span>Replies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Replies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Argument_from_physics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Argument_from_physics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Argument from physics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Argument_from_physics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Replies_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Replies_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.1</span> <span>Replies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Replies_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Argument_from_brain_damage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Argument_from_brain_damage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Argument from brain damage</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Argument_from_brain_damage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Replies_3" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Replies_3"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.1</span> <span>Replies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Replies_3-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Argument_from_neuroscience" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Argument_from_neuroscience"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Argument from neuroscience</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Argument_from_neuroscience-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Argument_from_simplicity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Argument_from_simplicity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Argument from simplicity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Argument_from_simplicity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of 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Available in 32 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-32" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">32 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AB%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D9%82%D9%84_%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D8%B3%D8%AF" title="ثنائية العقل والجسد – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="ثنائية العقل والجسد" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A8-%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%88%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%88%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6" title="মন-দৈহিক দ্বৈতবাদ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মন-দৈহিক দ্বৈতবাদ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%83%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D1%8A%D0%BC_(%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F)" title="Дуализъм (философия) – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Дуализъм (философия)" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dualisme_filos%C3%B2fic" title="Dualisme filosòfic – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Dualisme filosòfic" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontologischer_Dualismus" title="Ontologischer Dualismus – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Ontologischer Dualismus" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keha_ja_vaimu_dualism" title="Keha ja vaimu dualism – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Keha ja vaimu dualism" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%94%CF%85%CF%8A%CF%83%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82_%CF%83%CF%8E%CE%BC%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%82-%CE%BD%CE%BF%CF%85" title="Δυϊσμός σώματος-νου – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Δυϊσμός σώματος-νου" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dualismo_mente-cuerpo" title="Dualismo mente-cuerpo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Dualismo mente-cuerpo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gogo-gorputz_dualismoa" title="Gogo-gorputz dualismoa – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Gogo-gorputz dualismoa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%88%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%87%E2%80%8C%DA%AF%D8%B1%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C_%D8%B0%D9%87%D9%86_%D9%88_%D8%A8%D8%AF%D9%86" title="دوگانه‌گرایی ذهن و بدن – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="دوگانه‌گرایی ذهن و بدن" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dualisme_(philosophie_de_l%27esprit)" title="Dualisme (philosophie de l'esprit) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Dualisme (philosophie de l'esprit)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A0%95%EB%AC%BC%EC%9D%B4%EC%9B%90%EB%A1%A0" title="정물이원론 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="정물이원론" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8-%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6" title="मन-शरीर द्वैतवाद – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="मन-शरीर द्वैतवाद" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dualizam_(filozofija)" title="Dualizam (filozofija) – Croatian" 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class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Substance_dualism&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Substance dualism">Substance dualism</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Philosophical theory</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Descartes_mind_and_body.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Descartes_mind_and_body.gif/250px-Descartes_mind_and_body.gif" decoding="async" width="200" height="247" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Descartes_mind_and_body.gif/330px-Descartes_mind_and_body.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Descartes_mind_and_body.gif/400px-Descartes_mind_and_body.gif 2x" data-file-width="493" data-file-height="609" /></a><figcaption>Illustration of mind–body dualism by <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a>. Inputs are passed by the sensory organs to the <a href="/wiki/Pineal_gland" title="Pineal gland">pineal gland</a>, and from there to the immaterial <a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">spirit</a>.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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/><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle sidebar-phi-pre">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle sidebar-phi-title"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">Philosophy</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image sidebar-phi-img"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Greek_uc_phi_icon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Greek_uc_phi_icon.svg/80px-Greek_uc_phi_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Greek_uc_phi_icon.svg/120px-Greek_uc_phi_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Greek_uc_phi_icon.svg/160px-Greek_uc_phi_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above sidebar-phi-above"> <ul><li><span 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Egyptian philosophy">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_philosophy" title="Ethiopian philosophy">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubuntu_philosophy" title="Ubuntu philosophy">South African</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_philosophy" title="Indonesian philosophy">Indonesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_philosophy" title="Japanese philosophy">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_philosophy" title="Korean philosophy">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_philosophy" title="Vietnamese philosophy">Vietnamese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_American_philosophy" title="Indigenous American philosophy">Indigenous American</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_philosophy" title="Aztec 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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoist_philosophy" title="Taoist philosophy">Taoist</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Category:Branches_of_philosophy" title="Category:Branches of philosophy">Branches</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Metaphilosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Science</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_philosophers" title="Lists of philosophers">Philosophers</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_aestheticians" title="List of aestheticians">Aesthetic philosophers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_epistemologists" title="List of epistemologists">Epistemologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethicists" title="List of ethicists">Ethicists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_logicians" title="List of logicians">Logicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_metaphysicians" title="List of metaphysicians">Metaphysicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_mind" title="List of philosophers of mind">Philosophers of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_sociopolitical_thinkers" title="Index of sociopolitical thinkers">Social and political philosophers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_philosophy" title="Women in philosophy">Women in philosophy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_sidebar" title="Template:Philosophy sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_sidebar" title="Template talk:Philosophy sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">philosophy of mind</a>, <b>mind–body dualism</b> denotes either that <a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">mental</a> phenomena are <a href="/wiki/Non-physical_entity" title="Non-physical entity">non-physical</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Hart_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hart-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or that the <a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">mind</a> and <a href="/wiki/Human_body" title="Human body">body</a> are distinct and separable.<sup id="cite_ref-Crane2001p1_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crane2001p1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, it encompasses a set of views about the relationship between mind and matter, as well as between <a href="/wiki/Subject_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject (philosophy)">subject</a> and <a href="/wiki/Object_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Object (philosophy)">object</a>, and is contrasted with other positions, such as <a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">physicalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Enactivism" title="Enactivism">enactivism</a>, in the <a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_problem" title="Mind–body problem">mind–body problem</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hart_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hart-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Crane2001p1_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crane2001p1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> shared <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>'s view of multiple <a href="/wiki/Soul_(spirit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Soul (spirit)">souls</a> and further elaborated a hierarchical arrangement, corresponding to the distinctive functions of plants, animals, and humans: a nutritive soul of growth and <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">metabolism</a> that all three share; a perceptive soul of pain, pleasure, and desire that only humans and other animals share; and the faculty of reason that is unique to humans only. In this view, a soul is the <a href="/wiki/Hylomorphism" title="Hylomorphism">hylomorphic form</a> of a viable organism, wherein each level of the hierarchy formally <a href="/wiki/Supervenience" title="Supervenience">supervenes</a> upon the <a href="/wiki/Substance_theory" title="Substance theory">substance</a> of the preceding level. For Aristotle, the first two souls, based on the body, perish when the living organism dies,<sup id="cite_ref-Ari2_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ari2-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ari1_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ari1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> whereas there remains an immortal and perpetual intellective part of mind.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For Plato, however, the soul was not dependent on the physical body; he believed in <a href="/wiki/Metempsychosis" title="Metempsychosis">metempsychosis</a>, the migration of the soul to a new physical body.<sup id="cite_ref-Plat_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Plat-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has been considered a form of reductionism by some philosophers, since it enables the tendency to ignore very big groups of variables by its assumed association with the mind or the body, and not for its real value when it comes to explaining or predicting a studied phenomenon.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Dualism is closely associated with the thought of <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a> (1641), who holds that the mind is a nonphysical—and therefore, non-spatial—substance. Descartes clearly identified the mind with <a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">consciousness</a> and self-awareness and distinguished this from the physical brain as the seat of <a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">intelligence</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-SEP_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SEP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hence, he was the first documented Western philosopher to formulate the mind–body problem in the form in which it exists today.<sup id="cite_ref-De_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-De-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the theory of substance dualism has many advocates in contemporary philosophy such as <a href="/wiki/Richard_Swinburne" title="Richard Swinburne">Richard Swinburne</a>, William Hasker, <a href="/wiki/J._P._Moreland" title="J. P. Moreland">J. P. Moreland</a>, E. J. Low, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Taliaferro" title="Charles Taliaferro">Charles Taliaferro</a>, Seyyed Jaaber Mousavirad, and John Foster.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Dualism is contrasted with various kinds of <a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">monism</a>. <a href="#Substance_dualism">Substance dualism</a> is contrasted with all forms of <a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">materialism</a>, but <a href="/wiki/Property_dualism" title="Property dualism">property dualism</a> may be considered a form of <a href="/wiki/Non-reductive_physicalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-reductive physicalism">non-reductive physicalism</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Types"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontological</a> dualism makes dual commitments about the nature of existence as it relates to mind and matter, and can be divided into three different types: </p> <ol><li><i><a href="/wiki/Substance_dualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Substance dualism">Substance dualism</a></i> asserts that mind and matter are fundamentally distinct kinds of foundations.<sup id="cite_ref-Hart_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hart-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Property_dualism" title="Property dualism">Property dualism</a></i> suggests that the ontological distinction lies in the differences between properties of mind and matter (as in <a href="/wiki/Emergentism" title="Emergentism">emergentism</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Hart_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hart-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Predicate_dualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Predicate dualism">Predicate dualism</a></i> claims the irreducibility of mental predicates to physical predicates.<sup id="cite_ref-Hart_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hart-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Substance_or_Cartesian_dualism"><span class="anchor" id="Substance_dualism"></span><span class="anchor" id="Cartesian_dualism"></span>Substance or Cartesian dualism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Substance or Cartesian dualism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>Substance dualism</b> asserts that mind and matter are fundamentally distinct kinds of foundations. There are different types of substance dualism. Most substance dualists hold the view that the mind and body are capable of causally affecting each other, known as <a href="/wiki/Interactionism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Interactionism (philosophy of mind)">interactionism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Notable defenders of substance dualism include <a href="/wiki/John_Foster_(philosopher)" title="John Foster (philosopher)">John Foster</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stewart_Goetz" title="Stewart Goetz">Stewart Goetz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Richard_Swinburne" title="Richard Swinburne">Richard Swinburne</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Taliaferro" title="Charles Taliaferro">Charles Taliaferro</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Mousavirad_2023_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mousavirad_2023-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cartesian dualism, most famously defended by <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a>, argues that there are two kinds of substances: mental and physical.<sup id="cite_ref-SEP_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SEP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Descartes states that the mental can exist outside of the body, and the body cannot think. Substance dualism is important historically for having given rise to much thought regarding the famous <a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_problem" title="Mind–body problem">mind–body problem</a>. It is compatible with theologies which claim that immortal souls occupy an independent realm of existence distinct from that of the physical world.<sup id="cite_ref-Hart_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hart-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cartesians tend to equate the soul to the mind.<sup id="cite_ref-Moreland_2010_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moreland_2010-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Heliocentrism" title="Heliocentrism">Copernican Revolution</a> and the scientific discoveries of the 17th century reinforced the belief that the scientific method was the unique way of knowledge. Bodies were seen as biological organisms to be studied in their constituent parts (materialism) by means of <a href="/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy">anatomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">physiology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">biochemistry</a> and physics (reductionism).<sup id="cite_ref-PMC_3115289_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PMC_3115289-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mind–body dualism remained the biomedical paradigm and model for the following three centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-PMC_3115289_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PMC_3115289-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Emergent_dualism">Emergent dualism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Emergent dualism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Emergent dualism is a type of substance dualism that has been defended by <a href="/wiki/William_Hasker" title="William Hasker">William Hasker</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dean_Zimmerman_(philosopher)" title="Dean Zimmerman (philosopher)">Dean Zimmerman</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dilley_2003_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dilley_2003-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Spackman_2013_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spackman_2013-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Emergent dualism asserts that mental substances come into existence when physical systems such as the brain reach a sufficient level of complexity.<sup id="cite_ref-Spackman_2013_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spackman_2013-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hasker defines emergent dualism as: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Human persons are not identical to any physical body, but consist of a physical body and a non-physical substantial soul, and (b) the human soul is naturally emergent from and dependent on the structure and function of a living human brain and nervous system.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Hasker has argued that emergent dualism is consistent with neuroscientific discoveries showing the dependence of mind on brain.<sup id="cite_ref-Dilley_2003_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dilley_2003-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He likens the individual mind to a magnetic field in its qualitative difference from the physical properties that generate it and also in its ability to act on the brain that generates it.<sup id="cite_ref-Dilley_2003_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dilley_2003-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Consciousness is said to arise when the brain reaches a certain threshold level of organizational complexity and when properly organized gives rise to the soul.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Thomistic_dualism">Thomistic dualism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Thomistic dualism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Thomistic dualism is a type of dualism derived from the views of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Feser_2005_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Feser_2005-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Edward_Feser" title="Edward Feser">Edward Feser</a> has written that: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Aristotelians and Thomists (those philosophers whose views are derived from St.Thomas Aquinas) sometimes suggest that their hylomorphic position is no more a version of dualism than it is of materialism. But though their view is not a Cartesian form of dualism, it is clear from a consideration of how the human soul differs from the souls of plants and animals (at least on the Thomistic variation of hylomorphism) that the view does amount to a kind of dualism: Thomistic dualism or hylomorphic dualism, as it has variously been called.<sup id="cite_ref-Feser_2005_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Feser_2005-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomistic</a> substance dualism has been defended by <a href="/wiki/J._P._Moreland" title="J. P. Moreland">J. P. Moreland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scott_B._Rae" title="Scott B. Rae">Scott B. Rae</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Van_Dyke_2009_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Van_Dyke_2009-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thomistic substance dualism distinguishes itself from Cartesian substance dualism by denying that the body and soul are different substances. Instead, a person is composed of only one substance the soul while the body is considered an ensouled physical structure.<sup id="cite_ref-Van_Dyke_2009_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Van_Dyke_2009-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> J. P. Moreland has commented: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Thomistic substance dualism is not a dualism of two separable substances. There is only one substance, though I do not identify it with the body/soul composite. Rather, I take the one substance to be the soul, and the body to be an ensouled biological and physical structure that depends on the soul for its existence.<sup id="cite_ref-Moreland_2010_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moreland_2010-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p><a href="/wiki/Eleonore_Stump" title="Eleonore Stump">Eleonore Stump</a> has suggested that <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a>'s views on matter and the soul are difficult to define in contemporary discussion but he would fit the criteria as a non-Cartesian substance dualist.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other terms for Thomistic dualism include hylomorphic dualism or <a href="/wiki/Thomistic_hylomorphism" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomistic hylomorphism">Thomistic hylomorphism</a> which are contrasted with substance dualism.<sup id="cite_ref-Feser_2005_26-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Feser_2005-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hylomorphism is distinct from substance dualism as it holds the view that the immaterial (form) and material (matter) are not distinct substances and only share an efficient causality.<sup id="cite_ref-Feser_2005_26-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Feser_2005-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Thomistic scholars such as Paul Chutikorn and Edward Feser have written that Aquinas was not a substance dualist.<sup id="cite_ref-Chutikorn_2018_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chutikorn_2018-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Edward Feser who has defended hylomorphic dualism has suggested that it has advantages over substance dualism such as offering a possible solution to the interaction problem.<sup id="cite_ref-Feser_2005_26-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Feser_2005-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Paul Chutikorn has commented that "adopting Aquinas' view of substance will provide a solution to the problem by avoiding altogether the position that man is made up of dual substances. Rather, Aquinas shows us that we can acknowledge a duality within substance itself, while maintaining its inherent substantial unity".<sup id="cite_ref-Chutikorn_2018_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chutikorn_2018-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Aristotelian hylomorphic dualism also has many similarities with Thomistic dualism.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Michael_Egnor" title="Michael Egnor">Michael Egnor</a> is a notable advocate of Aristotelian dualism.<sup id="cite_ref-Stoke_2017_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stoke_2017-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Conference_2021_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conference_2021-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Property_dualism">Property dualism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Property dualism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Property_dualism" title="Property dualism">Property dualism</a></div> <p>Property dualism asserts that an ontological distinction lies in the differences between properties of mind and matter, and that consciousness may be ontologically irreducible to <a href="/wiki/Neurobiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurobiology">neurobiology</a> and physics. It asserts that when matter is organized in the appropriate way (i.e., in the way that living human bodies are organized), mental properties emerge. Hence, it is a sub-branch of <a href="/wiki/Emergent_materialism" title="Emergent materialism">emergent materialism</a>. What views properly fall under the <i>property dualism</i> rubric is itself a matter of dispute. There are different versions of property dualism, some of which claim independent categorisation.<sup id="cite_ref-ist-socrates.berkeley.edu_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ist-socrates.berkeley.edu-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Non-reductive physicalism is a form of property dualism in which it is asserted that all mental states are causally reducible to physical states. One argument for this has been made in the form of <a href="/wiki/Anomalous_monism" title="Anomalous monism">anomalous monism</a> expressed by <a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Donald Davidson</a>, where it is argued that mental events are identical to physical events, however, strict law-governed causal relationships cannot describe relations of mental events. Another argument for this has been expressed by <a href="/wiki/John_Searle" title="John Searle">John Searle</a>, who is the advocate of a distinctive form of physicalism he calls <a href="/wiki/Biological_naturalism" title="Biological naturalism">biological naturalism</a>. His view is that although mental states are ontologically irreducible to physical states, they are <a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">causally reducible</a>. He has acknowledged that "to many people" his views and those of property dualists look a lot alike, but he thinks the comparison is misleading.<sup id="cite_ref-ist-socrates.berkeley.edu_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ist-socrates.berkeley.edu-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Epiphenomenalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></div> <p>Epiphenomenalism is a form of property dualism, in which it is asserted that one or more mental states do not have any influence on physical states (both ontologically and causally irreducible). It asserts that while material causes give rise to <a href="/wiki/Sensation_(psychology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensation (psychology)">sensations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Volition_(psychology)" title="Volition (psychology)">volitions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">ideas</a>, etc., such mental phenomena themselves cause nothing further: they are causal dead-ends. This can be contrasted to <a href="/wiki/Interactionism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Interactionism (philosophy of mind)">interactionism</a>, on the other hand, in which mental causes can produce material effects, and vice versa.<sup id="cite_ref-Rob_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rob-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Predicate_dualism"><span class="anchor" id="Predicate_monism"></span>Predicate dualism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Predicate dualism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>Predicate dualism</b> is a view espoused by such non-reductive physicalists as <a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Donald Davidson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jerry_Fodor" title="Jerry Fodor">Jerry Fodor</a>, who maintain that while there is only one ontological category of substances and properties of substances (usually physical), the predicates that we use to describe mental events cannot be redescribed in terms of (or reduced to) physical predicates of natural languages.<sup id="cite_ref-Davidson_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davidson-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i>Predicate dualism</i> is most easily defined as the negation of <i>predicate monism</i>. <b>Predicate monism</b> can be characterized as the view subscribed to by <a href="/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">eliminative materialists</a>, who maintain that such intentional predicates as <i>believe</i>, <i>desire</i>, <i>think</i>, <i>feel</i>, etc., will eventually be eliminated from both the language of science and from ordinary language because the entities to which they refer do not exist. Predicate dualists believe that so-called "<a href="/wiki/Folk_psychology" title="Folk psychology">folk psychology</a>," with all of its <a href="/wiki/Propositional_attitude" title="Propositional attitude">propositional attitude</a> ascriptions, is an ineliminable part of the enterprise of describing, explaining, and understanding human mental states and behavior. </p><p>For example, Davidson subscribes to <a href="/wiki/Anomalous_monism" title="Anomalous monism">anomalous monism</a>, according to which there can be no strict psychophysical laws which connect mental and physical events under their descriptions as <i>mental</i> and <i>physical</i> events. However, all mental events also have physical descriptions. It is in terms of the latter that such events can be connected in law-like relations with other physical events. Mental predicates are irreducibly different in character (rational, holistic, and necessary) from physical predicates (contingent, atomic, and causal).<sup id="cite_ref-Davidson_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davidson-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dualist_views_of_mental_causation">Dualist views of mental causation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Dualist views of mental causation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DualismCausationViews3.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/DualismCausationViews3.svg/500px-DualismCausationViews3.svg.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="88" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/DualismCausationViews3.svg/600px-DualismCausationViews3.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/DualismCausationViews3.svg/800px-DualismCausationViews3.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="112" /></a><figcaption>Four varieties of dualist causal interaction. The arrows indicate the direction of causations. Mental and physical states are shown in red and blue, respectively.</figcaption></figure> <p>This part is about causation between properties and states of the thing under study, not its substances or predicates. Here a state is the set of all properties of what's being studied. Thus each state describes only one point in time. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Interactionism">Interactionism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Interactionism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Interactionism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Interactionism (philosophy of mind)">Interactionism (philosophy of mind)</a></div> <p>Interactionism is the view that mental states, such as beliefs and desires, causally interact with physical states. This is a position which is very appealing to common-sense intuitions, notwithstanding the fact that it is very difficult to establish its validity or correctness by way of <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logical</a> argumentation or empirical proof. It seems to appeal to common-sense because we are surrounded by such everyday occurrences as a child's touching a hot stove (physical event) which causes him to feel pain (mental event) and then yell and scream (physical event) which causes his parents to experience a sensation of fear and protectiveness (mental event) and so on.<sup id="cite_ref-SEP_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SEP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Epiphenomenalism_2">Epiphenomenalism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Epiphenomenalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a> states that all mental events are caused by a physical event and have no physical consequences, and that one or more mental states do not have any influence on physical states. So, the mental event of deciding to pick up a rock ("<i>M1</i>") is caused by the firing of specific neurons in the brain ("<i>P1</i>"). When the arm and hand move to pick up the rock ("<i>P2</i>") this is not caused by the preceding mental event <i>M1</i>, nor by <i>M1</i> and <i>P1</i> together, but only by <i>P1</i>. The physical causes are in principle reducible to fundamental physics, and therefore mental causes are eliminated using this <a href="/wiki/Reductionist" class="mw-redirect" title="Reductionist">reductionist</a> explanation. If P1 causes both <i>M1</i> and <i>P2</i>, there is no <a href="/wiki/Overdetermination" title="Overdetermination">overdetermination</a> in the explanation for <i>P2</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-SEP_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SEP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The idea that even if the animal were conscious nothing would be added to the production of behavior, even in animals of the human type, was first voiced by <a href="/wiki/Julien_Offray_de_La_Mettrie" title="Julien Offray de La Mettrie">La Mettrie</a> (1745), and then by <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Jean_George_Cabanis" class="mw-redirect" title="Pierre Jean George Cabanis">Cabanis</a> (1802), and was further explicated by <a href="/wiki/Shadworth_Hodgson" title="Shadworth Hodgson">Hodgson</a> (1870) and <a href="/wiki/T.H._Huxley" class="mw-redirect" title="T.H. Huxley">Huxley</a> (1874).<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Frank_Cameron_Jackson" title="Frank Cameron Jackson">Jackson</a> gave a <a href="#The_subjective_argument">subjective argument</a> for epiphenomenalism, but later rejected it and embraced <a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">physicalism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Jackson_2003_251_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jackson_2003_251-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Parallelism">Parallelism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Parallelism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Psychophysical_parallelism" title="Psychophysical parallelism">Psychophysical parallelism</a></div> <p>Psychophysical parallelism is a very unusual view about the interaction between mental and physical events which was most prominently, and perhaps <i>only</i> truly, advocated by <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" class="mw-redirect" title="Gottfried Leibniz">Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz</a>. Like Malebranche and others before him, Leibniz recognized the weaknesses of Descartes' account of causal interaction taking place in a physical location in the brain. Malebranche decided that such a material basis of interaction between material and immaterial was impossible and therefore formulated his doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Occasionalism" title="Occasionalism">occasionalism</a>, stating that the interactions were really caused by the intervention of God on each individual occasion. Leibniz's idea is that God has created a <a href="/wiki/Pre-established_harmony" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-established harmony">pre-established harmony</a> such that it only seems <i>as if</i> physical and mental events cause, and are caused by, one another. In reality, mental causes only have mental effects and physical causes only have physical effects. Hence, the term <i>parallelism</i> is used to describe this view.<sup id="cite_ref-Rob_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rob-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Occasionalism">Occasionalism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Occasionalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Occasionalism" title="Occasionalism">Occasionalism</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Occasionalism" title="Occasionalism">Occasionalism</a> is a philosophical doctrine about causation which says that created substances cannot be efficient causes of events. Instead, all events are taken to be caused directly by God itself. The theory states that the illusion of efficient causation between mundane events arises out of a constant conjunction that God had instituted, such that every instance where the cause is present will constitute an "occasion" for the effect to occur as an expression of the aforementioned power. This "occasioning" relation, however, falls short of efficient causation. In this view, it is not the case that the first event causes God to cause the second event: rather, God first caused one and then caused the other, but chose to regulate such behaviour in accordance with general laws of nature. Some of its most prominent historical exponents have been <a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">Al-Ghazali</a>, <a href="/wiki/Louis_de_la_Forge" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis de la Forge">Louis de la Forge</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arnold_Geulincx" title="Arnold Geulincx">Arnold Geulincx</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Nicolas Malebranche</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Malebranche_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Malebranche-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kantianism">Kantianism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Kantianism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a></div> <p>According to the philosophy of <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a>, there is a distinction between actions done by desire and those performed by reason in liberty (<a href="/wiki/Categorical_imperative" title="Categorical imperative">categorical imperative</a>). Thus, not all physical actions are caused either by matter alone or by freedom alone. Some actions are purely animal in nature, while others are the result of mind's free action on matter. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_Greek_philosophy">Ancient Greek philosophy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Ancient Greek philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Hermotimus_of_Clazomenae" title="Hermotimus of Clazomenae">Hermotimus of Clazomenae</a> (fl. c. 6th century BCE) was a philosopher who first proposed the idea of mind being fundamental in the cause of change.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He proposed that physical entities are static, while reason<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> causes the change. <a href="/wiki/Sextus_Empiricus" title="Sextus Empiricus">Sextus Empiricus</a> places him with <a href="/wiki/Hesiod" title="Hesiod">Hesiod</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parmenides" title="Parmenides">Parmenides</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Empedocles" title="Empedocles">Empedocles</a>, as belonging to the class of philosophers who held a dualistic theory of a material and an active principle being together the origin of the universe.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similar ideas were expounded by <a href="/wiki/Anaxagoras" title="Anaxagoras">Anaxagoras</a>. </p><p>In the dialogue <i><a href="/wiki/Phaedo" title="Phaedo">Phaedo</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> formulated his famous <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_forms" title="Theory of forms">Theory of forms</a> as distinct and immaterial substances of which the objects and other phenomena that we perceive in the world are nothing more than mere shadows.<sup id="cite_ref-Plat_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Plat-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the <i>Phaedo</i>, Plato makes it clear that the Forms are the <i>universalia ante res</i>, i.e. they are ideal universals, by which we are able to understand the world. In his <a href="/wiki/Allegory_of_the_cave" title="Allegory of the cave">allegory of the cave</a>, Plato likens the achievement of philosophical understanding to emerging into <a href="/wiki/Metaphor_of_the_Sun" class="mw-redirect" title="Metaphor of the Sun">the sunlight</a> from a dark cave, where only vague shadows of what lies beyond that prison are cast dimly upon the wall. Plato's forms are non-physical and non-mental. They exist nowhere in time or space, but neither do they exist in the mind, nor in the <a href="/wiki/Pleroma" title="Pleroma">pleroma</a> of matter; rather, matter is said to "participate" in form (μεθεξις, <i><a href="/wiki/Methexis" title="Methexis">methexis</a></i>). It remained unclear however, even to Aristotle, exactly what Plato intended by that. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> argued at length against many aspects of Plato's forms, creating his own doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Hylomorphism" title="Hylomorphism">hylomorphism</a> wherein form and matter coexist. Ultimately however, Aristotle's aim was to perfect a theory of forms, rather than to reject it. Although Aristotle strongly rejected the independent existence Plato attributed to forms, his <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a> do agree with Plato's <i><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori">a priori</a></i> considerations quite often. For example, Aristotle argues that changeless, eternal substantial form is necessarily immaterial. Because matter provides a stable substratum for a change in form, matter always has the potential to change. Thus, if given an eternity in which to do so, it <i>will</i>, necessarily, exercise that potential. </p><p>Part of Aristotle's <i>psychology</i>, the study of the soul, is his account of the ability of humans to reason and the ability of animals to perceive. In both cases, perfect copies of forms are acquired, either by direct impression of environmental forms, in the case of perception, or else by virtue of contemplation, understanding and recollection. He believed the mind can literally assume any form being contemplated or experienced, and it was unique in its ability to become a blank slate, having no essential form. As thoughts of earth are not heavy, any more than thoughts of fire are causally efficient, they provide an immaterial complement for the formless mind.<sup id="cite_ref-Ari2_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ari2-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="From_Neoplatonism_to_scholasticism">From Neoplatonism to scholasticism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: From Neoplatonism to scholasticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The philosophical school of <a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a>, most active in Late Antiquity, claimed that the physical and the spiritual are both emanations of <i>the One</i>. Neoplatonism exerted a considerable influence on Christianity, as did the philosophy of Aristotle via <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">scholasticism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the scholastic tradition of <a href="/wiki/Saint_Thomas_Aquinas" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Thomas Aquinas">Saint Thomas Aquinas</a>, a number of whose doctrines have been incorporated into Roman Catholic <a href="/wiki/Dogma" title="Dogma">dogma</a>, the soul is the substantial form of a human being.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aquinas held the <i>Quaestiones disputate de anima</i>, or 'Disputed questions on the soul', at the Roman <i>studium provinciale</i> of the <a href="/wiki/Dominican_Order" title="Dominican Order">Dominican Order</a> at <a href="/wiki/Santa_Sabina" title="Santa Sabina">Santa Sabina</a>, the forerunner of the <a href="/wiki/Pontifical_University_of_Saint_Thomas_Aquinas" title="Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas">Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, <i>Angelicum</i></a> during the academic year 1265–1266.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1268 Aquinas had written at least the first book of the <i>Sententia Libri De anima</i>, Aquinas' commentary on Aristotle's <i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Soul" title="On the Soul">De anima</a></i>, the translation of which from the Greek was completed by Aquinas' Dominican associate at <a href="/wiki/Viterbo" title="Viterbo">Viterbo</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_of_Moerbeke" title="William of Moerbeke">William of Moerbeke</a> in 1267.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Like Aristotle, Aquinas held that the human being was a unified composite substance of two substantial principles: form and matter. The soul is the substantial form and so the first actuality of a material organic body with the potentiality for life.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While Aquinas defended the unity of human nature as a composite substance constituted by these two inextricable principles of form and matter, he also argued for the incorruptibility of the intellectual soul,<sup id="cite_ref-auto_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in contrast to the corruptibility of the vegetative and sensitive animation of plants and animals.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_48-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His argument for the subsistence and incorruptibility of the intellectual soul takes its point of departure from the metaphysical principle that operation follows upon being (<i>agiture sequitur esse</i>), i.e., the activity of a thing reveals the mode of being and existence it depends upon. Since the intellectual soul exercises its own <i>per se</i> intellectual operations without employing material faculties, i.e. intellectual operations are immaterial, the intellect itself and the intellectual soul, must likewise be immaterial and so incorruptible. Even though the intellectual soul of man is able to subsist upon the death of the human being, Aquinas does not hold that the human person is able to remain integrated at death. The separated intellectual soul is neither a man nor a human person. The intellectual soul <i>by itself</i> is <i>not</i> a human person (i.e., an individual <i>supposit</i> of a rational nature).<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hence, Aquinas held that "soul of St. Peter pray for us" would be more appropriate than "St. Peter pray for us", because all things connected with his person, including memories, ended with his corporeal life.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Catholic" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic">Catholic</a> doctrine of the <a href="/wiki/Universal_resurrection" title="Universal resurrection">resurrection of the body</a> does not subscribe that, sees body and soul as forming a whole and states that at the <a href="/wiki/Second_coming" class="mw-redirect" title="Second coming">second coming</a>, the souls of the departed will be reunited with their bodies as a whole person (substance) and witness to the <a href="/wiki/Apocalypse" title="Apocalypse">apocalypse</a>. The thorough consistency between dogma and contemporary science was maintained here<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in part from a serious attendance to the principle that there can be only one truth. Consistency with science, logic, philosophy, and faith remained a high priority for centuries, and a university doctorate in theology generally included the entire science curriculum as a prerequisite. This doctrine is not universally accepted by Christians today. Many believe that one's immortal soul goes directly to <a href="/wiki/Heaven" title="Heaven">Heaven</a> upon death of the body.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Descartes_and_his_disciples">Descartes and his disciples</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Descartes and his disciples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In his <i><a href="/wiki/Meditations_on_First_Philosophy" title="Meditations on First Philosophy">Meditations on First Philosophy</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a> embarked upon a quest in which he called all his previous beliefs into doubt, to find out what he could be certain of.<sup id="cite_ref-De_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-De-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In so doing, he discovered that he could doubt whether he had a body (it could be that he was dreaming of it or that it was an illusion created by an evil demon), but he could not doubt whether he had a mind. This gave Descartes his first inkling that the mind and body were different things. The mind, according to Descartes, was a "thinking thing" (<a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: <i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Res_cogitans" class="mw-redirect" title="Res cogitans">res cogitans</a></i>), and an immaterial <a href="/wiki/Substance_theory" title="Substance theory">substance</a>. This "thing" was the essence of himself, that which doubts, believes, hopes, and thinks. The body, "the thing that exists" (<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Res_extensa" title="Res extensa">res extensa</a></i></span>), regulates normal bodily functions (such as heart and liver). According to Descartes, animals only had a body and not a soul (which distinguishes humans from animals). The distinction between mind and body is argued in <i>Meditation</i> VI as follows: I have a clear and distinct idea of myself as a thinking, non-extended thing, and a clear and distinct idea of body as an extended and non-thinking thing. Whatever I can conceive clearly and distinctly, God can so create. </p><p>The central claim of what is often called <i>Cartesian dualism</i>, in honor of Descartes, is that the immaterial mind and the material body, while being ontologically distinct substances, causally interact. This is an idea that continues to feature prominently in many non-European philosophies. Mental events cause physical events, and vice versa. But this leads to a substantial problem for Cartesian dualism: How can an immaterial mind cause anything in a material body, and vice versa? This has often been called the "problem of interactionism." </p><p>Descartes himself struggled to come up with a feasible answer to this problem. In his letter to <a href="/wiki/Elisabeth_of_Bohemia,_Princess_Palatine" class="mw-redirect" title="Elisabeth of Bohemia, Princess Palatine">Elisabeth of Bohemia, Princess Palatine</a>, he suggested that spirits interacted with the body through the <a href="/wiki/Pineal_gland" title="Pineal gland">pineal gland</a>, a small gland in the centre of the brain, between the two <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_hemispheres" class="mw-redirect" title="Cerebral hemispheres">hemispheres</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-De_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-De-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term <i>Cartesian dualism</i> is also often associated with this more specific notion of causal interaction through the pineal gland. However, this explanation was not satisfactory: <i>how</i> can an immaterial mind interact with the physical pineal gland? Because Descartes' was such a difficult theory to defend, some of his disciples, such as <a href="/wiki/Arnold_Geulincx" title="Arnold Geulincx">Arnold Geulincx</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Nicolas Malebranche</a>, proposed a different explanation: That all mind–body interactions required the direct intervention of God. According to these philosophers, the appropriate states of mind and body were only the <i>occasions</i> for such intervention, not real causes. These <a href="/wiki/Occasionalism" title="Occasionalism">occasionalists</a> maintained the strong thesis that all causation was directly dependent on God, instead of holding that all causation was natural except for that between mind and body.<sup id="cite_ref-Malebranche_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Malebranche-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Recent">Recent</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Recent"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In addition to already discussed theories of dualism (particularly the Christian and Cartesian models) there are new theories in the defense of dualism. <a href="/wiki/Naturalistic_dualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Naturalistic dualism">Naturalistic dualism</a> comes from Australian philosopher, <a href="/wiki/David_Chalmers" title="David Chalmers">David Chalmers</a> (born 1966) who argues there is an explanatory gap between objective and subjective experience that cannot be bridged by reductionism because consciousness is, at least, logically autonomous of the physical properties upon which it supervenes. According to Chalmers, a naturalistic account of property dualism requires a new fundamental category of properties described by new laws of <a href="/wiki/Supervenience" title="Supervenience">supervenience</a>; the challenge being analogous to that of understanding electricity based on the mechanistic and Newtonian models of materialism prior to <a href="/wiki/Maxwell%27s_equations" title="Maxwell's equations">Maxwell's equations</a>. </p><p>A similar defense comes from Australian philosopher <a href="/wiki/Frank_Cameron_Jackson" title="Frank Cameron Jackson">Frank Jackson</a> (born 1943) who revived the theory of <a href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">epiphenomenalism</a> which argues that mental states do not play a role in physical states. Jackson argues that there are two kinds of dualism: </p> <ol><li><i>substance dualism</i> that assumes there is second, non-corporeal form of reality. In this form, body and soul are two different substances.</li> <li><i>property dualism</i> that says that body and soul are different <i>properties</i> of the same body.</li></ol> <p>He claims that functions of the mind/soul are internal, very private experiences that are not accessible to observation by others, and therefore not accessible by science (at least not yet). We can know everything, for example, about a bat's facility for echolocation, but we will never know how the bat experiences that phenomenon. </p><p>In 2018, <i>The Blackwell Companion to Substance Dualism</i> was published that contains arguments for and against Cartesian dualism, emergent dualism, Thomistic dualism, emergent individualism and nonreductive physicalism.<sup id="cite_ref-Oldhoff_2019_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oldhoff_2019-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Contributors include <a href="/wiki/Charles_Taliaferro" title="Charles Taliaferro">Charles Taliaferro</a>, Edward Feser, William Hasker, J. P. Moreland, Richard Swinburne, <a href="/wiki/Lynne_Rudder_Baker" title="Lynne Rudder Baker">Lynne Rudder Baker</a>, John W. Cooper and Timothy O'Connor.<sup id="cite_ref-Oldhoff_2019_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oldhoff_2019-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Arguments_for_dualism">Arguments for dualism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Arguments for dualism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Descartes-reflex.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Descartes-reflex.JPG/250px-Descartes-reflex.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="233" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Descartes-reflex.JPG/330px-Descartes-reflex.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Descartes-reflex.JPG 2x" data-file-width="418" data-file-height="442" /></a><figcaption>Another one of Descartes' illustrations. The fire displaces the skin, which pulls a tiny thread, which opens a pore in the ventricle (F) allowing the "animal spirit" to flow through a hollow tube, which inflates the muscle of the leg, causing the foot to withdraw.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_subjective_argument">The subjective argument</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: The subjective argument"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An important fact is that minds perceive intra-mental states differently from sensory phenomena,<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and this cognitive difference results in mental and physical phenomena having seemingly disparate properties. The subjective argument holds that these properties are irreconcilable under a physical mind. </p><p>Mental events have a certain <i>subjective</i> quality to them, whereas physical ones seem not to. So, for example, one may ask what a burned finger feels like, or what the blueness of the sky looks like, or what nice music sounds like.<sup id="cite_ref-Nag_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nag-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Philosophers of mind call the subjective aspects of mental events <i><a href="/wiki/Qualia" title="Qualia">qualia</a>.</i> There is something <i>that it's like</i> to feel pain, to see a familiar shade of blue, and so on. There are <i>qualia</i> involved in these mental events. And the claim is that qualia cannot be reduced to anything physical.<sup id="cite_ref-Hart_1-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hart-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nagel" title="Thomas Nagel">Thomas Nagel</a> first characterized the problem of qualia for physicalistic monism in his article, "<a href="/wiki/What_Is_It_Like_to_Be_a_Bat%3F" title="What Is It Like to Be a Bat?">What Is It Like to Be a Bat?</a>". Nagel argued that even if we knew everything there was to know from a third-person, scientific perspective about a bat's sonar system, we still wouldn't know what it is like to <i>be</i> a bat. However, others argue that <i>qualia</i> are consequent of the same neurological processes that engender the bat's mind, and will be fully understood as the <a href="/wiki/Neural_correlates_of_consciousness" title="Neural correlates of consciousness">science</a> develops.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Frank_Cameron_Jackson" title="Frank Cameron Jackson">Frank Jackson</a> formulated his well-known <i><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_argument" title="Knowledge argument">knowledge argument</a></i> based upon similar considerations. In this <a href="/wiki/Thought_experiment" title="Thought experiment">thought experiment</a>, known as <a href="/wiki/Mary%27s_room" class="mw-redirect" title="Mary's room">Mary's room</a>, he asks us to consider a neuroscientist, Mary, who was born, and has lived all of her life, in a black and white room with a black and white television and computer monitor where she collects all the scientific data she possibly can on the nature of colours. Jackson asserts that as soon as Mary leaves the room, she will come to have new knowledge which she did not possess before: the knowledge of the experience of colours (i.e., what they are like). Although Mary knows everything there is to know about colours from an objective, third-person perspective, she has never known, according to Jackson, what it was like to see red, orange, or green. If Mary really learns something new, it must be knowledge of something non-physical, since she already knew everything about the physical aspects of colour.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, Jackson later rejected his argument and embraced <a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">physicalism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He notes that Mary obtains knowledge not of color, but of a new intramental state, <i>seeing color</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Jackson_2003_251_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jackson_2003_251-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, he notes that Mary might say "wow," and as a mental state affecting the physical, this clashed with his former view of <a href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">epiphenomenalism</a>. <a href="/wiki/David_Kellogg_Lewis" class="mw-redirect" title="David Kellogg Lewis">David Lewis</a>' response to this argument, now known as the <i>ability</i> argument, is that what Mary really came to know was simply the ability to recognize and identify color sensations to which she had previously not been exposed.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Daniel Dennett</a> and others also provide <a href="/wiki/Mary%27s_room#Objections" class="mw-redirect" title="Mary's room">arguments against this notion</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_zombie_argument">The zombie argument</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: The zombie argument"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_zombie" title="Philosophical zombie">Philosophical zombie</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_room" title="Chinese room">Chinese room</a> and <a href="/wiki/Knowledge_argument" title="Knowledge argument">Knowledge argument</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/P-zombie" class="mw-redirect" title="P-zombie">zombie argument</a> is based on a <a href="/wiki/Thought_experiment" title="Thought experiment">thought experiment</a> proposed by <a href="/wiki/David_Chalmers" title="David Chalmers">David Chalmers</a> over the issue of <a href="/wiki/Qualia" title="Qualia">qualia</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Hard_problem_of_consciousness" title="Hard problem of consciousness">hard problem of consciousness</a>. The basic idea is that one can imagine, and, therefore, conceive the existence of, an apparently functioning human being/body without any conscious states being associated with it. </p><p>Chalmers' argument is that it seems plausible that such a being could exist because all that is needed is that all and only the things that the physical sciences describe and observe about a human being must be true of the zombie. None of the concepts involved in these sciences make reference to consciousness or other mental phenomena, and any physical entity can be described scientifically via physics whether it is conscious or not. The mere logical possibility of a p-zombie demonstrates that consciousness is a natural phenomenon beyond the current unsatisfactory explanations. Chalmers states that one probably could not build a living p-zombie because living things seem to require a level of consciousness. However (unconscious?) robots built to simulate humans may become the first real p-zombies. Hence Chalmers half-joking calls for the need to build a "consciousness meter" to ascertain if any given entity, human or robot, is conscious or not.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Others such as Dennett have <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_zombie#Criticism" title="Philosophical zombie">argued</a> that the notion of a philosophical zombie is an incoherent,<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or unlikely,<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> concept. In particular, nothing proves that an entity (e.g., a computer or robot) which would perfectly mimic human beings, and especially perfectly mimic expressions of feelings (like joy, fear, anger, ...), would not indeed experience them, thus having similar states of consciousness to what a real human would have. It is argued that under <a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">physicalism</a>, one must either believe that anyone including oneself might be a zombie, or that no one can be a zombie—following from the assertion that one's own conviction about being (or not being) a zombie is a product of the physical world and is therefore no different from anyone else's. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Avshalom_Elitzur" title="Avshalom Elitzur">Avshalom Elitzur</a> has described himself as a "reluctant dualist". One argument Elitzur makes in favor of dualism is an argument from bafflement. According to Elitzur, a conscious being can conceive of a P-zombie version of his/herself. However, a P-zombie cannot conceive of a version of itself that lacks corresponding qualia.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Special_sciences_argument">Special sciences argument</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Special sciences argument"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Howard_Robinson" title="Howard Robinson">Howard Robinson</a> argues that, if predicate dualism is correct, then there are "special sciences" that are irreducible to physics. These allegedly irreducible subjects, which contain irreducible predicates, differ from hard sciences in that they are interest-relative. Here, interest-relative fields depend on the existence of minds that can have interested perspectives.<sup id="cite_ref-Rob_38-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rob-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Psychology is one such science; it completely depends on and presupposes the existence of the mind. </p><p>Physics is the general analysis of <a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">nature</a>, conducted to understand how the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">universe</a> behaves. On the other hand, the study of <a href="/wiki/Meteorology" title="Meteorology">meteorological</a> weather patterns or <a href="/wiki/Behavioral_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Behavioral science">human behavior</a> is only of interest to humans themselves. The point is that having a perspective on the world is a psychological state. Therefore, the special sciences presuppose the existence of minds which can have these states. If one is to avoid ontological dualism, then the mind that <i>has</i> a perspective must be part of the physical reality to which it <i>applies</i> its perspective. If this is the case, then to perceive the physical world as psychological, the mind must have a perspective on the physical. This, in turn, presupposes the existence of mind.<sup id="cite_ref-Rob_38-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rob-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">cognitive science</a><sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and psychology<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> do not require the mind to be irreducible, and operate on the assumption that it has physical basis. In fact, it is common in science to presuppose a complex system;<sup id="cite_ref-chemistry_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chemistry-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while fields such as <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or geology<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> could be verbosely expressed in terms of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_field_theory" title="Quantum field theory">quantum field theory</a>, it is convenient to use levels of abstraction like <a href="/wiki/Molecules" class="mw-redirect" title="Molecules">molecules</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cells</a>, or the <a href="/wiki/Mantle_(geology)" title="Mantle (geology)">mantle</a>. It is often difficult to decompose these levels without heavy analysis<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and computation.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sober has also advanced philosophical arguments against the notion of irreducibility.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Argument_from_personal_identity">Argument from personal identity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Argument from personal identity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>This argument concerns the differences between the applicability of <a href="/wiki/Counterfactual_conditionals" class="mw-redirect" title="Counterfactual conditionals">counterfactual conditionals</a> to physical objects, on the one hand, and to conscious, personal agents on the other.<sup id="cite_ref-MG_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MG-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the case of any material object, e.g. a printer, we can formulate a series of counterfactuals in the following manner: </p> <ol><li>This printer could have been made of straw.</li> <li>This printer could have been made of some other kind of plastics and vacuum-tube transistors.</li> <li>This printer could have been made of 95% of what it is actually made of and 5% vacuum-tube transistors, etc..</li></ol> <p>Somewhere along the way from the printer's being made up exactly of the parts and materials which actually constitute it to the printer's being made up of some different matter at, say, 20%, the question of whether this printer is the same printer becomes a matter of arbitrary convention. </p><p>Imagine the case of a person, Frederick, who has a counterpart born from the same egg and a slightly <a href="/wiki/Genetically_modified_sperm" title="Genetically modified sperm">genetically modified sperm</a>. Imagine a series of counterfactual cases corresponding to the examples applied to the printer. Somewhere along the way, one is no longer sure about the identity of Frederick. In this latter case, it has been claimed, <i>overlap of constitution</i> cannot be applied to the identity of mind. As Madell puts it:<sup id="cite_ref-MG_78-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MG-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd>But while my present body can thus have its partial counterpart in some possible world, my present consciousness cannot. Any present state of consciousness that I can imagine either is or is not mine. There is no question of degree here.</dd></dl> <p>If the counterpart of Frederick, Frederickus, is 70% constituted of the same physical substance as Frederick, does this mean that it is also 70% mentally identical with Frederick? Does it make sense to say that something is mentally 70% Frederick?<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A possible solution to this dilemma is that of <a href="/wiki/Open_individualism" title="Open individualism">open individualism</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Richard_Swinburne" title="Richard Swinburne">Richard Swinburne</a>, in his book <i>The Existence of God</i>, put forward an argument for mind-body dualism based upon personal identity. He states that the brain is composed of two hemispheres and a cord linking the two and that, as modern science has shown, either of these can be removed without the person losing any memories or mental capacities. </p><p>He then cites a thought-experiment for the reader, asking what would happen if each of the two hemispheres of one person were placed inside two different people. Either, Swinburne claims, one of the two is me or neither is—and there is no way of telling which, as each will have similar memories and mental capacities to the other. In fact, Swinburne claims, even if one's mental capacities and memories are far more similar to the original person than the others' are, they still may not be him. </p><p>From here, he deduces that even if we know what has happened to every single atom inside a person's brain, we still do not know what has happened to 'them' as an identity. From here it follows that a part of our mind, or our soul, is immaterial, and, as a consequence, that mind-body dualism is true.<sup id="cite_ref-SR_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SR-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Christian_List" title="Christian List">Christian List</a> argues that Benj Hellie's <a href="/wiki/Vertiginous_question" title="Vertiginous question">vertiginous question</a>, i.e. why people exist as themselves and not as someone else, and the existence of first-personal facts, are a refutation of physicalist philosophies of consciousness. However, List also argues that this also refutes standard versions of mind-body dualism that have purely third-personal metaphysics.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Argument_from_reason">Argument from reason</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Argument from reason"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Argument_from_reason" title="Argument from reason">Argument from reason</a></div> <p>Philosophers and scientists such as <a href="/wiki/Victor_Reppert" title="Victor Reppert">Victor Reppert</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Hasker" title="William Hasker">William Hasker</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a> have developed an argument for dualism dubbed the "argument from reason". They credit <a href="/wiki/C._S._Lewis" title="C. S. Lewis">C. S. Lewis</a> with first bringing the argument to light in his book <i><a href="/wiki/Miracles_(book)" title="Miracles (book)">Miracles</a></i>; Lewis called the argument "The Cardinal Difficulty of Naturalism", which was the title of chapter three of <i>Miracles</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Reppert_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reppert-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The argument postulates that if, as naturalism entails, all of our thoughts are the effect of a physical cause, then we have no reason for assuming that they are also the consequent of a reasonable ground. However, knowledge is apprehended by reasoning from ground to consequent. Therefore, if naturalism were true, there would be no way of knowing it (or anything else), except by a fluke.<sup id="cite_ref-Reppert_82-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reppert-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Through this logic, the statement "I have reason to believe naturalism is valid" is inconsistent in the same manner as "I never tell the truth."<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That is, to conclude its truth would eliminate the grounds from which to reach it. To summarize the argument in the book, Lewis quotes <a href="/wiki/J._B._S._Haldane" title="J. B. S. Haldane">J. B. S. Haldane</a>, who appeals to a similar line of reasoning:<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>If my mental processes are determined wholly by the motions of atoms in my brain, I have no reason to suppose that my beliefs are true...and hence I have no reason for supposing my brain to be composed of atoms.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>J. B. S. Haldane, <i>Possible Worlds</i>, p. 209</cite></div></blockquote> <p>In his essay "Is Theology Poetry?", Lewis himself summarises the argument in a similar fashion when he writes: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>If minds are wholly dependent on brains, and brains on biochemistry, and biochemistry (in the long run) on the meaningless flux of the atoms, I cannot understand how the thought of those minds should have any more significance than the sound of the wind in the trees.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>C. S. Lewis, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Weight_of_Glory_and_Other_Addresses" title="The Weight of Glory and Other Addresses">The Weight of Glory and Other Addresses</a></i>, p. 139</cite></div></blockquote> <p>But Lewis later agreed with <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Anscombe" class="mw-redirect" title="Elizabeth Anscombe">Elizabeth Anscombe</a>'s response to his <i>Miracles</i> argument.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She showed that an argument could be valid and ground-consequent even if its propositions were generated via <a href="/wiki/Causality_(physics)" title="Causality (physics)">physical cause and effect</a> by non-rational factors.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similar to Anscombe, <a href="/wiki/Richard_Carrier" title="Richard Carrier">Richard Carrier</a> and John Beversluis have written extensive objections to the <a href="/wiki/Argument_from_reason" title="Argument from reason">argument from reason</a> on the untenability of its first postulate.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cartesian_arguments">Cartesian arguments</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Cartesian arguments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Meditations_on_the_First_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Meditations on the First Philosophy">Meditations on the First Philosophy</a></div> <p>Descartes puts forward two main arguments for dualism in <i><a href="/wiki/Meditations_on_the_First_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Meditations on the First Philosophy">Meditations</a></i>: firstly, the "modal argument," or the "clear and distinct perception argument," and secondly the "indivisibility" or "divisibility" argument. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Summary of the 'modal argument'<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <td colspan="4">It is imaginable that one's mind might exist without one's body. </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="4"><i>therefore</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="4">It is conceivable that one's mind might exist without one's body. </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="4"><i>therefore</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="4">It is possible one's mind might exist without one's body. </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="4"><i>therefore</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="4">One's mind is a different entity from one's body. </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The argument is distinguished from the <a href="/wiki/Zombie_Argument" class="mw-redirect" title="Zombie Argument">Zombie Argument</a> as it establishes that the mind could continue to exist without the body, rather than that the unaltered body could exist without the mind.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/J._P._Moreland" title="J. P. Moreland">J. P. Moreland</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Edward_Feser" title="Edward Feser">Edward Feser</a><sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> have both supported the argument, although Feser and Moreland think that it must be carefully reformulated to be effective. </p><p> The <i>indivisibility argument</i> for dualism was phrased by Descartes as follows:<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><blockquote><p>[T]here is a great difference between a mind and a body, because the body, by its very nature, is something divisible, whereas the mind is plainly indivisible...insofar as I am only a thing that thinks, I cannot distinguish any parts in me.... Although the whole mind seems to be united to the whole body, nevertheless, were a foot or an arm or any other bodily part amputated, I know that nothing would be taken away from the mind...</p></blockquote><p>The argument relies upon <a href="/wiki/Leibniz" class="mw-redirect" title="Leibniz">Leibniz</a>' <a href="/wiki/Identity_of_indiscernibles" title="Identity of indiscernibles">principle of the identity of indiscernibles</a>, which states that two things are the same if and only if they share all their properties. A counterargument is the idea that matter is not infinitely divisible, and thus that the mind could be identified with material things that cannot be divided, or potentially Leibnizian <a href="/wiki/Monad_(philosophy)" title="Monad (philosophy)">monads</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Arguments_against_dualism">Arguments against dualism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Arguments against dualism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arguments_from_causal_interaction">Arguments from causal interaction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Arguments from causal interaction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dualism-vs-Monism.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Dualism-vs-Monism.png/320px-Dualism-vs-Monism.png" decoding="async" width="320" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Dualism-vs-Monism.png/480px-Dualism-vs-Monism.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Dualism-vs-Monism.png/640px-Dualism-vs-Monism.png 2x" data-file-width="651" data-file-height="356" /></a><figcaption>Cartesian dualism compared to three forms of monism</figcaption></figure> <p>One argument against dualism is with regard to causal interaction. If consciousness (<i>the mind</i>) can exist independently of physical reality (<i>the brain</i>), one must explain how physical memories are created concerning consciousness. Dualism must therefore explain how consciousness affects physical reality. One of the main objections to dualistic interactionism is lack of explanation of how the material and immaterial are able to interact. Varieties of dualism according to which an immaterial mind causally affects the material body and vice versa have come under strenuous attack from different quarters, especially in the 20th century. Critics of dualism have often asked how something totally immaterial can affect something totally material—this is the basic <b>problem of causal interaction</b>. </p><p>First, it is not clear <i>where</i> the interaction would take place. For example, burning one's finger causes pain. Apparently there is some chain of events, leading from the burning of skin, to the stimulation of nerve endings, to something happening in the peripheral nerves of one's body that lead to one's brain, to something happening in a particular part of one's brain, and finally resulting in the sensation of pain. But pain is not supposed to be spatially locatable. It might be responded that the pain "takes place in the brain." But evidently, the pain is in the finger. This may not be a devastating criticism. </p><p>However, there is a second problem about the interaction. Namely, the question of <i>how</i> the interaction takes place, where in dualism "the mind" is assumed to be non-physical and by definition outside of the realm of science. The <i>mechanism</i> which explains the connection between the mental and the physical would therefore be a philosophical proposition as compared to a scientific theory. For example, compare such a mechanism to a physical mechanism that <i>is</i> well understood. Take a very simple causal relation, such as when a cue ball strikes an eight ball and causes it to go into the pocket. What happens in this case is that the cue ball has a certain amount of momentum as its mass moves across the pool table with a certain velocity, and then that momentum is transferred to the eight ball, which then heads toward the pocket. Compare this to the situation in the brain, where one wants to say that a decision causes some neurons to fire and thus causes a body to move across the room. The intention to "cross the room now" is a mental event and, as such, it does not have physical properties such as force. If it has no force, then it would seem that it could not possibly cause any neuron to fire. However, with Dualism, an explanation is required of how something without any physical properties has physical <i>effects</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Replies">Replies</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Replies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred North Whitehead</a>, and later <a href="/wiki/David_Ray_Griffin" title="David Ray Griffin">David Ray Griffin</a>, framed a new ontology (<i><a href="/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">process philosophy</a></i>) seeking precisely to avoid the pitfalls of ontological dualism.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The explanation provided by <a href="/wiki/Arnold_Geulincx" title="Arnold Geulincx">Arnold Geulincx</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Nicolas Malebranche</a> is that of <a href="/wiki/Occasionalism" title="Occasionalism">occasionalism</a>, where all mind–body interactions require the direct intervention of God. </p><p>At the time <a href="/wiki/C._S._Lewis" title="C. S. Lewis">C. S. Lewis</a> wrote <i><a href="/wiki/Miracles_(book)" title="Miracles (book)">Miracles</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a> (and physical <a href="/wiki/Quantum_indeterminacy" title="Quantum indeterminacy">indeterminism</a>) was only in the initial stages of acceptance, but still Lewis stated the logical possibility that, if the physical world was proved to be indeterministic, this would provide an entry (interaction) point into the traditionally viewed closed system, where a scientifically described physically probable/improbable event could be philosophically described as an action of a non-physical entity on physical reality. He states, however, that none of the arguments in his book will rely on this. Although some <a href="/wiki/Interpretations_of_quantum_mechanics" title="Interpretations of quantum mechanics">interpretations of quantum mechanics</a> consider <a href="/wiki/Wave_function_collapse" title="Wave function collapse">wave function collapse</a> to be indeterminate, in others this event is defined as deterministic.<sup id="cite_ref-SEPQD_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SEPQD-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Argument_from_physics">Argument from physics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Argument from physics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The argument from physics is closely related to the argument from causal interaction. Many physicists and consciousness researchers have argued that any action of a nonphysical mind on the brain would entail the violation of physical laws, such as the <a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_energy" title="Conservation of energy">conservation of energy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By assuming a deterministic physical universe, the objection can be formulated more precisely. When a person decides to walk across a room, it is generally understood that the decision to do so, a mental event, immediately causes a group of neurons in that person's brain to fire, a physical event, which ultimately results in his walking across the room. The problem is that if there is something totally non-physical <i>causing</i> a bunch of neurons to fire, then there is no <i>physical</i> event which causes the firing. This means that some physical energy is required to be generated against the physical laws of the deterministic universe—this is by definition a miracle and there can be no scientific explanation of (repeatable experiment performed regarding) where the <i>physical</i> energy for the firing came from.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such interactions would violate the fundamental <a href="/wiki/Physical_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical law">laws of physics</a>. In particular, if some external source of energy is responsible for the interactions, then this would violate the law of the <a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_energy" title="Conservation of energy">conservation of energy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dualistic interactionism has therefore been criticized for violating a general <a href="/wiki/Heuristic" title="Heuristic">heuristic</a> principle of science: the <a href="/wiki/Causal_closure" title="Causal closure">causal closure</a> of the physical world. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Replies_2">Replies</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Replies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-SEP_8-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SEP-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <i><a href="/wiki/New_Catholic_Encyclopedia" title="New Catholic Encyclopedia">New Catholic Encyclopedia</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-CathEn_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CathEn-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> provide two possible replies to the above objections. The first reply is that the mind may influence the <i>distribution</i> of energy, without altering its quantity. The second possibility is to deny that the human body is causally closed, as the <a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_energy" title="Conservation of energy">conservation of energy</a> applies only to closed systems. However, physicalists object that no evidence exists for the causal non-closure of the human body.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Robin_Collins" title="Robin Collins">Robin Collins</a> responds<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that energy conservation objections misunderstand the role of energy conservation in physics. Well understood scenarios in general relativity violate energy conservation and quantum mechanics provides precedent for causal interactions, or correlation without energy or momentum exchange.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, this does not mean the mind spends energy and, despite that, it still doesn't exclude the supernatural. </p><p>Another reply is akin to parallelism—Mills holds that behavioral events are causally <a href="/wiki/Overdetermination" title="Overdetermination">overdetermined</a>, and can be explained by either physical or mental causes alone.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An overdetermined event is fully accounted for by multiple causes at once.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, <a href="/wiki/J._J._C._Smart" title="J. J. C. Smart">J. J. C. Smart</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paul_Churchland" title="Paul Churchland">Paul Churchland</a> have pointed out that if physical phenomena fully determine behavioral events, then by <a href="/wiki/Occam%27s_razor" title="Occam's razor">Occam's razor</a> an unphysical mind is unnecessary.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Howard Robinson suggests that the interaction may involve <a href="/wiki/Dark_energy" title="Dark energy">dark energy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">dark matter</a> or some other currently unknown scientific process.<sup id="cite_ref-Rob_38-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rob-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another reply is that the interaction taking place in the human body may not be described by "billiard ball" <a href="/wiki/Classical_mechanics" title="Classical mechanics">classical mechanics</a>. If a nondeterministic interpretation of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a> is correct then microscopic events are <a href="/wiki/Indeterminism" title="Indeterminism">indeterminate</a>, where the degree of <a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">determinism</a> increases with the scale of the system. Philosophers <a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Carew_Eccles" class="mw-redirect" title="John Carew Eccles">John Eccles</a> and physicist <a href="/wiki/Henry_Stapp" title="Henry Stapp">Henry Stapp</a> have theorized that such indeterminacy may apply at the macroscopic scale.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, <a href="/wiki/Max_Tegmark" title="Max Tegmark">Max Tegmark</a> has argued that classical and quantum calculations show that <a href="/wiki/Quantum_decoherence" title="Quantum decoherence">quantum decoherence</a> effects do not play a role in brain activity.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Yet another reply to the interaction problem is to note that it doesn't seem that there is an interaction problem for all forms of substance dualism. For instance, <a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomistic</a> dualism doesn't obviously face any issue with regards to interaction, for in this view the soul and the body are related as form and matter.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Argument_from_brain_damage">Argument from brain damage</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Argument from brain damage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>This argument has been formulated by <a href="/wiki/Paul_Churchland" title="Paul Churchland">Paul Churchland</a>, among others. The point is that, in instances of some sort of brain damage (e.g. caused by automobile accidents, drug abuse, pathological diseases, etc.), it is always the case that the mental substance and/or properties of the person are significantly changed or compromised. If the mind were a completely separate substance from the brain, how could it be possible that every single time the brain is injured, the mind is also injured? Indeed, it is very frequently the case that one can even predict and explain the kind of mental or psychological deterioration or change that human beings will undergo when specific parts of their brains are damaged. So the question for the dualist to try to confront is how can all of this be explained if the mind is a separate and immaterial substance from, or if its properties are ontologically independent of, the brain.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Phineas_Gage" title="Phineas Gage">Phineas Gage</a>, who suffered destruction of one or both frontal lobes by a projectile iron rod, is often cited as an example illustrating that the brain causes mind. Gage certainly exhibited some mental changes after his accident, suggesting a correlation between brain states and mental states. It has been noted, however, that Gage's most serious mental changes were only temporary,<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and that he made a reasonable social and mental recovery.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The changes in question have almost always been distorted and exaggerated by scientific and popular literature, often relying on hearsay.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similar examples abound; neuroscientist <a href="/wiki/David_Eagleman" title="David Eagleman">David Eagleman</a> describes the case of another individual who exhibited escalating <a href="/wiki/Pedophile" class="mw-redirect" title="Pedophile">pedophilic</a> tendencies at two different times, and in each case was found to have tumors growing in a particular part of his brain.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Case studies aside, modern experiments have demonstrated that the relation between brain and mind is much more than simple correlation. By damaging, or manipulating, specific areas of the brain repeatedly under controlled conditions (e.g. in monkeys) and reliably obtaining the same results in measures of mental state and abilities, neuroscientists have shown that the relation between damage to the brain and mental deterioration is likely causal. This conclusion is further supported by data from the effects of neuro-active chemicals (e.g., those affecting <a href="/wiki/Neurotransmitters" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurotransmitters">neurotransmitters</a>) on mental functions,<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but also from research on <a href="/wiki/Neurostimulation" title="Neurostimulation">neurostimulation</a> (direct electrical stimulation of the brain, including <a href="/wiki/Transcranial_magnetic_stimulation" title="Transcranial magnetic stimulation">transcranial magnetic stimulation</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Replies_3">Replies</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Replies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Property_dualism" title="Property dualism">Property dualism</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_Hasker" title="William Hasker">William Hasker</a>'s "emergent dualism"<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> seek to avoid this problem. They assert that the mind is a property or substance that emerges from the appropriate arrangement of physical matter, and therefore could be affected by any rearrangement of matter. </p><p>Writing in the 13th century, St. <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a> writes that "the body is necessary for the action of the intellect, not as it's origin of action." Thus, if the body is dysfunctional, the intellect will not actualize as it intends to.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the philosopher <a href="/wiki/C._Stephen_Evans" title="C. Stephen Evans">Stephen Evans</a>: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>We did not need <a href="/wiki/Neurophysiology" title="Neurophysiology">neurophysiology</a> to come to know that a person whose head is bashed in with a club quickly loses his or her ability to think or have any conscious processes. Why should we not think of neurophysiological findings as giving us detailed, precise knowledge of something that human beings have always known, or at least could have known, which is that the mind (at least in this mortal life) requires and depends on a functioning brain? We now know a lot more than we used to know about precisely <i>how</i> the mind depends on the body. However, <i>that</i> the mind depends on the body, at least prior to death, is surely not something discovered in the 20th century".<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Argument_from_neuroscience">Argument from neuroscience</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Argument from neuroscience"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><span class="anchor" id="Argument_from_brain_scans'_ability_to_discern_mental_states"></span> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Neurophilosophy" title="Neurophilosophy">Neurophilosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_of_free_will" title="Neuroscience of free will">Neuroscience of free will</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_of_free_will#Criticisms" title="Neuroscience of free will">Neuroscience of free will § Criticisms</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Thought_identification" class="mw-redirect" title="Thought identification">Thought identification</a></div> <p>In some contexts, the decisions that a person makes can be detected up to 10 seconds in advance by means of scanning their brain activity.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Subjective experiences and covert attitudes can be detected,<sup id="cite_ref-readstates_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-readstates-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as can mental imagery.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is strong <a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">empirical evidence</a> that <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_processes" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive processes">cognitive processes</a> have a physical basis in the brain.<sup id="cite_ref-Cognition_131-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cognition-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dehaene_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dehaene-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Argument_from_simplicity">Argument from simplicity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Argument from simplicity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The argument from simplicity is probably the simplest and also the most common form of argument against dualism of the mental. The dualist is always faced with the question of why anyone should find it necessary to believe in the existence of two, ontologically distinct, entities (mind and brain), when it seems possible and would make for a simpler thesis to test against scientific evidence, to explain the same events and properties in terms of one. It is a heuristic principle in science and philosophy not to assume the existence of more entities than is necessary for clear explanation and prediction. </p><p>This argument was criticized by <a href="/wiki/Peter_Glassen" title="Peter Glassen">Peter Glassen</a> in a debate with <a href="/wiki/J._J._C._Smart" title="J. J. C. Smart">J. J. C. Smart</a> in the pages of <i><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_(journal)" title="Philosophy (journal)">Philosophy</a></i> in the late 1970s and early 1980s.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Glassen argued that, because it is not a physical entity, <a href="/wiki/Occam%27s_razor" title="Occam's razor">Occam's razor</a> cannot consistently be appealed to by a physicalist or materialist as a justification of mental states or events, such as the belief that dualism is false. The idea is that Occam's razor may not be as "unrestricted" as it is normally described (applying to all qualitative postulates, even abstract ones) but instead concrete (only applies to physical objects). If one applies Occam's Razor unrestrictedly, then it recommends monism until pluralism either receives more support or is disproved. If one applies Occam's Razor only concretely, then it may not be used on abstract concepts (this route, however, has serious consequences for selecting between hypotheses <i>about</i> the abstract).<sup id="cite_ref-Stanford_136-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stanford-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This argument has also been criticized by Seyyed Jaaber Mousavirad, who argues that the principle of simplicity could only be applied when there is no need for an additional entity. Despite arguments indicating the need for the soul, the principle of simplicity does not apply. Therefore, if there were no argument establishing the existence of the soul, one could deny its existence based on the principle of simplicity. However, various arguments have been put forth to establish its existence. These arguments demonstrate that while neuroscience can explain the mysteries of the material brain, certain significant issues, such as personal identity and free will, remain beyond the scope of neuroscience. The crux of the matter lies in the essential limitations of neuroscience and the potency of substance dualism in explaining these phenomena.<sup id="cite_ref-Mousavirad_2023_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mousavirad_2023-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Explanatory_gap" title="Explanatory gap">Explanatory gap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mentalism_(psychology)" title="Mentalism (psychology)">Mentalism (psychology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonduality_(spirituality)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nonduality (spirituality)">Nondualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hard_problem_of_consciousness" title="Hard problem of consciousness">Hard problem of consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bipartite_(theology)" title="Bipartite (theology)">Bipartite (theology)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Concept_of_Mind" title="The Concept of Mind">The Concept of Mind</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Gilbert Ryle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trialism" title="Trialism">Trialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertiginous_question" title="Vertiginous question">Vertiginous question</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Hart-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hart_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hart_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hart_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hart_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hart_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hart_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hart_1-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/W._D._Hart" title="W. D. Hart">Hart, W. D.</a> 1996. "Dualism." pp. 265–267 in <i>A Companion to the Philosophy of Mind</i>, edited by <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Guttenplan" title="Samuel Guttenplan">S. Guttenplan</a>. Oxford: Blackwell.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Crane2001p1-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Crane2001p1_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Crane2001p1_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFCranePatterson2001" class="citation book cs1">Crane, Tim; Patterson, Sarah (2001). "Introduction". <i>History of the Mind-Body Problem</i>. pp. <span class="nowrap">1–</span>2. <q>the assumption that mind and body are distinct (essentially, dualism)</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Mind-Body+Problem&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E2&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Crane&rft.aufirst=Tim&rft.au=Patterson%2C+Sarah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMind%E2%80%93body+dualism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ari2-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ari2_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ari2_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Aristotle. [c. mid 4th century BC] 1907. <i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Soul" title="On the Soul">On the Soul (De anima)</a></i>, edited by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Drew_Hicks" title="Robert Drew Hicks">R. D. Hicks</a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1968. Books II-III, translated by D.W. Hamlyn, Clarendon Aristotle Series. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ari1-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ari1_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Aristotle. [c. mid 4th century BC] 1924. <i><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics_(Aristotle)" title="Metaphysics (Aristotle)">Metaphysics (Metaphysica)</a></i>, edited by W. D. Ross. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2 vols.<div><ul><li>1971. Books IV-VI, trans. C. A. Kirwan, Clarendon Aristotle Series. Oxford: Oxford University Press;</li><li>1976. Books XIII–XIV trans. J. Annas, Clarendon Aristotle Series, Oxford: Oxford University Press;</li><li>1994. Books VII-VIII trans. D. Bostock, Clarendon Aristotle Series, Oxford: Oxford University Press.</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Aristotle, <i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Soul" title="On the Soul">De Anima</a></i> III:<div><ul><li>"For whereas the sensitive faculty is not found apart from the body, the intellect is separate." (4, 429b3)</li><li>"When mind is set free from its present conditions it appears as just what it is and nothing more: this alone is immortal and eternal." (5, 430a22)</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Plat-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Plat_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Plat_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Duke, E. A., W. F. Hicken, W. S. M. Nicoll, et al., eds. 1995. <i>Platonis Opera, Vol. 1: Tetralogiae I-II</i>, <a href="/wiki/Oxford_Classical_Texts" title="Oxford Classical Texts">Oxford Classical Texts</a>. Oxford: Clarendon Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Factrade%2F9780198145691.book.1">10.1093/actrade/9780198145691.book.1</a>. 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Christian+Scientific+Society&rft.atitle=Review+of+the+2017+Annual+Meeting&rft.date=2017&rft.au=Stoke%2C+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fchristianscientific.org%2Freview-of-the-2017-annual-meeting%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMind%E2%80%93body+dualism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Conference_2021-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Conference_2021_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://christianscholarsconference.org/panel/science-beyond-materialism-cosmology-astrobiology-consciousness/">"Science Beyond Materialism: Cosmology, Astrobiology, Consciousness"</a>. <i>Thomas H. Olbricht Christian Scholars Conference</i>. 2021. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240922233432/https://christianscholarsconference.org/panel/science-beyond-materialism-cosmology-astrobiology-consciousness/">Archived</a> from the original on 22 September 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Thomas+H.+Olbricht+Christian+Scholars+Conference&rft.atitle=Science+Beyond+Materialism%3A+Cosmology%2C+Astrobiology%2C+Consciousness&rft.date=2021&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fchristianscholarsconference.org%2Fpanel%2Fscience-beyond-materialism-cosmology-astrobiology-consciousness%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMind%E2%80%93body+dualism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ist-socrates.berkeley.edu-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ist-socrates.berkeley.edu_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ist-socrates.berkeley.edu_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/John_Searle" title="John Searle">Searle, John</a>. 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Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jackson_2003_251-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jackson_2003_251_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jackson_2003_251_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJackson2003" class="citation journal cs1">Jackson, Frank (September 2003). 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Smart, Materialism and Occam's Razor". <i>Philosophy</i>. <b>51</b> (197): <span class="nowrap">349–</span>352. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0031819100019392">10.1017/s0031819100019392</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:170163667">170163667</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophy&rft.atitle=J.+J.+C.+Smart%2C+Materialism+and+Occam%27s+Razor&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=197&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E349-%3C%2Fspan%3E352&rft.date=1976&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0031819100019392&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A170163667%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Glassen&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMind%E2%80%93body+dualism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSmart1978" class="citation journal cs1">Smart, J. 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"Is Occam's Razor a Physical Thing?". <i>Philosophy</i>. <b>53</b> (205): <span class="nowrap">382–</span>385. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0031819100022439">10.1017/s0031819100022439</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:170593277">170593277</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophy&rft.atitle=Is+Occam%27s+Razor+a+Physical+Thing%3F&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=205&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E382-%3C%2Fspan%3E385&rft.date=1978&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0031819100022439&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A170593277%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Smart&rft.aufirst=J.+J.+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMind%E2%80%93body+dualism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGlassen1983" class="citation journal cs1">Glassen, Peter (1983). "Smart, Materialism and Believing". <i>Philosophy</i>. <b>58</b> (223): <span class="nowrap">95–</span>101. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0031819100056291">10.1017/s0031819100056291</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:170472361">170472361</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophy&rft.atitle=Smart%2C+Materialism+and+Believing&rft.volume=58&rft.issue=223&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E95-%3C%2Fspan%3E101&rft.date=1983&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0031819100056291&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A170472361%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Glassen&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMind%E2%80%93body+dualism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stanford-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Stanford_136-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/simplicity/">Plato Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Simplicity</a>. Excerpt: "Perhaps scientists apply an unrestricted version of Occam's Razor to that portion of reality in which they are interested, namely the concrete, causal, spatiotemporal world. Or perhaps scientists apply a 'concretized' version of Occam's Razor unrestrictedly. Which is the case? The answer determines which general philosophical principle we end up with: ought we to avoid the multiplication of objects of whatever kind, or merely the multiplication of concrete objects? The distinction here is crucial for a number of central philosophical debates. Unrestricted Occam's Razor favors monism over dualism, and nominalism over platonism. By contrast, 'concretized' Occam's Razor has no bearing on these debates, since the extra entities in each case are not concrete".</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Amoroso, Richard L. 2010. <i>Complementarity of Mind and Body: Realizing the Dream of Descartes, Einstein and Eccles</i>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61668-203-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61668-203-3">978-1-61668-203-3</a>. History making volume with first comprehensive model of dualism-interactionism, that is also empirically testable.</li> <li>Bracken, Patrick, and Philip Thomas. 2002. "Time to move beyond the mind–body split." <i><a href="/wiki/British_Medical_Journal" class="mw-redirect" title="British Medical Journal">British Medical Journal</a></i> 325:1433–1434. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmj.325.7378.1433">10.1136/bmj.325.7378.1433</a>. A controversial perspective on the use and possible overuse of the Mind–Body split and its application in medical practice.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Damasio" title="Antonio Damasio">Damasio, Antonio</a>. 1994. <i><a href="/wiki/Descartes%27_Error" title="Descartes' Error">Descartes' Error</a></i>.</li> <li>Sinclair, Alistair J. 2015. <i>The Promise of Dualism</i>. Almostic Publications. <a href="/wiki/Amazon_Standard_Identification_Number" title="Amazon Standard Identification Number">ASIN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0957404433">0957404433</a>. Introducing dualism as being interactive and distinct from the substance dualism of Descartes.</li> <li>Spenard, Michael. 2011. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110928230010/http://www.memeoid.net/books/Spenard/Dueling_with_Dualism-Spenard.pdf"><i>Dueling with Dualism: the forlorn quest for the immaterial soul</i></a><sup><a href="/wiki/Template:Usurped/doc" title="Template:Usurped/doc">[usurped]</a></sup>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-578-08288-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-578-08288-2">978-0-578-08288-2</a>. An historical account of mind body dualism and a comprehensive conceptual and an empirical critique of the position.</li> <li>Sperry, R. W. 1980. "Mind-brain interaction: Mentalism, yes; dualism, no." <i><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_(journal)" title="Neuroscience (journal)">Neuroscience</a></i> 5(2):195–206. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0306-4522%2880%2990098-6">10.1016/0306-4522(80)90098-6</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7374938">7374938</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit 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class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_and_concrete" title="Abstract and concrete">Abstract object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anima_mundi" title="Anima mundi">Anima mundi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category_of_being" class="mw-redirect" title="Category of being">Category of being</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">Causality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causal_closure" title="Causal closure">Causal closure</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cogito,_ergo_sum" title="Cogito, ergo sum">Cogito, ergo sum</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">Concept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmos" title="Cosmos">Cosmos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embodied_cognition" title="Embodied cognition">Embodied cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entity" title="Entity">Entity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essence" title="Essence">Essence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existence" title="Existence">Existence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experience" title="Experience">Experience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypostatic_abstraction" title="Hypostatic abstraction">Hypostatic abstraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">Idea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(philosophy)" title="Identity (philosophy)">Identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Importance" title="Importance">Importance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">Information</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Data" title="Data">Data</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insight" title="Insight">Insight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intention" title="Intention">Intention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_modality" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic modality">Linguistic modality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_matter" title="Philosophy of matter">Matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_(existential)" title="Meaning (existential)">Meaning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">Mental representation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">Mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motion" title="Motion">Motion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)" title="Nature (philosophy)">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_necessity" title="Metaphysical necessity">Necessity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Object_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Object (philosophy)">Object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pattern" title="Pattern">Pattern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_object" title="Physical object">Physical object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle" title="Principle">Principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_(philosophy)" title="Property (philosophy)">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualia" title="Qualia">Qualia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quality_(philosophy)" title="Quality (philosophy)">Quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relations_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Relations (philosophy)">Relation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self" title="Self">Self</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">Soul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subject_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject (philosophy)">Subject</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substantial_form" title="Substantial form">Substantial form</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thought" title="Thought">Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">Time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type%E2%80%93token_distinction" title="Type–token distinction">Type–token distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_(metaphysics)" title="Universal (metaphysics)">Universal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unobservable" title="Unobservable">Unobservable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics)" title="Value (ethics)">Value</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Index_of_metaphysics_articles" title="Index of metaphysics articles">more ...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_metaphysicians" title="List of metaphysicians">Metaphysicians</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parmenides" title="Parmenides">Parmenides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclus" title="Proclus">Proclus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plotinus" title="Plotinus">Plotinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duns_Scotus" title="Duns Scotus">Scotus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suárez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Malebranche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Wolff_(philosopher)" title="Christian Wolff (philosopher)">Wolff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Reid" title="Thomas Reid">Reid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Bolzano" title="Bernard Bolzano">Bolzano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Lotze" title="Hermann Lotze">Lotze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Peirce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexius_Meinong" title="Alexius Meinong">Meinong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Bergson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Whitehead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._G._Collingwood" title="R. G. Collingwood">Collingwood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Carnap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Ryle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Davidson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">Strawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">Anscombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Dummett" title="Michael Dummett">Dummett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Malet_Armstrong" title="David Malet Armstrong">Armstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Putnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Plantinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Kripke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Parfit</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_metaphysicians" title="List of metaphysicians">more ...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Notable works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Sophist_(dialogue)" title="Sophist (dialogue)">Sophist</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(c. 350 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Timaeus_(dialogue)" title="Timaeus (dialogue)">Timaeus</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(c. 350 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ny%C4%81ya_S%C5%ABtras" title="Nyāya Sūtras">Nyāya Sūtras</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(c. 200 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_rerum_natura" title="De rerum natura">De rerum natura</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(c. 80 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics_(Aristotle)" title="Metaphysics (Aristotle)">Metaphysics</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(c. 50)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Enneads" title="Enneads">Enneads</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(c. 270)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Daneshnameh-ye_Alai" class="mw-redirect" title="Daneshnameh-ye Alai">Daneshnameh-ye Alai</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(c. 1000)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Meditations_on_First_Philosophy" title="Meditations on First Philosophy">Meditations on First Philosophy</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1641)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ethics_(Spinoza_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethics (Spinoza book)">Ethics</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1677)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Treatise_Concerning_the_Principles_of_Human_Knowledge" title="A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge">A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1710)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Monadology" title="Monadology">Monadology</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1714)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">Critique of Pure Reason</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1781)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Prolegomena_to_Any_Future_Metaphysics" title="Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics">Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1783)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Phenomenology_of_Spirit" title="The Phenomenology of Spirit">The Phenomenology of Spirit</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1807)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_World_as_Will_and_Representation" title="The World as Will and Representation">The World as Will and Representation</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1818)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Concluding_Unscientific_Postscript_to_Philosophical_Fragments" title="Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments">Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1846)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Being_and_Time" title="Being and Time">Being and Time</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1927)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Being_and_Nothingness" title="Being and Nothingness">Being and Nothingness</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1943)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Simulacra_and_Simulation" title="Simulacra and Simulation">Simulacra and Simulation</a></i> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1981)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">Cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_metaphysics" title="Feminist metaphysics">Feminist metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interpretations_of_quantum_mechanics" title="Interpretations of quantum mechanics">Interpretations of quantum 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href="/wiki/Non-Cartesian_dualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-Cartesian dualism">Non-Cartesian dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predicate_dualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Predicate dualism">Predicate dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_dualism" title="Property dualism">Property dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substance_dualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Substance dualism">Substance dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomistic_dualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomistic dualism">Thomistic dualism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dualists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Almeder" title="Robert F. Almeder">Robert F. Almeder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mario_Beauregard" title="Mario Beauregard">Mario Beauregard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_B._Dilley" title="Frank B. Dilley">Frank B. Dilley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Beloff" title="John Beloff">John Beloff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Egnor" title="Michael Egnor">Michael Egnor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._Stephen_Evans" title="C. Stephen Evans">C. Stephen Evans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Feser" title="Edward Feser">Edward Feser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Fumerton" title="Richard Fumerton">Richard Fumerton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brie_Gertler" title="Brie Gertler">Brie Gertler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stewart_Goetz" title="Stewart Goetz">Stewart Goetz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._D._Hart" title="W. D. Hart">W. D. Hart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Hasker" title="William Hasker">William Hasker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Huemer" title="Michael Huemer">Michael Huemer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Francis_Kelly" title="Edward Francis Kelly">Edward Francis Kelly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Landesman" title="Charles Landesman">Charles Landesman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._J._Lowe_(philosopher)" title="E. J. Lowe (philosopher)">E. J. Lowe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David._H._Lund" title="David. H. Lund">David. H. Lund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Madell" title="Geoffrey Madell">Geoffrey Madell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._P._Moreland" title="J. P. Moreland">J. P. Moreland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denyse_O%27Leary" title="Denyse O'Leary">Denyse O'Leary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martine_Nida-R%C3%BCmelin" title="Martine Nida-Rümelin">Martine Nida-Rümelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scott_B._Rae" title="Scott B. Rae">Scott B. Rae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_N._Robinson" title="Daniel N. Robinson">Daniel N. Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_D._Roelofs" title="Howard D. Roelofs">Howard D. Roelofs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_Robinson" title="Howard Robinson">Howard Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_M._Schwartz" title="Jeffrey M. Schwartz">Jeffrey M. Schwartz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Swinburne" title="Richard Swinburne">Richard Swinburne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taliaferro" title="Charles Taliaferro">Charles Taliaferro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Homan_Thorpe" title="William Homan Thorpe">William Homan Thorpe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Unger" title="Peter Unger">Peter Unger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keith_Yandell" title="Keith Yandell">Keith Yandell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dean_Zimmerman_(philosopher)" title="Dean Zimmerman (philosopher)">Dean Zimmerman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dualism_(Indian_philosophy)" title="Dualism (Indian philosophy)">Dualism (Indian philosophy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interactionism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Interactionism (philosophy of mind)">Interactionism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Dualism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Category:Dualism (philosophy of mind)">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Dualism" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Dualism">Commons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy_of_mind296" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_of_mind" title="Template:Philosophy of mind"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_of_mind" title="Template talk:Philosophy of mind"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_of_mind" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy of mind"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Philosophy_of_mind296" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Philosophy of mind</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_mind" title="Category:Philosophers of mind">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">G. E. M. Anscombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Malet_Armstrong" title="David Malet Armstrong">Armstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Austin" title="J. L. Austin">J. L. Austin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Bain_(philosopher)" title="Alexander Bain (philosopher)">Alexander Bain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">George Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Henri Bergson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ned_Block" title="Ned Block">Ned Block</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Brentano" title="Franz Brentano">Franz Brentano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._D._Broad" title="C. D. Broad">C. D. Broad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyler_Burge" title="Tyler Burge">Tyler Burge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Chalmers" title="David Chalmers">David Chalmers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patricia_Churchland" title="Patricia Churchland">Patricia Churchland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Churchland" title="Paul Churchland">Paul Churchland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andy_Clark" title="Andy Clark">Andy Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharmakirti" title="Dharmakirti">Dharmakirti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Donald Davidson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Daniel Dennett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Dretske" title="Fred Dretske">Fred Dretske</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerry_Fodor" title="Jerry Fodor">Fodor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Goldman" title="Alvin Goldman">Goldman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Martin Heidegger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Edmund Husserl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Cameron_Jackson" title="Frank Cameron Jackson">Frank Cameron Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">David Lewis (philosopher)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty">Maurice Merleau-Ponty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marvin_Minsky" title="Marvin Minsky">Marvin Minsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nagel" title="Thomas Nagel">Thomas Nagel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alva_No%C3%AB" title="Alva Noë">Alva Noë</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Derek Parfit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Rorty" title="Richard Rorty">Richard Rorty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Gilbert Ryle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Searle" title="John Searle">John Searle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilfrid_Sellars" title="Wilfrid Sellars">Wilfrid Sellars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_Turing" title="Alan Turing">Alan Turing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Tye_(philosopher)" title="Michael Tye (philosopher)">Michael Tye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasubandhu" title="Vasubandhu">Vasubandhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Yablo" title="Stephen Yablo">Stephen Yablo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhuang_Zhou" title="Zhuang Zhou">Zhuangzi</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_mind" title="List of philosophers of mind">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_naturalism" title="Biological naturalism">Biological naturalism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminative materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergent_materialism" title="Emergent materialism">Emergent materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interactionism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Interactionism (philosophy of mind)">Interactionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Na%C3%AFve_realism" title="Naïve realism">Naïve realism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neurophenomenology" title="Neurophenomenology">Neurophenomenology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutral_monism" title="Neutral monism">Neutral monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_mysterianism" title="New mysterianism">New mysterianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondualism" title="Nondualism">Nondualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occasionalism" title="Occasionalism">Occasionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychophysical_parallelism" title="Psychophysical parallelism">Parallelism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Type_physicalism" title="Type physicalism">Type physicalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_dualism" title="Property dualism">Property dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">Representational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substance_dualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Substance dualism">Substance dualism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_and_concrete" title="Abstract and concrete">Abstract object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_room" title="Chinese room">Chinese room</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creativity" title="Creativity">Creativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">Cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_closure_(philosophy)" title="Cognitive closure (philosophy)">Cognitive closure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">Concept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">Consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hard_problem_of_consciousness" title="Hard problem of consciousness">Hard problem of consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypostatic_abstraction" title="Hypostatic abstraction">Hypostatic abstraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">Idea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(philosophy)" title="Identity (philosophy)">Identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">Artificial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_intelligence" title="Human intelligence">Human</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intentionality" title="Intentionality">Intentionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Introspection" title="Introspection">Introspection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intuition" title="Intuition">Intuition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_of_thought_hypothesis" title="Language of thought hypothesis">Language of thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_event" title="Mental event">Mental event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_image" title="Mental image">Mental image</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Mental_processes" title="Template:Mental processes">Mental process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_state" title="Mental state">Mental property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">Mental representation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">Mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_problem" title="Mind–body problem">Mind–body problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_(philosophy)" title="Pain (philosophy)">Pain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_other_minds" title="Problem of other minds">Problem of other minds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propositional_attitude" title="Propositional attitude">Propositional attitude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualia" title="Qualia">Qualia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabula_rasa" title="Tabula rasa">Tabula rasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Understanding" title="Understanding">Understanding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_zombie" title="Philosophical zombie">Zombie</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Philosophy of artificial intelligence">Philosophy of artificial intelligence</a> / <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">information</a> / <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_perception" title="Philosophy of perception">perception</a> / <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_self" title="Philosophy of self">self</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_mind" title="Category:Philosophy of mind">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_mind" title="Category:Philosophers of mind">Philosophers category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Philosophy" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Philosophy">Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Philosophy/Mind" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Philosophy/Mind">Task Force</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Consciousness277" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Consciousness" title="Template:Consciousness"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Consciousness" title="Template talk:Consciousness"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Consciousness" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Consciousness"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Consciousness277" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">Consciousness</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Figures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred North Whitehead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Arthur Schopenhauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brian_O%27Shaughnessy_(philosopher)" title="Brian O'Shaughnessy (philosopher)">Brian O'Shaughnessy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Augustus_Strong" title="Charles Augustus Strong">Charles Augustus Strong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Peacocke" title="Christopher Peacocke">Christopher Peacocke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colin_McGinn" title="Colin McGinn">Colin McGinn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Daniel Dennett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Chalmers" title="David Chalmers">David Chalmers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Papineau" title="David Papineau">David Papineau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Pearce_(philosopher)" title="David Pearce (philosopher)">David Pearce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Donald Davidson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Douglas_Hofstadter" title="Douglas Hofstadter">Douglas Hofstadter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Edmund Husserl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Cameron_Jackson" title="Frank Cameron Jackson">Frank Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Dretske" title="Fred Dretske">Fred Dretske</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galen_Strawson" title="Galen Strawson">Galen Strawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">George Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Henry_Lewes" title="George Henry Lewes">George Henry Lewes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Rey" title="Georges Rey">Georges Rey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Eccles_(neurophysiologist)" title="John Eccles (neurophysiologist)">John Eccles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Polkinghorne" title="John Polkinghorne">John Polkinghorne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Searle" title="John Searle">John Searle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Levine_(philosopher)" title="Joseph Levine (philosopher)">Joseph Levine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keith_Frankish" title="Keith Frankish">Keith Frankish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_M._Sayre" title="Kenneth M. Sayre">Kenneth M. Sayre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty">Maurice Merleau-Ponty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Velmans" title="Max Velmans">Max Velmans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Tye_(philosopher)" title="Michael Tye (philosopher)">Michael Tye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Martin Heidegger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ned_Block" title="Ned Block">Ned Block</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patricia_Churchland" title="Patricia Churchland">Patricia Churchland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Churchland" title="Paul Churchland">Paul Churchland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Goff_(philosopher)" title="Philip Goff (philosopher)">Philip Goff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Metzinger" title="Thomas Metzinger">Thomas Metzinger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nagel" title="Thomas Nagel">Thomas Nagel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Kingdon_Clifford" title="William Kingdon Clifford">William Kingdon Clifford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lycan" title="William Lycan">William Lycan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Seager_(philosopher)" title="William Seager (philosopher)">William Seager</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Psychology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Jung" title="Carl Jung">Carl Gustav Jung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_D._Hoffman" title="Donald D. Hoffman">Donald D. Hoffman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Brentano" title="Franz Brentano">Franz Brentano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustav_Fechner" title="Gustav Fechner">Gustav Fechner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Jaynes" title="Julian Jaynes">Julian Jaynes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurt_Koffka" title="Kurt Koffka">Kurt Koffka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Wertheimer" title="Max Wertheimer">Max Wertheimer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Wundt" title="Wilhelm Wundt">Wilhelm Wundt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_K%C3%B6hler" title="Wolfgang Köhler">Wolfgang Köhler</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Neuroscience</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anil_Seth" title="Anil Seth">Anil Seth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Damasio" title="Antonio Damasio">Antonio Damasio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Libet" title="Benjamin Libet">Benjamin Libet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Baars" title="Bernard Baars">Bernard Baars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christof_Koch" title="Christof Koch">Christof Koch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Crick" title="Francis Crick">Francis Crick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Varela" title="Francisco Varela">Francisco Varela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerald_Edelman" title="Gerald Edelman">Gerald Edelman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giulio_Tononi" title="Giulio Tononi">Giulio Tononi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_H._Pribram" title="Karl H. Pribram">Karl Pribram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Weiskrantz" title="Lawrence Weiskrantz">Lawrence Weiskrantz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Gazzaniga" title="Michael Gazzaniga">Michael Gazzaniga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Graziano" title="Michael Graziano">Michael Graziano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Wilken" title="Patrick Wilken">Patrick Wilken</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Wolcott_Sperry" title="Roger Wolcott Sperry">Roger Sperry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanislas_Dehaene" title="Stanislas Dehaene">Stanislas Dehaene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steven_Laureys" title="Steven Laureys">Steven Laureys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stuart_Hameroff" title="Stuart Hameroff">Stuart Hameroff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolf_Singer" title="Wolf Singer">Wolf Singer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Annaka_Harris" title="Annaka Harris">Annaka Harris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Bohm" title="David Bohm">David Bohm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Wigner" title="Eugene Wigner">Eugene Wigner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erwin_Schr%C3%B6dinger" title="Erwin Schrödinger">Erwin Schrödinger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marvin_Minsky" title="Marvin Minsky">Marvin Minsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck">Max Planck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Penrose" title="Roger Penrose">Roger Penrose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_Blackmore" title="Susan Blackmore">Susan Blackmore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_J._Stenger" title="Victor J. Stenger">Victor J. Stenger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Pauli" title="Wolfgang Pauli">Wolfgang Pauli</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Philosophy of mind</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anomalous_monism" title="Anomalous monism">Anomalous monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_theory_of_mind" title="Computational theory of mind">Computationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double-aspect_theory" title="Double-aspect theory">Double-aspect theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminative materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergentism" title="Emergentism">Emergentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interactionism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Interactionism (philosophy of mind)">Interactionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Mind–body dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutral_monism" title="Neutral monism">Neutral monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_mysterianism" title="New mysterianism">New mysterianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondualism" title="Nondualism">Nondualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panpsychism" title="Panpsychism">Panpsychism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychophysical_parallelism" title="Psychophysical parallelism">Parallelism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_dualism" title="Property dualism">Property dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflexive_monism" title="Reflexive monism">Reflexive monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revisionary_materialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Revisionary materialism">Revisionary materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type_physicalism" title="Type physicalism">Type physicalism (reductive materialism, identity theory)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Science</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attention_schema_theory" title="Attention schema theory">Attention schema theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Universe_of_Consciousness#The_Dynamic_Core_Hypothesis" title="A Universe of Consciousness">Dynamic core hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damasio%27s_theory_of_consciousness" title="Damasio's theory of consciousness">Damasio's theory of consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_theories_of_consciousness" title="Electromagnetic theories of consciousness">Electromagnetic theories of consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_workspace_theory" title="Global workspace theory">Global workspace theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Higher-order_theories_of_consciousness" title="Higher-order theories of consciousness">Higher-order theories of consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holonomic_brain_theory" title="Holonomic brain theory">Holonomic brain theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_information_theory" title="Integrated information theory">Integrated information theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_masking#Lamme's_recurrent_feedback_hypothesis_of_visual_awareness_and_masking" title="Visual masking">Lamme's recurrent feedback hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_drafts_model" title="Multiple drafts model">Multiple drafts model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orchestrated_objective_reduction" title="Orchestrated objective reduction">Orchestrated objective reduction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agnosia" title="Agnosia">Agnosia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altered_state_of_consciousness" title="Altered state of consciousness">Altered state of consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_consciousness" title="Animal consciousness">Animal consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_consciousness" title="Artificial consciousness">Artificial consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attention" title="Attention">Attention</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attentional_control" title="Attentional control">Attentional control</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Awareness" title="Awareness">Awareness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Binding_problem" title="Binding problem">Binding problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Binocular_rivalry" title="Binocular rivalry">Binocular rivalry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blindsight" title="Blindsight">Blindsight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain" title="Brain">Brain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartesian_theater" title="Cartesian theater">Cartesian theater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consciousness_after_death" class="mw-redirect" title="Consciousness after death">Consciousness after death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disorders_of_consciousness" class="mw-redirect" title="Disorders of consciousness">Disorders of consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divided_consciousness" class="mw-redirect" title="Divided consciousness">Divided consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_consciousness" title="Dual consciousness">Dual consciousness (split-brain)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experience" title="Experience">Experience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explanatory_gap" title="Explanatory gap">Explanatory gap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flash_suppression" title="Flash suppression">Flash suppression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hallucination" title="Hallucination">Hallucination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hard_problem_of_consciousness" title="Hard problem of consciousness">Hard problem of consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterophenomenology" title="Heterophenomenology">Heterophenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Higher_consciousness" title="Higher consciousness">Higher consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illusion" title="Illusion">Illusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Introspection_illusion" title="Introspection illusion">Introspection illusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_argument" title="Knowledge argument">Knowledge argument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Locked-in_syndrome" title="Locked-in syndrome">Locked-in syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">Mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_problem" title="Mind–body problem">Mind–body problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimally_conscious_state" title="Minimally conscious state">Minimally conscious state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neural_correlates_of_consciousness" title="Neural correlates of consciousness">Neural correlates of consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurophenomenology" title="Neurophenomenology">Neurophenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_zombie" title="Philosophical zombie">Philosophical zombie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Philosophy of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_consciousness" title="Primary consciousness">Primary consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_other_minds" title="Problem of other minds">Problem of other minds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualia" title="Qualia">Qualia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_mind" title="Quantum mind">Quantum mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reentry_(neural_circuitry)" title="Reentry (neural circuitry)">Reentry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sakshi_(witness)" title="Sakshi (witness)">Sakshi</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Purusha" title="Purusha">Purusha</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_consciousness" title="Secondary consciousness">Secondary consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentience" title="Sentience">Sentience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentientism" title="Sentientism">Sentientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_human_consciousness" title="Sociology of human consciousness">Sociology of human consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">Soul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stream_of_consciousness_(psychology)" title="Stream of consciousness (psychology)">Stream of consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subconscious" title="Subconscious">Subconscious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjective_character_of_experience" title="Subjective character of experience">Subjective character of experience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivity_and_objectivity_(philosophy)" title="Subjectivity and objectivity (philosophy)">Subjectivity and objectivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unconscious_mind" title="Unconscious mind">Unconscious mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unconsciousness" title="Unconsciousness">Unconsciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Upanishads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_masking" title="Visual masking">Visual masking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Von_Neumann%E2%80%93Wigner_interpretation" title="Von Neumann–Wigner interpretation">Von Neumann–Wigner interpretation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogachara</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Universe_of_Consciousness" title="A Universe of Consciousness">A Universe of Consciousness</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Association_for_the_Scientific_Study_of_Consciousness" title="Association for the Scientific Study of Consciousness">Association for the Scientific Study of Consciousness</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Consciousness_and_Cognition" title="Consciousness and Cognition">Consciousness and Cognition</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Consciousness_Explained" title="Consciousness Explained">Consciousness Explained</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_Consciousness" title="Cosmic Consciousness">Cosmic Consciousness</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/How_the_Self_Controls_Its_Brain" title="How the Self Controls Its Brain">How the Self Controls Its Brain</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Consciousness_Studies" title="Journal of Consciousness Studies">Journal of Consciousness Studies</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Online_Consciousness_Conference" title="Online Consciousness Conference">Online Consciousness Conference</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Psyche_(consciousness_journal)" title="Psyche (consciousness journal)">Psyche</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Astonishing_Hypothesis" title="The Astonishing Hypothesis">The Astonishing Hypothesis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Conscious_Mind" title="The Conscious Mind">The Conscious Mind</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Emperor%27s_New_Mind" title="The Emperor's New Mind">The Emperor's New Mind</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Science_of_Consciousness" title="The Science of Consciousness">The Science of Consciousness</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Understanding_Consciousness" title="Understanding Consciousness">Understanding Consciousness</a></i></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/What_Is_It_Like_to_Be_a_Bat%3F" title="What Is It Like to Be a Bat?">What Is It Like to Be a Bat?</a>"</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wider_than_the_Sky" title="Wider than the Sky">Wider than the Sky</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Consciousness" title="Category:Consciousness">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Consciousness" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Consciousness">Commons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Catholic_philosophy436" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background-color:gold"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Catholic_philosophy_footer" title="Template:Catholic philosophy footer"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Catholic_philosophy_footer" title="Template talk:Catholic philosophy footer"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Catholic_philosophy_footer" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Catholic philosophy footer"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Catholic_philosophy436" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Catholic philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Catholic_moral_theology" title="Catholic moral theology">Ethics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cardinal_virtues" title="Cardinal virtues">Cardinal virtues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_command_theory" title="Divine command theory">Divine command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Just_price" title="Just price">Just price</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Just_war_theory#Catholic_doctrine" title="Just war theory">Just war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_probabilism" title="Catholic probabilism">Probabilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law#Catholic_natural_law_jurisprudence" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_personalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic personalism">Personalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_virtues" title="Seven virtues">Seven virtues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_social_teaching" title="Catholic social teaching">Social teaching</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Option_for_the_poor" title="Option for the poor">Option for the poor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_mortgage" title="Social mortgage">Social mortgage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_virtues" title="Theological virtues">Theological virtues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue ethics</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Gentile_da_Fabriano_052.jpg/70px-Gentile_da_Fabriano_052.jpg" decoding="async" width="70" height="89" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Gentile_da_Fabriano_052.jpg/105px-Gentile_da_Fabriano_052.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Gentile_da_Fabriano_052.jpg/140px-Gentile_da_Fabriano_052.jpg 2x" data-file-width="754" data-file-height="963" /></span></span><br /><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/JohnDunsScotus_-_full.jpg/120px-JohnDunsScotus_-_full.jpg" decoding="async" width="70" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/JohnDunsScotus_-_full.jpg/250px-JohnDunsScotus_-_full.jpg 2x" data-file-width="314" data-file-height="479" /></span></span><br /><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/William_of_Ockham.png/70px-William_of_Ockham.png" decoding="async" width="70" height="93" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/William_of_Ockham.png/105px-William_of_Ockham.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/William_of_Ockham.png/140px-William_of_Ockham.png 2x" data-file-width="271" data-file-height="361" /></span></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%">Schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Augustinianism" title="Augustinianism">Augustinianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotism" title="Scotism">Scotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occamism" title="Occamism">Occamism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Salamanca" title="School of Salamanca">Salamanca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_humanism" title="Christian humanism">Christian humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molinism" title="Molinism">Molinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-scholasticism" title="Neo-scholasticism">Neo-scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Thomism" title="Analytical Thomism">Analytical Thomism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_universals" title="Problem of universals">Universals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_realism" class="mw-redirect" title="Platonic realism">Augustinian realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conceptualism" title="Conceptualism">Conceptualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moderate_realism" title="Moderate realism">Moderate realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotistic_realism" title="Scotistic realism">Scotistic realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intellectualism" title="Intellectualism">Theological intellectualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voluntarism_(philosophy)" title="Voluntarism (philosophy)">Theological voluntarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Catholic_philosophers_and_theologians" title="List of Catholic philosophers and theologians">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Abelard" title="Peter Abelard">Abelard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortimer_J._Adler" title="Mortimer J. Adler">Adler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albertus_Magnus" title="Albertus Magnus">Albertus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcuin" title="Alcuin">Alcuin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">Anscombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonaventure" title="Bonaventure">Bonaventure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Ren%C3%A9_de_Chateaubriand" title="François-René de Chateaubriand">Chateaubriand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._K._Chesterton" title="G. K. Chesterton">Chesterton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clement_of_Alexandria" title="Clement of Alexandria">Clement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_of_Cusa" title="Nicholas of Cusa">Cusa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Dionysius_the_Areopagite" title="Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite">Dionysius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Scotus_Eriugena" title="John Scotus Eriugena">Eriugena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsilio_Ficino" title="Marsilio Ficino">Ficino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Gassendi" title="Pierre Gassendi">Gassendi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isidore_of_Seville" title="Isidore of Seville">Isidore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignacy_Krasicki" title="Ignacy Krasicki">Krasicki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramon_Llull" title="Ramon Llull">Llull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Lombard" title="Peter Lombard">Lombard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">MacIntyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Malebranche" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicholas Malebranche">Malebranche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Maritain" title="Jacques Maritain">Maritain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_de_Montaigne" title="Michel de Montaigne">Montaigne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Henry_Newman" title="John Henry Newman">Newman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">Occam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Pascal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Pico_della_Mirandola" title="Giovanni Pico della Mirandola">Pico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Rahner" title="Karl Rahner">Rahner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Benedict_XVI" title="Pope Benedict XVI">Ratzinger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Scheler" title="Max Scheler">Scheler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duns_Scotus" title="Duns Scotus">Scotus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edith_Stein" title="Edith Stein">Stein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suárez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_II" title="Pope John Paul II">Wojtyła</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actus_essendi" title="Actus essendi">Actus Essendi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Actus_primus" title="Actus primus">Actus primus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Actus_purus" title="Actus purus">Actus purus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aevum" title="Aevum">Aevum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustinianism" title="Augustinianism">Augustinian values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cardinal_virtues" title="Cardinal virtues">Cardinal virtues</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Cartesian dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cogito,_ergo_sum" title="Cogito, ergo sum">Cogito, ergo sum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dehellenization_of_Christianity" title="Dehellenization of Christianity">Dehellenization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Differentia" title="Differentia">Differentia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disputation" title="Disputation">Disputation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_illumination" title="Divine illumination">Divine illumination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_truth" title="Double truth">Double truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evil_demon" title="Evil demon">Evil demon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_distinction" title="Formal distinction">Formal distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guardian_angel" title="Guardian angel">Guardian angel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haecceity" title="Haecceity">Haecceity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/How_many_angels_can_dance_on_the_head_of_a_pin%3F" title="How many angels can dance on the head of a pin?">Head of a pin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homo_unius_libri" title="Homo unius libri">Homo unius libri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infused_righteousness" title="Infused righteousness">Infused righteousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memento_mori#In_Europe_from_the_Medieval_era_to_the_Victorian_era" title="Memento mori">Memento mori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occam%27s_razor" title="Occam's razor">Occam's razor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontological_argument" title="Ontological argument">Ontological argument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pascal%27s_wager" title="Pascal's wager">Pascal's wager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_axiom" title="Peripatetic axiom">Peripatetic axiom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_double_effect" title="Principle of double effect">Principle of double effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quiddity" title="Quiddity">Quiddity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Ways_(Aquinas)" title="Five Ways (Aquinas)">Quinque viae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rota_Fortunae" class="mw-redirect" title="Rota Fortunae">Rota Fortunae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_deadly_sins" title="Seven deadly sins">Seven deadly sins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Augustinian_theodicy" title="Augustinian theodicy">Augustinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irenaean_theodicy" title="Irenaean theodicy">Irenaean</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trademark_argument" title="Trademark argument">Trademark argument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Univocity_of_being" title="Univocity of being">Univocity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utopia" title="Utopia">Utopia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> 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