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<span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Early history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_growth_of_forensic_anthropology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_growth_of_forensic_anthropology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>The growth of forensic anthropology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_growth_of_forensic_anthropology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Methods</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Methods-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Methods subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Determination_of_sex" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Determination_of_sex"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Determination of sex</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Determination_of_sex-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Determination_of_stature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Determination_of_stature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Determination of stature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Determination_of_stature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Determination_of_age" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Determination_of_age"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Determination of age</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Determination_of_age-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Age_estimation_of_living_individuals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Age_estimation_of_living_individuals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Age estimation of living individuals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Age_estimation_of_living_individuals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Determination_of_ancestry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Determination_of_ancestry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Determination of ancestry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Determination_of_ancestry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_markers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_markers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Other markers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_markers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Subfields" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Subfields"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Subfields</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Subfields-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Subfields subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Subfields-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Forensic_archaeology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Forensic_archaeology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Forensic archaeology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Forensic_archaeology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Forensic_taphonomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Forensic_taphonomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Forensic taphonomy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Forensic_taphonomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Education</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Ethics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notable_forensic_anthropologists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_forensic_anthropologists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Notable forensic anthropologists</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notable_forensic_anthropologists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Forensic anthropology</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 32 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-32" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">32 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B4%D8%B1%D8%B9%D9%8A" title="علم الإنسان الشرعي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="علم الإنسان الشرعي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropolox%C3%ADa_forense" title="Antropoloxía forense – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Antropoloxía forense" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C9%99hk%C9%99m%C9%99_antropologiyas%C4%B1" title="Məhkəmə antropologiyası – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Məhkəmə antropologiyası" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forenzi%C4%8Dka_antropologija" title="Forenzička antropologija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Forenzička antropologija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologia_forense" title="Antropologia forense – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Antropologia forense" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forenzn%C3%AD_antropologie" title="Forenzní antropologie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Forenzní antropologie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensische_Anthropologie" title="Forensische Anthropologie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Forensische Anthropologie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropolog%C3%ADa_forense" title="Antropología forense – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Antropología forense" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C_%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D9%86%DB%8C" title="انسان‌شناسی قانونی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="انسان‌شناسی قانونی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropologie_judiciaire" title="Anthropologie judiciaire – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Anthropologie judiciaire" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B2%95%EC%9D%98%EC%9D%B8%EB%A5%98%ED%95%99" title="법의인류학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="법의인류학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="न्यायालयिक नृविज्ञान – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="न्यायालयिक नृविज्ञान" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forenzi%C4%8Dka_antropologija" title="Forenzička antropologija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Forenzička antropologija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologi_forensik" title="Antropologi forensik – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Antropologi forensik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologia_forense" title="Antropologia forense – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Antropologia forense" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%AA%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%92%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%9E%D7%A9%D7%A4%D7%98%D7%99%D7%AA" title="אנתרופולוגיה משפטית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אנתרופולוגיה משפטית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologi_for%C3%A8nsik" title="Antropologi forènsik – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Antropologi forènsik" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%83%D0%B4%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Судска антропологија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Судска антропологија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensische_antropologie" title="Forensische antropologie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Forensische antropologie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E4%BA%BA%E9%A1%9E%E5%AD%A6" title="法人類学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="法人類学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rettsantropologi" title="Rettsantropologi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Rettsantropologi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologia_forense" title="Antropologia forense – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Antropologia forense" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Судебная антропология – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Судебная антропология" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_anthropology" title="Forensic anthropology – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Forensic anthropology" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forenzn%C3%A1_antropol%C3%B3gia" title="Forenzná antropológia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Forenzná antropológia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forenzi%C4%8Dka_antropologija" title="Forenzička antropologija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Forenzička antropologija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oikeusantropologia" title="Oikeusantropologia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Oikeusantropologia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A4ttsantropologi" title="Rättsantropologi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Rättsantropologi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropolohiyang_porensiko" title="Antropolohiyang porensiko – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Antropolohiyang porensiko" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adli_antropoloji" title="Adli antropoloji – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Adli antropoloji" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" 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href="/wiki/Bloodstain_pattern_analysis" title="Bloodstain pattern analysis">Bloodstain pattern analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_dentistry" title="Forensic dentistry">Dentistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA_phenotyping" title="DNA phenotyping">DNA phenotyping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA_profiling" title="DNA profiling">DNA profiling</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Investigative_genetic_genealogy" title="Investigative genetic genealogy">Forensic genealogy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_entomology" title="Forensic entomology">Entomology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_epidemiology" title="Forensic epidemiology">Epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_limnology" title="Forensic limnology">Limnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_jurisprudence" title="Medical jurisprudence">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_palynology" title="Forensic palynology">Palynology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_pathology" title="Forensic pathology">Pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_podiatry" title="Forensic podiatry">Podiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_toxicology" title="Forensic toxicology">Toxicology</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#ddddff;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_psychiatry" title="Forensic psychiatry">Psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_psychology" title="Forensic psychology">Psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_psychotherapy" title="Forensic psychotherapy">Psychotherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_social_work" title="Forensic social work">Social work</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#ddddff;;color: var(--color-base)">Criminalistics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_accounting" title="Forensic accounting">Accounting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_identification" title="Body identification">Body identification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_chemistry" title="Forensic chemistry">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_colorimetry" title="Forensic colorimetry">Colorimetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Election_forensics" title="Election forensics">Election forensics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_facial_reconstruction" title="Forensic facial reconstruction">Facial reconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fingerprint" title="Fingerprint">Fingerprint analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_firearm_examination" title="Forensic firearm examination">Firearm examination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_footwear_evidence" title="Forensic footwear evidence">Footwear evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_arts" title="Forensic arts">Forensic arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_profiling" title="Forensic profiling">Profiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glove_prints" title="Glove prints">Gloveprint analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palm_print" title="Palm print">Palmprint analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Questioned_document_examination" title="Questioned document examination">Questioned document examination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vein_matching" title="Vein matching">Vein matching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_geophysics" title="Forensic geophysics">Forensic geophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_geology" title="Forensic geology">Forensic geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_network_analysis" title="Social network analysis">Social network analysis</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#ddddff;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Digital_forensics" title="Digital forensics">Digital forensics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_forensics" title="Computer forensics">Computer exams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_data_analysis" title="Forensic data analysis">Data analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Database_forensics" title="Database forensics">Database study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malware_analysis" title="Malware analysis">Malware analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_device_forensics" title="Mobile device forensics">Mobile devices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_forensics" title="Network forensics">Network analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_photography" title="Forensic photography">Photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_video_analysis" title="Forensic video analysis">Video analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audio_forensics" title="Audio forensics">Audio analysis</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#ddddff;;color: var(--color-base)">Related disciplines</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_electrical_engineering" title="Forensic electrical engineering">Electrical engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_engineering" title="Forensic engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_investigation" title="Fire investigation">Fire investigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detection_of_fire_accelerants" title="Detection of fire accelerants">Fire accelerant detection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fractography" title="Fractography">Fractography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_linguistics" title="Forensic linguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_materials_engineering" title="Forensic materials engineering">Materials engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_polymer_engineering" title="Forensic polymer engineering">Polymer engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_statistics" title="Forensic statistics">Statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traffic_collision_reconstruction" title="Traffic collision reconstruction">Traffic collision reconstruction</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#ddddff;;color: var(--color-base)">Related articles</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_scene" title="Crime scene">Crime scene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CSI_effect" title="CSI effect">CSI effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perry_Mason_syndrome" title="Perry Mason syndrome">Perry Mason syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollen_calendar" title="Pollen calendar">Pollen calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skid_mark" title="Skid mark">Skid mark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trace_evidence" title="Trace evidence">Trace evidence</a></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Use_of_DNA_in_forensic_entomology" title="Use of DNA in forensic entomology">Use of DNA in<br />forensic entomology</a></div></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist" style="display:block;margin-top:0.7em; padding-top:0.15em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_forensic_science" title="Outline of forensic science">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Forensic_science" title="Category:Forensic science">Category</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar" style="margin-top:0;padding-top:0.15em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Forensic_science" title="Template:Forensic science"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Forensic_science" title="Template talk:Forensic science"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Forensic_science" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Forensic science"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Forensic anthropology</b> is the application of the anatomical science of <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a> and its various subfields, including forensic <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeology</a> and forensic <a href="/wiki/Taphonomy" title="Taphonomy">taphonomy</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Nawrocki_subfield_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nawrocki_subfield-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in a legal setting. A forensic anthropologist can assist in the identification of deceased individuals whose remains are decomposed, burned, mutilated or otherwise unrecognizable, as might happen in a plane crash. Forensic anthropologists are also instrumental in the investigation and documentation of <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mass_grave" title="Mass grave">mass graves</a>. Along with <a href="/wiki/Forensic_pathology" title="Forensic pathology">forensic pathologists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Forensic_dentistry" title="Forensic dentistry">forensic dentists</a>, and homicide investigators, forensic anthropologists commonly testify in court as <a href="/wiki/Expert_witness" title="Expert witness">expert witnesses</a>. Using physical markers present on a skeleton, a forensic anthropologist can potentially determine a person's age, <a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_humans" title="Sex differences in humans">sex</a>, <a href="/wiki/Human_height" title="Human height">stature</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Race_(human_categorization)" title="Race (human categorization)">race</a>. In addition to identifying physical characteristics of the individual, forensic anthropologists can use skeletal abnormalities to potentially determine <a href="/wiki/Cause_of_death" title="Cause of death">cause of death</a>, <a href="/wiki/Major_trauma" title="Major trauma">past trauma</a> such as broken bones or medical procedures, as well as diseases such as <a href="/wiki/Bone_tumor" title="Bone tumor">bone cancer</a>. </p><p>The methods used to identify a person from a skeleton relies on the past contributions of various anthropologists and the study of human skeletal <a href="/wiki/Polymorphism_(biology)" title="Polymorphism (biology)">differences</a>. Through the collection of thousands of specimens and the analysis of differences within a population, estimations can be made based on physical characteristics. Through these, a set of remains can potentially be identified. The field of forensic anthropology grew during the twentieth century into a fully recognized forensic specialty involving trained anthropologists as well as numerous research institutions gathering data on decomposition and the effects it can have on the skeleton. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_uses">Modern uses</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Forensic_anthropology&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Modern uses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Srebrenica_Massacre_-_Exhumed_Grave_of_Victims_-_Potocari_2007.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Srebrenica_Massacre_-_Exhumed_Grave_of_Victims_-_Potocari_2007.jpg/220px-Srebrenica_Massacre_-_Exhumed_Grave_of_Victims_-_Potocari_2007.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Srebrenica_Massacre_-_Exhumed_Grave_of_Victims_-_Potocari_2007.jpg/330px-Srebrenica_Massacre_-_Exhumed_Grave_of_Victims_-_Potocari_2007.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Srebrenica_Massacre_-_Exhumed_Grave_of_Victims_-_Potocari_2007.jpg/440px-Srebrenica_Massacre_-_Exhumed_Grave_of_Victims_-_Potocari_2007.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption>Exhumed bodies of victims of the 1995 Srebrenica Genocide in a mass grave found in 2007.</figcaption></figure> <p>Today, forensic anthropology is a well-established discipline within the forensic field. Anthropologists are called upon to investigate remains and to help identify individuals from bones when other physical characteristics that could be used to identify a body no longer exist. Forensic anthropologists work in conjunction with forensic pathologists to identify remains based on their skeletal characteristics. If the victim is not found for a lengthy period or has been eaten by <a href="/wiki/Scavenger" title="Scavenger">scavengers</a>, flesh markers used for identification would be destroyed, making normal identification difficult if not impossible. Forensic anthropologists can provide physical characteristics of the person to input into missing person databases such as that of the <a href="/wiki/National_Crime_Information_Center" title="National Crime Information Center">National Crime Information Center</a> in the US<sup id="cite_ref-NCIC_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NCIC-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <a href="/wiki/INTERPOL" class="mw-redirect" title="INTERPOL">INTERPOL</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Interpol_notice" title="Interpol notice">yellow notice</a> database.<sup id="cite_ref-Interpol_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Interpol-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition to these duties, forensic anthropologists often assist in the investigation of war crimes and mass fatality investigations. Anthropologists have been tasked with helping to identify victims of the 9/11 terrorist attacks,<sup id="cite_ref-McShane_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McShane-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as plane crashes such as the <a href="/wiki/Arrow_Air_Flight_1285" class="mw-redirect" title="Arrow Air Flight 1285">Arrow Air Flight 1285</a> disaster<sup id="cite_ref-Hinkes_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hinkes-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/USAir_Flight_427" title="USAir Flight 427">USAir Flight 427</a> disaster where the flesh had been vaporized or so badly mangled that normal identification was impossible.<sup id="cite_ref-College_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-College-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Anthropologists have also helped identify victims of genocide in countries around the world, often long after the actual event. War crimes anthropologists have helped investigate include the <a href="/wiki/Rwandan_genocide" title="Rwandan genocide">Rwandan genocide</a><sup id="cite_ref-Nuwer_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nuwer-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Srebrenica_Genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Srebrenica Genocide">Srebrenica Genocide</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Elson_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Elson-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Organizations such as the Forensic Anthropology Society of Europe, the British Association for Forensic Anthropology, and the American Society of Forensic Anthropologists continue to provide guidelines for the improvement of forensic anthropology and the development of standards within the discipline. </p><p>With hundreds missing and bodies burnt beyond recognition by <a href="/wiki/Hamas" title="Hamas">Hamas</a> militants during its <a href="/wiki/2023_Hamas_attack_on_Israel" class="mw-redirect" title="2023 Hamas attack on Israel">October 7 attack of Israel</a>, Israeli authorities assembled recovery teams that included archaeologists from the <a href="/wiki/Israel_Antiquities_Authority" title="Israel Antiquities Authority">Israel Antiquities Authority</a>. The team used their specialized skills in excavating and identifying fragmentary ancient remains to sift through ash and rubble for bone fragments overlooked by other forensic teams. Archeologists systematically searched rooms, dividing them into grids and carefully extracting bone shards. At one house, the archeology team found a bloodstain under ash that they determined was the outline of a body, later identified through DNA analysis.<sup id="cite_ref-arch_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-arch-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Forensic_anthropology&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_history">Early history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Forensic_anthropology&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Early history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:EAHooton.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c8/EAHooton.png/220px-EAHooton.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="296" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/c8/EAHooton.png 1.5x" data-file-width="272" data-file-height="366" /></a><figcaption>Earnest Hooton, one of the pioneers in the field of physical anthropology.</figcaption></figure> <p>The use of <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a> in the forensic investigation of remains grew out of the recognition of anthropology as a distinct scientific discipline and the growth of <a href="/wiki/Physical_anthropology" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical anthropology">physical anthropology</a>. The field of anthropology began in the United States and struggled to obtain recognition as a legitimate science during the early years of the twentieth century.<sup id="cite_ref-Stewart_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stewart-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Earnest_Hooton" title="Earnest Hooton">Earnest Hooton</a> pioneered the field of physical anthropology and became the first physical anthropologist to hold a full-time teaching position in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-Shapiro_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shapiro-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was an organizing committee member of the <a href="/wiki/American_Association_of_Physical_Anthropologists" class="mw-redirect" title="American Association of Physical Anthropologists">American Association of Physical Anthropologists</a> along with its founder <a href="/wiki/Ale%C5%A1_Hrdli%C4%8Dka" title="Aleš Hrdlička">Aleš Hrdlička</a>. Hooton's students created some of the first doctoral programs in physical anthropology during the early 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Spencer_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spencer-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition to physical anthropology, Hooton was a proponent of <a href="/wiki/Anthropological_criminology" title="Anthropological criminology">criminal anthropology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Snow_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Snow-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Now considered a <a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">pseudoscience</a>, criminal anthropologists believed that <a href="/wiki/Phrenology" title="Phrenology">phrenology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Physiognomy" title="Physiognomy">physiognomy</a> could link a person's behavior to specific physical characteristics. The use of criminal anthropology to try to explain certain criminal behaviors arose out of the <a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">eugenics</a> movement, popular at the time.<sup id="cite_ref-Cobb_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cobb-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is because of these ideas that skeletal differences were measured in earnest eventually leading to the development of <a href="/wiki/Anthropometry" title="Anthropometry">anthropometry</a> and the Bertillon method of skeletal measurement by <a href="/wiki/Alphonse_Bertillon" title="Alphonse Bertillon">Alphonse Bertillon</a>. The study of this information helped shape anthropologists' understanding of the human skeleton and the multiple skeletal differences that can occur. </p><p>Another prominent early anthropologist, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Wingate_Todd" title="Thomas Wingate Todd">Thomas Wingate Todd</a>, was primarily responsible for the creation of the first large collection of human skeletons in 1912. In total, Todd acquired 3,300 human skulls and skeletons, 600 <a href="/wiki/Simian" title="Simian">anthropoid</a> skulls and skeletons, and 3,000 mammalian skulls and skeletons.<sup id="cite_ref-Cobb_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cobb-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Todd's contributions to the field of anthropology remain in use in the modern era and include various studies regarding <a href="/wiki/Suture_(joint)" class="mw-redirect" title="Suture (joint)">suture</a> closures on the skull and timing of teeth eruption in the <a href="/wiki/Human_mandible" class="mw-redirect" title="Human mandible">mandible</a>. Todd also developed age estimates based on physical characteristics of the <a href="/wiki/Pubic_symphysis" title="Pubic symphysis">pubic symphysis</a>. Though the standards have been updated, these estimates are still used by forensic anthropologists to narrow down an age range of <a href="/wiki/Skeletonization" title="Skeletonization">skeletonized</a> remains.<sup id="cite_ref-Buikstra_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buikstra-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These early pioneers legitimized the field of anthropology, but it was not until the 1940s, with the help of Todd's student, <a href="/wiki/Wilton_M._Krogman" title="Wilton M. Krogman">Wilton M. Krogman</a>, that forensic anthropology gained recognition as a legitimate subdiscipline. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_growth_of_forensic_anthropology">The growth of forensic anthropology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Forensic_anthropology&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: The growth of forensic anthropology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the 1940s, Krogman was the first anthropologist to actively publicize anthropologists' potential forensic value, going as far as placing advertisements in the FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin informing agencies of the ability of anthropologists to assist in the identification of skeletal remains. This period saw the first official use of anthropologists by federal agencies including the FBI. During the 1950s, the U.S. Army Quartermaster Corps employed forensic anthropologists in the identification of war casualties during the Korean War.<sup id="cite_ref-Snow_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Snow-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was at this time that forensic anthropology officially began. The sudden influx of available skeletons for anthropologists to study, whose identities were eventually confirmed, allowed for the creation of more accurate formulas for the identification of sex, age,<sup id="cite_ref-McKern_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McKern-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and stature<sup id="cite_ref-Trotter_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Trotter-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> based solely on skeletal characteristics. These formulas, developed in the 1940s and refined by war, are still in use by modern forensic anthropologists. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Professionalization" title="Professionalization">professionalization</a> of the field began soon after, during the 1950s and 1960s. This move coincided with the replacement of <a href="/wiki/Coroner" title="Coroner">coroners</a> with <a href="/wiki/Medical_examiner" title="Medical examiner">medical examiners</a> in many locations around the country.<sup id="cite_ref-Snow_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Snow-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was during this time that the field of forensic anthropology gained recognition as a separate field within the <a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Forensic_Sciences" title="American Academy of Forensic Sciences">American Academy of Forensic Sciences</a> and the first forensic anthropology research facility and <a href="/wiki/Body_farm" title="Body farm">body farm</a> was opened by <a href="/wiki/William_M._Bass" title="William M. Bass">William M. Bass</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Buikstra2_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buikstra2-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Public attention and interest in forensic anthropology began to increase around this time as forensic anthropologists started working on more high-profile cases. One of the major cases of the era involved anthropologist Charles Merbs who helped identify the victims murdered by <a href="/wiki/Ed_Gein" title="Ed Gein">Ed Gein</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Golda_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Golda-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Methods">Methods</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Forensic_anthropology&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One of the main tools forensic anthropologists use in the identification of remains is their knowledge of <a href="/wiki/Osteology" title="Osteology">osteology</a> and the differences that occur within the human skeleton. During an investigation, anthropologists are often tasked with helping to determinate an individual's sex, stature, age, and ancestry. To do this, anthropologists must be aware of how the human skeleton can differ between individuals. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Determination_of_sex">Determination of sex</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Forensic_anthropology&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Determination of sex"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Depending on which bones are present, sex can be determined by looking for distinctive <a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_human_physiology#Skeleton_and_muscular_system" title="Sex differences in human physiology">sexual dimorphisms</a>. When available, the <a href="/wiki/Pelvis" title="Pelvis">pelvis</a> is extremely useful in the determination of sex and when properly examined can achieve sex determination with a great level of accuracy.<sup id="cite_ref-Ident_of_Skel_Remains_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ident_of_Skel_Remains-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The examination of the <a href="/wiki/Pubic_arch" title="Pubic arch">pubic arch</a> and the location of the <a href="/wiki/Sacrum" title="Sacrum">sacrum</a> can help determine sex. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:492px;max-width:492px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:244px;max-width:244px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:203px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gray242.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Gray242.png/242px-Gray242.png" decoding="async" width="242" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Gray242.png/363px-Gray242.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Gray242.png 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="321" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Female pelvis. Note wide pubic arch and shorter, pushed back sacrum</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:244px;max-width:244px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:203px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gray241.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Gray241.png/242px-Gray241.png" decoding="async" width="242" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Gray241.png/363px-Gray241.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Gray241.png/484px-Gray241.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="808" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Male pelvis. Note narrow pubic arch and longer sacrum.</div></div></div></div></div> <p>However, the pelvis is not always present, so forensic anthropologists must be aware of other areas on the skeleton that have distinct characteristics between sexes. The skull also contains multiple markers that can be used to determine sex. Specific markers on the skull include the <a href="/wiki/Temporal_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Temporal line">temporal line</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Orbit_(anatomy)" title="Orbit (anatomy)">eye sockets</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Supraorbital_ridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Supraorbital ridge">supraorbital ridge</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FoSci_Outreach_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FoSci_Outreach-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as the <a href="/wiki/Nuchal_lines" title="Nuchal lines">nuchal lines</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Mastoid_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Mastoid process">mastoid process</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hawks_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hawks-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In general, male skulls tend to be larger and thicker than female skulls, and to have more pronounced ridges.<sup id="cite_ref-juniordentist_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-juniordentist-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Forensic anthropologists need to take into account all available markers in the determination of sex due to the differences that can occur between individuals of the same sex. For example, a female may have a slightly more narrow than a normal pubic arch. It is for this reason that anthropologists usually classify sex as one of five possibilities: male, maybe male, indeterminate, maybe female, or female.<sup id="cite_ref-fonsfaw_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fonsfaw-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, forensic anthropologists are generally unable to make a sex determination unless the individual was an adult at the time of death. The sexual dimorphisms present in the skeleton begin to occur during puberty and are not fully pronounced until after sexual maturation.<sup id="cite_ref-Smithsonian_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smithsonian-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Consequently, there is currently no reliable method of sex determination of juvenile remains from cranial or post-cranial skeletal elements since dimorphic traits only become apparent after puberty, and this represents a fundamental problem in archaeological and forensic investigations. However, teeth may assist in estimating sex since both sets of teeth are formed well before puberty. Sexual dimorphism has been observed in both deciduous and permanent dentition, although it is much less in deciduous teeth.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On average, male teeth are slightly larger than female teeth, with the greatest difference observed in the canine teeth.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Examination of internal dental tissues has also shown that male teeth consist of absolutely and proportionately greater quantities of dentine than females. Such differences in dental tissue proportions could also be useful in sex determination.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Determination_of_stature">Determination of stature</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Forensic_anthropology&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Determination of stature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Estimation_of_stature" title="Estimation of stature">estimation of stature</a> by anthropologists is based on a series of formulas that have been developed over time by the examination of multiple different skeletons from a multitude of different regions and backgrounds. Stature is given as a range of possible values, in centimeters, and typically computed by measuring the bones of the leg. The three bones that are used are the <a href="/wiki/Femur" title="Femur">femur</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Tibia" title="Tibia">tibia</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Fibula" title="Fibula">fibula</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-sfu_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sfu-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition to the leg bones, the bones of the arm, <a href="/wiki/Humerus" title="Humerus">humerus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ulna" title="Ulna">ulna</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Radius_(bone)" title="Radius (bone)">radius</a> can be used.<sup id="cite_ref-mall_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mall-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The formulas that are used to determine stature rely on various information regarding the individual. Sex, ancestry, and age should be determined before attempting to ascertain height, if possible. This is due to the differences that occur between populations, sexes, and age groups.<sup id="cite_ref-hawks2_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hawks2-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By knowing all the variables associated with height, a more accurate estimate can be made. For example, a male formula for stature estimation using the femur is <span class="texhtml"> 2.32 × femur length + 65.53 ± 3.94 cm</span>. A female of the same ancestry would use the formula, <span class="texhtml"> 2.47 × femur length + 54.10 ± 3.72 cm</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-redwoods_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-redwoods-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is also important to note an individual's approximate age when determining stature. This is due to the shrinkage of the skeleton that naturally occurs as a person ages. After age 30, a person loses approximately one centimeter of their height every decade.<sup id="cite_ref-sfu_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sfu-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Determination_of_age">Determination of age</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Forensic_anthropology&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Determination of age"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The determination of an individual's age by anthropologists depends on whether or not the individual was an adult or a child. The determination of the age of children, under the age of 21, is usually performed by examining the teeth.<sup id="cite_ref-teeth_age_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-teeth_age-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When teeth are not available, children can be aged based on which <a href="/wiki/Epiphyseal_plate" title="Epiphyseal plate">growth plates</a> are sealed. The tibia plate seals around age 16 or 17 in girls and around 18 or 19 in boys. The <a href="/wiki/Clavicle" title="Clavicle">clavicle</a> is the last bone to complete growth and the plate is sealed around age 25.<sup id="cite_ref-young_or_old_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-young_or_old-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, if a complete skeleton is available anthropologists can count the number of bones. While adults have 206 bones, the bones of a child have not yet fused resulting in a much <a href="/wiki/List_of_bones_of_the_human_skeleton" title="List of bones of the human skeleton">higher number</a>. </p><p>The aging of adult skeletons is not as straightforward as aging a child's skeleton as the skeleton changes little once adulthood is reached.<sup id="cite_ref-adult_age_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-adult_age-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One possible way to estimate the age of an adult skeleton is to look at <a href="/wiki/Osteon" title="Osteon">bone osteons</a> under a microscope. New osteons are constantly formed by bone marrow even after the bones stop growing. Younger adults have fewer and larger osteons while older adults have smaller and more osteon fragments.<sup id="cite_ref-young_or_old_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-young_or_old-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another potential method for determining the age of an adult skeleton is to look for arthritis indicators on the bones. Arthritis will cause noticeable rounding of the bones.<sup id="cite_ref-skel_as_evid_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-skel_as_evid-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The degree of rounding from arthritis coupled with the size and number of osteons can help an anthropologist narrow down a potential age range for the individual. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Age_estimation_of_living_individuals">Age estimation of living individuals</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Forensic_anthropology&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Age estimation of living individuals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Age estimation of living individuals is carried out by estimating the biological age when the chronological age of the individual is unknown or uncertain because of the lack of valid identity documents.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is used to confirm if an individual has reached a specific age threshold in cases of criminal liability, asylum seekers and unaccompanied children, human trafficking, adoption, and competitive sports.<sup id="cite_ref-practitioner_guide_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-practitioner_guide-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Guidelines by the Study Group on Forensic Age Diagnostics (Arbeitsgemeinschaft für Forensische Altersdiagnostik, AGFAD), propose that a three-step procedure should be followed for the age estimation: the first step is a physical examination; the second step include the assessment of the hand/wrist development using plain radiographs; the third step is a dental assessment.<sup id="cite_ref-criteria_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-criteria-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the most used methodologies for the estimation of age from the development of the hand and wrist is the Greulich and Pyle Atlas,<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> whilst to assess dental development the most common method used so far is the 8-teeth technique developed by Demirjian <i>et al.</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Where the estimated age of the individual might be above 18 years of age, it is possible to use the development of the medial end of the <a href="/wiki/Clavicle" title="Clavicle">clavicle</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Traditionally, those undertaking age estimation in the living, adopt imaging techniques such as plain radiographies and CT scans to carry out the age estimation, however, lately, due to ethical issues surrounding the use of ionising medical imaging modalities for non-medical purposes (e.g., forensic purposes),<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Magnetic resonance imaging">magnetic resonance imaging</a>, a radiation free medical imaging modality, is being investigated to develop new methodologies to estimate the age of living individuals.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Determination_of_ancestry">Determination of ancestry</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Forensic_anthropology&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Determination of ancestry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The estimation of individuals' ancestry is typically grouped into three groups. However, the use of these classifications is becoming much harder as the rate of interancestrial marriages increases.<sup id="cite_ref-nlm_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nlm-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Maxilla" title="Maxilla">maxilla</a> can be used to help anthropologists estimate an individual's ancestry due to the three basic shapes: hyperbolic, parabolic, and rounded.<sup id="cite_ref-westport_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-westport-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition to the maxilla, the <a href="/wiki/Zygomatic_arch" title="Zygomatic arch">zygomatic arch</a> and the nasal opening have been used to narrow down possible ancestry.<sup id="cite_ref-activity_ancestry_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-activity_ancestry-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By measuring distances between landmarks on the skull as well as the size and shape of specific bones, anthropologists can use a series of equations to estimate ancestry. A program called <a href="/wiki/FORDISC" title="FORDISC">FORDISC</a> has been created that will calculate the most likely ancestry using complex mathematical formulas.<sup id="cite_ref-observation_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-observation-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This program is continually updated with new information from known individuals to maintain a database of current populations and their respective measurements. A 2009 study found that even in favourable circumstances, FORDISC 3.0 classifications have only a 1% confidence level.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Research presented at the 2012 Annual Meeting of the <a href="/wiki/American_Association_of_Physical_Anthropologists" class="mw-redirect" title="American Association of Physical Anthropologists">American Association of Physical Anthropologists</a> concluded that ForDisc ancestry determination was not always consistent, and that the program should be used with caution.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Determination of ancestry is incredibly controversial but often needed for police investigations to narrow down subject pool. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_markers">Other markers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Forensic_anthropology&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Other markers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Anthropologists are also able to see other markers present on the bones. Past fractures will be evident by the presence of <a href="/wiki/Bone_remodeling" title="Bone remodeling">bone remodeling</a> but only for a certain amount of time. After around seven years, bone remodelling should make the presence of a fracture impossible to see. The examination of any fractures on the bones can potentially help determine the type of trauma they may have experienced. Cause of death is not determined by the forensic anthropologist, as they are not qualified to do so. However, they are able to determine the type of trauma experienced such as gun shot wound, blunt force, sharp force, or a mixture thereof. It is also possible to determine if a fracture occurred ante-mortem (before death), peri-mortem (at the time of death), or post-mortem (after death). Ante-mortem fractures will show signs of healing (depending on how long before death the fracture occurred) while peri- and post-mortem fractures will not. Peri-mortem fractures can incorporate quite a large range of time, as ante-mortem trauma that is unrelated directly to death may not have had time to begin the healing process. Peri-mortem fractures will usually appear clean with rounded margins and equal discolouration after death, while post-mortem breaks will appear brittle.<sup id="cite_ref-Smith_Ashley_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith_Ashley-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Post-mortem breaks will often be a different colour to the surrounding bone i.e. whiter as they have been exposed to taphonomic processes for a different amount of time. However, depending on how long there is between a post-mortem break and removal this may not be obvious i.e. through re-interment by a killer. Diseases such as bone cancer might be present in <a href="/wiki/Bone_marrow" title="Bone marrow">bone marrow</a> samples and can help narrow down the list of possible identifications. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Subfields">Subfields</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Forensic_anthropology&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Subfields"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Forensic_archaeology">Forensic archaeology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Forensic_anthropology&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Forensic archaeology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The term "forensic archaeology" is not defined uniformly around the world, and is therefore practiced in a variety of ways.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Forensic archaeologists employ their knowledge of proper excavation techniques to ensure that remains are recovered in a controlled and forensically acceptable manner.<sup id="cite_ref-Chicora_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chicora-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When remains are found partially or completely buried the proper excavation of the remains will ensure that any evidence present on the bones will remain intact. The difference between forensic archaeologists and forensic anthropologists is that where forensic anthropologists are trained specifically in human osteology and recovery of human remains, forensic archaeologists specialize more broadly in the processes of search and discovery.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition to remains, archaeologists are trained to look for objects contained in and around the excavation area. These objects can include anything from wedding rings to potentially probative evidence such as cigarette butts or shoe prints.<sup id="cite_ref-Nawrocki_arch_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nawrocki_arch-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their training extends further to observing context, association and significance of objects in a crime scene and drawing conclusions that may be useful for locating a victim or suspect.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A forensic archaeologist must also be able to utilize a degree of creativity and adaptability during times when crime scenes can not be excavated using traditional archaeological techniques. For example, one particular case study was conducted on the search and recovery of the remains of a missing girl who was found in a septic tank underground. This instance required unique methods unlike those of a typical archeological excavation in order to exhume and preserve the contents of the tank.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Forensic archaeologists are involved within three main areas. Assisting with crime scene research, investigation, and recovery of evidence and/or skeletal remains is only one aspect. </p><p>Processing scenes of mass fatality or incidents of terrorism (i.e. homicide, mass graves and war crimes, and other violations of human rights) is a branch of work that forensic archaeologists are involved with as well.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_60-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Forensic archaeologists can help determine potential <a href="/wiki/Grave" title="Grave">grave sites</a> that might have been overlooked. Differences in the soil can help forensic archaeologists locate these sites. During the burial of a body, a small mound of soil will form from the filling of the grave. The loose soil and increasing nutrients from the decomposing body encourages different kinds of plant growth than surrounding areas. Typically, grave sites will have looser, darker, more organic soil than areas around it.<sup id="cite_ref-sfu_arch_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sfu_arch-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The search for additional grave sites can be useful during the investigation of genocide and mass graves to search for additional burial locations. </p><p>One other discipline to the career of a forensic archaeologist is teaching and research. Educating law enforcement, crime scene technicians and investigators, as well as undergraduate and graduate students is a critical part of a forensic archaeologist's career in order to spread knowledge of proper excavation techniques to other forensic personnel and to increase awareness of the field in general. Crime scene evidence in the past has been compromised due to improper excavation and recovery by untrained personnel. Forensic anthropologists are then unable to provide meaningful analyses on retrieved skeletal remains due to damage or contamination.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Research conducted to improve archaeological field methods, particularly to advance nondestructive methods of search and recovery are also important for the advancement and recognition of the field. </p><p>There is an ethical component that must be considered. The capability to uncover information about victims of war crimes or homicide may present a conflict in cases that involve competing interests. Forensic archaeologists are often contracted to assist with the processing of mass graves by larger organisations that have motives related to exposure and prosecution rather than providing peace of mind to families and communities. These projects are at times opposed by smaller, human rights groups who wish to avoid overshadowing memories of the individuals with their violent manner(s) of death. In cases like these, forensic archaeologists must practice caution and recognize the implications behind their work and the information they uncover.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Forensic_taphonomy">Forensic taphonomy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Forensic_anthropology&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Forensic taphonomy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Human_remains.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Human_remains.jpg/220px-Human_remains.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Human_remains.jpg/330px-Human_remains.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Human_remains.jpg/440px-Human_remains.jpg 2x" data-file-width="561" data-file-height="410" /></a><figcaption>The examination of remains can help build a peri- and post-mortem profile of the individual.</figcaption></figure><p>The examination of skeletal remains often takes into account environmental factors that affect decomposition. Forensic <a href="/wiki/Taphonomy" title="Taphonomy">taphonomy</a> is the study of these <a href="/wiki/Postmortem_changes" class="mw-redirect" title="Postmortem changes">postmortem changes</a> to human remains caused by soil, water, and the interaction with plants, insects, and other animals.<sup id="cite_ref-tap_manual_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tap_manual-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In order to study these effects, <a href="/wiki/Body_farm" title="Body farm">body farms</a> have been set up by multiple universities. Students and faculty study various environmental effects on the decomposition of donated <a href="/wiki/Cadaver" title="Cadaver">cadavers</a>. At these locations, cadavers are placed in various situations and their rate of decomposition along with any other factors related to the decomposition process are studied. Potential research projects can include whether black plastic causes decomposition to occur faster than clear plastic or the effects freezing can have on a dumped body.<sup id="cite_ref-Forbes_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Forbes-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Forensic taphonomy is divided into two separate sections, biotaphonomy and geotaphonomy. Biotaphonomy is the study of how the environment affects the decomposition of the body. Specifically it is the examination of biological remains in order to ascertain how decomposition or destruction occurred.<sup id="cite_ref-CSI_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CSI-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This can include factors such as animal scavenging, climate, as well as the size and age of the individual at the time of death. Biotaphonomy must also take into account common mortuary services such as embalming and their effects on decomposition.<sup id="cite_ref-Nawrocki_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nawrocki-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Geotaphonomy is the examination of how the decomposition of the body affects the environment. Geotaphonomy examinations can include how the soil was disturbed, pH alteration of the surrounding area, and either the acceleration or deceleration of plant growth around the body.<sup id="cite_ref-CSI_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CSI-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By examining these characteristics, examiners can begin to piece together a timeline of the events during and after death. This can potentially help determine the time since death, whether or not trauma on the skeleton was a result of perimortem or postmortem activity, as well as if scattered remains were the result of scavengers or a deliberate attempt to conceal the remains by an assailant.<sup id="cite_ref-Nawrocki_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nawrocki-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Education">Education</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Forensic_anthropology&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Forensic_Anthropology_Lab..png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Forensic_Anthropology_Lab..png/220px-Forensic_Anthropology_Lab..png" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Forensic_Anthropology_Lab..png/330px-Forensic_Anthropology_Lab..png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Forensic_Anthropology_Lab..png/440px-Forensic_Anthropology_Lab..png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="853" /></a><figcaption>Forensic Anthropology Lab at the National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington D.C., US</figcaption></figure><p>Individuals looking to become forensic anthropologists first obtain a bachelor's degree in anthropology from an accredited university. During their studies they should focus on physical anthropology as well as osteology. In addition it is recommended that individuals take courses in a wide range of sciences such as biology, chemistry, anatomy, and genetics.<sup id="cite_ref-Hall_edu_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hall_edu-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Once undergraduate education is completed the individual should proceed to graduate level courses. Typically, forensic anthropologists obtain doctorates in physical anthropology and have completed coursework in osteology, forensics, and archaeology. It is also recommended that individuals looking to pursue a forensic anthropology profession get experience in dissection usually through a <a href="/wiki/Gross_anatomy" title="Gross anatomy">gross anatomy</a> class as well as useful internships with investigative agencies or practicing anthropologists.<sup id="cite_ref-Nawrocki_subfield_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nawrocki_subfield-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Once educational requirements are complete one can become certified by the forensic anthropology society in the region. This can include the IALM exam given by the Forensic Anthropology Society of Europe<sup id="cite_ref-FASE_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FASE-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or the certification exam given by the American Board of Forensic Anthropology.<sup id="cite_ref-ABFA_exam_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ABFA_exam-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Typically, most forensic anthropologists perform forensic casework on a part-time basis, however there are individuals who work in the field full-time usually with federal or international agencies. Forensic anthropologists are usually employed in academia either at a university or a research facility.<sup id="cite_ref-abfa_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-abfa-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ethics">Ethics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Forensic_anthropology&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Ethics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Like other forensic fields, forensic anthropologists are held to a high level of ethical standards due to their work in the legal system. Individuals who purposefully misrepresent themselves or any piece of evidence can be sanctioned, fined, or imprisoned by the appropriate authorities depending on the severity of the violation. Individuals who fail to disclose any <a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_interest" title="Conflict of interest">conflict of interests</a> or who fail to report all of their findings, regardless of what they may be, can face disciplinary actions.<sup id="cite_ref-swganth_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-swganth-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is important that forensic anthropologists remain impartial during the course of an investigation. Any perceived bias during an investigation could hamper efforts in court to bring the responsible parties to justice.<sup id="cite_ref-abfa_ethics_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-abfa_ethics-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is a substantial risk of <a href="/wiki/Confirmation_bias" title="Confirmation bias">confirmation bias</a> from knowledge of context, especially with more ambiguous or complex cases.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition to the evidentiary guidelines forensic anthropologists should always keep in mind that the remains they are working with were once a person. If possible, local customs regarding dealing with the dead should be observed and all remains should be treated with respect and dignity. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notable_forensic_anthropologists">Notable forensic anthropologists</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Forensic_anthropology&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Notable forensic anthropologists"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Name</th> <th>Notable for</th> <th>Ref </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Sue_Black_(forensic_anthropologist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sue Black (forensic anthropologist)">Sue Black</a></td> <td>Founding member of the British Association for Human Identification. Director of both the Centre for Anatomy and Human Identification and the Leverhulme Centre for Forensic Science at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Dundee" title="University of Dundee">University of Dundee</a>.</td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-Sue_Black_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sue_Black-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Karen_Ramey_Burns" title="Karen Ramey Burns">Karen Ramey Burns</a></td> <td>Worked in the investigation of genocides as well as the identification of victims of the <a href="/wiki/9/11" class="mw-redirect" title="9/11">9/11</a> terrorist attacks and <a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Katrina" title="Hurricane Katrina">Hurricane Katrina</a>.</td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-Karen_Burns_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Karen_Burns-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Michael_Finnegan_(anthropologist)" title="Michael Finnegan (anthropologist)">Michael Finnegan</a></td> <td>Worked on the identification of <a href="/wiki/Jesse_James" title="Jesse James">Jesse James</a>.</td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-Finnegan_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Finnegan-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Richard_Jantz" title="Richard Jantz">Richard Jantz</a></td> <td>Co-developer of FORDISC.</td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-Jantz_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jantz-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Ellis_R._Kerley" title="Ellis R. Kerley">Ellis R. Kerley</a></td> <td>Worked on the identification of <a href="/wiki/Josef_Mengele" title="Josef Mengele">Josef Mengele</a> as well as the victims of the <a href="/wiki/Jonestown" title="Jonestown">Jonestown</a> mass suicide.</td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-Kerley_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kerley-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/William_R._Maples" title="William R. Maples">William R. Maples</a></td> <td>Worked on the identification of Czar <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_II" title="Nicholas II">Nicholas II</a> and other members of the <a href="/wiki/Romanov" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanov">Romanov</a> family as well as the examination of President <a href="/wiki/Zachary_Taylor" title="Zachary Taylor">Zachary Taylor</a>'s remains for arsenic poisoning.</td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-Maples_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maples-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Fredy_Peccerelli" title="Fredy Peccerelli">Fredy Peccerelli</a></td> <td>Founder and director of the <a href="/wiki/Guatemalan_Forensic_Anthropology_Foundation" title="Guatemalan Forensic Anthropology Foundation">Guatemalan Forensic Anthropology Foundation</a>.</td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-Peccerelli_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peccerelli-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Clyde_Snow" title="Clyde Snow">Clyde Snow</a></td> <td>Worked on the identification of King <a href="/wiki/Tutankhamun" title="Tutankhamun">Tutankhamun</a> and the victims of the <a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_City_bombing" title="Oklahoma City bombing">Oklahoma City bombing</a> as well as the investigation into the murder of <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a>.</td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-Clyde_Snow_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clyde_Snow-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Mildred_Trotter" title="Mildred Trotter">Mildred Trotter</a></td> <td>Created statistical formulas for the calculation of stature based on human long bones through the examination of Korean War casualties.</td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-Mildred_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mildred-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Kewal_Krishan_(forensic_anthropologist)" title="Kewal Krishan (forensic anthropologist)">Kewal Krishan</a></td> <td>Advancement of forensic anthropology in India.</td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-Krishan_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Krishan-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/William_M._Bass" title="William M. Bass">William M. Bass</a></td> <td>Created the first body farm to investigate decomposition in various conditions, such as partially buried, buried during particular times of the year, left out in the open for animal scavengers, and burning.</td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Kathy_Reichs" title="Kathy Reichs">Kathy Reichs</a> </td> <td>Forensic anthropologist and author. Created the fictional character <a href="/wiki/Temperance_%22Bones%22_Brennan" title="Temperance "Bones" Brennan">Dr. Temperance Brennan</a>, and the inspiration for the TV series <a href="/wiki/Bones_(TV_series)" title="Bones (TV series)"><i>Bones</i></a>. </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Forensic_anthropology&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Craniofacial_anthropometry" class="mw-redirect" title="Craniofacial anthropometry">Craniofacial anthropometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioarchaeology" title="Bioarchaeology">Bioarchaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_pathology" title="Forensic pathology">Forensic pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_dentistry" title="Forensic dentistry">Forensic dentistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_science" title="Forensic science">Forensic science</a>, also known as "forensics"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_facial_reconstruction" title="Forensic facial reconstruction">Forensic facial reconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_important_publications_in_anthropology" class="mw-redirect" title="List of important publications in anthropology">List of important publications in anthropology</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Forensic_anthropology&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Nawrocki_subfield-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nawrocki_subfield_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nawrocki_subfield_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFNawrocki2006" class="citation web cs1">Nawrocki, Stephen P. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 28,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Fundaci%C3%B3n+de+Antropolog%C3%ADa+Forense+de+Guatemala&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fafg.org%2Fen%2Faccountability-and-forensics-at-open-society-foundation-conference%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForensic+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Clyde_Snow-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Clyde_Snow_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcFadden2014" class="citation news cs1">McFadden, Robert (May 16, 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2014/05/17/us/clyde-snow-forensic-detective-who-found-clues-in-bones-dies-at-86.html?_r=0">"Clyde Snow, Sleuth Who Read Bones From King Tut's to Kennedy's, Dies at 86"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 28,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Clyde+Snow%2C+Sleuth+Who+Read+Bones+From+King+Tut%27s+to+Kennedy%27s%2C+Dies+at+86&rft.date=2014-05-16&rft.aulast=McFadden&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2014%2F05%2F17%2Fus%2Fclyde-snow-forensic-detective-who-found-clues-in-bones-dies-at-86.html%3F_r%3D0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForensic+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mildred-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mildred_86-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFByers2011" class="citation book cs1">Byers, Steven N. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vs9zCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT490"><i>Introduction to forensic anthropology</i></a> (4th ed.). Harlow: Pearson Education. p. 490. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0205790128" title="Special:BookSources/978-0205790128"><bdi>978-0205790128</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 September</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+forensic+anthropology&rft.place=Harlow&rft.pages=490&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Pearson+Education&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0205790128&rft.aulast=Byers&rft.aufirst=Steven+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dvs9zCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT490&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForensic+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Krishan-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Krishan_87-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hindustantimes.com/chandigarh/pu-prof-student-s-study-accepted-by-us-forensic-sciences-academy/story-iaOcWRYUMPRBMoMZVFDXjL.html">"PU Prof, student's study accepted by US forensic sciences academy"</a>. <i>Hindustan Times</i>. February 9, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 18,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hindustan+Times&rft.atitle=PU+Prof%2C+student%27s+study+accepted+by+US+forensic+sciences+academy&rft.date=2015-02-09&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hindustantimes.com%2Fchandigarh%2Fpu-prof-student-s-study-accepted-by-us-forensic-sciences-academy%2Fstory-iaOcWRYUMPRBMoMZVFDXjL.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForensic+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Buikstra et al. 2003</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Forensic_anthropology&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bournemouth.ac.uk/search/forensic%20Anthropology">University of Bournemouth</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110928145314/http://www.shc.ed.ac.uk/archaeology/postgraduate/msc_forensic_anth.htm/">University of Edinburgh</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dundee.ac.uk/undergraduate/courses/forensic_anthropology.htm/">University of Dundee</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111108235519/http://www.dundee.ac.uk/undergraduate/courses/forensic_anthropology.htm">Archived</a> 2011-11-08 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.theabfa.org/">American Board of Forensic Anthropology</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aafs.org/">American Academy of Forensic Sciences</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://physanth.org/">American Association of Physical Anthropologists</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://maples-center.ufl.edu/">Maples Center for Forensic Medicine at the University of Florida</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fafg.org/">Guatemalan Forensic Anthropology Foundation</a> <span class="languageicon">(in Spanish)</span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://forensicanth.com/">ForensicAnth.com – Forensic anthropological news stories from across the globe</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://whyfiles.org/192forensic_anthro/">The Why Files: Bodies and Bones</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110927094231/http://whyfiles.org/192forensic_anthro/">Archived</a> 2011-09-27 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.struers.com/repliset/">Struers replica technique for forensic investigation</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120116095124/http://www.forensicanthroforum.com/">The Forensic Anthropology Forum – forensic anthropology news and continuing education</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.itsgov.com/forensic-anthropology.html">Forensic Anthropology – Theoretical and Practical Information</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120220200842/http://www.appalachianbioanth.org/Camp_index.html">Forensic Anthropology Summer Camp – Experience</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140221145125/http://faculty.law.utah.edu/craigle/">Osteointeractive – Forensic Anthropology Blog</a></li></ul>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=desktop" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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