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id="toc-Education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Debates_in_Jewish_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Debates_in_Jewish_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Debates in Jewish law </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Debates_in_Jewish_law-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Debates in Jewish law subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Debates_in_Jewish_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Education_of_women" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Education_of_women"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Education of women </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Education_of_women-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Present_day" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Present_day"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Present day 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id="toc-Halakhic_advisor-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_Orthodox" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_Orthodox"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.3 Modern Orthodox </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_Orthodox-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Women's_prayer_groups" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Women's_prayer_groups"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.4 Women's prayer groups </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Women's_prayer_groups-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Women_as_witnesses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Women_as_witnesses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.5 Women as witnesses </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Women_as_witnesses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Orthodox_approaches_to_change" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Orthodox_approaches_to_change"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.6 Orthodox approaches to change </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Orthodox_approaches_to_change-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Agunot" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Agunot"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Agunot </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Agunot-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conservative_Judaism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conservative_Judaism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Conservative Judaism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conservative_Judaism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Changes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Changes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.1 Changes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Changes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conservative_approaches_to_change" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conservative_approaches_to_change"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.2 Conservative approaches to change </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conservative_approaches_to_change-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reform_Judaism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reform_Judaism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Reform Judaism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reform_Judaism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Reform_approaches_to_change" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reform_approaches_to_change"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4.1 Reform approaches to change </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reform_approaches_to_change-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reconstructionist_Judaism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reconstructionist_Judaism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Reconstructionist Judaism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reconstructionist_Judaism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jewish_Renewal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jewish_Renewal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6 Jewish Renewal </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jewish_Renewal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Humanistic_Judaism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Humanistic_Judaism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.7 Humanistic Judaism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Humanistic_Judaism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sofrot_(scribe)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sofrot_(scribe)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.8 Sofrot (scribe) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sofrot_(scribe)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Further reading </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Further reading subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Middle_Ages_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Middle_Ages_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Middle Ages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Middle_Ages_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Orthodox_Judaism_and_women" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Orthodox_Judaism_and_women"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Orthodox Judaism and women </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Orthodox_Judaism_and_women-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Women in Judaism</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 14 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-14" aria-hidden="true" > 14 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%A3%D8%A9_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%87%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="المرأة في اليهودية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="المرأة في اليهودية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%B9%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%BF_%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%87_%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%80" title="ইহুদি ধর্মে নারী – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ইহুদি ধর্মে নারী" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Die_Rolle_der_Frau_im_Judentum" title="Die Rolle der Frau im Judentum – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Die Rolle der Frau im Judentum" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D9%86_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%DB%8C%D9%87%D9%88%D8%AF%DB%8C%D8%AA" title="زن در یهودیت – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زن در یهودیت" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%82_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%82" title="यहूदी धर्म में महिलाएं – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="यहूदी धर्म में महिलाएं" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donne_nell%27ebraismo" title="Donne nell'ebraismo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Donne nell'ebraismo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%A2%D7%9E%D7%93_%D7%94%D7%90%D7%99%D7%A9%D7%94_%D7%91%D7%99%D7%94%D7%93%D7%95%D7%AA" title="מעמד האישה ביהדות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מעמד האישה ביהדות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8C%DB%81%D9%88%D8%AF%DB%8C%D8%AA_%D9%88%DA%86_%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%A7%DA%BA" title="یہودیت وچ سوانیاں – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="یہودیت وچ سوانیاں" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%9A%DA%81%DB%90_%D9%BE%D9%87_%D9%8A%D9%87%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%AA_%DA%A9%DB%90" title="ښځې په يهوديت کې – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="ښځې په يهوديت کې" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-skr mw-list-item"><a href="https://skr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8C%DB%81%D9%88%D8%AF%DB%8C%D8%AA_%D9%88%D9%90%DA%86_%D8%B2%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%A7%DA%BA" title="یہودیت وِچ زنانیاں – Saraiki" lang="skr" hreflang="skr" data-title="یہودیت وِچ زنانیاں" data-language-autonym="سرائیکی" data-language-local-name="Saraiki" class="interlanguage-link-target">سرائیکی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%A4_%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D" title="யூத சமயத்தில் பெண்கள் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="யூத சமயத்தில் பெண்கள்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahudilik%27te_kad%C4%B1n" title="Yahudilik'te kadın – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Yahudilik'te kadın" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B2_%D1%8E%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%97%D0%B7%D0%BC%D1%96" title="Жінки в юдаїзмі – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Жінки в юдаїзмі" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8C%DB%81%D9%88%D8%AF%DB%8C%D8%AA_%D9%85%DB%8C%DA%BA_%D8%AE%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C%D9%86" title="یہودیت میں خواتین – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="یہودیت میں خواتین" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q4220428#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Judaism" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Women_in_Judaism" 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searchaux" style="display:none">Role of women in Judaism</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about historical and modern views of Jewish females (<abbr title="also known as">a.k.a.</abbr> Jewesses). For the portrayal of Biblical womanhood, see <a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Bible" title="Women in the Bible">Women in the Bible</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Maternity_in_Judaism" class="mw-redirect" title="Maternity in Judaism">Maternity in Judaism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Matrilineality_in_Judaism" title="Matrilineality in Judaism">Matrilineality in Judaism</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Genetic_studies_of_Jews#Maternal_line" title="Genetic studies of Jews">Genetic studies of Jews § Maternal_line</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:For_alive_and_fallen_(The_Western_Wall).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Judaism" title="Outline of Judaism">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size:180%;"><a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a> and <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="font-weight:normal;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jew_(word)" title="Jew (word)">Etymology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Who_is_a_Jew%3F" title="Who is a Jew?">Who is a Jew?</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Religion</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Judaism" title="God in Judaism">God in Judaism</a> (<a href="/wiki/Names_of_God_in_Judaism" title="Names of God in Judaism">names</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_principles_of_faith" title="Jewish principles of faith">Principles of faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitzvah" title="Mitzvah">Mitzvot</a> (<a href="/wiki/613_commandments" title="613 commandments">613</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">Halakha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shabbat" title="Shabbat">Shabbat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_holidays" title="Jewish holidays">Holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_prayer" title="Jewish prayer">Prayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tzedakah" title="Tzedakah">Tzedakah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laws_and_customs_of_the_Land_of_Israel_in_Judaism" title="Laws and customs of the Land of Israel in Judaism">Land of Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brit_milah" title="Brit milah">Brit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bar_and_bat_mitzvah" title="Bar and bat mitzvah">Bar and bat mitzvah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_on_marriage" title="Jewish views on marriage">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bereavement_in_Judaism" title="Bereavement in Judaism">Bereavement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baal_teshuva_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Baal teshuva movement">Baal teshuva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethics" title="Jewish ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabbalah" title="Kabbalah">Kabbalah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minhag" title="Minhag">Customs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nusach_(Jewish_custom)" title="Nusach (Jewish custom)">Rites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synagogue" title="Synagogue">Synagogue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rabbi" title="Rabbi">Rabbi</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Sifrei_Kodesh" title="Sifrei Kodesh">Texts</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Tanakh</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nevi%27im" title="Nevi'im">Nevi'im</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketuvim" title="Ketuvim">Ketuvim</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud">Talmud</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mishnah" title="Mishnah">Mishnah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemara" title="Gemara">Gemara</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_literature" title="Rabbinic literature">Rabbinic</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Midrash" title="Midrash">Midrash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tosefta" title="Tosefta">Tosefta</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Targum" title="Targum">Targum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beit_Yosef_(book)" title="Beit Yosef (book)">Beit Yosef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mishneh_Torah" title="Mishneh Torah">Mishneh Torah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arba%27ah_Turim" title="Arba'ah Turim">Tur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shulchan_Aruch" title="Shulchan Aruch">Shulchan Aruch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zohar" title="Zohar">Zohar</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_history" title="Jewish history">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> General</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Jewish_history" title="Timeline of Jewish history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_of_Israel" title="Land of Israel">Land of Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_name_Judea" title="Timeline of the name Judea">Name "Judea"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_antisemitism" title="History of antisemitism">Antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Judaism" title="Anti-Judaism">Anti-Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jews" title="Persecution of Jews">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_leadership" title="Jewish leadership">Leaders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Jewish_historiography" title="Modern Jewish historiography">Modern historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Jewish_population" title="Historical Jewish population">Historical population comparisons</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Israel_and_Judah" title="History of ancient Israel and Judah">Ancient Israel</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twelve_Tribes_of_Israel" title="Twelve Tribes of Israel">Twelve Tribes of Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Judah" title="Kingdom of Judah">Kingdom of Judah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_(Samaria)" title="Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)">Kingdom of Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a> (<a href="/wiki/Jerusalem_in_Judaism" title="Jerusalem in Judaism">in Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Jerusalem" title="Timeline of Jerusalem">timeline</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_in_Jerusalem" title="Temple in Jerusalem">Temple in Jerusalem</a> (<a href="/wiki/Solomon%27s_Temple" title="Solomon's Temple">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Temple" title="Second Temple">Second</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_captivity" title="Assyrian captivity">Assyrian captivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_captivity" title="Babylonian captivity">Babylonian captivity</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Second_Temple_period" title="Second Temple period">Second Temple period</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yehud_Medinata" title="Yehud Medinata">Yehud Medinata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maccabean_Revolt" title="Maccabean Revolt">Maccabean Revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasmonean_dynasty" title="Hasmonean dynasty">Hasmonean dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanhedrin" title="Sanhedrin">Sanhedrin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_schisms" title="Jewish schisms">Schisms</a> (<a href="/wiki/Pharisees" title="Pharisees">Pharisees</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sadducees" title="Sadducees">Sadducees</a>, <a href="/wiki/Essenes" title="Essenes">Essenes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zealots" title="Zealots">Zealots</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sicarii" title="Sicarii">Sicarii</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Temple_Judaism" title="Second Temple Judaism">Second Temple Judaism</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Judaism" title="Hellenistic Judaism">Hellenistic Judaism</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish%E2%80%93Roman_wars" title="Jewish–Roman wars">Jewish–Roman wars</a> (<a href="/wiki/First_Jewish-Roman_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First Jewish-Roman War">Great Revolt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diaspora_revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Diaspora revolt">Diaspora</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bar_Kokhba_revolt" title="Bar Kokhba revolt">Bar Kokhba</a>)</li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_period" title="Rabbinic period">Rabbinic period</a> and Middle Ages</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_Judaism" title="Rabbinic Judaism">Rabbinic Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire">History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_Judaism" title="Christianity and Judaism">Christianity and Judaism</a> (<a href="/wiki/Jews_and_Christmas" title="Jews and Christmas">Jews and Christmas</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_and_Judaism" title="Hinduism and Judaism">Hinduism and Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic%E2%80%93Jewish_relations" title="Islamic–Jewish relations">Islamic–Jewish relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_European_Jews_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="History of European Jews in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_age_of_Jewish_culture_in_Spain" title="Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain">Golden Age</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Modern era</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabbateans" title="Sabbateans">Sabbateans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_atheism" title="Jewish atheism">Jewish atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_emancipation" title="Jewish emancipation">Emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Yishuv" title="Old Yishuv">Old Yishuv</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Zionism" title="History of Zionism">Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="History of the Jews in the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">The Holocaust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Israel" title="History of Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_conflict" title="Arab–Israeli conflict">Arab–Israeli conflict</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethnic_divisions" title="Jewish ethnic divisions">Communities</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews" title="Ashkenazi Jews">Ashkenazim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galician_Jews" title="Galician Jews">Galician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Litvaks" title="Litvaks">Litvak</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Jews" title="Mizrahi Jews">Mizrahim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardic_Jews" title="Sephardic Jews">Sephardim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Jews" title="Yemenite Jews">Teimanim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta_Israel" title="Beta Israel">Beta Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_Jews" title="Georgian Jews">Gruzinim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mountain_Jews" title="Mountain Jews">Juhurim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukharan_Jews" title="Bukharan Jews">Bukharim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Jews" title="Italian Jews">Italkim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romaniote_Jews" title="Romaniote Jews">Romanyotim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cochin_Jews" title="Cochin Jews">Cochinim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bene_Israel" title="Bene Israel">Bene Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berber_Jews" title="Berber Jews">Berber</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Related groups</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sephardic_Bnei_Anusim" title="Sephardic Bnei Anusim">Bnei Anusim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lemba_people" title="Lemba people">Lemba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Karaites" title="Crimean Karaites">Crimean Karaites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krymchaks" title="Krymchaks">Krymchaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaifeng_Jews" title="Kaifeng Jews">Kaifeng Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igbo_Jews" title="Igbo Jews">Igbo Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritans" title="Samaritans">Samaritans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crypto-Judaism" title="Crypto-Judaism">Crypto-Jews</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anusim" title="Anusim">Anusim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%B6nmeh" title="Dönmeh">Dönmeh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marrano" title="Marrano">Marranos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neofiti" title="Neofiti">Neofiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xueta" title="Xueta">Xueta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_tribes_of_Arabia" title="Jewish tribes of Arabia">Mosaic Arabs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subbotniks" title="Subbotniks">Subbotniks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noahidism" title="Noahidism">Noahides</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_population_by_country" title="Jewish population by country">Population</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judaism_by_country" title="Judaism by country">Judaism by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_Jews" title="Lists of Jews">Lists of Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_diaspora" title="Jewish diaspora">Diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Jewish_population_by_country" title="Historical Jewish population by country">Historical population by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_studies_of_Jews" title="Genetic studies of Jews">Genetic studies</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_and_Judaism_in_the_Land_of_Israel" title="History of the Jews and Judaism in the Land of Israel">Land of Israel</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Yishuv" title="Old Yishuv">Old Yishuv</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yishuv" title="Yishuv">New Yishuv</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_Jews" title="Israeli Jews">Israeli Jews</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Africa" title="History of the Jews in Africa">Africa</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Algeria" title="History of the Jews in Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Angola" title="History of the Jews in Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_of_Bilad_el-Sudan" title="Jews of Bilad el-Sudan">Bilad-el-Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Botswana" title="History of the Jews in Botswana">Botswana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Cameroon" title="History of the Jews in Cameroon">Cameroon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Cape_Verde" title="History of the Jews in Cape Verde">Cape Verde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Benin" title="History of the Jews in Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="History of the Jews in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Djibouti" title="History of the Jews in Djibouti">Djibouti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Egypt" title="History of the Jews in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Ethiopia" title="History of the Jews in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Eritrea" title="History of the Jews in Eritrea">Eritrea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Eswatini" title="History of the Jews in Eswatini">Eswatini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Gabon" title="History of the Jews in Gabon">Gabon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Gambia" title="History of the Jews in the Gambia">Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Ghana" title="History of the Jews in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Guinea" title="History of the Jews in Guinea">Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Guinea-Bissau" title="History of the Jews in Guinea-Bissau">Guinea-Bissau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Ivory_Coast" title="History of the Jews in Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kenya" title="History of the Jews in Kenya">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Libya" title="History of the Jews in Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_Madagascar" class="mw-redirect" title="Jews in Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Malawi" title="History of the Jews in Malawi">Malawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Mali" title="History of the Jews in Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Mauritius" title="History of the Jews in Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Moroccan_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Moroccan Jews">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Mozambique" title="History of the Jews in Mozambique">Mozambique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Namibia" title="History of the Jews in Namibia">Namibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Nigeria" title="History of the Jews in Nigeria">Nigeria</a> (<a href="/wiki/Igbo_Jews" title="Igbo Jews">Igbo</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="History of the Jews in the Republic of the Congo">Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe" title="History of the Jews in São Tomé and Príncipe">São Tomé and Príncipe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Sierra_Leone" title="History of the Jews in Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jews_in_Somalia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Jews in Somalia">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_South_Africa" title="History of the Jews in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Sudan" title="History of the Jews in Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Tanzania" title="History of the Jews in Tanzania">Tanzania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Tunisia" title="History of the Jews in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Uganda" title="History of the Jews in Uganda">Uganda</a> (<a href="/wiki/Abayudaya" title="Abayudaya">Abayudaya</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Zambia" title="History of the Jews in Zambia">Zambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Zimbabwe" title="History of the Jews in Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Asia</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Afghanistan" title="History of the Jews in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Bahrain" title="History of the Jews in Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Cambodia" title="History of the Jews in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_China" title="History of the Jews in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_Hong_Kong" class="mw-redirect" title="Jews in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_India" title="History of the Jews in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Indonesia" title="History of the Jews in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Iran" title="History of the Jews in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Iraq" title="History of the Jews in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_and_Judaism_in_the_Land_of_Israel" title="History of the Jews and Judaism in the Land of Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Japan" title="History of the Jews in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Jordan" title="History of the Jews in Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kazakhstan" title="History of the Jews in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kurdistan" title="History of the Jews in Kurdistan">Kurdistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kuwait" title="History of the Jews in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kyrgyzstan" title="History of the Jews in Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Lebanon" title="History of the Jews in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Malaysia" title="History of the Jews in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Mongolia" title="History of the Jews in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Myanmar" title="History of the Jews in Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism_in_Nepal" title="Judaism in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Oman" title="History of the Jews in Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Pakistan" title="History of the Jews in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Philippines" title="History of the Jews in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Qatar" title="History of the Jews in Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="History of the Jews in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_South_Korea" title="History of the Jews in South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Singapore" title="History of the Jews in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Sri_Lanka" title="History of the Jews in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Syria" title="History of the Jews in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Tajikistan" title="History of the Jews in Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_Taiwan" class="mw-redirect" title="Jews in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Thailand" title="History of the Jews in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Turkey" title="History of the Jews in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" title="History of the Jews in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Uzbekistan" title="History of the Jews in Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Vietnam" title="History of the Jews in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Jews" title="Yemenite Jews">Yemen</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Europe" title="History of the Jews in Europe">Europe</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Armenia" title="History of the Jews in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Austria" title="History of the Jews in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Azerbaijan" title="History of the Jews in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Belarus" title="History of the Jews in Belarus">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Bulgaria" title="History of the Jews in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Cyprus" title="History of the Jews in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Czech_lands" title="History of the Jews in the Czech lands">Czechia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Denmark" title="History of the Jews in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Estonia" title="History of the Jews in Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Finland" title="History of the Jews in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_France" title="History of the Jews in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_Jews" title="Georgian Jews">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Germany" title="History of the Jews in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Greece" title="History of the Jews in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Hungary" title="History of the Jews in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Italy" title="History of the Jews in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Latvia" title="History of the Jews in Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Lithuania" title="History of the Jews in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Moldova" title="History of the Jews in Moldova">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Netherlands" title="History of the Jews in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Norway" title="History of the Jews in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Poland" title="History of the Jews in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Portugal" title="History of the Jews in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Romania" title="History of the Jews in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Russia" title="History of the Jews in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Serbia" title="History of the Jews in Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Spain" title="History of the Jews in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Sweden" title="History of the Jews in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Ukraine" title="History of the Jews in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of the Jews in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Northern America</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Canada" title="History of the Jews in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States" title="History of the Jews in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_Greenland" title="Jews in Greenland">Greenland</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Latin_America_and_the_Caribbean" title="History of the Jews in Latin America and the Caribbean">Latin America and Caribbean</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Argentina" title="History of the Jews in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Bolivia" title="History of the Jews in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Brazil" title="History of the Jews in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Chile" title="History of the Jews in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Colombia" title="History of the Jews in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Cuba" title="History of the Jews in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="History of the Jews in the Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Ecuador" title="History of the Jews in Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_El_Salvador" title="History of the Jews in El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Guyana" title="History of the Jews in Guyana">Guyana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Haiti" title="History of the Jews in Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Jamaica" title="History of the Jews in Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Mexico" title="History of the Jews in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Paraguay" title="History of the Jews in Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Peru" title="History of the Jews in Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Puerto_Rico" title="History of the Jews in Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Suriname" title="History of the Jews in Suriname">Suriname</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Uruguay" title="History of the Jews in Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Venezuela" title="History of the Jews in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Oceania" title="History of the Jews in Oceania">Oceania</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Australia" title="History of the Jews in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Fiji" title="History of the Jews in Fiji">Fiji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Guam" title="History of the Jews in Guam">Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_New_Zealand" title="History of the Jews in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Palau" title="History of the Jews in Palau">Palau</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_religious_movements" title="Jewish religious movements">Denominations</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Judaism" title="Orthodox Judaism">Orthodox</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Orthodox_Judaism" title="Modern Orthodox Judaism">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haredi_Judaism" title="Haredi Judaism">Haredi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reform_Judaism" title="Reform Judaism">Reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Judaism" title="Conservative Judaism">Conservative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karaite_Judaism" title="Karaite Judaism">Karaite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstructionist_Judaism" title="Reconstructionist Judaism">Reconstructionist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Renewal" title="Jewish Renewal">Renewal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Science" title="Jewish Science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haymanot" title="Haymanot">Haymanot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_Judaism" title="Humanistic Judaism">Humanistic</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">Culture</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Customs</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Minyan" title="Minyan">Minyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_wedding" title="Jewish wedding">Wedding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_religious_clothing" title="Jewish religious clothing">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niddah" title="Niddah">Niddah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pidyon_haben" title="Pidyon haben">Pidyon haben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashrut" title="Kashrut">Kashrut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shidduch" title="Shidduch">Shidduch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeved_habat" title="Zeved habat">Zeved habat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversion_to_Judaism" title="Conversion to Judaism">Conversion to Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aliyah" title="Aliyah">Aliyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiloni" title="Hiloni">Hiloni</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Jewish_music" title="Jewish music">Music</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_Jewish_music" title="Religious Jewish music">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_Jewish_music" title="Secular Jewish music">Secular</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Jewish_art" title="Jewish art">Art</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Jewish_art" title="Ancient Jewish art">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_theatre" title="Yiddish theatre">Yiddish theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_dance" title="Jewish dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_humor" title="Jewish humor">Humour</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Jewish_cuisine" title="Jewish cuisine">Cuisine</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Jewish_cuisine" title="American Jewish cuisine">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_cuisine#Ashkenazi" title="Jewish cuisine">Ashkenazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukharan_Jewish_cuisine" title="Bukharan Jewish cuisine">Bukharan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Jewish_cuisine" title="Ethiopian Jewish cuisine">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_cuisine" title="Israeli cuisine">Israeli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Israelite_cuisine" title="Ancient Israelite cuisine">Israelite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Jewish_cuisine" title="Mizrahi Jewish cuisine">Mizrahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardic_Jewish_cuisine" title="Sephardic Jewish cuisine">Sephardic</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Jewish_literature" title="Jewish literature">Literature</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_literature" title="Israeli literature">Israeli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_literature" title="Yiddish literature">Yiddish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_American_literature" title="Jewish American literature">American</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_languages" title="Jewish languages">Languages</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeshivish" title="Yeshivish">Yeshivish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Koine_Greek" title="Jewish Koine Greek">Jewish Koine Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yevanic_language" title="Yevanic language">Yevanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tat" title="Judeo-Tat">Judeo-Tat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_Sign_Language" title="Israeli Sign Language">Shassi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iranian_languages" title="Judeo-Iranian languages">Judaeo-Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Spanish" title="Judaeo-Spanish">Judaeo-Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Gascon" title="Judeo-Gascon">Judeo-Gascon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Jewish_Sign_Language" title="Algerian Jewish Sign Language">Ghardaïa Sign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukharian_(Judeo-Tajik_dialect)" title="Bukharian (Judeo-Tajik dialect)">Bukharian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knaanic_language" title="Knaanic language">Knaanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zarphatic_language" title="Zarphatic language">Zarphatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Italian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Italian languages">Judeo-Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Georgian" title="Judaeo-Georgian">Judaeo-Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Aramaic_languages" title="Judeo-Aramaic languages">Judeo-Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Arabic_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Arabic dialects">Judeo-Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Berber_language" title="Judeo-Berber language">Judeo-Berber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Malayalam" title="Judeo-Malayalam">Judeo-Malayalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domari_language" title="Domari language">Domari</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Judaism_and_politics" title="Judaism and politics">Politics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Jewish_political_movements" title="Jewish political movements">Jewish political movements</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Autonomism" title="Jewish Autonomism">Autonomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bundism" title="Bundism">Bundism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_feminism" title="Jewish feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_left" title="Jewish left">Leftism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_secularism" title="Jewish secularism">Secularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Territorial_Organization" title="Jewish Territorial Organization">Territorialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Agudath_Israel" title="World Agudath Israel">World Agudath Israel</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_Zionists" title="General Zionists">General</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Zionism" title="Green Zionism">Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_Zionism" title="Labor Zionism">Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kahanism" title="Kahanism">Kahanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revisionist_Maximalism" title="Revisionist Maximalism">Maximalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Zionism" title="Neo-Zionism">Neo-Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_Zionism" title="Religious Zionism">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revisionist_Zionism" title="Revisionist Zionism">Revisionist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Zionism" title="Post-Zionism">Post-Zionism</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Jews_and_Judaism" title="Category:Jews and Judaism">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Judaism" title="Portal:Judaism">Portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle">Women in society</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Venus_symbol_(heavy_pink).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Venus symbol"><img alt="Venus symbol" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Venus_symbol_%28heavy_pink%29.svg/80px-Venus_symbol_%28heavy_pink%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Venus_symbol_%28heavy_pink%29.svg/120px-Venus_symbol_%28heavy_pink%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Venus_symbol_%28heavy_pink%29.svg/160px-Venus_symbol_%28heavy_pink%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="16" data-file-height="16" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#e4daed;padding:0.15em 0 0 0.4em;text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Society</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_history" title="Women's history">Women's history</a> (<a href="/wiki/Legal_rights_of_women_in_history" title="Legal rights of women in history">legal rights</a>)</li></ul> <dl><dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Woman" title="Woman">Woman</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_and_animal_advocacy" title="Women and animal advocacy">Animal advocacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_business" title="Women in business">Business</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Female_entrepreneurs" title="Female entrepreneurs">Female entrepreneurs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_representation_on_corporate_boards_of_directors" title="Gender representation on corporate boards of directors">Gender representation on corporate boards of directors</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diversity_(politics)" title="Diversity (politics)">Diversity (politics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diversity,_equity,_and_inclusion" title="Diversity, equity, and inclusion">Diversity, equity, and inclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_development" title="Women in development">Economic development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_women_explorers_and_travelers" title="List of women explorers and travelers">Explorers and travelers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_education" title="Female education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">Feminism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Womyn" class="mw-redirect" title="Womyn">Womyn</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_government" title="Women in government">Government</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Women in conservatism in the United States">Conservatives in the US</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_elected_and_appointed_female_heads_of_state_and_government" title="List of elected and appointed female heads of state and government">Heads of state or government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_legislatures_by_female_members" title="List of legislatures by female members">Legislators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_regnant" title="Queen regnant">Queen regnant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_women_monarchs" class="mw-redirect" title="List of women monarchs">List</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_health" title="Women's health">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_journalism" title="Women in journalism">Journalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_law" title="Women in law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_law_enforcement" title="Women in law enforcement">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_military" title="Women in the military">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mother" title="Mother">Mother</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_female_Nobel_laureates" title="List of female Nobel laureates">Nobel Prize laureates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_piracy" title="Women in piracy">Piracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_positions_of_power" title="Women in positions of power">Positions of power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_rights" title="Reproductive rights">Reproductive rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_venture_capital" title="Women in venture capital">Venture capital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_women" title="Violence against women">Violence and abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage" title="Women's suffrage">Voting rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_workforce" title="Women in the workforce">Workforce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exchange_of_women" title="Exchange of women">Exchange of women</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#e4daed;padding:0.15em 0 0 0.4em;text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_science" title="Women in science">Science</a></li><li>Technology</li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_computing" title="Women in computing">Computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_engineering" title="Women in engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_geology" title="Women in geology">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_medicine" title="Women in medicine">Medicine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_dentistry" title="Women in dentistry">dentistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_dentistry_in_the_United_States" title="Women in dentistry in the United States">in the United States</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_organizations_for_women_in_science" title="List of organizations for women in science">Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_science" title="Women in science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_STEM_fields" title="Women in STEM fields">Science, technology, engineering and mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_space" title="Women in space">Space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_telegraphy" title="Women in telegraphy">Telegraphy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#e4daed;padding:0.15em 0 0 0.4em;text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_artists" title="Women artists">Arts</a></li><li>Humanities</li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_architecture" title="Women in architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_artists" title="Women artists">Arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_art_history_field" title="Women in the art history field">Art history field</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_cinema" title="Women's cinema">Women's cinema</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_dance" title="Women in dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_film" title="Women in film">Film</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chick_flick" title="Chick flick">"Chick flicks"</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_artists" title="Women artists">Fine arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_writing_(literary_category)" title="Women's writing (literary category)">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_speculative_fiction" title="Women in speculative fiction">Science fiction</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_philosophy" title="Women in philosophy">Philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Feminist philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_photographers" title="Women photographers">Photographers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_music" title="Women in music">Music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_jazz" title="Women in jazz">Jazz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_punk_rock" title="Women in punk rock">Punk rock</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Shakespeare%27s_works" title="Women in Shakespeare's works">In Shakespeare's works</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#e4daed;padding:0.15em 0 0 0.4em;text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_and_religion" title="Women and religion">Religion</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_as_theological_figures" title="Women as theological figures">Theological figures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith_and_gender_equality" title="Baháʼí Faith and gender equality">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Bible" title="Women in the Bible">Bible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Buddhism" title="Women in Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Christianity" title="Women in Christianity">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Women in the Catholic Church">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mormonism_and_women" title="Mormonism and women">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Opus_Dei" title="Women in Opus Dei">Opus Dei</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Hinduism" title="Women in Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Islam" title="Women in Islam">Islam</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Sikhism" title="Women in Sikhism">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Taoism" title="Women in Taoism">Taoism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#e4daed;padding:0.15em 0 0 0.4em;text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Popular culture</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Female_comics_creators" title="Female comics creators">Comics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Portrayal_of_women_in_American_comics" title="Portrayal of women in American comics">Portrayal in American comics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_film" title="Women in film">Film industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_music" title="Women in music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_piracy#Pirate_women_in_fiction" title="Women in piracy">Fictional pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_speculative_fiction" title="Women in speculative fiction">Speculative fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_and_video_games" title="Women and video games">Video games</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gender_representation_in_video_games" title="Gender representation in video games">Gender representation in video games</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#e4daed;padding:0.15em 0 0 0.4em;text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_sports" title="Women's sports">Sports</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auto_racing" title="Auto racing">Auto racing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_baseball" title="Women in baseball">Baseball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_basketball" title="Women's basketball">Basketball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_boxing" title="Women's boxing">Boxing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_cricket" title="Women's cricket">Cricket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curling" title="Curling">Curling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cycle_sport" title="Cycle sport">Cycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fastpitch_softball" title="Fastpitch softball">Fastpitch softball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_association_football" title="Women's association football">Football / soccer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_major_golf_championships" title="Women's major golf championships">Golf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gymnastics" title="Gymnastics">Gymnastics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_hockey" title="Ice hockey">Ice hockey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_lacrosse" title="Women's lacrosse">Lacrosse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_mixed_martial_arts" title="Women's mixed martial arts">Mixed martial arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Netball" title="Netball">Netball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paralympic_Games" title="Paralympic Games">Paralympic Games</a></li> <li>Rodeo</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roller_derby" title="Roller derby">Roller derby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_rowing" class="mw-redirect" title="Women's rowing">Rowing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_surfing" title="Women's surfing">Surfing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swimming_(sport)" title="Swimming (sport)">Swimming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_tennis" title="Women's tennis">Tennis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Track_and_field" title="Track and field">Track and field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volleyball" title="Volleyball">Volleyball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winter_sports" title="Winter sports">Winter sports</a> </li></ul> See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_sports" title="List of sports">List of sports</a></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#e4daed;padding:0.15em 0 0 0.4em;text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Category:Women_by_country" title="Category:Women by country">By country</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Afghanistan" title="Women in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Albania" title="Women in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Algeria" title="Women in Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Andorra" title="Women in Andorra">Andorra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Angola" title="Women in Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Argentina" title="Women in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Armenia" title="Women in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Australia" title="Women in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Azerbaijan" title="Women in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Bahrain" title="Women in Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Bangladesh" title="Women in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Belgium" title="Women in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Benin" title="Women in Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Bhutan" title="Women in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Bolivia" class="mw-redirect" title="Women in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Women in Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Brazil" class="mw-redirect" title="Women in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Brunei" title="Women in Brunei">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Bulgaria" title="Women in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Cambodia" title="Women in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Chad" title="Women in Chad">Chad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Chile" title="Women in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_China" title="Women in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Colombia" title="Women in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Comoros" title="Women in the Comoros">Comoros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Croatia" title="Women in Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Cuba" title="Women in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Cyprus" title="Women in Cyprus">Cyprus</a> (<a href="/wiki/Women_in_Northern_Cyprus" title="Women in Northern Cyprus">North</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Denmark" title="Women in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Women in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">DR Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Women in the Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Ecuador" title="Women in Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Egypt" title="Women in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_El_Salvador" class="mw-redirect" title="Women in El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_East_Timor" title="Women in East Timor">East Timor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Ethiopia" title="Women in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Federated_States_of_Micronesia" title="Women in the Federated States of Micronesia">FS Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Fiji" title="Women in Fiji">Fiji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Finland" title="Women in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_France" title="Women in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Georgia_(country)" title="Women in Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Germany" title="Women in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Ghana" title="Women in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Greece" title="Women in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Guatemala" class="mw-redirect" title="Women in Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Guyana" title="Women in Guyana">Guyana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Haiti" title="Women in Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Honduras" class="mw-redirect" title="Women in Honduras">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Iceland" title="Women in Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Italy" title="Women in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_India" title="Women in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Indonesia" title="Women in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Iran" title="Women in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Iraq" title="Women in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Israel" title="Women in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Ivory_Coast" title="Women in Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Japan" title="Women in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Jordan" title="Women in Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Kazakhstan" title="Women in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Kenya" title="Women in Kenya">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Kiribati" title="Women in Kiribati">Kiribati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Kuwait" title="Women in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Kyrgyzstan" title="Women in Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Laos" title="Women in Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Lebanon" title="Women in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Libya" title="Women in Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Madagascar" title="Women in Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Malaysia" title="Women in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Maldives" title="Women in the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Mali" title="Women in Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Marshall_Islands" title="Women in the Marshall Islands">Marshall Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Mauritania" title="Women in Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Mauritius" title="Women in Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Mexico" title="Women in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Mongolia" title="Women in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Morocco" title="Women in Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Myanmar" title="Women in Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Nepal" title="Women in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_New_Zealand" title="Women in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Niger" title="Women in Niger">Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Nigeria" title="Women in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_North_Korea" title="Women in North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Oman" title="Women in Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Pakistan" title="Women in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Palau" title="Women in Palau">Palau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Panama" title="Women in Panama">Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Paraguay" title="Women in Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Peru" title="Women in Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Philippines" title="Women in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Poland" title="Women in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Portugal" title="Women in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Puerto_Rico" class="mw-redirect" title="Women in Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Qatar" title="Women in Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Russia" title="Women in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Saudi_Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="Women in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Senegal" title="Women in Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Seychelles" title="Women in Seychelles">Seychelles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Sierra_Leone" title="Women in Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Singapore" title="Women in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Spain" title="Women in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Somalia" title="Women in Somalia">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_South_Africa" title="Women in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_South_Korea" title="Women in South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_South_Sudan" title="Women in South Sudan">South Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Sudan" title="Women in Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Suriname" title="Women in Suriname">Suriname</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Women in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Sweden" title="Women in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Syria" title="Women in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Taiwan" title="Women in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Tajikistan" title="Women in Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Thailand" title="Women in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Tonga" title="Women in Tonga">Tonga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Tunisia" title="Women in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Turkey" title="Women in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Turkmenistan" title="Women in Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Tuvalu" title="Women in Tuvalu">Tuvalu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Trinidad_and_Tobago" title="Women in Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Uganda" title="Women in Uganda">Uganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Ukraine" title="Women in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" title="Women in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_women_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of women in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_United_States" title="Women in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Uruguay" title="Women in Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Uzbekistan" title="Women in Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Vanuatu" title="Women in Vanuatu">Vanuatu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Vatican_City" title="Women in Vatican City">Vatican City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Venezuela" title="Women in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Vietnam" title="Women in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Yemen" title="Women in Yemen">Yemen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_women" title="Kurdish women">Kurdistan</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Women_in_society_sidebar" title="Template:Women in society sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Women_in_society_sidebar" title="Template talk:Women in society sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Women_in_society_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Women in society sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Women in Judaism have affected the course of <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a> over millennia. Their role is reflected in the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Hebrew Bible</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Oral_Torah" title="Oral Torah">Oral Law</a> (the corpus of rabbinic literature), by <a href="/wiki/Minhag" title="Minhag">custom</a>, and by cultural factors. Although the Hebrew Bible and rabbinic literature present various female role models, religious law treats women in specific ways. According to a 2017 study by the <a href="/wiki/Pew_Research_Center" title="Pew Research Center">Pew Research Center</a>, women account for 52% of the worldwide Jewish population.<a href="#cite_note-Pew-1">[1]</a> <a href="/wiki/Gender" title="Gender">Gender</a> has a bearing on familial lines: in traditional <a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_Judaism" title="Rabbinic Judaism">Rabbinic Judaism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Who_is_a_Jew%3F" title="Who is a Jew?">Jewish</a> affiliation is passed down <a href="/wiki/Matrilineal" class="mw-redirect" title="Matrilineal">through the mother</a>, although the father's name is used to describe sons and daughters in the <a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a><a href="#cite_note-bowker-2">[2]</a> and in traditional <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_names" class="mw-redirect" title="Hebrew names">Hebrew names</a>, e. g., "Dinah, daughter of Jacob". A growing movement advocates for increased inclusion of women in positions such as rabbis, cantors, and communal leaders.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> This challenges historic practices. Perspectives on women's roles evolved over time due to discussion and reinterpretation of religious texts.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> <a href="/wiki/Levite" title="Levite">Levi</a> status (patrilineal descent from the tribe of <a href="/wiki/Levi" title="Levi">Levi</a>) is given only to a Jewish male descended <a href="/wiki/Patrilineality" title="Patrilineality">patrilineally</a> from Levi;<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> likewise a Kohen descends from <a href="/wiki/Aaron" title="Aaron">Aharon</a>, the first Kohen. <a href="/wiki/Bat-Kohen" title="Bat-Kohen">Bat-Kohens</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bat-Levi" class="mw-redirect" title="Bat-Levi">Bat-Levis</a> inherit that status from their Jewish father with the corresponding title HaKohen/HaLevi. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biblical_times">Biblical times</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_Judaism&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Biblical times">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Bible" title="Women in the Bible">Women in the Bible</a></div> Compared to men, relatively few women are mentioned in the Bible by name and role. Those mentioned include the <a href="/wiki/Matriarchs_(Bible)" class="mw-redirect" title="Matriarchs (Bible)">Matriarchs</a> <a href="/wiki/Sarah" title="Sarah">Sarah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rebecca" title="Rebecca">Rebecca</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rachel" title="Rachel">Rachel</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Leah" title="Leah">Leah</a>; <a href="/wiki/Miriam" title="Miriam">Miriam</a> the prophetess; <a href="/wiki/Rahab" title="Rahab">Rahab</a> who assisted Joshua; Achsah, daughter of Caleb; Deborah the Judge; <a href="/wiki/Naomi_(biblical_figure)" title="Naomi (biblical figure)">Naomi</a>; <a href="/wiki/Ruth_(biblical_figure)" title="Ruth (biblical figure)">Ruth</a> great-grandmother of King David <a href="/wiki/Huldah" title="Huldah">Huldah</a> the prophetess; <a href="/wiki/Abigail" title="Abigail">Abigail</a> (who married <a href="/wiki/David" title="David">David</a>); <a href="/wiki/Rahab" title="Rahab">Rahab</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Persian_Jewish" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian Jewish">Persian Jewish</a> queen <a href="/wiki/Esther" title="Esther">Esther</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ruth_(biblical_figure)" title="Ruth (biblical figure)">Ruth</a> and <a href="/wiki/Esther" title="Esther">Esther</a> are the only women with books that bear their name. Women are portrayed subverting male-dominated power structures.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> Many Jewish women are considered foundational by feminists because they provide insights into life during those times. They are notable for breaking the male dominance of historical documentation. This is notable given the poor documentation of most women's lives at the time.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] According to Jewish tradition, a covenant was formed between the <a href="/wiki/Israelites" title="Israelites">Israelites</a> and the God of <a href="/wiki/Abraham" title="Abraham">Abraham</a> at <a href="/wiki/Mount_Sinai" title="Mount Sinai">Mount Sinai</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Torah_study" title="Torah study">Torah</a> relates that Israelite men and women were present at Sinai; however, the covenant bound men to act upon its requirements and to ensure that household members (wives, children, and slaves) also met these requirements. In this sense, the covenant bound women, though indirectly.<a href="#cite_note-HauptmanEtz-8">[8]</a> Marriage and family law in biblical times gave men powers that it did not give to women. For example, a husband could choose to divorce a wife, but a wife could not divorce a husband without his consent. The practice of <a href="/wiki/Levirate_marriage" title="Levirate marriage">levirate marriage</a> applied to widows of childless husbands, but not to widowers of childless wives; though, if either did not consent to the marriage, a ceremony called <a href="/wiki/Chalitza" class="mw-redirect" title="Chalitza">chalitza</a> was done instead. The widow removes her brother-in-law's shoe, spits in front of him, and proclaims, "This is what happens to someone who will not build his brother's house!" Laws concerning the loss of female virginity have no male equivalent. Many of these laws, such as <a href="/wiki/Levirate_marriage" title="Levirate marriage">levirate marriage</a>, are no longer practiced (<a href="/wiki/Halizah" title="Halizah">chalitzah</a> is practiced instead of levirate marriage). These and other gender differences found in the Torah suggest that biblical society viewed continuity, property, and family unity as paramount; however, they also suggest that women were to be subordinate to men.<a href="#cite_note-HauptmanEtz-8">[8]</a> Men were required to perform specific duties for their wives, but these often reinforced gendered roles. These included the provision of clothing, food, and sexual service to their wives.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> Women participated in ritual life. Women were required to make pilgrimage to the <a href="/wiki/Temple_in_Jerusalem" title="Temple in Jerusalem">Temple in Jerusalem</a> once a year (men should on each of the three main festivals if possible) and offer the <a href="/wiki/Passover" title="Passover">Passover</a> <a href="/wiki/Korban" title="Korban">sacrifice</a>. They would also do so on special occasions in their lives such as giving a todah ("thanksgiving") offering after childbirth. Hence, they participated in many of the major public religious roles that non-<a href="/wiki/Levite" title="Levite">Levitical</a> men could, albeit less often and on a somewhat smaller and more discreet scale. According to Jewish tradition, <a href="/wiki/Michal" title="Michal">Michal</a>, the daughter of <a href="/wiki/Saul" title="Saul">Saul</a> and <a href="/wiki/David" title="David">David</a>'s first wife, accepted the commandments of <a href="/wiki/Tefillin" title="Tefillin">tefillin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tzitzit" title="Tzitzit">tzitzit</a>. However, these requirements applied only to men.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> Many of the mitzvot applied to both men and women; however, women were usually exempt from requirements to perform a duty at a specific time, as opposed to doing so at a convenient time or requirements to abstain from an act).<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> Two prominent theories attempt to explain this: pragmatism (because women's duties consume their time) and spirituality (because "women have superior inherent spiritual wisdom", known as <a href="/wiki/Binah_(Kabbalah)" title="Binah (Kabbalah)">bina</a>, that makes them less dependent than men on religious practices to retain a strong spiritual connection to God).<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> Women depended on men economically. Women generally did not own property except in the rare case of inheriting land from a father who did not bear sons. Even in such cases, "women would be required to remarry within the tribe so as not to reduce its land holdings".<a href="#cite_note-HauptmanEtz-8">[8]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Talmudic_times">Talmudic times</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_Judaism&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Talmudic times">edit</a>]</div> Women were required by <a href="/wiki/Halacha" class="mw-redirect" title="Halacha">halacha</a> to carry out all negative <a href="/wiki/Mitzvot" class="mw-redirect" title="Mitzvot">mitzvot</a> (i. e., commandments that prohibit activities such as "<a href="/wiki/Thou_shalt_not_commit_adultery" title="Thou shalt not commit adultery">Thou shalt not commit adultery</a>"), but were excused from doing most time-bound, positive mitzvot (i. e., commandments that prescribe ritual action that must be done at certain times such as hearing a <a href="/wiki/Shofar" title="Shofar">shofar</a> on <a href="/wiki/Rosh_Hashanah" title="Rosh Hashanah">Rosh Hashanah</a>). A woman was not, however, prohibited from doing a mitzvah from which she was excused.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> Halacha also provided women with some material and emotional protections related to marriage, and divorce that most non-Jewish women did not enjoy during the first millennium of the <a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">Common Era</a>.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> Penal and civil law treated men and women equally.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> Evidence suggests that, at least among the elite, women were educated in the Bible and in halacha. The daughter of a scholar was considered a good prospect for marriage in part because of her education. Stories in the Talmud present women whose husbands died or were exiled and yet were able to educate their children because of their own education.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> Classical Jewish <a href="/wiki/Rabbinical_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Rabbinical literature">rabbinical literature</a> contains laudatory and derogatory quotes. The Talmud states: <ul><li>Greater is the reward to be given by the All-Mighty to the (righteous) women than to (righteous) men.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a></li> <li>Ten measures of speech descended to the world; women took nine.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a></li> <li>Women are light on raw knowledge – i. e., they possess more intuition.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></li> <li>A man without a wife lives without joy, blessing, and good; a man should love his wife as himself and respect her more than himself.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a></li> <li>When <a href="/wiki/Rav_Yosef_b._Hiyya" class="mw-redirect" title="Rav Yosef b. Hiyya">Rav Yosef b. Hiyya</a> heard his mother's footsteps he would say: Let me arise before the approach of the <a href="/wiki/Shekhinah" title="Shekhinah">divine presence</a>.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a></li> <li>Israel was redeemed from Egypt by virtue of its (Israel's) righteous women.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></li> <li>A man must be careful never to speak slightingly to his wife, because women are prone to tears and sensitive to wrong.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a></li> <li>Women have greater faith than men.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a></li> <li>Women have greater powers of discernment.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a></li> <li>Women are especially tenderhearted.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a></li></ul> While few women are mentioned by name, and none are known to have authored a rabbinic work, those who are mentioned are portrayed as having a strong influence on their husbands. Occasionally they have a public persona. Examples are <a href="/wiki/Bruriah" title="Bruriah">Bruriah</a>, the wife of the <a href="/wiki/Tannaim" title="Tannaim">Tanna</a> <a href="/wiki/Rabbi_Meir" title="Rabbi Meir">Rabbi Meir</a>; <a href="/wiki/Rachel,_wife_of_Rabbi_Akiva" title="Rachel, wife of Rabbi Akiva">Rachel, wife of Rabbi Akiva</a>; Yalta, the wife of <a href="/wiki/Rav_Nachman" title="Rav Nachman">Rabbi Nachman</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Ima_Shalom" title="Ima Shalom">Ima Shalom</a>, the wife of <a href="/wiki/Eliezer_ben_Hurcanus" title="Eliezer ben Hurcanus">Eliezer ben Hurcanus</a>. When <a href="/wiki/Eleazar_ben_Azariah" title="Eleazar ben Azariah">Eleazar ben Azariah</a> was asked to assume the role of <a href="/wiki/Nasi_(Hebrew_title)" title="Nasi (Hebrew title)">Nasi</a> ("Prince" or President of the <a href="/wiki/Sanhedrin" title="Sanhedrin">Sanhedrin</a>), he replied that he must first take counsel with his wife, which he did.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Middle_Ages">Middle Ages</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_Judaism&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Middle Ages">edit</a>]</div> Since Jews were seen as second-class citizens in Christian and Muslim societies (legally known in the Muslim world as <a href="/wiki/Dhimmi" title="Dhimmi">dhimmi</a>), it was harder for Jewish women to establish their own status. <a href="/wiki/Avraham_Grossman" title="Avraham Grossman">Grossman</a> claimed that three factors affected how Jewish women were perceived by society: "the biblical and Talmudic heritage; the situation in the non-Jewish society within which the Jews lived and functioned; and the economic status of the Jews, including the woman's role in supporting the family."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrossman2004-28">[28]</a> Grossman used these factors to argue that women's status overall during this period rose.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrossman20043-29">[29]</a> During the Middle Ages, a conflict emerged between Judaism's expectations of women and the reality in which they lived; this was similar to the lives of Christian women of the period.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> This prompted the <a href="/wiki/Kabbalistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Kabbalistic">kabbalistic</a> work Sefer Hakanah to demand that women fulfill the mitzvot in a way equal to men. In some communities of <a href="/wiki/Ashkenaz" title="Ashkenaz">Ashkenaz</a> in the fifteenth century, the wife of the rabbi wore <a href="/wiki/Tzitzit" title="Tzitzit">tzitzit</a> like her husband.<a href="#cite_note-Ben-Sasson-31">[31]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religious_life">Religious life</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_Judaism&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Religious life">edit</a>]</div> Prohibitions against teaching women Torah eased, and women started to form prayer groups.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteinberg2008157–158-32">[32]</a> Women participated in Jewish practices publicly at the <a href="/wiki/Synagogue" title="Synagogue">synagogue</a>. Women probably learned how to read the liturgy in Hebrew.<a href="#cite_note-Baskin_1991_42-33">[33]</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Bowker_(theologian)" title="John Bowker (theologian)">Bowker</a> stated that traditionally, "<a href="/wiki/Mechitza" title="Mechitza">men and women pray separately</a>. This goes back to ancient times when women could go only as far as the second court of the Temple."<a href="#cite_note-bowker-2">[2]</a>: 19  In most synagogues, women were given an area <a href="/wiki/Ezrat_Nashim" title="Ezrat Nashim">named Ezrat Nashim</a>, most likely a balcony; some synagogues had a separate building.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrossman2004181-34">[34]</a> Separation from the men was created by the Rabbis in the <a href="/wiki/Mishnah" title="Mishnah">Mishnah</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud">Talmud</a>. The reasoning was that a woman and her body would distract men and give them impure thoughts during prayer.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> Due to this rabbinical interpretation, scholars viewed the women's role in the synagogue as limited and sometimes non-existent. Later research reported that women had a significant role in the synagogue and the community at large. Women usually attended synagogue, for example, on the <a href="/wiki/Shabbat" title="Shabbat">Shabbat</a> and the holidays.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> Depending on the location, women either attended the same service as the men or conducted their own. In larger synagogues, a designated woman who was able to follow the cantor would repeat the prayers for the women.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrossman2004181-34">[34]</a> Women had always attended services on Shabbat and holidays, but beginning in the eleventh century, women became more involved in the synagogue and its rituals. Separate seating for women became a norm around the beginning of the thirteenth century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteinberg2008157-37">[37]</a> Women, however, did much more than pray. One of their main jobs was to beautify the building. Women sewed <a href="/wiki/Torah_ark" title="Torah ark">Torah ark</a> curtains and Torah covers; some survive.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> The synagogue was a communal place for both men and women where worship, learning and community activities occurred. The rise of <a href="/wiki/Kabbalah" title="Kabbalah">Kabbalah</a>, which emphasized the <a href="/wiki/Shechinah" class="mw-redirect" title="Shechinah">shechinah</a> and female aspects of the divine presence and human-divine relationship, and which saw marriage as a holy covenant between partners rather than just a civil contract, had great influence. Kabbalists explained the phenomenon of menstruation as expressions of the demonic or sinful character of the menstruant.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> These changes were accompanied by increased pietistic strictures, including greater requirements for <a href="/wiki/Tzeniut" class="mw-redirect" title="Tzeniut">modest dress</a>, and greater strictures while <a href="/wiki/Niddah" title="Niddah">menstruating</a>. Philosophical and <a href="/wiki/Midrashic" class="mw-redirect" title="Midrashic">midrashic</a> interpretations depicted women in a negative light, emphasizing a duality between matter and spirit in which femininity was associated, with negative connotations, with earth and matter.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrossman2004277–278-40">[40]</a> Gentile society was seen as a negative influence on the Jewish community. For example, it seems that Jews would analyze the modesty of their Gentile neighbors before officially moving into a new community, because they knew that their children would be influenced by their surroundings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrossman20042-41">[41]</a> After the <a href="/wiki/Alhambra_Decree" title="Alhambra Decree">expulsion of Jews from Spain in 1492</a>, women became virtually the only source of Jewish ritual and tradition in the Catholic world in a phenomenon known as <a href="/wiki/Crypto-Judaism" title="Crypto-Judaism">crypto-Judaism</a>. Crypto-Jewish women slaughtered their own animals,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] and followed as many of the <a href="/wiki/Kosher" class="mw-redirect" title="Kosher">Jewish dietary laws (Kashrut or kosher)</a> and life cycle rituals as possible without raising suspicion. Occasionally, these women were prosecuted by <a href="/wiki/Inquisition" title="Inquisition">Inquisition</a> officials for suspicious behavior such as lighting candles to honor the Sabbath or refusing to eat pork. The Inquisition targeted crypto-Jewish women at least as much as it targeted crypto-Jewish men, because women were accused of perpetuating Jewish tradition while men were merely permitting their wives and daughters to organize the household.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelammed2009105–111-42">[42]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Domestic_life">Domestic life</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_Judaism&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Domestic life">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Brooklyn_Museum_-_Jewish_Marriage_Certificate_-_overall.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Brooklyn_Museum_-_Jewish_Marriage_Certificate_-_overall.jpg/220px-Brooklyn_Museum_-_Jewish_Marriage_Certificate_-_overall.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="278" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Brooklyn_Museum_-_Jewish_Marriage_Certificate_-_overall.jpg/330px-Brooklyn_Museum_-_Jewish_Marriage_Certificate_-_overall.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Brooklyn_Museum_-_Jewish_Marriage_Certificate_-_overall.jpg/440px-Brooklyn_Museum_-_Jewish_Marriage_Certificate_-_overall.jpg 2x" data-file-width="607" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>Jewish marriage certificate, dated 1740 (<a href="/wiki/Brooklyn_Museum" title="Brooklyn Museum">Brooklyn Museum</a>)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maroc_juif_-_Mekn%C3%A8s_1920.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Maroc_juif_-_Mekn%C3%A8s_1920.jpg/220px-Maroc_juif_-_Mekn%C3%A8s_1920.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="348" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/Maroc_juif_-_Mekn%C3%A8s_1920.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="316" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption>Moroccan Jewish women</figcaption></figure> Marriage, domestic violence and divorce were discussed by <a href="/wiki/Rishonim" title="Rishonim">Jewish sages of the Medieval world</a>. <a href="/wiki/Marriage_in_Judaism" class="mw-redirect" title="Marriage in Judaism">Marriage is an important institution in Judaism</a>. The wife/mother is called "akeret habayit" in Hebrew, which in English means "mainstay of the house". In traditional and <a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Judaism" title="Orthodox Judaism">Orthodox Judaism</a> the akeret habayit tends to the family and household duties.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> <a href="/wiki/Rabbeinu_Gershom" class="mw-redirect" title="Rabbeinu Gershom">Rabbeinu Gershom</a> instituted a rabbinic decree (<a href="/wiki/Takkanah" title="Takkanah">takkanah</a>) prohibiting <a href="/wiki/Polygyny" title="Polygyny">polygyny</a> among <a href="/wiki/Ashkenazic" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashkenazic">Ashkenazic</a> Jews.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiale198481-44">[44]</a> At the time, <a href="/wiki/Sephardic" class="mw-redirect" title="Sephardic">Sephardic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Jews" title="Mizrahi Jews">Mizrahi Jews</a> did not accept this ban. The rabbis instituted legal methods to enable women to petition a <a href="/wiki/Beit_Din" class="mw-redirect" title="Beit Din">rabbinical court</a> to compel a divorce. <a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a> ruled that a woman who found her husband "repugnant" could ask a court to compel a divorce by flogging the recalcitrant husband "because she is not like a captive, to be subjected to intercourse with one who is hateful to her".<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiale198491-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">full citation needed</a>] Furthermore, Maimonides ruled that a woman may "consider herself as divorced and remarry" if her husband remained absent for three years.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> This was to prevent women married to traveling merchants from becoming an <a href="/wiki/Agunah" title="Agunah">agunah</a> if the husband never returned. The rabbis instituted and tightened prohibitions on domestic violence. <a href="/wiki/Peretz_ben_Elijah" title="Peretz ben Elijah">Rabbi Peretz ben Elijah</a> ruled, "The cry of the daughters of our people has been heard concerning the sons of Israel who raise their hands to strike their wives. Yet who has given a husband the authority to beat his wife?"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrossman2004224-49">[49]</a> <a href="/wiki/Meir_of_Rothenburg" title="Meir of Rothenburg">Rabbi Meir of Rothenberg</a> ruled that, "For it is the way of the Gentiles to behave thus, but Heaven forbid that any Jew should do so. And one who beats his wife is to be excommunicated and banned and beaten."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrossman2004226-50">[50]</a> He also ruled that a battered wife could petition a <a href="/wiki/Beit_Din" class="mw-redirect" title="Beit Din">rabbinical court</a> to compel a husband to grant a divorce, with a monetary fine owed to her on top of the regular <a href="/wiki/Ketubah" title="Ketubah">ketubah</a> money.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrossman2004222-51">[51]</a> These rulings occurred in the midst of societies where wife-beating was legally sanctioned and routine.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrossman2004230-52">[52]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Education">Education</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_Judaism&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Education">edit</a>]</div> Jewish women had a limited education. They were taught to read, write, run a household. They were given some education in religious law that was essential to their daily lives, such as keeping <a href="/wiki/Kosher" class="mw-redirect" title="Kosher">kosher</a>. Both Christian and Jewish girls were educated in the home. Although Christian girls might have either a male or female tutor, most Jewish girls had a female tutor.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> <a href="/wiki/Female_education#Medieval_period" title="Female education">Higher learning was uncommon for women</a>.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> More sources of education were available for Jewish women in Muslim-controlled lands. Middle Eastern Jewry had an abundance of female literates.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelammed199191–100-55">[55]</a> Many women had enough education to help their husbands in business or even run their own. Jewish women seem to have lent money to Christian women throughout Europe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarcus198638-56">[56]</a> Women also worked as copyists, <a href="/wiki/Midwifery#Early_historical_perspective" title="Midwifery">midwives</a>, spinners, and weavers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteinberg2008160-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarcus198639-58">[58]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jewish_women_strike.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Jewish_women_strike.png/220px-Jewish_women_strike.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="116" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Jewish_women_strike.png/330px-Jewish_women_strike.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Jewish_women_strike.png/440px-Jewish_women_strike.png 2x" data-file-width="632" data-file-height="333" /></a><figcaption>The Montreal Star 07 Mar 1921, Mon · Page 11</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Debates_in_Jewish_law">Debates in Jewish law</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_Judaism&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Debates in Jewish law">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Education_of_women">Education of women</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_Judaism&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Education of women">edit</a>]</div> From certain contexts of the Mishnah and Talmud it can be derived that women should not study Mishnah. Female Tannaitic Torah jurists included Rabbi Meir's wife,<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> Rabbi Meir's daughter, and the daughter of <a href="/wiki/Haninah_ben_Teradion" title="Haninah ben Teradion">Haninah ben Teradion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> Haninah's daughter is mentioned as a sage in the non-Talmud third-century text Tractate Semahot, verse 12:13.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> Rabbi Meir's wife is credited with teaching him how to understand some verses from Isaiah.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> The Mishnah references certain women teaching men the Torah from behind a curtain, so that no man would be offended. However, a yeshiva, or school for Talmudic studies, is an "exclusively masculine environment".<a href="#cite_note-bowker-2">[2]</a>: 123  <a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a> tended to elevate the status of women above the then norm.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> For example, he permitted women to study Torah despite the fact that other legal opinions did not.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> Rabbi <a href="/wiki/Chaim_Joseph_David_Azulai" class="mw-redirect" title="Chaim Joseph David Azulai">Chaim Joseph David Azulai</a> wrote<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> that women should study the Mishnah only if they wanted to. According to the Hida, the prohibition of teaching women does not apply to a motivated woman or girl. Maimonides' response to detractors was the prohibition is against teaching Mishnah to any student—male or female—unless they are properly prepared and motivated. One of the most important Ashkenazi rabbanim of the past century, <a href="/wiki/Yisrael_Meir_Kagan" title="Yisrael Meir Kagan">Yisrael Meir Kagan</a>, known popularly as the "Chofetz Chaim", favored Torah education for girls to counteract the French "finishing schools" prevalent in his day for the daughters of the <a href="/wiki/Bourgeoisie" title="Bourgeoisie">bourgeoisie</a>. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"> "It would appear that all [these sexist laws] were intended for earlier generations when everyone dwelt in the place of their familial ancestral home and ancestral tradition was very powerful among all to follow the path of their fathers... under such circumstances we could maintain that a woman not study Mishnayos and, for guidance, rely on her righteous parents, but presently, due to our myriad sins, ancestral tradition has become exceptionally weak and it is common that people do not dwell in proximity to the family home, and especially those women who devote themselves to mastering the vernacular, surely it is a now a great mitzvah to teach them Scripture and the ethical teachings of our sages such as Pirkei Avos, Menoras Ha-Ma'or and the like so that they will internalize our sacred faith because [if we do not do so] they are prone to abandon the path of God and violate all principles of [our] faith."<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a></blockquote> <dl><dt>Joseph Soloveitchik</dt></dl> Rabbi <a href="/wiki/Joseph_B._Soloveitchik" title="Joseph B. Soloveitchik">Joseph B. Soloveitchik</a> taught that all religious Ashkenazi Jews, with the exception of hardline <a href="/wiki/Hasidim" class="mw-redirect" title="Hasidim">Hasidim</a>, must teach their girls Gemarah like the boys: "The halakha prohibiting Torah study for women is not indiscriminate or all-encompassing. ... 'If ever circumstances dictate that study of <a href="/wiki/Oral_Torah" title="Oral Torah">Torah sh-Ba'al Peh</a> is necessary to provide a firm foundation for faith, such study becomes obligatory and obviously lies beyond the pale of any prohibition.' Undoubtedly, the Rav's prescription was more far-reaching than that of the <a href="/wiki/Hafetz_Haim" title="Hafetz Haim">Hafets Hayim</a> and others. But the difference in magnitude should not obscure their fundamental agreement [on changing the attitudes Halachically]."<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Present_day">Present day</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_Judaism&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Present day">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ShabbatCandles669.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/ShabbatCandles669.jpg/220px-ShabbatCandles669.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/ShabbatCandles669.jpg/330px-ShabbatCandles669.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/ShabbatCandles669.jpg/440px-ShabbatCandles669.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2848" data-file-height="2136" /></a><figcaption>Girl lights <a href="/wiki/Shabbat_candles" title="Shabbat candles">Shabbat candles</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="font-size: 88%">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Judaism_and_women" title="Category:Judaism and women">a series</a> of articles on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size: 175%"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_feminism" title="Jewish feminism">Jewish feminism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Schild_davids_transparent.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Schild_davids_transparent.svg/100px-Schild_davids_transparent.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Schild_davids_transparent.svg/150px-Schild_davids_transparent.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Schild_davids_transparent.svg/200px-Schild_davids_transparent.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="140" data-file-height="149" /></a></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ccccff;"> Advocates</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Jewish_feminists" title="List of Jewish feminists">List of Jewish feminists</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ccccff;"> Groups</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bat_Shalom" title="Bat Shalom">Bat Shalom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Center_for_Women%27s_Justice" title="Center for Women's Justice">Center for Women's Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_feminism" title="Mizrahi feminism">Mizrahi feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_Jewish_Women" title="National Council of Jewish Women">National Council of Jewish Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Jewish_feminism" title="Orthodox Jewish feminism">Orthodox feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shira_Hadasha" title="Shira Hadasha">Shira Hadasha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_of_the_Wall" title="Women of the Wall">Women of the Wall</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ccccff;"> <a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Jewish_feminism" title="Orthodox Jewish feminism">Orthodox Jewish feminism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Orthodox_Feminist_Alliance" title="Jewish Orthodox Feminist Alliance">JOFA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kolech" title="Kolech">Kolech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partnership_minyan" title="Partnership minyan">Partnership minyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chochmat_Nashim" title="Chochmat Nashim">Chochmat Nashim</a></li> <li>Political activism <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lo_Nivcharot,_Lo_Bocharot" title="Lo Nivcharot, Lo Bocharot">Lo Nivcharot, Lo Bocharot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U%27Bizchutan" title="U'Bizchutan">U'Bizchutan</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ccccff;"> Issues</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judaism_and_abortion" title="Judaism and abortion">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_on_contraception" title="Jewish views on contraception">Birth control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_feminism" title="Jewish feminism">Feminism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Israel" title="Feminism in Israel">In Israel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">In Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_on_marriage" title="Jewish views on marriage">Marriage</a> and <a href="/wiki/Religion_and_divorce#Judaism" title="Religion and divorce">Divorce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niddah" title="Niddah">Niddah</a> (menstruation)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikveh" title="Mikveh">Mikveh</a> (ritual immersion)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adultery#Judaism" title="Adultery">Adultery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Get_(divorce_document)" title="Get (divorce document)">Get</a> (divorce document)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agunah" title="Agunah">Agunah</a> ("chained" marriages)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minyan" title="Minyan">Minyan</a> (synagogue services)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partnership_minyan" title="Partnership minyan">Partnership minyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitzvah" title="Mitzvah">Mitzvah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordination_of_women#Judaism" title="Ordination of women">Ordination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoetzet_halacha" title="Yoetzet halacha">Yoatzot</a> (Advisors of Jewish Law)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism_and_sexuality" title="Judaism and sexuality">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tzniut" title="Tzniut">Tzniut</a> (modesty)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negiah" title="Negiah">Negiah</a> (physical contact)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yichud" title="Yichud">Yichud</a> (isolation)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homosexuality_and_Judaism#Lesbian_sexual_activity" class="mw-redirect" title="Homosexuality and Judaism">Lesbian</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Jewish_feminism" title="Template:Jewish feminism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Jewish_feminism" title="Template talk:Jewish feminism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Jewish_feminism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Jewish feminism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Jewish_feminism" title="Jewish feminism">Jewish feminism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Women_in_Israel" title="Women in Israel">Women in Israel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Jewish_feminism" title="Orthodox Jewish feminism">Orthodox Jewish feminism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Women_of_the_Wall" title="Women of the Wall">Women of the Wall</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Orthodox_Judaism">Orthodox Judaism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_Judaism&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Orthodox Judaism">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Judaism" title="Orthodox Judaism">Orthodox Judaism</a> is <a href="/wiki/Complementarianism" title="Complementarianism">complementarian</a>.<a href="#cite_note-jewishcare-68">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> Opinions vary among Orthodox Jews concerning these principles. Most claim that men and women have different roles and bear different obligations.<a href="#cite_note-jewishcare-68">[68]</a> For example, women are not burdened with time-bound mitzvot. Others believe that such differences have cultural, social, and historical causes. Women were historically exempted from religious study beyond understanding the practical aspects of Torah and the practices necessary for running a devout household; both of which they were obligated to learn. Until the twentieth century, women were often discouraged from learning Talmud and other advanced Jewish texts. In the past 100 years, Orthodox Jewish education for women has expanded.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> This is most visible in the development of the <a href="/wiki/Bais_Yaakov" title="Bais Yaakov">Bais Yaakov</a> system. Orthodox women have been working to expand women's learning and scholarship, promoting women's ritual inclusion in worship, and promoting women's communal and religious leadership.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> Some rabbinic leaders are opposed to such changes, claiming that women are motivated by sociological reasons rather than religion.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> For example, Orthodox, <a href="/wiki/Haredi_Judaism" title="Haredi Judaism">Haredi</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidic</a> rabbis discourage women from wearing a <a href="/wiki/Kippah" title="Kippah">kippah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tallit" title="Tallit">tallit</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Tefillin" title="Tefillin">tefillin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> In Orthodox synagogues, women are not entitled to deliver <a href="/wiki/Torah_study" title="Torah study">divrei Torah</a>-brief discourses on the weekly Torah portion-after or between services; <a href="/wiki/Shiur_(Torah)" class="mw-redirect" title="Shiur (Torah)">shiurim</a> are typically limited to men. Many Orthodox synagogues have physical barriers (<a href="/wiki/Mechitzot" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechitzot">mechitzot</a>) dividing the left and right sides of the synagogue, with the women on one side and the men on the other. Historically, many Orthodox synagogues restricted women to seating in the balconies, while men sat on the main floor.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> Formally, a mechitzah of over four feet or so (ten handbreadths) suffices, even if the men can see the women, though such a small separation is not ideal. A typical mechitzah consists of wheeled wooden panels, often topped with <a href="/wiki/One-way_mirror" title="One-way mirror">one-way glass</a> to allow women to view the <a href="/wiki/Torah_reading" title="Torah reading">Torah reading</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rules_of_modesty">Rules of modesty</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_Judaism&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Rules of modesty">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tzniut" title="Tzniut">Tzniut</a></div> Although Judaism prescribes modesty for both men and women,<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> the importance of modesty in dress and conduct is particularly stressed among women and girls. Orthodox women wear skirts and avoid trousers, and most married Orthodox women <a href="/wiki/Head_covering_for_Jewish_women" title="Head covering for Jewish women">cover their hair</a> with a scarf (tichel), <a href="/wiki/Snood_(headgear)" title="Snood (headgear)">snood</a>, hat, beret, or wig. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Halakhic_advisor">Halakhic advisor</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_Judaism&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Halakhic advisor">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Niddah" title="Niddah">Niddah</a></div> In accordance with Jewish Law, Orthodox Jewish women refrain from bodily contact with their husbands while they are <a href="/wiki/Menstruation" title="Menstruation">menstruating</a> and for 7 days afterwards, and after the birth of a child. The Israeli Rabbinate allows women to act as yoatzot, halakhic advisers on matters considered sensitive and personal such as <a href="/wiki/Niddah" title="Niddah">niddah</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Modern_Orthodox">Modern Orthodox</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_Judaism&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Modern Orthodox">edit</a>]</div> Orthodox leader Rabbi <a href="/wiki/Joseph_B._Soloveitchik" title="Joseph B. Soloveitchik">Joseph B. Soloveitchik</a> discouraged women from serving as presidents of synagogues or other official leadership positions,<a href="#cite_note-Women_at_Prayer:_A_Halakhic_Analysis_Of_Womens_Prayer_Groups-78">[78]</a> from performing other mitzvot traditionally performed by males exclusively, such as wearing a tallit or tefillin. One reason is that tefillin are believed to help men avoid thoughts considered impure, while women are believed to not have such thoughts. Soloveitchik wrote that while women do not lack the capability to perform such acts, there is no <a href="/wiki/Tradition" title="Tradition">mesorah</a> (Jewish tradition) that permits it. In making his decision, he relied upon Jewish <a href="/wiki/Oral_Torah" title="Oral Torah">oral law</a>, including a mishnah in Chulin 2a and a Beit Yoseph in the Tur Yoreh Deah stating that a woman can perform a specific official communal service for her own needs, but not those of others.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> Women's issues garnered more interest with the advent of <a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">feminism</a>. Many <a href="/wiki/Modern_Orthodox_Judaism" title="Modern Orthodox Judaism">Modern Orthodox Jewish</a> women and Modern Orthodox rabbis sought to provide more Jewish education for women. Modern Orthodox communities promote women's secular education. A few Modern Orthodox Synagogues have women serving as clergy, including <a href="/wiki/Gilah_Kletenik" title="Gilah Kletenik">Gilah Kletenik</a> at <a href="/wiki/Congregation_Kehilath_Jeshurun" title="Congregation Kehilath Jeshurun">Congregation Kehilath Jeshurun</a>. In 2010, <a href="/wiki/Sara_Hurwitz" title="Sara Hurwitz">Sara Hurwitz</a> became the first woman to ordained as a "Rabba", or female equivalent of a rabbi, when she started serving as an <a href="/wiki/Open_Orthodoxy" title="Open Orthodoxy">Open Orthodox</a> spiritual leader.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> In 2013, <a href="/wiki/Yeshivat_Maharat" class="mw-redirect" title="Yeshivat Maharat">Yeshivat Maharat</a>, located in the United States, became the first Orthodox institution to consecrate female clergy. The graduates of Yeshivat Maharat were called maharat rather than rabbi.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> However, in 2015, Yaffa Epstein was ordained as Rabba there.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> Also in 2015, <a href="/wiki/Lila_Kagedan" title="Lila Kagedan">Lila Kagedan</a> was ordained as Rabbi there, their first graduate to take the title.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> In 2013, <a href="/wiki/Malka_Schaps" class="mw-redirect" title="Malka Schaps">Malka Schaps</a> became the first female <a href="/wiki/Haredi" class="mw-redirect" title="Haredi">Haredi</a> dean at an Israeli university when she was appointed dean of <a href="/wiki/Bar_Ilan_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Bar Ilan University">Bar Ilan University</a>'s Faculty of Exact Sciences.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> Also in 2013, the first class of female halachic advisers in the US graduated from the North American branch of <a href="/wiki/Nishmat" title="Nishmat">Nishmat</a>'s yoetzet halacha program. <a href="/wiki/SAR_High_School" title="SAR High School">SAR High School</a> began allowing girls to wrap tefillin during Shacharit-morning prayer in an all-female prayer group; the first Modern Orthodox high school in the U.S. to do so.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> In 2014, the first-ever book of halachic decisions was written by women who were ordained to serve as poskot (Idit Bartov and Anat Novoselsky) was published.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-87">[87]</a> They were ordained by Rabbi <a href="/wiki/Shlomo_Riskin" title="Shlomo Riskin">Shlomo Riskin</a>, after completing <a href="/wiki/Midreshet_Lindenbaum" title="Midreshet Lindenbaum">Midreshet Lindenbaum</a> women's college's course, as well as passing examinations equivalent to the rabbinate's requirement for men.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-87">[87]</a> On June 10, 2015, Dr. Meesh Hammer-Kossoy and Rahel Berkovits became the first two women to be ordained as Modern Orthodox Jewish Rabbas in Israel.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> In June 2015, <a href="/wiki/Lila_Kagedan" title="Lila Kagedan">Lila Kagedan</a> was ordained by Yeshivat Maharat and given the freedom to choose her own title, she chose "Rabbi".<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> She became the first female Modern Orthodox rabbi in the US in January 2016.<a href="#cite_note-jta.org-90">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-jewishpressnewsbriefs-91">[91]</a> In the fall, the <a href="/wiki/Agudath_Israel_of_America" title="Agudath Israel of America">Agudath Israel of America</a> denounced moves to ordain women, and declared Yeshivat Maharat, <a href="/wiki/Yeshivat_Chovevei_Torah" title="Yeshivat Chovevei Torah">Yeshivat Chovevei Torah</a>, and Open Orthodoxy as having rejected basic tenets of Judaism.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Rabbinical_Council_of_America" title="Rabbinical Council of America">Rabbinical Council of America</a> passed a resolution which stated, "RCA members with positions in Orthodox institutions may not ordain women into the Orthodox rabbinate, regardless of the title used; or hire or ratify the hiring of a woman into a rabbinic position at an Orthodox institution; or allow a title implying rabbinic ordination to be used by a teacher of Limudei Kodesh in an Orthodox institution."<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> <a href="/wiki/Jennie_Rosenfeld" title="Jennie Rosenfeld">Jennie Rosenfeld</a> became the first female Orthodox spiritual advisor in Israel.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> In 2016 <a href="/wiki/Ephraim_Mirvis" title="Ephraim Mirvis">Ephraim Mirvis</a> created the job of ma'ayan by which women would be advisers on Jewish law in the area of family purity and as adult educators in Orthodox synagogues.<a href="#cite_note-thejc.com-97">[97]</a> This required a part-time training course for 18 months, the first such course in the United Kingdom.<a href="#cite_note-thejc.com-97">[97]</a> On August 23, 2016, Karmit Feintuch became the first woman in Jerusalem to be hired as a Modern Orthodox "rabbanit" and serve as a spiritual leader.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> In 2017, the <a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Union" title="Orthodox Union">Orthodox Union</a> adopted a policy banning women from serving as clergy, from holding titles such as "rabbi", and from performing common clergy functions even without a title, in its US congregations.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Women's_prayer_groups">Women's prayer groups</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_Judaism&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Women's prayer groups">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Torah_Reading_at_Robinson%27s_Arch.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Torah_Reading_at_Robinson%27s_Arch.jpg/220px-Torah_Reading_at_Robinson%27s_Arch.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Torah_Reading_at_Robinson%27s_Arch.jpg/330px-Torah_Reading_at_Robinson%27s_Arch.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Torah_Reading_at_Robinson%27s_Arch.jpg/440px-Torah_Reading_at_Robinson%27s_Arch.jpg 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Torah Reading at Robinson's Arch</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sefer_Seder_Tefillot_Hanaschim.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Sefer_Seder_Tefillot_Hanaschim.jpg/220px-Sefer_Seder_Tefillot_Hanaschim.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Sefer_Seder_Tefillot_Hanaschim.jpg/330px-Sefer_Seder_Tefillot_Hanaschim.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Sefer_Seder_Tefillot_Hanaschim.jpg/440px-Sefer_Seder_Tefillot_Hanaschim.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Hebrew manuscript containing prayers for women, Italy 1791. In the collection of the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Museum_of_Switzerland" title="Jewish Museum of Switzerland">Jewish Museum of Switzerland</a>.</figcaption></figure> In Germany, in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, women's prayer groups were led by female cantors. Rabbi <a href="/wiki/Eleazar_of_Worms" title="Eleazar of Worms">Eliezer of Worms</a>, in his elegy for his wife Dulca, praised her for teaching the other women how to pray and embellishing the prayer with music. The gravestone of Urania of Worms, who died in 1275, contains the inscription "who sang piyyutim for the women with musical voice". In the <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg" title="Nuremberg">Nurnberg</a> Memorial Book, one Richenza was inscribed with the title "prayer leader of the women".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrossman2004180–182-100">[100]</a> Orthodox women more recently began holding organized women's tefila (prayer) groups beginning in the 1970s. While Orthodox legal authorities agree that women are prohibited from forming a <a href="/wiki/Minyan" title="Minyan">minyan</a> (prayer quorum) for the purpose of <a href="/wiki/Jewish_services" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish services">regular services</a>, women in these groups have read the prayers and study Torah. A number of leaders from all segments of Orthodox Judaism have commented on this issue, but it has had a little, although growing, impact on <a href="/wiki/Haredi_Judaism" title="Haredi Judaism">Haredi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Sephardi Jews">Sephardi Judaism</a>. However, the emergence of this phenomenon has enmeshed <a href="/wiki/Modern_Orthodox_Judaism" title="Modern Orthodox Judaism">Modern Orthodox Judaism</a> in a debate which still continues today. There are three schools of thought on this issue: <ul><li>The most restrictive view, held by a few rabbis, rules that all women's prayer groups are absolutely forbidden by <a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">halakha</a> (Jewish law).<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a></li> <li>A more liberal, permissive view maintains that women's prayer groups can be compatible with halakha, but only if they do not carry out a full prayer service (i. e., do not include certain parts of the service known as devarim shebikedusha that require a <a href="/wiki/Minyan" title="Minyan">minyan</a>; for example the recital of <a href="/wiki/Kaddish" title="Kaddish">Kaddish</a> or reading from the Torah), and only if services are spiritually and sincerely motivated, as is usually the case; they cannot be sanctioned if they are inspired by a desire to rebel against halakha. People in this group include Rabbi Avraham Elkana Shapiro, former British Chief Rabbi <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Jakobovits" class="mw-redirect" title="Immanuel Jakobovits">Immanuel Jakobovits</a>, and Rabbi <a href="/wiki/Avi_Weiss" title="Avi Weiss">Avi Weiss</a>.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> This is the generally followed view.</li> <li>A third view argues in favor of the acceptability of calling women to the Torah in mixed services, and leading certain parts of the service which do not require a <a href="/wiki/Minyan" title="Minyan">minyan</a>, under certain conditions.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a></li></ul> In 2013, the Israeli Orthodox rabbinical organization Beit Hillel issued a halachic ruling which allows women, for the first time, to say the <a href="/wiki/Kaddish" title="Kaddish">Kaddish</a> prayer in memory of their deceased parents.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Women_as_witnesses">Women as witnesses</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_Judaism&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Women as witnesses">edit</a>]</div> Traditionally, women are not generally permitted to serve as witnesses in an Orthodox <a href="/wiki/Beit_Din" class="mw-redirect" title="Beit Din">Beit Din</a> (<a href="/wiki/Beit_Din" class="mw-redirect" title="Beit Din">rabbinical court</a>), although they have recently[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers">when?</a>] been permitted to serve as <a href="/wiki/Toanot" class="mw-redirect" title="Toanot">toanot</a> (advocates) in those courts. Women are also permitted to provide evidence under oath, and their statements are considered to be fully credible in ritual matters.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> The exclusion of women as witnesses has exceptions which have required exploration under rabbinic law, as the role of women in society and the obligations of religious groups under external civil law have been subject to increasing recent scrutiny.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> The recent case of Rabbi <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mordecai_Tendler&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mordecai Tendler (page does not exist)">Mordecai Tendler</a>, the first rabbi to be expelled from the <a href="/wiki/Rabbinical_Council_of_America" title="Rabbinical Council of America">Rabbinical Council of America</a> following allegations of sexual harassment, illustrated the importance of clarification of <a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Judaism" title="Orthodox Judaism">Orthodox</a> <a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">halakha</a> in this area. Rabbi Tendler claimed that the tradition of exclusion of women's testimony should compel the RCA to disregard the allegations. He argued that since the testimony of a woman could not be admitted in <a href="/wiki/Beit_Din" class="mw-redirect" title="Beit Din">Rabbinical court</a>, there were no valid witnesses against him, and hence, the case for his expulsion had to be thrown out for lack of evidence. In a ruling of importance for Orthodox women's capacity for legal self-protection under <a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">Jewish law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Haredi" class="mw-redirect" title="Haredi">Haredi</a> Rabbi <a href="/w/index.php?title=Benzion_Wosner&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Benzion Wosner (page does not exist)">Benzion Wosner</a>, writing on behalf of the Shevet Levi <a href="/wiki/Beit_Din" class="mw-redirect" title="Beit Din">Beit Din</a> (Rabbinical court) of <a href="/wiki/Monsey,_New_York" title="Monsey, New York">Monsey, New York</a>, identified sexual harassment cases as coming under a class of exceptions to the traditional exclusion, under which "even children or women" have not only a right, but an obligation, to testify, and can be relied upon by a rabbinical court as valid witnesses: <dl><dd>The <a href="/wiki/Meir_Abulafia" title="Meir Abulafia">Ramah</a> in Choshen Mishpat (Siman 35, 14) rules that in a case where only women congregate, or in a case where only women could possibly testify (in this case, the alleged harassment occurred behind closed doors), they can, and should, certainly testify. (Terumas Hadeshen Siman 353 and Agudah Perek 10, Yochasin)</dd></dl> <dl><dd>This is also the ruling of the <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Colon_Trabotto" title="Joseph Colon Trabotto">Maharik</a>, <a href="/wiki/David_ben_Solomon_ibn_Abi_Zimra" title="David ben Solomon ibn Abi Zimra">Radvaz</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Judah_ben_Eliezer_ha-Levi_Minz" class="mw-redirect" title="Judah ben Eliezer ha-Levi Minz">Mahar"i of Minz</a>. Even those <a href="/wiki/Posek" title="Posek">Poskim</a> that would normally not rely on women witnesses, they would certainly agree that in our case ... where there is ample evidence that this Rabbi violated Torah precepts, then even children or women can certainly be kosher as witnesses, as the <a href="/wiki/Chatam_Sofer" class="mw-redirect" title="Chatam Sofer">Chasam Sofer</a> pointed out in his sefer (monograph) (Orach Chaim T'shuvah 11)<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a></dd></dl> The <a href="/wiki/Rabbinical_Council_of_America" title="Rabbinical Council of America">Rabbinical Council of America</a>, while initially relying on its own investigation, chose to rely on the Halakhic ruling of the <a href="/wiki/Haredi_Judaism" title="Haredi Judaism">Haredi</a> Rabbinical body as authoritative in the situation.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Orthodox_approaches_to_change">Orthodox approaches to change</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_Judaism&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Orthodox approaches to change">edit</a>]</div> Leaders of the <a href="/wiki/Haredi_Judaism" title="Haredi Judaism">Haredi</a> community have opposed many changes to the role of women. Many have argued that religious and social constraints on women are timeless, and are not subject to change. Many have argued that giving traditionally male roles to women would detract from both women's and men's ability to lead fulfilling lives. Haredim have perceived arguments for liberalization as stemming from antagonism to Jewish law and beliefs.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> More liberal variants of Modern Orthodox Judaism tend to view proposed changes in the role of women on a case-by-case basis, focusing on arguments regarding the religious and legal role of specific prayers, rituals and activities individually. Such arguments focus on cases where the Talmud and other traditional sources express multiple or more liberal viewpoints, particularly where the role of women in the past was arguably broader than in later times. Feminist advocates within Orthodoxy generally stay within the traditional legal process of argumentation, seeking a gradualist approach.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> Nevertheless, a growing <a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Jewish_feminism" title="Orthodox Jewish feminism">Orthodox feminist</a> movement seeks to address gender inequalities.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Agunot">Agunot</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_Judaism&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Agunot">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Agunot" class="mw-redirect" title="Agunot">Agunot</a> (Hebrew: "chained women") are women whose husbands refuse to give them a divorce contract (a "get"). The word can also refer to a woman whose husband has disappeared. In Orthodox Judaism, only a man is able to serve a "get".<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> In order to prevent a husband from such a refusal, many couples sign a <a href="/wiki/Prenuptial_Agreement_for_the_Prevention_of_Get-Refusal" class="mw-redirect" title="Prenuptial Agreement for the Prevention of Get-Refusal">prenuptial agreement</a> that forces the husband to serve a get or else be reported to the Jewish court. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conservative_Judaism">Conservative Judaism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_Judaism&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Conservative Judaism">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rabot_-_Torah.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Rabot_-_Torah.JPG/220px-Rabot_-_Torah.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Rabot_-_Torah.JPG/330px-Rabot_-_Torah.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Rabot_-_Torah.JPG/440px-Rabot_-_Torah.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1168" data-file-height="1146" /></a><figcaption>Rabot - Torah</figcaption></figure> Although the position of <a href="/wiki/Conservative_Judaism" title="Conservative Judaism">Conservative Judaism</a> toward women originally differed little from the Orthodox position, it later minimized legal and ritual differences between men and women. The <a href="/wiki/Committee_on_Jewish_Law_and_Standards" title="Committee on Jewish Law and Standards">Committee on Jewish Law and Standards</a> (CJLS) of the <a href="/wiki/Rabbinical_Assembly" title="Rabbinical Assembly">Rabbinical Assembly</a> issued decisions and <a href="/wiki/Responsa" title="Responsa">responsa</a> on this topic. These provide for women's active participation in areas such as: <ul><li>Publicly reading the Torah (ba'al kriah)</li> <li>Being counted as part of a minyan</li> <li>Being called for an aliyah to read the Torah</li> <li>Serving as a cantor (shaliach tzibbur)</li> <li>Serving as <a href="/wiki/Rabbi" title="Rabbi">rabbi</a> and halakhic decisor (posek - an arbiter in matters of religious law)</li> <li>Wearing a <a href="/wiki/Tallit" title="Tallit">tallit</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tefillin" title="Tefillin">tefillin</a></li></ul> A rabbi may decide which particular rulings to adopt for the congregation; thus, some Conservative congregations became more or less egalitarian than others. Areas where legal differences remain between men and women include: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Matrilineality_in_Judaism" title="Matrilineality in Judaism">Matrilineal descent</a>. The child of a Jewish mother is born Jewish; the child of a Jewish father is born Jewish if and only if the mother is Jewish.</li> <li>Pidyon Ha-Bat, a proposed ceremony based on the biblical redemption of the eldest newborn son (<a href="/wiki/Pidyon_HaBen" class="mw-redirect" title="Pidyon HaBen">Pidyon Ha-Ben</a>). CJLS stated that this ceremony should not be performed for women. Other ceremonies, such as a <a href="/wiki/Zeved_habat" title="Zeved habat">Simchat Bat</a> (welcoming a newborn daughter), should instead be used.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a></li></ul> A Conservative Jewish <a href="/wiki/Ketuba" class="mw-redirect" title="Ketuba">ketuba</a> includes a clause that puts a husband and wife on more equal footing when it comes to marriage and divorce law within halacha.<a href="#cite_note-Raphael-114">[114]</a> CJLS reaffirmed in 2006<a href="#cite_note-:0-115">[115]</a> the obligation of Conservative women to observe niddah (sexual abstinence during and after menstruation) and mikvah (ritual immersion) following menstruation, although liberalizing certain details.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-:0-115">[115]</a> Such practices, while requirements of Conservative Judaism, are not widely observed among Conservative laity. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Changes">Changes</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_Judaism&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Changes">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:JTSA_122_Bway_jeh.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/JTSA_122_Bway_jeh.JPG/220px-JTSA_122_Bway_jeh.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/JTSA_122_Bway_jeh.JPG/330px-JTSA_122_Bway_jeh.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/JTSA_122_Bway_jeh.JPG/440px-JTSA_122_Bway_jeh.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2190" data-file-height="2982" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Theological_Seminary_of_America" title="Jewish Theological Seminary of America">JTS</a> building at 3080 Broadway in Manhattan</figcaption></figure> Conservative Judaism traditionally held traditional views of women's role. However, in 1946, the new Silverman siddur changed the traditional words of thanking God for "not making me a woman", instead thanking God for "making me a free person."<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> In 1955, the CJLS of the <a href="/wiki/Rabbinical_Assembly" title="Rabbinical Assembly">Rabbinical Assembly</a> allowed women to have an aliyah at Torah-readings services.<a href="#cite_note-DorffPhD2018-118">[118]</a> In 1973, the CJLS of the <a href="/wiki/Rabbinical_Assembly" title="Rabbinical Assembly">Rabbinical Assembly</a> voted, without issuing an opinion, that women could count in a <a href="/wiki/Minyan" title="Minyan">minyan</a>. A commission appointed by the Conservative movement to study the issue of ordaining women as rabbis, met between 1977 and 1978. It consisted of eleven men and three women: attorney Marian Siner Gordon, <a href="/wiki/Assyriologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Assyriologist">Assyriologist</a> Rivkah Harris, and author <a href="/wiki/Francine_Klagsbrun" title="Francine Klagsbrun">Francine Klagsbrun</a>.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> In 1983, the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Theological_Seminary_of_America" title="Jewish Theological Seminary of America">Jewish Theological Seminary of America</a> (JTSA) faculty voted, also without accompanying opinion, to ordain women as rabbis and as <a href="/wiki/Cantors" class="mw-redirect" title="Cantors">cantors</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Raphael-114">[114]</a> <a href="/wiki/Paula_Hyman" title="Paula Hyman">Paula Hyman</a>, among others, voted as a member of the JTSA faculty. In 2002, the CJLS adapted a <a href="/wiki/Responsum" class="mw-redirect" title="Responsum">responsum</a> by Rabbi David Fine, Women and the Minyan,<a href="#cite_note-OH_55:1.2002-120">[120]</a> which provided a religious-law foundation for women counting in a minyan and explained the Conservative approach to the role of women in prayer.<a href="#cite_note-OH_55:1.2002-120">[120]</a> It holds that although Jewish women do not traditionally have the same obligations as men, Conservative women have voluntarily undertaken them. Because of this undertaking, Fine's responsum claimed that Conservative women are eligible to serve as agents and decision-makers for others. The responsum also held that traditionally-minded communities and individual women could opt out without sinning. By adopting this responsum, the CJLS allowed itself to provide a considered Jewish-law justification for its practices, without having to rely on ad hoc arguments, undermine the religious importance of community and clergy, ask individual women intrusive questions, repudiate the halakhic tradition, or label women as sinners who followed traditional practices. In 2006, the CJLS adopted three <a href="/wiki/Responsum" class="mw-redirect" title="Responsum">responsa</a> on the subject of <a href="/wiki/Niddah" title="Niddah">niddah</a>, which reaffirmed the obligation of Conservative women to abstain from sexual relations during and following <a href="/wiki/Menstruation" title="Menstruation">menstruation</a> and to immerse in a <a href="/wiki/Mikvah" class="mw-redirect" title="Mikvah">mikvah</a> prior to resumption, while liberalizing observance requirements including shortening the length of the niddah, lifting restrictions on non-sexual contact during niddah, and reducing the circumstances under which spotting and similar conditions would mandate abstinence.<a href="#cite_note-RabbiIntro-121">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-RabbiGrossman-122">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-RabbiReisner-123">[123]</a><a href="#cite_note-RabbiBerkowitz-124">[124]</a> Continuing the Orthodox approach remained acceptable. Individual Conservative rabbis and synagogues were not required to change, and a small number did not. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Conservative_approaches_to_change">Conservative approaches to change</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_Judaism&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Conservative approaches to change">edit</a>]</div> Between 1973 and 2002, the Conservative movement adopted changes through its official organizations, but without issuing explanatory opinions. Since 2002, the Conservative movement coalesced around a unified approach to the role of women.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> In 1973, 1983, and 1993, individual rabbis and professors issued six major opinions that influenced the Conservative approach, the first and second Sigal, Blumenthal, Rabinowitz, and <a href="/wiki/Joel_Roth" title="Joel Roth">Roth</a> responsa, and the <a href="/wiki/Judith_Hauptman" title="Judith Hauptman">Hauptman</a> article. These opinions sought to launch a wholesale shift in women's public roles through a comprehensive legal justification. Most such opinions proposed that Jewish women always were, or had become, legally obligated to perform many of the same mitzvot as men and, when performing mitzvot, to do so in the same manner.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> The first Sigal and the Blumenthal responsa were considered by CJLS as part of its decision on prayer roles in 1973. They argued that women had always had the same obligations as men.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> The first Sigal responsum used the Talmud's general prayer obligation and examples of cases in which women were traditionally obligated to say specific prayers. They inferred from them a public prayer obligation identical to that of men. The Blumenthal responsum extrapolated from a minority authority that a minyan could be formed with nine men and one woman in an emergency. CJLS declined to adopt either responsum. Rabbi Sigal reported to the <a href="/wiki/Rabbinical_Assembly" title="Rabbinical Assembly">Rabbinical Assembly</a> membership that many on the CJLS, while agreeing with the result, found the arguments unconvincing. The Rabinowitz, <a href="/wiki/Joel_Roth" title="Joel Roth">Roth</a>, and second Sigal responsa were considered by JTSA faculty as part of its decision to ordain women as rabbis in 1983. The Rabbinowitz responsum sidestepped the issue of obligation, arguing that a community representative was no longer needed in prayer and hence the question of whether a woman can perform halakhic was moot. CJLS stated that an argument potentially undermining the value of community and clergy was unconvincing: "We should not be afraid to recognize that the function of clergy is to help our people connect with the holy." The Roth and second Sigal responsa accepted that time-bound mitzvot were traditionally optional for women, but argued that women in modern times could change their traditional roles. The Roth responsum<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> argued that women could voluntarily assume the same obligations as men, and that women who do so (e. g., pray three times a day regularly) could count in a minyan and serve as agents. JTSA accordingly required female rabbinical students wishing to train as rabbis to personally obligate themselves. Synagogue rabbis, unwilling to inquire into individual religiosity, found this impractical. The second Sigal responsum<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> called for a takkanah, or rabbinical edict, "that would serve as a halakhic ERA", overruling all non-egalitarian provisions in law or, in the alternative, adopet an approach to halakhic interpretation independent of legal precedents. CJLS, unwilling to take either an intrusive approach or repudiate the traditional legal process, did not adopt either and let the JTS faculty vote stand unexplained. In 1993, Professor <a href="/wiki/Judith_Hauptman" title="Judith Hauptman">Judith Hauptman</a> of JTSA issued an influential paper<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> arguing that women had historically always been obligated in prayer, using more detailed arguments than the Blumenthal and first Sigal responsa. The paper suggested that women who followed traditional practices were failing to meet their obligations. Rabbi Roth argued that Conservative Judaism should reconsider before adopting a stance that labeled its most traditional members as sinners. The issue was again dropped. In 2002, the CJLS returned to the issue and adopted a single authoritative approach, the Fine responsum,<a href="#cite_note-OH_55:1.2002-120">[120]</a> as the definitive Conservative halakha on role-of-women issues. This responsum held that although Jewish women do not traditionally have the same obligations as men, Conservative women have collectively and voluntarily undertaken them. Because of this, the Fine responsum held that Conservative women were eligible to serve as agents and decision-makers for others. The Responsum also held that traditionally minded communities and individuals could continue traditional practice without sinning. By adopting this Responsum, CJLS was able to provide a considered Jewish-law justification for its egalitarian practices, without having to rely on potentially unconvincing arguments, undermine the religious importance of community and clergy, ask individual women intrusive questions, repudiate the halakhic tradition, or label women following traditional practices as sinners. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reform_Judaism">Reform Judaism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_Judaism&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Reform Judaism">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ReformJewishService.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/ReformJewishService.jpg/220px-ReformJewishService.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/ReformJewishService.jpg/330px-ReformJewishService.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/ReformJewishService.jpg/440px-ReformJewishService.jpg 2x" data-file-width="533" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption>Contemporary Reform service, with some congregants wearing head coverings and prayer shawls</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Reform_Judaism" title="Reform Judaism">Reform Judaism</a> believes in the equality of men and women. It rejects the idea that halakha is the sole legitimate form of Jewish decisionmaking, and holds that Jews must consider their conscience and ethical principles inherent in the Jewish tradition when deciding upon a right course of action. Consensus is widespread among Reform Jews that traditional distinctions between the role of men and women violate the deeper ethical principles of Judaism. This has enabled Reform communities to allow women to perform many rituals traditionally reserved for men, such as: <ul><li>Publicly reading the Torah w(ba'al kriah)</li> <li>Being part of the minyan</li> <li>Being called for an aliyah to read the Torah</li> <li>Serving as a cantor (shalich tzibbur)</li> <li>Serving as <a href="/wiki/Rabbi" title="Rabbi">rabbi</a> and halakhic decisor (posek)</li> <li>Wearing a tallit and tefillin</li></ul> Concerns about intermarriage influenced the Reform Jewish position on gender. In 1983, the <a href="/wiki/Central_Conference_of_American_Rabbis" title="Central Conference of American Rabbis">Central Conference of American Rabbis</a> passed a resolution waiving the need for formal conversion for anyone with at least one Jewish parent who has made affirmative acts of Jewish identity.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> The 1983 resolution had a mixed reception in Reform Jewish communities outside of the United States. Most notably, the <a href="/wiki/Israel_Movement_for_Progressive_Judaism" class="mw-redirect" title="Israel Movement for Progressive Judaism">Israel Movement for Progressive Judaism</a> rejected patrilineal descent and requires formal conversion for anyone whose mother is not Jewish.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> A jointBet Din composed of Orthodox, Traditional, Conservative, and Reform rabbis, established in Denver, Colorado to promote uniform conversion standards, dissolved in 1983 due to that resolution..<a href="#cite_note-Wertheimer,_A_People_Divided-135">[135]</a> In 2015, the majority of Britain's Assembly of Reform Rabbis voted in favor of a position paper proposing "that individuals who live a Jewish life, and who are patrilineally Jewish, can be welcomed into the Jewish community and confirmed as Jewish through an individual process".<a href="#cite_note-jpost1-136">[136]</a> Britain's Assembly of Reform Rabbis stated that rabbis "would be able to take local decisions – ratified by the <a href="/wiki/Beit_Din" class="mw-redirect" title="Beit Din">Beit Din</a> – confirming Jewish status".<a href="#cite_note-jpost1-136">[136]</a> Reform prayerbooks tend to avoid male-specific words and pronouns, making all references to God in translations in gender-neutral language. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Judaism_(UK)" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberal Judaism (UK)">UK Liberal movement</a>'s Siddur Lev Chadash (1995) does so, as does the <a href="/wiki/Reform_Judaism_(UK)" class="mw-redirect" title="Reform Judaism (UK)">UK Reform Movement</a>'s Forms of Prayer (2008).<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Mishkan_T%27filah" title="Mishkan T'filah">Mishkan T'filah</a>, the American Reform Jewish prayer book released in 2007, references to God as "He" have been removed, and whenever Jewish patriarchs are named (<a href="/wiki/Abraham" title="Abraham">Abraham</a>, <a href="/wiki/Isaac" title="Isaac">Isaac</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jacob" title="Jacob">Jacob</a>), so also are the matriarchs (Sarah, Rebecca, Rachel, and Leah.) <a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> In 2015 the Reform Jewish <a href="/wiki/High_Holy_Days" title="High Holy Days">High Holy Days</a> prayer book Mishkan HaNefesh was released as a companion to Mishkan T'filah. It includes a version of the High Holy Days prayer <a href="/wiki/Avinu_Malkeinu" title="Avinu Malkeinu">Avinu Malkeinu</a> that refers to God as both "Loving Father" and "Compassionate Mother". Other notable changes replaced a line from the Reform movement's earlier prayerbook, "Gates of Repentance", that mentioned the joy of a bride and groom specifically, with the line "rejoicing with couples under the chuppah" (wedding canpopy), and adding a third, non-gendered option to the way worshippers are called to the Torah, offering mibeit (from the house of), in addition to the traditional "son of" or "daughter of".<a href="#cite_note-jweekly1-140">[140]</a> In 2008, <a href="/wiki/Stacy_Offner" title="Stacy Offner">Stacy Offner</a> became the first female vice president of the <a href="/wiki/Union_for_Reform_Judaism" title="Union for Reform Judaism">Union for Reform Judaism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-URJ-141">[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> In 2015, Daryl Messinger became the first female Union chair.<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Reform_approaches_to_change">Reform approaches to change</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_Judaism&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Reform approaches to change">edit</a>]</div> Reform Judaism generally holds that the various differences between the roles of men and women in traditional Jewish law are not relevant to modern conditions and no longer applicable. Accordingly, legal arguments were not needed. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reconstructionist_Judaism">Reconstructionist Judaism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_Judaism&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Reconstructionist Judaism">edit</a>]</div> The equality of women and men is a central tenet and hallmark of <a href="/wiki/Reconstructionist_Judaism" title="Reconstructionist Judaism">Reconstructionist Judaism</a>. From the beginning, Reconstructionist Jewish ritual allowed men and women to pray together. It was on this basis that Rabbi <a href="/wiki/Mordecai_Kaplan" title="Mordecai Kaplan">Mordecai Kaplan</a> called for the full equality of women and men, despite the obvious difficulties reconciling this stance with traditional Jewish practice.<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> The Reconstructionist Movement always allowed women to be ordained.<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a> In 1968, women were accepted into the Reconstructionist Rabbinical College, under <a href="/wiki/Ira_Eisenstein" title="Ira Eisenstein">Ira Eisenstein</a>'s leadership.<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a> The first ordained female Reconstructionist rabbi, <a href="/wiki/Sandy_Eisenberg_Sasso" title="Sandy Eisenberg Sasso">Sandy Eisenberg Sasso</a>, served as rabbi of the Manhattan Reconstructionist Congregation in 1976, and gained a pulpit in 1977 at Beth El Zedeck congregation in Indianapolis. Sandy Eisenberg Sasso was accepted without debate or subsequent controversy.<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> In 2005, 24 of the movement's 106 synagogues in the US had women as senior or assistant rabbis.<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> In 2013 Rabbi <a href="/wiki/Deborah_Waxman" title="Deborah Waxman">Deborah Waxman</a> was elected as the President of the <a href="/wiki/Reconstructionist_Rabbinical_College" title="Reconstructionist Rabbinical College">Reconstructionist Rabbinical College</a>.<a href="#cite_note-thejewishweek.com-149">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a> She was the first woman and first lesbian to officially to lead a Jewish congregational union, and the first female rabbi and first lesbian to lead a Jewish seminary; the Reconstructionist Rabbinical College is both a congregational union and a seminary.<a href="#cite_note-thejewishweek.com-149">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> The Reconstructionist Community began including women in the minyan and allowing them to come up to the Torah for aliyot. They also continued the practice of <a href="/wiki/Bat_mitzvah" class="mw-redirect" title="Bat mitzvah">bat mitzvah</a>.<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> Reconstructionist Judaism allowed women to perform other traditionally male tasks, such as serving as witnesses, leading services,<a href="#cite_note-auto-153">[153]</a> public Torah reading, and wearing ritual prayer garments like <a href="/wiki/Kippot" class="mw-redirect" title="Kippot">kippot</a> and tallitot.<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a> Female Reconstructionist rabbis were instrumental in the creation of rituals, stories, and music that give women a voice in Judaism. Most of the focus has been on rituals for life-cycle events.<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a> New ceremonies have been created for births,<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> weddings, divorces, conversions,<a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a> weaning, and the onset of menarche and menopause. The Reconstructionist movement committed to creating liturgy that supports gender equality and the celebration of women's lives.<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-auto-153">[153]</a><a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a> Another major step: The Federation of Reconstructionist Congregations developed educational programs that teach the full acceptance of lesbians,<a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a> as well as rituals that affirm lesbian relationships.<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a><a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a> Reconstructionist rabbis officiate at same-sex weddings.<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a> Reconstructionist Judaism allows openly <a href="/wiki/LGBT" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT">LGBT</a> people to be ordained as rabbis and cantors. Prominent members of the Reconstructionist community focused on issues such as <a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence" title="Domestic violence">domestic violence</a>.<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a><a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a><a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a><a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a> Others devoted energy to helping women gain the right of divorce in traditional Jewish communities.<a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a><a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a> Many have spoken out for the right of Jewish women to pray aloud and read from the Torah at the <a href="/wiki/Western_Wall" title="Western Wall">Western Wall</a> in Jerusalem, particularly members of the <a href="/wiki/Women_of_the_Wall" title="Women of the Wall">Women of the Wall</a> group.<a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a> When the roles of women in religion change, men's roles may also change. With their acceptance of patrilineal descent in 1979, the <a href="/wiki/Reconstructionist_Rabbinical_Association" title="Reconstructionist Rabbinical Association">Reconstructionist Rabbinical Association</a> supported the principle that a man can pass Judaism on to the next generation as well as a woman.<a href="#cite_note-Teutsch1992-171">[171]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jewish_Renewal">Jewish Renewal</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_Judaism&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Jewish Renewal">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Renewal" title="Jewish Renewal">Jewish Renewal</a> describes itself as "a worldwide, transdenominational movement grounded in Judaism's prophetic and mystical traditions".<a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a> The Jewish Renewal movement ordains women and men as rabbis and cantors. <a href="/wiki/Lynn_Gottlieb" title="Lynn Gottlieb">Lynn Gottlieb</a> became the first female rabbi in Jewish Renewal in 1981, and <a href="/wiki/Avitall_Gerstetter" title="Avitall Gerstetter">Avitall Gerstetter</a> became the first female cantor in Jewish Renewal (and the first female cantor in Germany) in 2002.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-173">[173]</a> In 2009 and 2012 respectively, OHALAH (Association of Rabbis for Jewish Renewal) issued a board statement and a resolution supporting Women of the Wall.<a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a><a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a> OHALAH's Statement of Principles states, "Our local communities will embody egalitarian and inclusive values, manifested in a variety of leadership and decision-making structures, ensuring that women and men are full and equal partners in every aspect of our communal Jewish life."<a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a> In 2014 OHALAH issued a board resolution stating, "Therefore, be it resolved that: OHALAH supports the observance of <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_History_Month" title="Women's History Month">Women's History Month</a>, <a href="/wiki/International_Women%27s_Day" title="International Women's Day">International Women's Day</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_Equality_Day" title="Women's Equality Day">Women's Equality Day</a>; OHALAH condemns all types of sexism; OHALAH is committed to gender equality, now and in all generations to come; and OHALAH supports equal rights regardless of gender."<a href="#cite_note-177">[177]</a> Also in 2014, ALEPH: Alliance for Jewish Renewal issued a statement stating, "ALEPH: Alliance for Jewish Renewal supports the observance of Women's History Month, International Women's Day, and Women's Equality Day, condemns all types of sexism, is committed to gender equality, now and in all generations to come, and supports equal rights regardless of gender, in recognition and allegiance to the view that we are all equally created in the Divine Image."<a href="#cite_note-178">[178]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Humanistic_Judaism">Humanistic Judaism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_Judaism&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Humanistic Judaism">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Humanistic_Judaism" title="Humanistic Judaism">Humanistic Judaism</a> ordains both men and women as rabbis; its first rabbi was a woman, <a href="/wiki/Tamara_Kolton" title="Tamara Kolton">Tamara Kolton</a>, who was ordained in 1999.<a href="#cite_note-shj-179">[179]</a> Its first cantor was also a woman, <a href="/wiki/Hazzan_Deborah_Davis" class="mw-redirect" title="Hazzan Deborah Davis">Deborah Davis</a>, ordained in 2001; Humanistic Judaism later stopped ordaining cantors.<a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Society_for_Humanistic_Judaism" title="Society for Humanistic Judaism">Society for Humanistic Judaism</a> issued a statement in 1996 stating, "We affirm that a woman has the moral right and should have the continuing legal right to decide whether or not to terminate a pregnancy in accordance with her own ethical standards. Because a decision to terminate a pregnancy carries serious, irreversible consequences, it is one to be made with great care and with keen awareness of the complex psychological, emotional, and ethical implications."<a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a> In 2012, they opposed <a href="/wiki/Conscience_clause_in_medicine_in_the_United_States" title="Conscience clause in medicine in the United States">conscience clauses</a> that allowed religious-affiliated institutions to be exempt from requirements mandating the provision of reproductive healthcare services.<a href="#cite_note-182">[182]</a> In 2013 stated, "Therefore, be it resolved that: The Society for Humanistic Judaism wholeheartedly supports the observance of <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_Equality_Day" title="Women's Equality Day">Women's Equality Day</a> on August 26 to commemorate the anniversary of the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution allowing women to vote; The Society condemns gender discrimination in all its forms, including restriction of rights, limited access to education, violence, and subjugation; and The Society commits itself to maintain vigilance and speak out in the fight to bring gender equality to our generation and to the generations that follow."<a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sofrot_(scribe)">Sofrot (scribe)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_Judaism&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Sofrot (scribe)">edit</a>]</div> Sofrot is the feminine plural of Sofer.<a href="#cite_note-184">[184]</a> A Sopher, Sopher, Sofer STaM, or Sofer ST"M (Heb: "scribe", סופר סת״ם) is a Jewish scribe who is able and entitled to transcribe Torah scrolls, tefillin and mezuzot, and other religious writings. (ST"M, סת״ם, is an abbreviation for Sefer Torahs, Tefillin, and Mezuzot. The masculine plural of sofer is "sofrim" סופרים). Forming the basis for the discussion of women becoming sofrot, <a href="/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud">Talmud Gittin</a> 45b states: "Sifrei Torah, tefillin, and mezuzot written by a heretic, a star-worshipper, a slave, a woman, a minor, a <a href="/wiki/Cuthean" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuthean">Cuthean</a>, or an <a href="/wiki/Apostasy_in_Judaism" title="Apostasy in Judaism">apostate Jew</a>, are unfit for ritual use.".<a href="#cite_note-185">[185]</a> As <a href="/wiki/Arba%27ah_Turim" title="Arba'ah Turim">Arba'ah Turim</a> does not include women in its list of those ineligible to write Sifrei Torah, some see this as proof that women are permitted to write a Torah scroll.<a href="#cite_note-186">[186]</a> However, virtually all Orthodox (both Modern and Ultra) authorities reject the idea that a woman is permitted to write a <a href="/wiki/Sefer_Torah" class="mw-redirect" title="Sefer Torah">Sefer Torah</a>. Yet women are permitted to inscribe <a href="/wiki/Ketubah" title="Ketubah">Ketubot</a> (marriage contracts), STaM not intended for ritual use, and other writings of <a href="/wiki/Sofrut" class="mw-redirect" title="Sofrut">Sofrut</a> beyond simple STaM. In 2003, Canadian <a href="/wiki/Aviel_Barclay" title="Aviel Barclay">Aviel Barclay</a> became the world's first public, traditionally-trained, female sofer.<a href="#cite_note-187">[187]</a><a href="#cite_note-188">[188]</a> In 2007 <a href="/wiki/Jen_Taylor_Friedman" title="Jen Taylor Friedman">Jen Taylor Friedman</a>, a British woman, became the first female sofer to scribe a <a href="/wiki/Sefer_Torah" class="mw-redirect" title="Sefer Torah">Sefer Torah</a>.<a href="#cite_note-189">[189]</a> In 2010 the first <a href="/wiki/Sefer_Torah" class="mw-redirect" title="Sefer Torah">Sefer Torah</a> scribed by a group of women (six female sofers, from Brazil, Canada, Israel, and the United States) was completed;<a href="#cite_note-190">[190]</a> this was known as the <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_Torah_Project" title="Women's Torah Project">Women's Torah Project</a>.<a href="#cite_note-jweekly.com-191">[191]</a> From October 2010 until spring 2011, Julie Seltzer, one of the female sofers from the Women's Torah Project, scribed a <a href="/wiki/Sefer_Torah" class="mw-redirect" title="Sefer Torah">Sefer Torah</a> as part of an exhibition at the <a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Jewish_Museum" title="Contemporary Jewish Museum">Contemporary Jewish Museum</a> in <a href="/wiki/San_Francisco" title="San Francisco">San Francisco</a>. This makes her the first American female sofer to scribe a <a href="/wiki/Sefer_Torah" class="mw-redirect" title="Sefer Torah">Sefer Torah</a>. Seltzer is non-denominationally Jewish.<a href="#cite_note-jweekly.com-191">[191]</a><a href="#cite_note-192">[192]</a><a href="#cite_note-193">[193]</a><a href="#cite_note-194">[194]</a> From spring 2011 until August 2012 she scribed another Sefer Torah, this time for the Reform congregation Beth Israel in San Diego.<a href="#cite_note-jpost.com-195">[195]</a><a href="#cite_note-196">[196]</a> On September 22, 2013, <a href="/wiki/Congregation_Beth_Elohim" title="Congregation Beth Elohim">Congregation Beth Elohim</a> of New York dedicated a new Torah, which members of Beth Elohim said was the first Torah in New York City to be completed by a woman.<a href="#cite_note-197">[197]</a> The Torah was scribed by Linda Coppleson.<a href="#cite_note-198">[198]</a> As of 2014, there were an estimated 50 female sofers.<a href="#cite_note-199">[199]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_Judaism&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/24px-Star_of_David.svg.png" decoding="async" width="24" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/36px-Star_of_David.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/48px-Star_of_David.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="693" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Judaism" title="Portal:Judaism">Judaism portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bat-Kohen" title="Bat-Kohen">Bat-Kohen</a> (daughter of a priest)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bat_Levi" class="mw-redirect" title="Bat Levi">Bat Levi</a> (daughter of a Levite)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_World_Congress_of_Jewish_Women" title="First World Congress of Jewish Women">First World Congress of Jewish Women</a>, 1923</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_feminism" title="Jewish feminism">Jewish feminism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Jewish_feminists" title="List of Jewish feminists">List of Jewish feminists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_as_theological_figures" title="Women as theological figures">Women as theological figures</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_rabbis_and_Torah_scholars" title="Women rabbis and Torah scholars">Women rabbis and Torah scholars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebbetzin" title="Rebbetzin">Rebbetzin</a> (Yiddish) or Rabbanit (Hebrew) (Orthodox rabbi's wife)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_women_in_the_Bible" title="List of women in the Bible">List of women in the Bible</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bais_Yaakov" title="Bais Yaakov">Bais Yaakov</a> (schools for Haredi girls)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niddah" title="Niddah">Niddah</a> (menstruation laws)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soferet" class="mw-redirect" title="Soferet">Soferet</a> (female Jewish scribe who can transcribe religious documents)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_and_Jewish_Studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender and Jewish Studies">Gender and Jewish Studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_separation_in_Judaism" title="Gender separation in Judaism">Gender separation in Judaism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ezrat_Nashim" title="Ezrat Nashim">Ezrat Nashim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tzniut" title="Tzniut">Tzniut</a> (modest behavior)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negiah" title="Negiah">Negiah</a> (guidelines for physical contact)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yichud" title="Yichud">Yichud</a> (prohibitions of secluding oneself with a stranger)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_on_marriage" title="Jewish views on marriage">Jewish views on marriage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shidduch" title="Shidduch">Shidduch</a> (finding a marriage partner)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shalom_bayit" title="Shalom bayit">Shalom bayit</a> (peace and harmony in the relationship between husband and wife)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeved_habat" title="Zeved habat">Zeved habat</a> or Simchat Bat (Jewish baby naming ceremony for girls)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minyan" title="Minyan">Minyan</a> (quorum of at least ten Jews acceptable for the recitation of certain prayers) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Partnership_minyan" title="Partnership minyan">Partnership minyan</a> (a movement to give women more roles in prayer services)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agunah" title="Agunah">Agunah</a> (a woman who wishes to divorce her husband, but her husband refused to provide her with a Jewish divorce contract)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Israel" title="Women in Israel">Women in Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_Torah_Project" title="Women's Torah Project">Women's Torah Project</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_of_the_Wall" title="Women of the Wall">Women of the Wall</a></li></ul></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_Judaism&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Pew-1"><a href="#cite_ref-Pew_1-0">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2016/03/22/women-more-likely-than-men-to-affiliate-with-a-religion/">"The Gender Gap in Religion Around the World"</a>. Pew Research Center. 22 March 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Gender+Gap+in+Religion+Around+the+World&rft.pub=Pew+Research+Center&rft.date=2016-03-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pewresearch.org%2Freligion%2F2016%2F03%2F22%2Fwomen-more-likely-than-men-to-affiliate-with-a-religion%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-bowker-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bowker_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-bowker_2-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-bowker_2-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowker2021" class="citation book cs1">Bowker, John (2021-10-12). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=I8-OEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA121">World Religions: The Great Faiths Explored and Explained</a>. National Geographic Books. pp. 121, 131. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7440-3475-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7440-3475-2"><bdi>978-0-7440-3475-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=World+Religions%3A+The+Great+Faiths+Explored+and+Explained&rft.pages=121%2C+131&rft.pub=National+Geographic+Books&rft.date=2021-10-12&rft.isbn=978-0-7440-3475-2&rft.aulast=Bowker&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DI8-OEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA121&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLerner1977" class="citation journal cs1">Lerner, Anne Lapidus (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23605350">""Who Hast Not Made Me a Man": The Movement for Equal Rights for Women in American Jewry"</a>. 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Nashim: A Journal of Jewish Women's Studies & Gender Issues (29): 56–80. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2979%2Fnashim.29.56">10.2979/nashim.29.56</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0793-8934">0793-8934</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2979/nashim.29.56">10.2979/nashim.29.56</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:155932131">155932131</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nashim%3A+A+Journal+of+Jewish+Women%27s+Studies+%26+Gender+Issues&rft.atitle=Jewish+and+Islamic+Religious+Feminist+Exegesis+of+the+Sacred+Books%3A+Adam%2C+Woman+and+Gender&rft.issue=29&rft.pages=56-80&rft.date=2015&rft.issn=0793-8934&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A155932131%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.2979%2Fnashim.29.56%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2979%2Fnashim.29.56&rft.aulast=Roded&rft.aufirst=Ruth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.2979%2Fnashim.29.56&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=24469">"Medical Definition of Levite"</a>. 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Jewish Women's Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Jewish+Women%27s+Archive&rft.atitle=The+Jew+Who+Wasn%27t+There%3A+Halacha+and+the+Jewish+Woman&rft.date=2016-10-26&rft.aulast=Adler&rft.aufirst=Rachel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjwa.org%2Fsites%2Fjwa.org%2Ffiles%2Fmediaobjects%2Fthe_jew_who_wasnt_there_adler.jpg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> Steinsaltz, 179 </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> Steinsaltz, 179-180 </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Berakhot_(Talmud)" class="mw-redirect" title="Berakhot (Talmud)">Berakhot</a> 17a </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Kiddushin_(Talmud)" title="Kiddushin (Talmud)">Kiddushin</a> 49b </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Shabbat_(Talmud)" title="Shabbat (Talmud)">Shabbat</a> 33b </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Yebamot" class="mw-redirect" title="Yebamot">Yebamot</a> 62b </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Kiddushin_(Talmud)" title="Kiddushin (Talmud)">Kiddushin</a> 31b </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Sotah" class="mw-redirect" title="Sotah">Sotah</a> 11b </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Baba_Metzia" class="mw-redirect" title="Baba Metzia">Baba Metzia</a> 59a </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Sifre" title="Sifre">Sifre</a>, 133 </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Niddah_(Talmud)" title="Niddah (Talmud)">Niddah</a> 45b </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Megillah_(Talmud)" title="Megillah (Talmud)">Megillah</a> 14b </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> Babylonian Talmud, Brachoth 27b </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrossman2004-28"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrossman2004_28-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrossman2004">Grossman 2004</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrossman20043-29"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrossman20043_29-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrossman2004">Grossman 2004</a>, p. 3. </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaskin1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Judith_R._Baskin" title="Judith R. 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Wayne State University Press. p. 94. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8143-2713-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8143-2713-5"><bdi>978-0-8143-2713-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Jewish+Women+in+the+Middle+Ages&rft.btitle=Jewish+Women+in+Historical+Perspective&rft.pages=94&rft.pub=Wayne+State+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-8143-2713-5&rft.aulast=Baskin&rft.aufirst=Judith+Reesa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DASw5HwZrMNYC%26pg%3DPA94&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ben-Sasson-31"><a href="#cite_ref-Ben-Sasson_31-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBen-Sasson2010" class="citation book cs1">Ben-Sasson, Hayim (2010-09-09). 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Yokai Publishing. pp. 612–627. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85792-468-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85792-468-1"><bdi>978-0-85792-468-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Spiritual+and+Social+Creativity&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Jewish+People&rft.pages=612-627&rft.pub=Yokai+Publishing&rft.date=2010-09-09&rft.isbn=978-0-85792-468-1&rft.aulast=Ben-Sasson&rft.aufirst=Hayim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnPKfkgAACAAJ%26pg%3DPA612&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESteinberg2008157–158-32"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteinberg2008157–158_32-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSteinberg2008">Steinberg 2008</a>, pp. 157–158. </li> <li id="cite_note-Baskin_1991_42-33"><a href="#cite_ref-Baskin_1991_42_33-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaskin1991" class="citation journal cs1">Baskin, Judith R. 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Princeton University Press. p. 52. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-05787-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-05787-3"><bdi>978-0-691-05787-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Italian+Jewish+Women+at+Prayer&rft.btitle=Judaism+in+Practice%3A+From+the+Middle+Ages+Through+the+Early+Modern+Period&rft.pages=52&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2001-11-18&rft.isbn=978-0-691-05787-3&rft.aulast=Adelman&rft.aufirst=Howard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWOQ9DwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA52&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESteinberg2008157-37"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteinberg2008157_37-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSteinberg2008">Steinberg 2008</a>, p. 157. </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaitzSondra_HenryCheryl_Tallan2003" class="citation book cs1">Taitz, Emily; Sondra Henry; Cheryl Tallan (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/jpsguidetojewish00tait">The JPS Guide to Jewish Women: 600 B.C.E.-1900 C.E.</a>. 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(Spring 1991). "Some Parallels in the Education of Medieval Jewish and Christian Women". Jewish History. 5 (1): 46. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fbf01679792">10.1007/bf01679792</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20101094">20101094</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143121150">143121150</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Jewish+History&rft.atitle=Some+Parallels+in+the+Education+of+Medieval+Jewish+and+Christian+Women&rft.ssn=spring&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=46&rft.date=1991&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143121150%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20101094%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fbf01679792&rft.aulast=Baskin&rft.aufirst=Judith+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMelammed199191–100-55"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMelammed199191–100_55-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMelammed1991">Melammed 1991</a>, pp. 91–100. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMelammed1991 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarcus198638-56"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarcus198638_56-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMarcus1986">Marcus 1986</a>, p. 38. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESteinberg2008160-57"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteinberg2008160_57-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSteinberg2008">Steinberg 2008</a>, p. 160. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarcus198639-58"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarcus198639_58-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMarcus1986">Marcus 1986</a>, p. 39. </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> Medrish on <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Proverbs%2031&version=nrsv">Proverbs 31</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> Talmud Babylonia Kelim Bava Kamma 4:17 separately in Sifre Deuteronomy 307 in both she is personally left unnamed and referred to as just, 'and we have learned from the daughter of Haninah ben Terradyon', a sign of the prevailing attitude towards women (as property of their fathers). </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tractate_Semahot&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tractate Semahot (page does not exist)">Tractate Semahot</a> 12:13 </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> Babylonian Talmud, Berachot 10a </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> Kraemer, 315. </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> Kraemer, 335. </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> Tuv Ayin, no. 4 </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> Likkutei Halachos, Sotah p. 21 </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTwersky1998" class="citation book cs1">Twersky, Mayor (1998). "A Glimpse of the Rav". In Genaḳ, Menaḥem Dov ben Ḥayim Yitsḥaḳ (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=a_MRAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA113">Rabbi Joseph B. Soloveitchik: Man of Halacha, Man of Faith</a>. Ktav. p. 113. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88125-612-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88125-612-3"><bdi>978-0-88125-612-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+Glimpse+of+the+Rav&rft.btitle=Rabbi+Joseph+B.+Soloveitchik%3A+Man+of+Halacha%2C+Man+of+Faith&rft.pages=113&rft.pub=Ktav&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-88125-612-3&rft.aulast=Twersky&rft.aufirst=Mayor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Da_MRAQAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA113&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-jewishcare-68">^ <a href="#cite_ref-jewishcare_68-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-jewishcare_68-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jewishcare.org.au/content/Document/Brochures/The%20Employment%20Centre/Brochure%20-%20A%20Guide%20to%20Facilitating%20Education%20and%20Training%20of%20the%20Ultra-Orthodox%20Jewish%20Community.pdf">"A GUIDE TO FACILITATING EDUCATION AND TRAINING OF THE ULTRA-ORTHODOX JEWISH COMMUNITY"</a> (PDF). Jewish Care Victoria. p. 3. Retrieved August 19, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Jewish+Care+Victoria&rft.atitle=A+GUIDE+TO+FACILITATING+EDUCATION+AND+TRAINING+OF+THE+ULTRA-ORTHODOX+JEWISH+COMMUNITY&rft.pages=3&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishcare.org.au%2Fcontent%2FDocument%2FBrochures%2FThe%2520Employment%2520Centre%2FBrochure%2520-%2520A%2520Guide%2520to%2520Facilitating%2520Education%2520and%2520Training%2520of%2520the%2520Ultra-Orthodox%2520Jewish%2520Community.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFried" class="citation web cs1">Fried, Rabbi Pinchos. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.torahmates.org/jewish-resources/the-role-of-women-in-judaism/">"The Role of Women in Judaism"</a>. Torah Mates. Retrieved August 19, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Torah+Mates&rft.atitle=The+Role+of+Women+in+Judaism&rft.aulast=Fried&rft.aufirst=Rabbi+Pinchos&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.torahmates.org%2Fjewish-resources%2Fthe-role-of-women-in-judaism%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://thecurriculum.org/the-role-of-men-and-women-in-judaism/">"The Role Of Men And Women In Judaism"</a>. The Curriculum. November 29, 2019. Retrieved August 19, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Curriculum&rft.atitle=The+Role+Of+Men+And+Women+In+Judaism&rft.date=2019-11-29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fthecurriculum.org%2Fthe-role-of-men-and-women-in-judaism%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSigalowFox2024" class="citation web cs1">Sigalow, Emily; Fox, Nicole S. (June 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24644272">"Perpetuating Stereotypes: A Study of Gender, Family, and Religious Life in Jewish Children's Books"</a>. Jstor. Wiley. 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Chabad Lubavitch.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Chabad+Lubavitch&rft.atitle=Feminism+and+Orthodoxy+-+What+It%27s+All+About&rft.date=2011-12-25&rft.aulast=Handelman&rft.aufirst=Susan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chabad.org%2FtheJewishWoman%2Farticle_cdo%2Faid%2F371261%2Fjewish%2FFeminism-and-Orthodoxy.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLakein2014" class="citation news cs1">Lakein, Dvora (October 6, 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lubavitch.com/news/article/2031309/How-Does-She-Do-It.html">"How Does She Do It?"</a>. Chabad Lubavitch World HQ / News. Retrieved 17 November 2014. <q>Mrs. Shula Bryski, representative to Thousand Oaks, California, and a mother of six, says that the Rebbe "empowered women in a way perhaps never done before". Embracing modernity, the Rebbe understood that today, "women need more sophisticated Judaism, more depth, more spirituality". Bryski's personal emphasis in this affluent Los Angeles suburb is educating women through a weekly Caffeine for the Soul class, monthly Rosh Chodesh Society meetings, and the wildly-popular bat-mitzvah classes she leads. Bryski also serves on the editorial board of the Rosh Chodesh Society, a project of Jewish Learning Institute (JLI), and is a prolific writer.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=How+Does+She+Do+It%3F&rft.date=2014-10-06&rft.aulast=Lakein&rft.aufirst=Dvora&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flubavitch.com%2Fnews%2Farticle%2F2031309%2FHow-Does-She-Do-It.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKress2011" class="citation web cs1">Kress, Michael (25 December 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/orthostate.html">"The State of Orthodox Judaism Today"</a>. 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Retrieved 2015-11-01.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Rabbinical+Council+of+America+officially+bans+ordination+and+hiring+of+women+rabbis+%26%23124%3B+Jewish+Telegraphic+Agency&rft.pub=Jta.org&rft.date=2015&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jta.org%2F2015%2F11%2F01%2Fnews-opinion%2Funited-states%2Frabbinical-council-of-america-officially-bans-ordination-and-hiring-of-women-rabbis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150207204326/http://www.jns.org/latest-articles/2015/1/26/with-female-spiritual-advisor-efrat-spotlights-womens-empowerment-in-israel#.VMZhzS7lw4I=">"With female spiritual advisor, Efrat spotlights women's empowerment in Israel"</a>. JNS.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jns.org/latest-articles/2015/1/26/with-female-spiritual-advisor-efrat-spotlights-womens-empowerment-in-israel#.VMZhzS7lw4I=">the original</a> on 2015-02-07. Retrieved 2015-01-26.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=JNS.org&rft.atitle=With+female+spiritual+advisor%2C+Efrat+spotlights+women%27s+empowerment+in+Israel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jns.org%2Flatest-articles%2F2015%2F1%2F26%2Fwith-female-spiritual-advisor-efrat-spotlights-womens-empowerment-in-israel%23.VMZhzS7lw4I%3D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-thejc.com-97">^ <a href="#cite_ref-thejc.com_97-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-thejc.com_97-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thejc.com/news/uk-news/153491/chief-rabbi-mirvis-launches-new-qualification-female-educators">"Chief Rabbi Mirvis launches new qualification for female educators"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Chief+Rabbi+Mirvis+launches+new+qualification+for+female+educators&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thejc.com%2Fnews%2Fuk-news%2F153491%2Fchief-rabbi-mirvis-launches-new-qualification-female-educators&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJTA2016" class="citation news cs1">JTA (23 August 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/1.738217">"Israeli Orthodox Synagogue Gets a First Woman Rabbi"</a>. Haaretz.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Haaretz&rft.atitle=Israeli+Orthodox+Synagogue+Gets+a+First+Woman+Rabbi&rft.date=2016-08-23&rft.au=JTA&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.haaretz.com%2Fisrael-news%2F1.738217&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilensky2017" class="citation news cs1">Wilensky, David A. M. (3 February 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jweekly.com/2017/02/03/orthodox-union-bars-women-from-serving-as-clergy-in-its-synagogues/">"Orthodox Union bars women from serving as clergy in its synagogues – J"</a>. J. Jweekly.com. Retrieved 2017-02-04.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=J&rft.atitle=Orthodox+Union+bars+women+from+serving+as+clergy+in+its+synagogues+%E2%80%93+J&rft.date=2017-02-03&rft.aulast=Wilensky&rft.aufirst=David+A.+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jweekly.com%2F2017%2F02%2F03%2Forthodox-union-bars-women-from-serving-as-clergy-in-its-synagogues%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrossman2004180–182-100"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrossman2004180–182_100-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrossman2004">Grossman 2004</a>, pp. 180–182. </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeiss2001" class="citation book cs1">Weiss, Avraham (2001-01-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GQHwIAxpZRAC&pg=PA45">Women at Prayer: A Halakhic Analysis of Women's Prayer Groups</a>. KTAV Publishing House, Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780881257199" title="Special:BookSources/9780881257199"><bdi>9780881257199</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Women+at+Prayer%3A+A+Halakhic+Analysis+of+Women%27s+Prayer+Groups&rft.pub=KTAV+Publishing+House%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2001-01-01&rft.isbn=9780881257199&rft.aulast=Weiss&rft.aufirst=Avraham&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGQHwIAxpZRAC%26pg%3DPA45&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> Israel's late <a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashkenazi">Ashkenazic</a> <a href="/wiki/Chief_Rabbi" title="Chief Rabbi">Chief Rabbi</a> <a href="/wiki/Shlomo_Goren" title="Shlomo Goren">Shlomo Goren</a> may have ruled in 1974 that while women do not constitute a minyan, they may still carry out full prayer services. Goren later either clarified or retracted his view, stating that his writing was purely a speculative work published against his wishes, not intended as a practical responsum, and that in his view, the actual halakha was in accord with the second school of thought, listed above.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrimmerA" class="citation web cs1">Frimmer, Dov I.; A, Aryeh. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190912215628/http://www.daat.ac.il/daat/english/tfila/frimmer1.htm">"WOMEN'S PRAYER SERVICES - THEORY AND PRACTICE"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.daat.ac.il/daat/english/tfila/frimmer1.htm">the original</a> on 2019-09-12.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=WOMEN%27S+PRAYER+SERVICES+-+THEORY+AND+PRACTICE&rft.aulast=Frimmer&rft.aufirst=Dov+I.&rft.au=A%2C+Aryeh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.daat.ac.il%2Fdaat%2Fenglish%2Ftfila%2Ffrimmer1.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.edah.org/backend/JournalArticle/1_2_shapiro.pdf">"Qeri'at ha-Torah by Women: A Halakhic Analysis"</a> (PDF).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Qeri%27at+ha-Torah+by+Women%3A+A+Halakhic+Analysis&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.edah.org%2Fbackend%2FJournalArticle%2F1_2_shapiro.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"> (972 KB) </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.edah.org/backend/JournalArticle/3_2_Sperber.pdf">"Congregational Dignity and Human Dignity: Women and Public Torah Reading"</a> (PDF).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Congregational+Dignity+and+Human+Dignity%3A+Women+and+Public+Torah+Reading&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.edah.org%2Fbackend%2FJournalArticle%2F3_2_Sperber.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"> (78.1 KB) </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNovick2013" class="citation news cs1">Novick, Akiva (25 June 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4396702,00.html">"Halachic ruling: Women may say Kaddish - Israel Jewish Scene, Ynetnews"</a>. Ynetnews. Ynetnews.com. Retrieved 2015-07-19.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ynetnews&rft.atitle=Halachic+ruling%3A+Women+may+say+Kaddish+-+Israel+Jewish+Scene%2C+Ynetnews&rft.date=2013-06-25&rft.aulast=Novick&rft.aufirst=Akiva&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ynetnews.com%2Farticles%2F0%2C7340%2CL-4396702%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> Ket. 72a </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeller2001" class="citation web cs1">Geller, Myron S. (October 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231219164333/https://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/sites/default/files/public/halakhah/teshuvot/19912000/geller_womenedut.pdf">"Woman Is Eligible to Testify"</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/sites/default/files/public/halakhah/teshuvot/19912000/geller_womenedut.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on December 19, 2023. Retrieved December 19, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Woman+Is+Eligible+to+Testify&rft.date=2001-10&rft.aulast=Geller&rft.aufirst=Myron+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rabbinicalassembly.org%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fpublic%2Fhalakhah%2Fteshuvot%2F19912000%2Fgeller_womenedut.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> English summary at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.theawarenesscenter.org/Tendler_Mordecai.html">The Awareness Center: Case of Rabbi Mordecai Tendler.</a> Original teshuvah (<a href="/wiki/Responsum" class="mw-redirect" title="Responsum">Responsum</a>) (in Hebrew) at <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060908202209/http://www.theawarenesscenter.org/HaravWosner%27sT%27shuvah.pdf">"The Awareness Center: Harav Wosner's Teshuvah"</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.theawarenesscenter.org/HaravWosner'sT'shuvah.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2006-09-08.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Awareness+Center%3A+Harav+Wosner%27s+Teshuvah&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theawarenesscenter.org%2FHaravWosner%27sT%27shuvah.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"> (130 KB) (Note: parenthetical translations are added, parenthetical references are original) </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHartmanZicherman2019" class="citation journal cs1">Hartman, Tova; Zicherman, Chaim (December 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-law-and-religion/article/higher-education-for-haredim-in-israel/B42FBB0B42CE3D5201881CA96C8450BB">"Higher Education for Haredim in Israel"</a>. Journal of Law and Religion. 34 (3): 273–283. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fjlr.2019.37">10.1017/jlr.2019.37</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0748-0814">0748-0814</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Law+and+Religion&rft.atitle=Higher+Education+for+Haredim+in+Israel&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=273-283&rft.date=2019-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fjlr.2019.37&rft.issn=0748-0814&rft.aulast=Hartman&rft.aufirst=Tova&rft.au=Zicherman%2C+Chaim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fjournals%2Fjournal-of-law-and-religion%2Farticle%2Fhigher-education-for-haredim-in-israel%2FB42FBB0B42CE3D5201881CA96C8450BB&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pluralism.org/feminism-and-judaism">"Feminism and Judaism"</a>. pluralism.org. 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Retrieved 30 June 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Haaretz&rft.atitle=Tefillingate%3A+Orthodoxy+must+not+reject+its+most+committed+women&rft.date=2014-01-28&rft.aulast=Sztokman&rft.aufirst=Elana&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.haaretz.com%2Fopinion%2F.premium-1.571011%23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFarkash2013" class="citation news cs1">Farkash, Tali (2013-07-07). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4400770,00.html">"e women extorted by ex-husbands"</a>. Ynet News. Retrieved 2014-10-29.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=e+women+extorted+by+ex-husbands&rft.date=2013-07-07&rft.aulast=Farkash&rft.aufirst=Tali&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ynetnews.com%2Farticles%2F0%2C7340%2CL-4400770%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> CJLS teshuvah by Rabbi Gerald C. Skolnik, 1993 </li> <li id="cite_note-Raphael-114">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Raphael_114-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Raphael_114-1">b</a> Raphael, Marc Lee. Profiles in American Judaism: The Reform, Conservative, Orthodox, and Reconstructionist Traditions in Historical Perspective. San Francisco: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1984. p. 110 </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-115">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_115-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_115-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231219163708/https://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/sites/default/files/public/halakhah/teshuvot/20052010/mikveh_introduction.pdf">"Mikveh and the Sanctity of Family Relations"</a> (PDF). 2006. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/sites/default/files/public/halakhah/teshuvot/20052010/mikveh_introduction.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on December 19, 2023. Retrieved December 19, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Mikveh+and+the+Sanctity+of+Family+Relations&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rabbinicalassembly.org%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fpublic%2Fhalakhah%2Fteshuvot%2F20052010%2Fmikveh_introduction.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231219163905/https://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/female-purity-niddah">"Female Purity (Niddah)"</a>. Jewish Women's Archive. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/female-purity-niddah">the original</a> on 2023-12-19. Retrieved 2023-12-19.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Jewish+Women%27s+Archive&rft.atitle=Female+Purity+%28Niddah%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjwa.org%2Fencyclopedia%2Farticle%2Ffemale-purity-niddah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNewman" class="citation web cs1">Newman, Debra. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.stljewishlight.com/opinion/commentaries/article_c8986454-85df-11e8-b2ce-bb83d5ec9e06.html">"Conservative movement is closing its gender gap, but there is still work to be done - St. Louis Jewish Light: Commentaries - Conservative movement is closing its gender gap, but there is still work to be done: Commentaries"</a>. Stljewishlight.com. Retrieved 2018-07-12.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Conservative+movement+is+closing+its+gender+gap%2C+but+there+is+still+work+to+be+done+-+St.+Louis+Jewish+Light%3A+Commentaries+-+Conservative+movement+is+closing+its+gender+gap%2C+but+there+is+still+work+to+be+done%3A+Commentaries&rft.pub=Stljewishlight.com&rft.aulast=Newman&rft.aufirst=Debra&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.stljewishlight.com%2Fopinion%2Fcommentaries%2Farticle_c8986454-85df-11e8-b2ce-bb83d5ec9e06.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-DorffPhD2018-118"><a href="#cite_ref-DorffPhD2018_118-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElliot_N._DorffRector_and_Professor_of_Philosophy_Elliot_N_Dorff,_PhD2018" class="citation book cs1">Elliot N. Dorff; Rector and Professor of Philosophy Elliot N Dorff, PhD (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vi9ZDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA160">Modern Conservative Judaism: Evolving Thought and Practice</a>. U of Nebraska Press. pp. 160–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8276-1387-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8276-1387-4"><bdi>978-0-8276-1387-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+Conservative+Judaism%3A+Evolving+Thought+and+Practice&rft.pages=160-&rft.pub=U+of+Nebraska+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0-8276-1387-4&rft.au=Elliot+N.+Dorff&rft.au=Rector+and+Professor+of+Philosophy+Elliot+N+Dorff%2C+PhD&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dvi9ZDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA160&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jwa.org/feminism/klagsbrun-francine">"Francine Klagsbrun | Jewish Women's Archive"</a>. Jwa.org. Retrieved 2015-09-07.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Francine+Klagsbrun+%26%23124%3B+Jewish+Women%27s+Archive&rft.pub=Jwa.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjwa.org%2Ffeminism%2Fklagsbrun-francine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-OH_55:1.2002-120">^ <a href="#cite_ref-OH_55:1.2002_120-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OH_55:1.2002_120-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OH_55:1.2002_120-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFine" class="citation web cs1">Fine, David J. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/sites/default/files/public/halakhah/teshuvot/19912000/oh_55_1_2002.pdf">"OH 55:1.2002 Women and the Minyan"</a> (PDF). Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Rabbinical Assembly.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Committee+on+Jewish+Law+and+Standards+of+the+Rabbinical+Assembly&rft.atitle=OH+55%3A1.2002+Women+and+the+Minyan&rft.aulast=Fine&rft.aufirst=David+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rabbinicalassembly.org%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fpublic%2Fhalakhah%2Fteshuvot%2F19912000%2Foh_55_1_2002.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-RabbiIntro-121"><a href="#cite_ref-RabbiIntro_121-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090320161101/http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/docs/Mikveh_Introduction.doc">"Rabbi Miriam Berkowitz, Mikveh and the Sanctity of Family Relations, Committee on Jewish Law and Standards, Rabbinical Assembly, December 6, 2006"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/docs/Mikveh_Introduction.doc">the original</a> on March 20, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Rabbi+Miriam+Berkowitz%2C+Mikveh+and+the+Sanctity+of+Family+Relations%2C+Committee+on+Jewish+Law+and+Standards%2C+Rabbinical+Assembly%2C+December+6%2C+2006&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rabbinicalassembly.org%2Fdocs%2FMikveh_Introduction.doc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-RabbiGrossman-122"><a href="#cite_ref-RabbiGrossman_122-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080407061730/http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/docs/Grossman-Niddah.pdf">"Rabbi Susan Grossman, MIKVEH AND THE SANCTITY OF BEING CREATED HUMAN, Committee on Jewish Law and Standards, Rabbinical Assembly, December 6, 2006"</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/docs/Grossman-Niddah.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on April 7, 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Rabbi+Susan+Grossman%2C+MIKVEH+AND+THE+SANCTITY+OF+BEING+CREATED+HUMAN%2C+Committee+on+Jewish+Law+and+Standards%2C+Rabbinical+Assembly%2C+December+6%2C+2006&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rabbinicalassembly.org%2Fdocs%2FGrossman-Niddah.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-RabbiReisner-123"><a href="#cite_ref-RabbiReisner_123-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080407061721/http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/docs/Reisner-Niddah.pdf">"Rabbi Avram Reisner, OBSERVING NIDDAH IN OUR DAY: AN INQUIRY ON THE STATUS OF PURITY AND THE PROHIBITION OF SEXUAL ACTIVITY WITH A MENSTRUANT, Committee on Jewish Law and Standards, Rabbinical Assembly, December 6, 2006"</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/docs/Reisner-Niddah.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on April 7, 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Rabbi+Avram+Reisner%2C+OBSERVING+NIDDAH+IN+OUR+DAY%3A+AN+INQUIRY+ON+THE+STATUS+OF+PURITY+AND+THE+PROHIBITION+OF+SEXUAL+ACTIVITY+WITH+A+MENSTRUANT%2C+Committee+on+Jewish+Law+and+Standards%2C+Rabbinical+Assembly%2C+December+6%2C+2006&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rabbinicalassembly.org%2Fdocs%2FReisner-Niddah.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-RabbiBerkowitz-124"><a href="#cite_ref-RabbiBerkowitz_124-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090320161047/http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/docs/Berkowitz-Niddah.pdf">"Rabbi Miriam Berkowitz, RESHAPING THE LAWS OF FAMILY PURITY FOR THE MODERN WORLD, Committee on Jewish Law and Standards, Rabbinical Assembly, December 6, 2006"</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/docs/Berkowitz-Niddah.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on March 20, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Rabbi+Miriam+Berkowitz%2C+RESHAPING+THE+LAWS+OF+FAMILY+PURITY+FOR+THE+MODERN+WORLD%2C+Committee+on+Jewish+Law+and+Standards%2C+Rabbinical+Assembly%2C+December+6%2C+2006&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rabbinicalassembly.org%2Fdocs%2FBerkowitz-Niddah.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> This section summarizes the CLJS's 2002 Fine "Women and the Minyan" <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101127133632/http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/teshuvot/docs/19912000/oh_55_1_2002.pdf">"Responsum's review and critique of prior CJLS efforts to adopt an authoritative responsum"</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/teshuvot/docs/19912000/oh_55_1_2002.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2010-11-27. Retrieved 2006-03-10.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Responsum%27s+review+and+critique+of+prior+CJLS+efforts+to+adopt+an+authoritative+responsum.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rabbinicalassembly.org%2Fteshuvot%2Fdocs%2F19912000%2Foh_55_1_2002.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/obligation-of-women-to-perform-jewish-commandments">"Obligation of Women to Perform Jewish Commandments"</a>. www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Retrieved 2023-12-19.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org&rft.atitle=Obligation+of+Women+to+Perform+Jewish+Commandments&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishvirtuallibrary.org%2Fobligation-of-women-to-perform-jewish-commandments&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarmash2014" class="citation web cs1">Barmash, Pamela (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231219165330/https://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/sites/default/files/public/halakhah/teshuvot/2011-2020/womenandhiyyuvfinal.pdf">"Women and Mitzvot"</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/sites/default/files/public/halakhah/teshuvot/2011-2020/womenandhiyyuvfinal.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on December 19, 2023. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://joi.org/bloglinks/CJN">the original</a> on 2012-07-11. Retrieved 2011-01-21.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Canadian+Jewish+News&rft.atitle=Rabbi+reaches+out+to+interfaith+couples+as+rates+climb&rft.date=2006-08&rft.aulast=Shefa&rft.aufirst=Sheri&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjoi.org%2Fbloglinks%2FCJN&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"> Rabbi reaches out to interfaith couples as rates climb 8-24-06.pdf </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a> This is reflected in the prayer books that have been published by the Reconstructionist movement </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111130050205/http://www.jewishtribune.ca/TribuneV2/index.php/200906031702/Montreal-congregation-hires-first-female-scribe-to-pen-Torah-in-Canada.html">"Montreal congregation hires first female scribe to pen Torah in Canada"</a>. Jewish Tribune. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewishtribune.ca/TribuneV2/index.php/200906031702/Montreal-congregation-hires-first-female-scribe-to-pen-Torah-in-Canada.html">the original</a> on 2011-11-30. Retrieved 2011-01-21.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Jewish+Tribune&rft.atitle=Montreal+congregation+hires+first+female+scribe+to+pen+Torah+in+Canada&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishtribune.ca%2FTribuneV2%2Findex.php%2F200906031702%2FMontreal-congregation-hires-first-female-scribe-to-pen-Torah-in-Canada.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"> Jewish Tribune, 3 June 2009. </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a> See Rabbi <a href="/wiki/Rebecca_Alpert" title="Rebecca Alpert">Rebecca Alpert</a> and Rabbi <a href="/wiki/Toba_Spitzer" title="Toba Spitzer">Toba Spitzer</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/lerner-anne-lapidus">"Anne Lapidus Lerner - Jewish Women's Archive"</a>. jwa.org. 23 June 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=jwa.org&rft.atitle=Anne+Lapidus+Lerner+-+Jewish+Women%27s+Archive&rft.date=2021-06-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjwa.org%2Fencyclopedia%2Farticle%2Flerner-anne-lapidus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.boston.com/news/globe/city_region/breaking_news/2007/03/first_openly_ga.html">"Radin, Charles A. 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The Jerusalem Post | Jpost.com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Jerusalem+Post+%26%23124%3B+Jpost.com&rft.atitle=Torah%2C+she+wrote&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jpost.com%2FJewishWorld%2FJewishFeatures%2FArticle.aspx%3Fid%3D286912&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130414105124/http://www.cbisd.org/news-and-stories/87-news-and-stories/1158-a-special-open-house-with-torah-scribe-julie-seltzer-observe-the-completion-of-our-torah">"A Special Open House with Torah Scribe Julie Seltzer: Observe the Completion of our Torah"</a>. Archive.is. 2013-04-14. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cbisd.org/news-and-stories/87-news-and-stories/1158-a-special-open-house-with-torah-scribe-julie-seltzer-observe-the-completion-of-our-torah">the original</a> on 2013-04-14. Retrieved 2018-07-12.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+Special+Open+House+with+Torah+Scribe+Julie+Seltzer%3A+Observe+the+Completion+of+our+Torah&rft.pub=Archive.is&rft.date=2013-04-14&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cbisd.org%2Fnews-and-stories%2F87-news-and-stories%2F1158-a-special-open-house-with-torah-scribe-julie-seltzer-observe-the-completion-of-our-torah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150602035037/http://brooklyn.news12.com/news/congregation-beth-elohim-in-park-slope-dedicates-new-torah-for-150th-anniversary-1.6119015">"Congregation Beth Elohim in Park Slope dedicates new Torah for 150th anniversary - News 12 Brooklyn"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://brooklyn.news12.com/news/congregation-beth-elohim-in-park-slope-dedicates-new-torah-for-150th-anniversary-1.6119015">the original</a> on June 2, 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Congregation+Beth+Elohim+in+Park+Slope+dedicates+new+Torah+for+150th+anniversary+-+News+12+Brooklyn&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbrooklyn.news12.com%2Fnews%2Fcongregation-beth-elohim-in-park-slope-dedicates-new-torah-for-150th-anniversary-1.6119015&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-198"><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141011005036/http://torah.cbebk.org/about/our-soferet/">"Our Soferet"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://torah.cbebk.org/about/our-soferet">the original</a> on October 11, 2014. Retrieved 2024-02-01.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Our+Soferet&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftorah.cbebk.org%2Fabout%2Four-soferet&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-199"><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJeff_KunerthOrlando_Sentinel2014" class="citation web cs1">Jeff KunerthOrlando Sentinel (2014-08-23). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pressherald.com/2014/08/23/female-jewish-scribe-helps-keep-tradition-alive/">"Female Jewish scribe helps keep tradition alive - The Portland Press Herald / Maine Sunday Telegram"</a>. Pressherald.com. Retrieved 2015-07-19.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Female+Jewish+scribe+helps+keep+tradition+alive+-+The+Portland+Press+Herald+%2F+Maine+Sunday+Telegram&rft.pub=Pressherald.com&rft.date=2014-08-23&rft.au=Jeff+KunerthOrlando+Sentinel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pressherald.com%2F2014%2F08%2F23%2Ffemale-jewish-scribe-helps-keep-tradition-alive%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_Judaism&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaskin1991" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Judith_R._Baskin" title="Judith R. Baskin">Baskin, Judith R.</a> (1991). Jewish Women in Historical Perspective. Wayne State University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8143-2091-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8143-2091-4"><bdi>978-0-8143-2091-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jewish+Women+in+Historical+Perspective&rft.pub=Wayne+State+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-8143-2091-4&rft.aulast=Baskin&rft.aufirst=Judith+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBiale1984" class="citation book cs1">Biale, Rachel (1984). Women and Jewish Law. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0805238875" title="Special:BookSources/0805238875"><bdi>0805238875</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Women+and+Jewish+Law&rft.pub=Knopf+Doubleday+Publishing+Group&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=0805238875&rft.aulast=Biale&rft.aufirst=Rachel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFonrobert2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charlotte_Fonrobert" title="Charlotte Fonrobert">Fonrobert, Charlotte Elisheva</a> (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EBHXXXxa23oC">Menstrual Purity: Rabbinic and Christian Reconstructions of Biblical Gender</a>. Stanford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-4553-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-4553-6"><bdi>978-0-8047-4553-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Menstrual+Purity%3A+Rabbinic+and+Christian+Reconstructions+of+Biblical+Gender&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-8047-4553-6&rft.aulast=Fonrobert&rft.aufirst=Charlotte+Elisheva&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEBHXXXxa23oC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreenberg1988" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Simon_Greenberg" title="Simon Greenberg">Greenberg, Simon</a> (1988). The Ordination of Women as Rabbis: Studies and Responsa. Jewish Theological Seminary of America. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87334-041-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87334-041-0"><bdi>978-0-87334-041-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ordination+of+Women+as+Rabbis%3A+Studies+and+Responsa&rft.pub=Jewish+Theological+Seminary+of+America&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-87334-041-0&rft.aulast=Greenberg&rft.aufirst=Simon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHauptman1993" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Judith_Hauptman" title="Judith Hauptman">Hauptman, Judith</a> (1993). "Women and Prayer: An Attempt to Dispel Some Fallacies". Judaism. 42: 94–103.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Judaism&rft.atitle=Women+and+Prayer%3A+An+Attempt+to+Dispel+Some+Fallacies&rft.volume=42&rft.pages=94-103&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=Hauptman&rft.aufirst=Judith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHauptman1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Judith_Hauptman" title="Judith Hauptman">Hauptman, Judith</a> (1997). Rereading The Rabbis: A Woman's Voice. Avalon Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8133-3400-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8133-3400-4"><bdi>978-0-8133-3400-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rereading+The+Rabbis%3A+A+Woman%27s+Voice&rft.pub=Avalon+Publishing&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-8133-3400-4&rft.aulast=Hauptman&rft.aufirst=Judith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeshelis2006" class="citation book cs1">Heshelis, Devorah (2006). The Moon's Lost Light: A Torah Perspective on Women from the Fall of Eve to the Final Redemption. Targum Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56871-377-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56871-377-9"><bdi>978-1-56871-377-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Moon%27s+Lost+Light%3A+A+Torah+Perspective+on+Women+from+the+Fall+of+Eve+to+the+Final+Redemption&rft.pub=Targum+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-56871-377-9&rft.aulast=Heshelis&rft.aufirst=Devorah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNadell1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Pamela_Nadell" title="Pamela Nadell">Nadell, Pamela S.</a> (1998). Women Who Would Be Rabbis: A History of Women's Ordination 1889-1985. Beacon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8070-3649-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8070-3649-5"><bdi>978-0-8070-3649-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Women+Who+Would+Be+Rabbis%3A+A+History+of+Women%27s+Ordination+1889-1985&rft.pub=Beacon+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-8070-3649-5&rft.aulast=Nadell&rft.aufirst=Pamela+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNadell2019" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Pamela_Nadell" title="Pamela Nadell">Nadell, Pamela</a> (2019). America's Jewish Women: A History from Colonial Times to Today. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780393651232" title="Special:BookSources/9780393651232"><bdi>9780393651232</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1037810222">1037810222</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=America%27s+Jewish+Women%3A+A+History+from+Colonial+Times+to+Today&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1037810222&rft.isbn=9780393651232&rft.aulast=Nadell&rft.aufirst=Pamela&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaitzSondra_HenryCheryl_Tallan2003" class="citation book cs1">Taitz, Emily; Sondra Henry; Cheryl Tallan (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/jpsguidetojewish00tait">The JPS Guide to Jewish Women: 600 B.C.E.-1900 C.E.</a>. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0827607520" title="Special:BookSources/0827607520"><bdi>0827607520</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+JPS+Guide+to+Jewish+Women%3A+600+B.C.E.-1900+C.E.&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pub=Jewish+Publication+Society&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0827607520&rft.aulast=Taitz&rft.aufirst=Emily&rft.au=Sondra+Henry&rft.au=Cheryl+Tallan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fjpsguidetojewish00tait&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Middle_Ages_2">Middle Ages</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_Judaism&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Middle Ages">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdelman2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Howard_Adelman" title="Howard Adelman">Adelman, Howard</a> (2001). "Italian Jewish Women at Prayer". In Lawrence Fine (ed.). Judaism in Practice: From the Middle Ages Through the Early Modern Period. Princeton University Press. pp. 52–60. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-05787-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-05787-7"><bdi>0-691-05787-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Italian+Jewish+Women+at+Prayer&rft.btitle=Judaism+in+Practice%3A+From+the+Middle+Ages+Through+the+Early+Modern+Period&rft.pages=52-60&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-691-05787-7&rft.aulast=Adelman&rft.aufirst=Howard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaskin1991" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Judith_R._Baskin" title="Judith R. Baskin">Baskin, Judith R.</a> (Spring 1991). "Some Parallels in the Education of Medieval Jewish and Christian Women". Jewish History. 5 (1): 41–51. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fbf01679792">10.1007/bf01679792</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20101094">20101094</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143121150">143121150</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Jewish+History&rft.atitle=Some+Parallels+in+the+Education+of+Medieval+Jewish+and+Christian+Women&rft.ssn=spring&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=41-51&rft.date=1991&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143121150%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20101094%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fbf01679792&rft.aulast=Baskin&rft.aufirst=Judith+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohen2008" class="citation book cs1">Cohen, Mark R. (2008). Under Crescent and Cross: The Jews in the Middle Ages. Princeton: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0691139319" title="Special:BookSources/978-0691139319"><bdi>978-0691139319</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Under+Crescent+and+Cross%3A+The+Jews+in+the+Middle+Ages&rft.place=Princeton&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0691139319&rft.aulast=Cohen&rft.aufirst=Mark+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrossman2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Avraham_Grossman" title="Avraham Grossman">Grossman, Avraham</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EsvXAAAAMAAJ">Pious and Rebellious: Jewish Women in Medieval Europe</a>. Translated by Chapman, Jonathan. Brandeis University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58465-391-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58465-391-2"><bdi>978-1-58465-391-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pious+and+Rebellious%3A+Jewish+Women+in+Medieval+Europe&rft.pub=Brandeis+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-58465-391-2&rft.aulast=Grossman&rft.aufirst=Avraham&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEsvXAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarcus1986" class="citation journal cs1">Marcus, Ivan G (Spring 1986). "Mothers, Martyrs, and Moneymakers: Some Jewish Women in Medieval Europe". Conservative Judaism. 38 (3): 34–45.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Conservative+Judaism&rft.atitle=Mothers%2C+Martyrs%2C+and+Moneymakers%3A+Some+Jewish+Women+in+Medieval+Europe&rft.ssn=spring&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=34-45&rft.date=1986&rft.aulast=Marcus&rft.aufirst=Ivan+G&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMelammed2009" class="citation book cs1">Melammed, Renee Levine (November 2009). "Women in Medieval Jewish Societies". In Greenspahn, Frederick E. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YWlS9iomfAMC">Women and Judaism: New Insights and Scholarship</a>. NYU Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-3218-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-3218-2"><bdi>978-0-8147-3218-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Women+in+Medieval+Jewish+Societies&rft.btitle=Women+and+Judaism%3A+New+Insights+and+Scholarship&rft.pub=NYU+Press&rft.date=2009-11&rft.isbn=978-0-8147-3218-2&rft.aulast=Melammed&rft.aufirst=Renee+Levine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYWlS9iomfAMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteinberg2008" class="citation book cs1">Steinberg, Theodore L. (2008). Jews and Judaism in the Middle Ages. Westport, Conn.: Praeger Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0275985882" title="Special:BookSources/978-0275985882"><bdi>978-0275985882</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jews+and+Judaism+in+the+Middle+Ages&rft.place=Westport%2C+Conn.&rft.pub=Praeger+Publishers&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0275985882&rft.aulast=Steinberg&rft.aufirst=Theodore+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Orthodox_Judaism_and_women">Orthodox Judaism and women</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_Judaism&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Orthodox Judaism and women">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBermanMagnus1981" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Saul_Berman" title="Saul Berman">Berman, Saul</a>; Magnus, Shulamith (1981). "Orthodoxy Responds to Feminist Ferment". Response. 12: 5.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Response&rft.atitle=Orthodoxy+Responds+to+Feminist+Ferment&rft.volume=12&rft.pages=5&rft.date=1981&rft.aulast=Berman&rft.aufirst=Saul&rft.au=Magnus%2C+Shulamith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEllensonRosen2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Ellenson" title="David Ellenson">Ellenson, David</a>; <a href="/wiki/Michael_Rosen_(rabbi)" title="Michael Rosen (rabbi)">Rosen, Michael</a> (2001). "Gender, Halakhaha and Women's Suffrage: Responsa of the First Three Chief Rabbis on the Public Role of Women in the Jewish State". In Jacob, Walter; Zemer, Moshe (eds.). Gender Issues in Jewish Law: Essays and Responsa. Berghahn Books. pp. 58–81. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57181-239-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57181-239-1"><bdi>978-1-57181-239-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Gender%2C+Halakhaha+and+Women%27s+Suffrage%3A+Responsa+of+the+First+Three+Chief+Rabbis+on+the+Public+Role+of+Women+in+the+Jewish+State&rft.btitle=Gender+Issues+in+Jewish+Law%3A+Essays+and+Responsa&rft.pages=58-81&rft.pub=Berghahn+Books&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1-57181-239-1&rft.aulast=Ellenson&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Rosen%2C+Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFishbane1993" class="citation journal cs1">Fishbane, Simcha (1993). "In Any Case There Are No Sinful Thoughts: The Role and Status of Women in Jewish Law as Expressed in the Arukh Hashulhan". Judaism. 42 (4): 492–503.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Judaism&rft.atitle=In+Any+Case+There+Are+No+Sinful+Thoughts%3A+The+Role+and+Status+of+Women+in+Jewish+Law+as+Expressed+in+the+Arukh+Hashulhan&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=492-503&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=Fishbane&rft.aufirst=Simcha&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreenberg2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Blu_Greenberg" title="Blu Greenberg">Greenberg, Blu</a> (2009). Women and Judaism. Praeger. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-275-99154-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-275-99154-8"><bdi>978-0-275-99154-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Women+and+Judaism&rft.pub=Praeger&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-275-99154-8&rft.aulast=Greenberg&rft.aufirst=Blu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHartman2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Tova_Hartman" title="Tova Hartman">Hartman, Tova</a> (2007). Feminism Encounters Traditional Judaism: Resistance and Accommodation. UPNE. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58465-658-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58465-658-6"><bdi>978-1-58465-658-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Feminism+Encounters+Traditional+Judaism%3A+Resistance+and+Accommodation&rft.pub=UPNE&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-58465-658-6&rft.aulast=Hartman&rft.aufirst=Tova&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReisman1998" class="citation magazine cs1">Reisman, Levi M. (1998). "Feminism - A Force That Will Split Orthodoxy?". The Jewish Observer. Vol. 31, no. 5. pp. 37–47.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Jewish+Observer&rft.atitle=Feminism+-+A+Force+That+Will+Split+Orthodoxy%3F&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=37-47&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Reisman&rft.aufirst=Levi+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoss1993" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Tamar_Ross" title="Tamar Ross">Ross, Tamar</a> (1993). "Can the Demand for Change In the Status of Women Be Halakhically Legitimated?". Judaism. 42 (4): 478–491.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Judaism&rft.atitle=Can+the+Demand+for+Change+In+the+Status+of+Women+Be+Halakhically+Legitimated%3F&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=478-491&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=Ross&rft.aufirst=Tamar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoss2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Tamar_Ross" title="Tamar Ross">Ross, Tamar</a> (2004). Expanding the Palace of Torah: Orthodoxy and Feminism. Brandeis University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58465-389-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58465-389-9"><bdi>978-1-58465-389-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Expanding+the+Palace+of+Torah%3A+Orthodoxy+and+Feminism&rft.pub=Brandeis+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-58465-389-9&rft.aulast=Ross&rft.aufirst=Tamar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShenhav1999" class="citation journal cs1">Shenhav, Sharon (1999). "Human Rights, Jewish Women, and Jewish Law". Justice. 21.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Justice&rft.atitle=Human+Rights%2C+Jewish+Women%2C+and+Jewish+Law&rft.volume=21&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Shenhav&rft.aufirst=Sharon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStern2002" class="citation journal cs1">Stern, Marc D. (2002). "On Egalitarianism and Halakha". Tradition: A Journal of Orthodox Jewish Thought. 36 (2): 1–30. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0041-0608">0041-0608</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Tradition%3A+A+Journal+of+Orthodox+Jewish+Thought&rft.atitle=On+Egalitarianism+and+Halakha&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=1-30&rft.date=2002&rft.issn=0041-0608&rft.aulast=Stern&rft.aufirst=Marc+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeiss2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Avi_Weiss" title="Avi Weiss">Weiss, Avi</a> (2001). Women at Prayer: A Halakhic Analysis of Women's Prayer Groups. KTAV Publishing House, Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88125-719-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88125-719-9"><bdi>978-0-88125-719-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Women+at+Prayer%3A+A+Halakhic+Analysis+of+Women%27s+Prayer+Groups&rft.pub=KTAV+Publishing+House%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-88125-719-9&rft.aulast=Weiss&rft.aufirst=Avi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWolowelsky1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Joel_B._Wolowelsky" title="Joel B. Wolowelsky">Wolowelsky, Joel B.</a> (1997). Women, Jewish Law and Modernity: New Opportunities in a Post-feminist Age. KTAV Publishing House, Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88125-574-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88125-574-4"><bdi>978-0-88125-574-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Women%2C+Jewish+Law+and+Modernity%3A+New+Opportunities+in+a+Post-feminist+Age&rft.pub=KTAV+Publishing+House%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-88125-574-4&rft.aulast=Wolowelsky&rft.aufirst=Joel+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_Judaism&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media 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women">Judaism and women</a>.</div></div> </div> General <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chabad.org/thejewishwoman/default_cdo/jewish/thejewishwoman.htm">Chabad.org: The Jewish Woman</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jofa.org/">Jewish Orthodox Feminist Alliance</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jcada.org/">Jewish Coalition Against Domestic Abuse</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.naamat.org/">Na'amat USA</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ou.org/women/">Orthodox Union: The Women's Initiative</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wlcj.org/">Women's League for Conservative Judaism</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wrj.org/">Women of Reform Judaism</a></li></ul> Publications <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jwa.org/">Jewish Women's Archive</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lilith.org/">Lilith Magazine</a> a Jewish feminist journal</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wjudaism.library.utoronto.ca/index.php/wjudaism">Women in Judaism: A Multidisciplinary eJournal by Dina Ripsman Elyon</a> an online peer-reviewed journal covering women in Judaism, with a special emphasis on history, but also including book reviews and fiction.</li></ul> Particular issues <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.yadvashem.org/yv/en/exhibitions/women-in-the-holocaust/index.asp">Spots of Light: Women in the Holocaust</a> an online exhibition by <a href="/wiki/Yad_Vashem" title="Yad Vashem">Yad Vashem</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://alternativestokiddushin.wordpress.com">The Kiddushin Variations</a> A Directory of Halakhic Possibilities For A More Egalitarian Kiddushin Ritual.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.edah.org/backend/JournalArticle/1_2_shapiro.pdf">"Qeri'at ha-Torah by Women: A Halakhic Analysis, Shapiro, Mendel. Edah 1:2, 2001"</a> (PDF).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Qeri%27at+ha-Torah+by+Women%3A+A+Halakhic+Analysis%2C+Shapiro%2C+Mendel.+Edah+1%3A2%2C+2001&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.edah.org%2Fbackend%2FJournalArticle%2F1_2_shapiro.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.edah.org/backend/JournalArticle/3_2_Sperber.pdf">"Congregational Dignity and Human Dignity: Women and Public Torah Reading, Sperber, Daniel. Edah 3:2, 2002"</a> (PDF).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Congregational+Dignity+and+Human+Dignity%3A+Women+and+Public+Torah+Reading%2C+Sperber%2C+Daniel.+Edah+3%3A2%2C+2002&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.edah.org%2Fbackend%2FJournalArticle%2F3_2_Sperber.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20041130064847/http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0411/is_n1_v42/ai_13796427">"Women and Prayer: An Attempt to Dispel Some Fallacies"</a>, Judith Hauptman, Judaism 42 (1993): 94–103.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101127133632/http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/teshuvot/docs/19912000/oh_55_1_2002.pdf">"Women and the Minyan"</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/teshuvot/docs/19912000/oh_55_1_2002.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2010-11-27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Women+and+the+Minyan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rabbinicalassembly.org%2Fteshuvot%2Fdocs%2F19912000%2Foh_55_1_2002.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+Judaism" class="Z3988"> (194 KB), Fine, David. Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Rabbinical Assembly (Conservative), 2002</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.annette-boeckler.de/liturgie/EgalitarianServices.html">Egalitarian Jewish Services A Discussion Paper</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.daat.ac.il/daat/english/tfila/frimer2-1.htm">"Women and Minyan"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190912194311/http://www.daat.ac.il/daat/english/tfila/frimer2-1.htm">Archived</a> 2019-09-12 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tradition_(Orthodox_journal)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tradition (Orthodox journal) (page does not exist)">Tradition</a>, 1988. Summary of Orthodox arguments regarding women counting in minyan for certain purposes</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.daat.ac.il/daat/english/tfila/frimmer1.htm">"Women's Prayer Services Theory and Practice"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190912215628/http://www.daat.ac.il/daat/english/tfila/frimmer1.htm">Archived</a> 2019-09-12 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tradition_(journal)" title="Tradition (journal)">Tradition</a>, 1998. Summary of Orthodox arguments for and against women's prayer groups</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://forward.com/articles/133017/">Elissa Strauss, Women Who Write Torah, A New Generation of Female Scribes Makes History. The Jewish Daily Forward, November 19, 2010.</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/kaplan-mordecai">Mordecai Kaplan, Jewish Women's Archive, 2005</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Women_in_Judaism" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist 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<li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_women_in_early_modern_period" title="Jewish women in early modern period">Early modern period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_women_in_the_Holocaust" title="Jewish women in the Holocaust">In the Holocaust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Israel" title="Women in Israel">In Israel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_and_Judaism" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender and Judaism">Gender and Judaism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Matrilineality_in_Judaism" title="Matrilineality in Judaism">Matrilineality in Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bat-Kohen" title="Bat-Kohen">Bat-Kohen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bat_Levi" class="mw-redirect" title="Bat Levi">Bat Levi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_and_Jewish_studies" title="Gender and Jewish studies">Gender and Jewish studies</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="History" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Women%27s_Congress" title="Jewish Women's Congress">Jewish Women's Congress</a> (1893)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1902_Kosher_Meat_Boycott" class="mw-redirect" title="1902 Kosher Meat Boycott">1902 Kosher Meat Boycott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1904_New_York_City_Rent_Strike" class="mw-redirect" title="1904 New York City Rent Strike">1904 New York City Rent Strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1906_Tonsil_Riots" title="1906 Tonsil Riots">1906 Tonsil Riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1907_New_York_City_Rent_Strike" class="mw-redirect" title="1907 New York City Rent Strike">1907 New York City Rent Strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_shirtwaist_strike_of_1909" title="New York shirtwaist strike of 1909">1909 Shirtwaist Strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_World_Congress_of_Jewish_Women" title="First World Congress of Jewish Women">World Congress of Jewish Women</a> (1923, 1929)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_Torah_Project" title="Women's Torah Project">Women's Torah Project</a> (2003–2010)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_Siyum_HaShas" class="mw-redirect" title="Women's Siyum HaShas">Women's Siyum HaShas</a> (2020)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Feminism</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_feminism" title="Jewish feminism">Jewish feminism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Jewish_feminism" title="Orthodox Jewish feminism">Orthodox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Israel" title="Feminism in Israel">Israeli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_feminism" title="Mizrahi feminism">Mizrahi</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Life cycle events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zeved_habat" title="Zeved habat">Zeved habat / Simchat bat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bar_and_bat_mitzvah" title="Bar and bat mitzvah">Bar and bat mitzvah</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adult_bar_and_bat_mitzvah" title="Adult bar and bat mitzvah">For adults</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Girls%27_Day_(Judaism)" title="Girls' Day (Judaism)">Girls' Day (Chag habanot)</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Marriage</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_on_marriage" title="Jewish views on marriage">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shidduch" title="Shidduch">Matchmaking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketubah" title="Ketubah">Marriage contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shalom_bayit" title="Shalom bayit">Marital harmony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Head_covering_for_Jewish_women" title="Head covering for Jewish women">Head covering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balabusta" title="Balabusta">Homemaker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niddah" title="Niddah">Ritual purity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mikvah" class="mw-redirect" title="Mikvah">Ritual immersion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Get_(divorce_document)" title="Get (divorce document)">Divorce</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agunah" title="Agunah">Agunah</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Practices and concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gender_separation_in_Judaism" title="Gender separation in Judaism">Gender separation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tzniut" title="Tzniut">Tzniut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negiah" title="Negiah">Negiah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yichud" title="Yichud">Yichud</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism_and_abortion" title="Judaism and abortion">Abortion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Israel" title="Abortion in Israel">In Israel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_on_contraception" title="Jewish views on contraception">Birth control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism_and_sexuality" title="Judaism and sexuality">Sexuality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Homosexuality_and_Judaism" class="mw-redirect" title="Homosexuality and Judaism">Homosexuality</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Prayer and study</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tkhine" title="Tkhine">Tkhine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tseno_Ureno" class="mw-redirect" title="Tseno Ureno">Tseno Ureno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partnership_minyan" title="Partnership minyan">Partnership minyan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tefillin_Barbie" title="Tefillin Barbie">Tefillin Barbie</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midrasha" title="Midrasha">Midrasha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechitza" title="Mechitza">Mechitza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court_of_the_Women" title="Court of the Women">Court of the Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Religious roles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rebbetzin" title="Rebbetzin">Rebbetzin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_rabbis_and_Torah_scholars" title="Women rabbis and Torah scholars">Rabbis and Torah scholars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_women_rabbis" title="Timeline of women rabbis">Timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoetzet_halacha" title="Yoetzet halacha">Yoetzet halacha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toanot_Rabniyot" title="Toanot Rabniyot">Toanot Rabniyot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soferet" class="mw-redirect" title="Soferet">Scribe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chazante" class="mw-redirect" title="Chazante">Cantor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_women_hazzans" title="Timeline of women hazzans">Timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firzogerin" title="Firzogerin">Firzogerin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aminadav_(organization)" title="Aminadav (organization)">Aminadav</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bat_Kol_(organization)" title="Bat Kol (organization)">Bat Kol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B%27not_Esh" title="B'not Esh">B'not Esh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Center_for_Women%27s_Justice" title="Center for Women's Justice">CWJ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chochmat_Nashim" title="Chochmat Nashim">Chochmat Nashim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eshel_(organization)" title="Eshel (organization)">Eshel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadassah_Women%27s_Zionist_Organization_of_America" title="Hadassah Women's Zionist Organization of America">Hadassah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadran_(organization)" title="Hadran (organization)">Hadran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haifa_Women%27s_Coalition" title="Haifa Women's Coalition">Haifa Women's Coalition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israel_Women%27s_Network" title="Israel Women's Network">Israel Women's Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Orthodox_Feminist_Alliance" title="Jewish Orthodox Feminist Alliance">JOFA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Women%27s_Archive" title="Jewish Women's Archive">JWA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Women_Artists%27_Circle" title="Jewish Women Artists' Circle">Women Artists' Circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Women%27s_Committee_to_End_the_Occupation" title="Jewish Women's Committee to End the Occupation">JWCEO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Women%27s_Collaborative_International_Fund" title="Jewish Women's Collaborative International Fund">JWCIF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Women_International" title="Jewish Women International">JWI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Kohenet_Institute" title="The Kohenet Institute">Kohenet Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kolech" title="Kolech">Kolech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/League_of_Jewish_Women" title="League of Jewish Women">League of Jewish Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maharat" title="Maharat">Maharat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma%27yan" title="Ma'yan">Ma'yan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%27shei_Chabad" title="N'shei Chabad">N'shei Chabad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Na%27amat" title="Na'amat">Na'amat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_Jewish_Women" title="National Council of Jewish Women">NCJW</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lo_Nivcharot,_Lo_Bocharot" title="Lo Nivcharot, Lo Bocharot">Nivcharot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philomath_Club" title="Philomath Club">Philomath Club</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pi_Alpha_Tau" title="Pi Alpha Tau">Pi Alpha Tau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_of_Jewish_Women" title="Union of Jewish Women">Union of Jewish Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_Cantors_Network" title="Women Cantors Network">Cantors Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_of_Reform_Judaism" title="Women of Reform Judaism">Women of Reform Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_of_the_Wall" title="Women of the Wall">WoW</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_for_the_Wall" title="Women for the Wall">W4W</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_International_Zionist_Organization" title="Women's International Zionist Organization">WIZO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_League_for_Conservative_Judaism" title="Women's League for Conservative Judaism">WLCJ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_League_for_Israel" title="Women's League for Israel">WLI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_Rabbinic_Network" title="Women's Rabbinic Network">Women's Rabbinic Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_Spirit" title="Women's Spirit">Women's Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vocolot" title="Vocolot">Vocolot</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historic / defunct</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clara_de_Hirsch_Home_for_Working_Girls" title="Clara de Hirsch Home for Working Girls">Clara de Hirsch Home</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Di_Vilde_Chayes" title="Di Vilde Chayes">Di Vilde Chayes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/League_of_Jewish_Women_(Germany)" title="League of Jewish Women (Germany)">League of Jewish Women (Germany)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_League_for_Woman_Suffrage" title="Jewish League for Woman Suffrage">Jewish League for Woman Suffrage (UK)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_Orchestra_of_Auschwitz" title="Women's Orchestra of Auschwitz">Women's Orchestra of Auschwitz</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Publications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Binah_(magazine)" title="Binah (magazine)">Binah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadassah_Magazine" title="Hadassah Magazine">Hadassah Magazine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lilith_(magazine)" title="Lilith (magazine)">Lilith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_American_Jewess" title="The American Jewess">The American Jewess</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Orthodox_Jewish_schools_for_women" title="Category:Orthodox Jewish schools for women">Orthodox Jewish schools for women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Places</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rachel%27s_Tomb" title="Rachel's Tomb">Rachel's Tomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_the_Matriarchs" title="Tomb of the Matriarchs">Tomb of the Matriarchs</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/14px-Star_of_David.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/21px-Star_of_David.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/28px-Star_of_David.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="693" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Judaism" title="Portal:Judaism">Judaism portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Judaism_and_women" title="Category:Judaism and women">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Jewish_women" class="extiw" title="commons:Jewish women">Commons</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Jewish_Women" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Jewish Women">WikiProject</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Jewish_life" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Jewish_life" title="Template:Jewish life"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Jewish_life" title="Template talk:Jewish life"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Jewish_life" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Jewish life"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Jewish_life" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Jewish life</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Birth and infancy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_birthday" title="Hebrew birthday">Hebrew birthday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shalom_Zachar" title="Shalom Zachar">Shalom Zachar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brit_milah" title="Brit milah">Brit milah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeved_habat" title="Zeved habat">Zeved habat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_name" title="Hebrew name">Hebrew name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pidyon_haben" title="Pidyon haben">Pidyon haben</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="7" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Star_of_David.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/72px-Star_of_David.svg.png" decoding="async" width="72" height="83" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/108px-Star_of_David.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/144px-Star_of_David.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="693" /></a> <a href="/wiki/File:Menora.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Menora.svg/64px-Menora.svg.png" decoding="async" width="64" height="54" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Menora.svg/96px-Menora.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Menora.svg/128px-Menora.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="732" data-file-height="621" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Coming of age</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Upsherin" title="Upsherin">Upsherin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wimpel" title="Wimpel">Wimpel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bar_and_bat_mitzvah" title="Bar and bat mitzvah">Bar and bat mitzvah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeshiva" title="Yeshiva">Yeshiva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kollel" title="Kollel">Kollel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Daily life</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ritual_washing_in_Judaism" title="Ritual washing in Judaism">Ritual washing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Jewish_prayers_and_blessings" title="List of Jewish prayers and blessings">Prayers and blessings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_prayer" title="Jewish prayer">Prayer services</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birkat_Hamazon" title="Birkat Hamazon">Grace after meals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashrut" title="Kashrut">Kashrut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honorifics_in_Judaism" title="Honorifics in Judaism">Honorifics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_on_marriage" title="Jewish views on marriage">Marriage</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marriageable_age_in_Judaism" class="mw-redirect" title="Marriageable age in Judaism">Marriageable age</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Role of women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tzniut" title="Tzniut">Tzniut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yichus" title="Yichus">Yichus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shidduch" title="Shidduch">Matchmaking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erusin" title="Erusin">Engagement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_wedding" title="Jewish wedding">Jewish wedding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketubah" title="Ketubah">Ketubah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuppah" title="Chuppah">Chuppah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheva_Brachot" title="Sheva Brachot">Sheva Brachot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niddah" title="Niddah">Niddah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikvah" class="mw-redirect" title="Mikvah">Mikvah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Get_(divorce_document)" title="Get (divorce document)">Divorce</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Religious practice</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/613_commandments" title="613 commandments">613 commandments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minhag" title="Minhag">Customs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nusach_(Jewish_custom)" title="Nusach (Jewish custom)">Rites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torah_study" title="Torah study">Torah study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weekly_Torah_portion" title="Weekly Torah portion">Weekly Torah reading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daf_Yomi" title="Daf Yomi">Daf Yomi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shiur" title="Shiur">Shiur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siyum" title="Siyum">Siyum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chavrusa" title="Chavrusa">Chavrusa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chavurah" title="Chavurah">Chavurah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chidush" class="mw-redirect" title="Chidush">Chidush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_holidays" title="Jewish holidays">Holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tzedakah" title="Tzedakah">Tzedakah</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Religious items</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sifrei_Kodesh" title="Sifrei Kodesh">Sifrei Kodesh</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tanakh" class="mw-redirect" title="Tanakh">Tanakh</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nevi%27im" title="Nevi'im">Nevi'im</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketuvim" title="Ketuvim">Ketuvim</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud">Talmud</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mishnah" title="Mishnah">Mishnah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tosefta" title="Tosefta">Tosefta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemara" title="Gemara">Gemara</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midrash" title="Midrash">Midrash</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siddur" title="Siddur">Siddur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machzor" title="Machzor">Machzor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tzitzit" title="Tzitzit">Tzitzit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tallit" title="Tallit">Tallit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tefillin" title="Tefillin">Tefillin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mezuzah" title="Mezuzah">Mezuzah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kippah" title="Kippah">Kippah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanukkah_menorah" title="Hanukkah menorah">Menorah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shofar" title="Shofar">Shofar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_species" title="Four species">Four species</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bereavement_in_Judaism" title="Bereavement in Judaism">Death</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chevra_kadisha" title="Chevra kadisha">Chevra Kadisha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shiva_(Judaism)" title="Shiva (Judaism)">Shiva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaddish" title="Kaddish">Kaddish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psalms" title="Psalms">Tehillim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yahrzeit" title="Yahrzeit">Yahrzeit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yahrzeit_candle" title="Yahrzeit candle">Yahrzeit candle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yizkor" title="Yizkor">Yizkor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honorifics_for_the_dead_in_Judaism" title="Honorifics for the dead in 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