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<span>Functional safety</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Functional_safety-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spinoffs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spinoffs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Spinoffs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spinoffs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div 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mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Aerospace</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 29 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-29" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">29 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lug-_en_ruimtevaart" title="Lug- en ruimtevaart – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Lug- en ruimtevaart" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B6%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D8%AC%D9%88%D9%8A" title="فضاء جوي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="فضاء جوي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeroespacial" title="Aeroespacial – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Aeroespacial" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerokosmika_s%C9%99nayesi" title="Aerokosmika sənayesi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Aerokosmika sənayesi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B7" title="বায়বান্তরীক্ষ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="বায়বান্তরীক্ষ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%A2ng-th%C3%A0i" title="Hâng-thài – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Hâng-thài" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeroespacial" title="Aeroespacial – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Aeroespacial" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerokosmonautika" title="Aerokosmonautika – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Aerokosmonautika" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeroespacio" title="Aeroespacio – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Aeroespacio" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerospaca_scienco" title="Aerospaca scienco – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Aerospaca scienco" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D9%87%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%B6%D8%A7" title="فناوری هوافضا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فناوری هوافضا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%C3%A9rospatiale_(discipline_scientifique)" title="Aérospatiale (discipline scientifique) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Aérospatiale (discipline scientifique)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%95%AD%EA%B3%B5%EC%9A%B0%EC%A3%BC" title="항공우주 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="항공우주" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7" title="वांतरिक्ष – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="वांतरिक्ष" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dirgantara" title="Dirgantara – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Dirgantara" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerospazio" title="Aerospazio – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Aerospazio" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%99%D7%A1" title="אירוספייס – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אירוספייס" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%8F%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8B%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AA%E0%B3%87%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D" title="ಏರೋಸ್ಪೇಸ್ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಏರೋಸ್ಪೇಸ್" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dirgantara" title="Dirgantara – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Dirgantara" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%88%AA%E7%A9%BA%E5%AE%87%E5%AE%99" title="航空宇宙 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="航空宇宙" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeroespa%C3%A7o" title="Aeroespaço – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Aeroespaço" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerospace" title="Aerospace – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Aerospace" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hap%C3%ABsira_ajrore" title="Hapësira ajrore – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Hapësira ajrore" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerospace" title="Aerospace – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Aerospace" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Havac%C4%B1l%C4%B1k_ve_uzay" title="Havacılık ve uzay – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Havacılık ve uzay" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Аерокосмонавтика – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Аерокосмонавтика" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%81%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%B6%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%8C" title="ہوافضائی – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="ہوافضائی" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%A0ng_kh%C3%B4ng_v%C5%A9_tr%E1%BB%A5" title="Hàng không vũ trụ – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Hàng không vũ trụ" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%88%AA%E7%A9%BA%E8%88%AA%E5%A4%A9" title="航空航天 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="航空航天" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Airspace" title="Airspace">Airspace</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the corporation, see <a href="/wiki/The_Aerospace_Corporation" title="The Aerospace Corporation">The Aerospace Corporation</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Top_of_Atmosphere.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Top_of_Atmosphere.jpg/300px-Top_of_Atmosphere.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Top_of_Atmosphere.jpg/450px-Top_of_Atmosphere.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Top_of_Atmosphere.jpg/600px-Top_of_Atmosphere.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3027" data-file-height="2010" /></a><figcaption>A view of the Earth's atmosphere with the Moon beyond</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Aerospace</b> is a term used to collectively refer to the <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere" title="Atmosphere">atmosphere</a> and <a href="/wiki/Outer_space" title="Outer space">outer space</a>. Aerospace activity is very diverse, with a multitude of commercial, industrial, and military applications. <a href="/wiki/Aerospace_engineering" title="Aerospace engineering">Aerospace engineering</a> consists of <a href="/wiki/Aeronautics" title="Aeronautics">aeronautics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Astronautics" title="Astronautics">astronautics</a>. Aerospace organizations research, design, manufacture, operate, maintain, and repair both <a href="/wiki/Aircraft" title="Aircraft">aircraft</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spacecraft" title="Spacecraft">spacecraft</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The beginning of space and the ending of the <a href="/wiki/Air" class="mw-redirect" title="Air">air</a> are proposed as 100km (62mi) above the ground according to the physical explanation that the air density is too low for a lifting body to generate meaningful lift force without exceeding orbital velocity.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aerospace&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In most industrial countries, the aerospace industry is a co-operation of the public and private sectors. For example, several states have a civilian <a href="/wiki/Space_program" class="mw-redirect" title="Space program">space program</a> funded by the <a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">government</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">National Aeronautics and Space Administration</a> in the United States, <a href="/wiki/European_Space_Agency" title="European Space Agency">European Space Agency</a> in Europe, the <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Space_Agency" title="Canadian Space Agency">Canadian Space Agency</a> in Canada, <a href="/wiki/Indian_Space_Research_Organisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Space Research Organisation">Indian Space Research Organisation</a> in India, <a href="/wiki/JAXA" title="JAXA">Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency</a> in Japan, <a href="/wiki/Roscosmos" title="Roscosmos">Roscosmos State Corporation for Space Activities</a> in Russia, <a href="/wiki/China_National_Space_Administration" title="China National Space Administration">China National Space Administration</a> in China, <a href="/wiki/Space_and_Upper_Atmosphere_Research_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission">SUPARCO</a> in Pakistan, <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Space_Agency" title="Iranian Space Agency">Iranian Space Agency</a> in Iran, and <a href="/wiki/Korea_Aerospace_Research_Institute" title="Korea Aerospace Research Institute">Korea Aerospace Research Institute</a> in South Korea. </p><p>Along with these public space programs, many companies produce technical tools and components such as <a href="/wiki/Spacecraft" title="Spacecraft">spacecraft</a> and <a href="/wiki/Satellite" title="Satellite">satellites</a>. Some known companies involved in space programs include <a href="/wiki/Boeing" title="Boeing">Boeing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cobham_plc" class="mw-redirect" title="Cobham plc">Cobham</a>, <a href="/wiki/Airbus" title="Airbus">Airbus</a>, <a href="/wiki/SpaceX" title="SpaceX">SpaceX</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lockheed_Martin" title="Lockheed Martin">Lockheed Martin</a>, <a href="/wiki/RTX_Corporation" title="RTX Corporation">RTX Corporation</a>, <a href="/wiki/MDA_(company)" title="MDA (company)">MDA</a> and <a href="/wiki/Northrop_Grumman" title="Northrop Grumman">Northrop Grumman</a>. These companies are also involved in other areas of aerospace, such as the construction of aircraft. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aerospace&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History_of_aviation" title="History of aviation">History of aviation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_space_exploration" title="Timeline of space exploration">Timeline of space exploration</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Governableparachute.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Governableparachute.jpg/220px-Governableparachute.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="340" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Governableparachute.jpg/330px-Governableparachute.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Governableparachute.jpg/440px-Governableparachute.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1308" data-file-height="2020" /></a><figcaption>Glider proposed by Cayley in an 1852 magazine.</figcaption></figure> <p>Modern aerospace began with Engineer <a href="/wiki/George_Cayley" title="George Cayley">George Cayley</a> in 1799. Cayley proposed an aircraft with a "fixed wing and a horizontal and vertical tail," defining characteristics of the modern aeroplane.<sup id="cite_ref-Intro_to_Flight_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Intro_to_Flight-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The 19th century saw the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Aeronautical_Society_of_Great_Britain" class="mw-redirect" title="Aeronautical Society of Great Britain">Aeronautical Society of Great Britain</a> (1866), the American Rocketry Society, and the <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Aeronautical_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Institute of Aeronautical Sciences">Institute of Aeronautical Sciences</a>, all of which made aeronautics a more serious scientific discipline.<sup id="cite_ref-Intro_to_Flight_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Intro_to_Flight-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Airmen like <a href="/wiki/Otto_Lilienthal" title="Otto Lilienthal">Otto Lilienthal</a>, who introduced <a href="/wiki/Camber_(aerodynamics)" title="Camber (aerodynamics)">cambered</a> <a href="/wiki/Airfoil" title="Airfoil">airfoils</a> in 1891, used gliders to analyze <a href="/wiki/Aerodynamic_force" title="Aerodynamic force">aerodynamic forces</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Intro_to_Flight_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Intro_to_Flight-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Wright_brothers" title="Wright brothers">Wright brothers</a> were interested in Lilienthal's work and read several of his publications.<sup id="cite_ref-Intro_to_Flight_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Intro_to_Flight-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They also found inspiration in <a href="/wiki/Octave_Chanute" title="Octave Chanute">Octave Chanute</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Airman" title="Airman">airman</a> and the author of <i>Progress in Flying Machines</i> (1894).<sup id="cite_ref-Intro_to_Flight_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Intro_to_Flight-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was the preliminary work of Cayley, Lilienthal, Chanute, and other early aerospace engineers that brought about the first powered sustained flight at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina on December 17, 1903, by the Wright brothers. </p><p>War and science fiction inspired scientists and engineers like <a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Tsiolkovsky" title="Konstantin Tsiolkovsky">Konstantin Tsiolkovsky</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wernher_von_Braun" title="Wernher von Braun">Wernher von Braun</a> to achieve flight beyond the atmosphere. World War II inspired Wernher von Braun to create the V1 and V2 rockets. </p><p>The launch of <a href="/wiki/Sputnik" class="mw-redirect" title="Sputnik">Sputnik</a> 1 in October 1957 started the <a href="/wiki/Space_Age" title="Space Age">Space Age</a>, and on July 20, 1969 <a href="/wiki/Apollo_11" title="Apollo 11">Apollo 11</a> achieved the first crewed Moon landing.<sup id="cite_ref-Intro_to_Flight_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Intro_to_Flight-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In April 1981, the <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Columbia" title="Space Shuttle Columbia">Space Shuttle <i>Columbia</i></a> launched, the start of regular crewed access to orbital space. A sustained human presence in orbital space started with "<a href="/wiki/Mir" title="Mir">Mir</a>" in 1986 and is continued by the "<a href="/wiki/International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-Intro_to_Flight_3-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Intro_to_Flight-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Commercialization_of_space" class="mw-redirect" title="Commercialization of space">Space commercialization</a> and <a href="/wiki/Space_tourism" title="Space tourism">space tourism</a> are more recent features of aerospace. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Manufacturing">Manufacturing</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aerospace&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Manufacturing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Aerospace_manufacturer" title="Aerospace manufacturer">Aerospace manufacturer</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Falcon_9_Stages_(1).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Long, cylindrical rocket sections lie in a warehouse" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Falcon_9_Stages_%281%29.jpg/220px-Falcon_9_Stages_%281%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Falcon_9_Stages_%281%29.jpg/330px-Falcon_9_Stages_%281%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Falcon_9_Stages_%281%29.jpg/440px-Falcon_9_Stages_%281%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2500" data-file-height="1700" /></a><figcaption>Rocket cores under construction at a SpaceX facility.</figcaption></figure> <p>Aerospace manufacturing is a high-technology industry that produces "aircraft, guided missiles, space vehicles, aircraft engines, propulsion units, and related parts".<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most of the industry is geared toward governmental work. For each <a href="/wiki/Original_equipment_manufacturer" title="Original equipment manufacturer">original equipment manufacturer</a> (OEM), the US government has assigned a <a href="/wiki/Commercial_and_Government_Entity_code" title="Commercial and Government Entity code">Commercial and Government Entity (CAGE) code</a>. These codes help to identify each manufacturer, repair facilities, and other critical aftermarket vendors in the aerospace industry. </p><p>In the United States, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense" title="United States Department of Defense">Department of Defense</a> and the <a href="/wiki/National_Aeronautics_and_Space_Administration" class="mw-redirect" title="National Aeronautics and Space Administration">National Aeronautics and Space Administration</a> (NASA) are the two largest consumers of aerospace technology and products. Others include the very large airline industry. The aerospace industry employed 472,000 wage and salary workers in 2006.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most of those jobs were in Washington state and in California, with <a href="/wiki/Missouri" title="Missouri">Missouri</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_York_(state)" title="New York (state)">New York</a> and <a href="/wiki/Texas" title="Texas">Texas</a> also being important. The leading aerospace manufacturers in the U.S. are <a href="/wiki/Boeing" title="Boeing">Boeing</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_Technologies_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="United Technologies Corporation">United Technologies Corporation</a>, <a href="/wiki/SpaceX" title="SpaceX">SpaceX</a>, <a href="/wiki/Northrop_Grumman" title="Northrop Grumman">Northrop Grumman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lockheed_Martin" title="Lockheed Martin">Lockheed Martin</a>. As talented American employees age and retire, these manufacturers face an expanding labor shortfall. In order to supply the industrial sector with fresh workers, apprenticeship programs like the Aerospace Joint Apprenticeship Council (AJAC) collaborate with community colleges and aerospace firms in Washington state. </p><p>Important locations of the civilian aerospace industry worldwide include <a href="/wiki/Washington_(state)" title="Washington (state)">Washington</a> state (<a href="/wiki/Boeing" title="Boeing">Boeing</a>), <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a> (<a href="/wiki/Boeing" title="Boeing">Boeing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lockheed_Martin" title="Lockheed Martin">Lockheed Martin</a>, etc.) and <a href="/wiki/Montreal" title="Montreal">Montreal, Quebec</a>, Canada (<a href="/wiki/Bombardier_Aerospace" class="mw-redirect" title="Bombardier Aerospace">Bombardier</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pratt_%26_Whitney_Canada" title="Pratt & Whitney Canada">Pratt & Whitney Canada</a>) in <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a>; <a href="/wiki/Toulouse" title="Toulouse">Toulouse</a>, France (<a href="/wiki/Airbus_SE" class="mw-redirect" title="Airbus SE">Airbus SE</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Hamburg" title="Hamburg">Hamburg</a>, Germany (<a href="/wiki/Airbus_SE" class="mw-redirect" title="Airbus SE">Airbus SE</a>) in <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>; as well as <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Jos%C3%A9_dos_Campos" title="São José dos Campos">São José dos Campos</a>, Brazil (<a href="/wiki/Embraer" title="Embraer">Embraer</a>), <a href="/wiki/Quer%C3%A9taro" title="Querétaro">Querétaro</a>, Mexico (Bombardier Aerospace, General Electric Aviation) and <a href="/wiki/Mexicali" title="Mexicali">Mexicali</a>, Mexico (United Technologies Corporation, <a href="/wiki/Gulfstream_Aerospace" title="Gulfstream Aerospace">Gulfstream Aerospace</a>) in <a href="/wiki/Latin_America" title="Latin America">Latin America</a>. </p><p>In the European Union, aerospace companies such as <a href="/wiki/Airbus_SE" class="mw-redirect" title="Airbus SE">Airbus SE</a>, <a href="/wiki/Safran" title="Safran">Safran</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thales_Group" title="Thales Group">Thales</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dassault_Aviation" title="Dassault Aviation">Dassault Aviation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_(company)" title="Leonardo (company)">Leonardo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saab_AB" title="Saab AB">Saab AB</a> account for a large share of the global aerospace industry and research effort, with the <a href="/wiki/European_Space_Agency" title="European Space Agency">European Space Agency</a> as one of the largest consumers of aerospace technology and products. </p><p>In India, <a href="/wiki/Bangalore" class="mw-redirect" title="Bangalore">Bangalore</a> is a major center of the aerospace industry, where <a href="/wiki/Hindustan_Aeronautics_Limited" title="Hindustan Aeronautics Limited">Hindustan Aeronautics Limited</a>, the <a href="/wiki/National_Aerospace_Laboratories" title="National Aerospace Laboratories">National Aerospace Laboratories</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Space_Research_Organisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Space Research Organisation">Indian Space Research Organisation</a> are headquartered. The <a href="/wiki/Indian_Space_Research_Organisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Space Research Organisation">Indian Space Research Organisation</a> (ISRO) launched India's first Moon orbiter, <a href="/wiki/Chandrayaan-1" title="Chandrayaan-1">Chandrayaan-1</a>, in October 2008. </p><p>In Russia, large aerospace companies like <a href="/wiki/Oboronprom" title="Oboronprom">Oboronprom</a> and the <a href="/wiki/United_Aircraft_Building_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="United Aircraft Building Corporation">United Aircraft Building Corporation</a> (encompassing <a href="/wiki/Mikoyan" title="Mikoyan">Mikoyan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sukhoi" title="Sukhoi">Sukhoi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ilyushin" title="Ilyushin">Ilyushin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tupolev" title="Tupolev">Tupolev</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yakovlev" title="Yakovlev">Yakovlev</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Irkut_(company)" class="mw-redirect" title="Irkut (company)">Irkut</a> which includes <a href="/wiki/Beriev" title="Beriev">Beriev</a>) are among the major global players in this industry. The historic <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> was also the home of a major aerospace industry. </p><p>The United Kingdom formerly attempted to maintain its own large aerospace industry, making its own <a href="/wiki/Airline" title="Airline">airliners</a> and warplanes, but it has largely turned its lot over to cooperative efforts with continental companies, and it has turned into a large import customer, too, from countries such as the United States. However, the United Kingdom has a very active aerospace sector, with major companies such as <a href="/wiki/BAE_Systems" title="BAE Systems">BAE Systems</a>, supplying fully assembled aircraft, aircraft components, sub-assemblies and sub-systems to other manufacturers, both in Europe and all over the world. </p><p>Canada has formerly manufactured some of its own designs for jet warplanes, etc. (e.g. the <a href="/wiki/CF-100" class="mw-redirect" title="CF-100">CF-100</a> fighter), but for some decades, it has relied on imports from the United States and Europe to fill these needs. However Canada still manufactures some military aircraft although they are generally not combat capable. Another notable example was the late 1950s development of the <a href="/wiki/Avro_Canada_CF-105_Arrow" title="Avro Canada CF-105 Arrow">Avro Canada CF-105 Arrow</a>, a supersonic fighter-interceptor whose 1959 cancellation was considered highly controversial. </p><p>France has continued to make its own warplanes for its air force and navy, and Sweden continues to make its own warplanes for the Swedish Air Force—especially in support of its position as a <a href="/wiki/Neutrality_(international_relations)" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutrality (international relations)">neutral</a> country. (See <a href="/wiki/Saab_AB" title="Saab AB">Saab AB</a>.) Other European countries either team up in making <a href="/wiki/Fighter_aircraft" title="Fighter aircraft">fighters</a> (such as the <a href="/wiki/Panavia_Tornado" title="Panavia Tornado">Panavia Tornado</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Eurofighter_Typhoon" title="Eurofighter Typhoon">Eurofighter Typhoon</a>), or else to import them from the United States. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a> has a developing aerospace engineering industry. The <a href="/wiki/National_Engineering_and_Scientific_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="National Engineering and Scientific Commission">National Engineering and Scientific Commission</a>, <a href="/wiki/Khan_Research_Laboratories" title="Khan Research Laboratories">Khan Research Laboratories</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pakistan_Aeronautical_Complex" title="Pakistan Aeronautical Complex">Pakistan Aeronautical Complex</a> are among the premier organizations involved in research and development in this sector. Pakistan has the capability of designing and manufacturing guided rockets, missiles and space vehicles. The city of <a href="/wiki/Kamra,_Pakistan" title="Kamra, Pakistan">Kamra</a> is home to the <a href="/wiki/Pakistan_Aeronautical_Complex" title="Pakistan Aeronautical Complex">Pakistan Aeronautical Complex</a> which contains several factories. This facility is responsible for manufacturing the <a href="/wiki/MFI-17_Mushshak" class="mw-redirect" title="MFI-17 Mushshak">MFI-17</a>, <a href="/wiki/MFI-395_Super_Mushshak" class="mw-redirect" title="MFI-395 Super Mushshak">MFI-395</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hongdu_JL-8" title="Hongdu JL-8">K-8</a> and <a href="/wiki/JF-17_Thunder" class="mw-redirect" title="JF-17 Thunder">JF-17 Thunder</a> aircraft. Pakistan also has the capability to design and manufacture both armed and unarmed <a href="/wiki/Unmanned_aerial_vehicles" class="mw-redirect" title="Unmanned aerial vehicles">unmanned aerial vehicles</a>. </p><p>In the People's Republic of China, <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Xi%27an" title="Xi'an">Xi'an</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chengdu" title="Chengdu">Chengdu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shanghai" title="Shanghai">Shanghai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shenyang" title="Shenyang">Shenyang</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nanchang" title="Nanchang">Nanchang</a> are major research and manufacture centers of the aerospace industry. China has developed an extensive capability to design, test and produce military aircraft, missiles and space vehicles. Despite the cancellation in 1983 of the experimental <a href="/wiki/Shanghai_Y-10" title="Shanghai Y-10">Shanghai Y-10</a>, China is still developing its civil aerospace industry. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Aircraft_parts_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Aircraft parts industry">aircraft parts industry</a> was born out of the sale of second-hand or used aircraft parts from the aerospace manufacture sector. Within the United States there is a specific process that parts brokers or resellers must follow. This includes leveraging a certified repair station to <a href="/wiki/Aircraft_maintenance" title="Aircraft maintenance">overhaul</a> and "tag" a part. This certification guarantees that a part was repaired or overhauled to meet OEM specifications. Once a part is overhauled its value is determined from the supply and demand of the aerospace market. When an airline has an <a href="/wiki/Aircraft_on_ground" title="Aircraft on ground">aircraft on the ground</a>, the part that the airline requires to get the plane back into service becomes invaluable. This can drive the market for specific parts. There are several online marketplaces that assist with the commodity selling of aircraft parts. </p><p>In the aerospace and defense industry, much consolidation occurred at the end of the 20th century and in the early 21st century. Between 1988 and 2011, more than 6,068 <a href="/wiki/Mergers_and_acquisitions" title="Mergers and acquisitions">mergers and acquisitions</a> with a total known value of US$678 billion were announced worldwide.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The largest transactions have been: </p> <ul><li>The acquisition of <a href="/wiki/Rockwell_Collins" title="Rockwell Collins">Rockwell Collins</a> by <a href="/wiki/United_Technologies_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="United Technologies Corporation">United Technologies Corporation</a> for US$30.0 billion in 2018</li> <li>The acquisition of <a href="/wiki/Goodrich_Corporation" title="Goodrich Corporation">Goodrich Corporation</a> by <a href="/wiki/United_Technologies_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="United Technologies Corporation">United Technologies Corporation</a> for US$16.2 billion in 2011<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The merger of <a href="/wiki/Allied_Signal" class="mw-redirect" title="Allied Signal">Allied Signal</a> with <a href="/wiki/Honeywell" title="Honeywell">Honeywell</a> in a stock swap valued at US$15.6 billion in 1999<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The merger of <a href="/wiki/Boeing" title="Boeing">Boeing</a> with <a href="/wiki/McDonnell_Aircraft" class="mw-redirect" title="McDonnell Aircraft">McDonnell</a> valued at US$13.4 billion in 1996<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The acquisition of <a href="/wiki/Marconi_Electronic_Systems" title="Marconi Electronic Systems">Marconi Electronic Systems</a>, a subsidiary of GEC, by <a href="/wiki/British_Aerospace" title="British Aerospace">British Aerospace</a> for US$12.9 billion in 1999<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (now called: <a href="/wiki/BAE_Systems" title="BAE Systems">BAE Systems</a>)</li> <li>The acquisition of <a href="/wiki/Hughes_Aircraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Hughes Aircraft">Hughes Aircraft</a> by <a href="/wiki/Raytheon" title="Raytheon">Raytheon</a> for US$9.5 billion in 1997</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Technology">Technology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aerospace&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Technology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Multiple <a href="/wiki/Technologies" class="mw-redirect" title="Technologies">technologies</a> and <a href="/wiki/Innovation" title="Innovation">innovations</a> are used in aerospace, many of them pioneered around <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-AvWeek6may2016_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AvWeek6may2016-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>patented by <a href="/wiki/Short_Brothers" title="Short Brothers">Short Brothers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Folding_wings" class="mw-redirect" title="Folding wings">folding wings</a> optimise <a href="/wiki/Aircraft_carrier" title="Aircraft carrier">aircraft carrier</a> storage from a simple fold to the entire rotating wing of the <a href="/wiki/V-22" class="mw-redirect" title="V-22">V-22</a>, and the 12 ft (3.7 m) wingtip fold of the <a href="/wiki/Boeing_777X" title="Boeing 777X">Boeing 777X</a> for airport compatibility.</li> <li>To improve low-speed performance, a <a href="/wiki/De_Havilland_DH4" class="mw-redirect" title="De Havilland DH4">de Havilland DH4</a> was modified by <a href="/wiki/Handley_Page" title="Handley Page">Handley Page</a> to a monoplane with <a href="/wiki/High-lift_device" title="High-lift device">high-lift devices</a>: full-span <a href="/wiki/Leading-edge_slat" title="Leading-edge slat">leading-edge slats</a> and trailing-edge <a href="/wiki/Flap_(aeronautics)" title="Flap (aeronautics)">flaps</a>; in 1924, <a href="/wiki/Fowler_flaps" class="mw-redirect" title="Fowler flaps">Fowler flaps</a> that extend backward and downward were invented in the US, and used on the <a href="/wiki/Lockheed_Model_10_Electra" title="Lockheed Model 10 Electra">Lockheed Model 10 Electra</a> while in 1943 forward-hinged leading-edge <a href="/wiki/Krueger_flap" title="Krueger flap">Krueger flaps</a> were invented in Germany and later used on the <a href="/wiki/Boeing_707" title="Boeing 707">Boeing 707</a>.</li> <li>The 1927 large Propeller Research Tunnel at NACA <a href="/wiki/Langley_Research_Center" title="Langley Research Center">Langley</a> confirmed that the <a href="/wiki/Landing_gear" title="Landing gear">landing gear</a> was a major source of drag, in 1930 the <a href="/wiki/Boeing_Monomail" title="Boeing Monomail">Boeing Monomail</a> featured a retractable gear.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Flush_rivet" class="mw-redirect" title="Flush rivet">flush rivet</a> displaced the domed rivet in the 1930s and pneumatic <a href="/wiki/Rivet_gun" title="Rivet gun">rivet guns</a> work in combination with a heavy reaction <a href="/wiki/Bucking_bar" class="mw-redirect" title="Bucking bar">bucking bar</a>; not depending on plastic deformation, specialist rivets were developed to improve fatigue life as <a href="/wiki/Shear_joint" class="mw-redirect" title="Shear joint">shear fasteners</a> like the Hi-Lok, threaded pins tightened until a collar breaks off with enough torque.</li> <li>First flown in 1935, the <a href="/wiki/Queen_Bee_(aircraft)" class="mw-redirect" title="Queen Bee (aircraft)">Queen Bee</a> was a <a href="/wiki/Radio-controlled" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio-controlled">radio-controlled</a> target <a href="/wiki/Unmanned_aerial_vehicle" title="Unmanned aerial vehicle">drone</a> derived from the <a href="/wiki/Tiger_Moth" class="mw-redirect" title="Tiger Moth">Tiger Moth</a> for <a href="/wiki/Flak" class="mw-redirect" title="Flak">Flak</a> training; the <a href="/wiki/Ryan_Firebee" title="Ryan Firebee">Ryan Firebee</a> was a jet-powered target drone developed into long-range reconnaissance UAVs: the <a href="/wiki/Ryan_Model_147" title="Ryan Model 147">Ryan Model 147</a> Fire Fly and Lightning Bug; the Israeli <a href="/wiki/IAI_Scout" title="IAI Scout">IAI Scout</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tadiran_Mastiff" title="Tadiran Mastiff">Tadiran Mastiff</a> launched a line of <a href="/wiki/Unmanned_combat_aerial_vehicle" title="Unmanned combat aerial vehicle">battlefield UAVs</a> including the <a href="/wiki/IAI_Searcher" title="IAI Searcher">IAI Searcher</a>; developed from the <a href="/wiki/General_Atomics_Gnat" title="General Atomics Gnat">General Atomics Gnat</a> long-endurance UAV for the CIA, the <a href="/wiki/MQ-1_Predator" class="mw-redirect" title="MQ-1 Predator">MQ-1 Predator</a> led to the armed <a href="/wiki/MQ-9_Reaper" class="mw-redirect" title="MQ-9 Reaper">MQ-9 Reaper</a>.</li> <li>At the end of World War I, piston engine power could be boosted by compressing intake air with a compressor, also compensating for decreasing air density with altitude, improved with 1930s <a href="/wiki/Turbocharger" title="Turbocharger">turbochargers</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Boeing_B-17" class="mw-redirect" title="Boeing B-17">Boeing B-17</a> and the first pressurized airliners.</li> <li>The 1937 <a href="/wiki/Hindenburg_disaster" title="Hindenburg disaster">Hindenburg disaster</a> ended the era of passenger <a href="/wiki/Airship" title="Airship">airships</a> but the US Navy used airships for <a href="/wiki/Anti-submarine_warfare" title="Anti-submarine warfare">anti-submarine warfare</a> and <a href="/wiki/Airborne_early_warning" class="mw-redirect" title="Airborne early warning">airborne early warning</a> into the 1960s, while small airships continue to be used for aerial advertising, sightseeing flights, surveillance and research, and the <a href="/wiki/Airlander_10" class="mw-redirect" title="Airlander 10">Airlander 10</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Lockheed_Martin_LMH-1" class="mw-redirect" title="Lockheed Martin LMH-1">Lockheed Martin LMH-1</a> continue to be developed.</li> <li>As US airlines were interested in high-altitude flying in the mid-1930s, the <a href="/wiki/Lockheed_XC-35" title="Lockheed XC-35">Lockheed XC-35</a> with a <a href="/wiki/Pressurized_cabin" class="mw-redirect" title="Pressurized cabin">pressurized cabin</a> was tested in 1937 and the <a href="/wiki/Boeing_307_Stratoliner" title="Boeing 307 Stratoliner">Boeing 307 Stratoliner</a> would be the first pressurized airliner to enter commercial service.</li> <li>In 1933, <a href="/wiki/Plexiglas" class="mw-redirect" title="Plexiglas">Plexiglas</a>, a transparent Acrylic plastic, was introduced in Germany and shortly before World War II, was first used for aircraft windshields as it is lighter than glass, and the bubble canopy improved fighter pilots visibility.</li> <li>In January 1930, <a href="/wiki/Royal_Air_Force" title="Royal Air Force">Royal Air Force</a> pilot and engineer <a href="/wiki/Frank_Whittle" title="Frank Whittle">Frank Whittle</a> filed a patent for a <a href="/wiki/Gas_turbine" title="Gas turbine">gas turbine</a> aircraft engine with an inlet, compressor, combustor, turbine and nozzle, while an independent <a href="/wiki/Turbojet" title="Turbojet">turbojet</a> was developed by researcher <a href="/wiki/Hans_von_Ohain" title="Hans von Ohain">Hans von Ohain</a> in Germany; both engines ran within weeks in early 1937 and the <a href="/wiki/Heinkel_HeS_3" title="Heinkel HeS 3">Heinkel HeS 3</a>-propelled <a href="/wiki/Heinkel_He_178" title="Heinkel He 178">Heinkel He 178</a> experimental aircraft made its first flight on Aug 27, 1939 while the <a href="/wiki/Whittle_W.1" class="mw-redirect" title="Whittle W.1">Whittle W.1</a>-powered <a href="/wiki/Gloster_E.28/39" title="Gloster E.28/39">Gloster E.28/39</a> prototype flew on May 15, 1941.</li> <li>In 1935, Britain demonstrated aircraft <a href="/wiki/Radio_detection_and_ranging" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio detection and ranging">radio detection and ranging</a> and in 1940 the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Air_Force" title="Royal Air Force">RAF</a> introduced the first <a href="/wiki/Very_high_frequency" title="Very high frequency">VHF</a> airborne radars on <a href="/wiki/Bristol_Blenheim" title="Bristol Blenheim">Bristol Blenheims</a>, then higher-resolution <a href="/wiki/Microwave" title="Microwave">microwave</a>-frequency radar with a <a href="/wiki/Cavity_magnetron" title="Cavity magnetron">cavity magnetron</a> on <a href="/wiki/Bristol_Beaufighter" title="Bristol Beaufighter">Bristol Beaufighters</a> in 1941, and in 1959 the radar-homing Hughes <a href="/wiki/AIM-4_Falcon" title="AIM-4 Falcon">AIM-4 Falcon</a> became the first US <a href="/wiki/Guided_missile" class="mw-redirect" title="Guided missile">guided missile</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Convair_F-106" class="mw-redirect" title="Convair F-106">Convair F-106</a>.</li> <li>In the early 1940s, British Hurricane and Spitfire pilots wore <a href="/wiki/G-suit" title="G-suit">g-suits</a> to prevent <a href="/wiki/G-LOC" title="G-LOC">G-LOC</a> due to blood pooling in the lower body in <a href="/wiki/High_g" class="mw-redirect" title="High g">high g</a> situations; <a href="/wiki/Mayo_Clinic" title="Mayo Clinic">Mayo Clinic</a> researchers developed air-filled bladders to replace water-filled bladders and in 1943 the US military began using <a href="/wiki/Pressure_suit" title="Pressure suit">pressure suits</a> from the <a href="/wiki/David_Clark_Company" title="David Clark Company">David Clark Company</a>.</li> <li>The modern <a href="/wiki/Ejection_seat" title="Ejection seat">ejection seat</a> was developed during World War II, a seat on rails ejected by rockets before deploying a parachute, which could have been enhanced by the USAF in the late 1960s as a turbojet-powered autogyro with 50 nm of range, the <a href="/wiki/Kaman_KSA-100_SAVER" title="Kaman KSA-100 SAVER">Kaman KSA-100 SAVER</a>.</li> <li>In 1942, <a href="/wiki/Numerical_control" title="Numerical control">numerical control</a> machining was conceived by machinist <a href="/wiki/John_T._Parsons" title="John T. Parsons">John T. Parsons</a> to cut complex structures from solid blocks of alloy, rather than assembling them, improving quality, reducing weight, and saving time and cost to produce bulkheads or wing skins.</li> <li>In World War II, the German <a href="/wiki/V-2" class="mw-redirect" title="V-2">V-2</a> combined <a href="/wiki/Gyroscope" title="Gyroscope">gyroscopes</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Accelerometer" title="Accelerometer">accelerometer</a> and a primitive <a href="/wiki/Computer" title="Computer">computer</a> for real-time <a href="/wiki/Inertial_navigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Inertial navigation">inertial navigation</a> allowing <a href="/wiki/Dead_reckoning" title="Dead reckoning">dead reckoning</a> without reference to landmarks or guide stars, leading to packaged <a href="/wiki/Inertial_measurement_unit" title="Inertial measurement unit">IMUs</a> for spacecraft and aircraft.</li> <li>The UK <a href="/wiki/Miles_M.52" title="Miles M.52">Miles M.52</a> supersonic aircraft was to have an <a href="/wiki/Afterburner" title="Afterburner">afterburner</a>, augmenting a <a href="/wiki/Turbojet" title="Turbojet">turbojet</a> thrust by burning additional fuel in the <a href="/wiki/Propelling_nozzle" title="Propelling nozzle">nozzle</a>, but was cancelled in 1946.</li> <li>In 1935, German aerodynamicist <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Busemann" title="Adolf Busemann">Adolf Busemann</a> proposed using <a href="/wiki/Swept_wing" title="Swept wing">swept wings</a> to reduce high-speed drag and the <a href="/wiki/Messerschmitt_P.1101" title="Messerschmitt P.1101">Messerschmitt P.1101</a> fighter prototype was 80% complete by the end of World War II; the later US <a href="/wiki/North_American_F-86" class="mw-redirect" title="North American F-86">North American F-86</a> and <a href="/wiki/Boeing_B-47" class="mw-redirect" title="Boeing B-47">Boeing B-47</a> flew in 1947, as the Soviet <a href="/wiki/MiG-15" class="mw-redirect" title="MiG-15">MiG-15</a>, and the British <a href="/wiki/De_Havilland_Comet" title="De Havilland Comet">de Havilland Comet</a> in 1949.</li> <li>In 1951, the <a href="/wiki/Avro_Jetliner" class="mw-redirect" title="Avro Jetliner">Avro Jetliner</a> featured an <a href="/wiki/Ice_protection_system" title="Ice protection system">ice protection system</a> from <a href="/wiki/Goodyear_Aerospace" title="Goodyear Aerospace">Goodyear</a> through <a href="/wiki/Ice_protection_system#Electro-thermal" title="Ice protection system">electro-thermal</a> resistances in the wing and tail leading edges; <a href="/wiki/Jet_aircraft" title="Jet aircraft">jet aircraft</a> use hot engine <a href="/wiki/Bleed_air" title="Bleed air">bleed air</a> and lighter aircraft use pneumatic <a href="/wiki/Deicing_boot" title="Deicing boot">deicing boots</a> or <a href="/wiki/Weeping_wing" class="mw-redirect" title="Weeping wing">weep</a> anti-icing fluid on propellers, wing and tail leading edges.</li> <li>In 1954, <a href="/wiki/Bell_Labs" title="Bell Labs">Bell Labs</a> developed the first transistorized airborne digital computer, Tradic for the US <a href="/wiki/Boeing_B-52" class="mw-redirect" title="Boeing B-52">Boeing B-52</a> and in the 1960s <a href="/wiki/Raytheon" title="Raytheon">Raytheon</a> built the <a href="/wiki/MIT" class="mw-redirect" title="MIT">MIT</a>-developed <a href="/wiki/Apollo_Guidance_Computer" title="Apollo Guidance Computer">Apollo Guidance Computer</a>; the <a href="/wiki/MIL-STD-1553" title="MIL-STD-1553">MIL-STD-1553</a> avionics <a href="/wiki/Digital_bus" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital bus">digital bus</a> was defined in 1973 then first used in the <a href="/wiki/General_Dynamics_F-16" class="mw-redirect" title="General Dynamics F-16">General Dynamics F-16</a>, while the civil <a href="/wiki/ARINC_429" title="ARINC 429">ARINC 429</a> was first used in the <a href="/wiki/Boeing_757" title="Boeing 757">Boeing 757</a>/<a href="/wiki/Boeing_767" title="Boeing 767">B767</a> and <a href="/wiki/Airbus_A310" title="Airbus A310">Airbus A310</a> in the early 1980s.</li> <li>After World War II, the initial promoter of <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Photovoltaic power">Photovoltaic power</a> for spacecraft, <a href="/wiki/Hans_K._Ziegler" title="Hans K. Ziegler">Hans K. Ziegler</a>, was brought to the US under <a href="/wiki/Operation_Paperclip" title="Operation Paperclip">Operation Paperclip</a> along <a href="/wiki/Wernher_von_Braun" title="Wernher von Braun">Wernher von Braun</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vanguard_1" title="Vanguard 1">Vanguard 1</a> was its first application in 1958, later enhanced in space-<a href="/wiki/System_deployment" title="System deployment">deployable</a> structures like the <a href="/wiki/International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a> solar arrays of 0.33 hectares (0.82 acres).</li> <li>To board an <a href="/wiki/Airliner" title="Airliner">airliner</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jet_bridge" title="Jet bridge">jet bridges</a> are more accessible, comfortable and efficient than climbing the stairs.</li> <li>In the 1950s, to improve thrust and <a href="/wiki/Fuel_efficiency" title="Fuel efficiency">fuel efficiency</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Jet_engine" title="Jet engine">jet engine</a> airflow was divided into a core stream and a bypass stream with a lower velocity for better propulsive efficiency: the first was the <a href="/wiki/Rolls-Royce_Conway" title="Rolls-Royce Conway">Rolls-Royce Conway</a> with a 0.3 <a href="/wiki/Bypass_ratio" title="Bypass ratio">BPR</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Boeing_707" title="Boeing 707">Boeing 707</a> in 1960, followed by the <a href="/wiki/Pratt_%26_Whitney_JT3D" title="Pratt & Whitney JT3D">Pratt & Whitney JT3D</a> with a 1.5 BPR and, derived from the <a href="/wiki/J79" class="mw-redirect" title="J79">J79</a>, the <a href="/wiki/General_Electric_CJ805" title="General Electric CJ805">General Electric CJ805</a> powered the <a href="/wiki/Convair_990" class="mw-redirect" title="Convair 990">Convair 990</a> with a 28% lower cruise fuel burn; bypass ratio improved to the 9.3 BPR <a href="/wiki/Rolls-Royce_Trent_XWB" title="Rolls-Royce Trent XWB">Rolls-Royce Trent XWB</a>, the 10:1 BPR <a href="/wiki/GE9X" class="mw-redirect" title="GE9X">GE9X</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Pratt_%26_Whitney_GTF" class="mw-redirect" title="Pratt & Whitney GTF">Pratt & Whitney GTF</a> with high-pressure ratio cores.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Functional_safety">Functional safety</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aerospace&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Functional safety"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/AS9100" title="AS9100">AS9100</a></div> <p>Functional safety relates to a part of the general safety of a system or a piece of equipment. It implies that the system or equipment can be operated properly and without causing any danger, risk, damage or injury. </p><p>Functional safety is crucial in the aerospace industry, which allows no compromises or negligence. In this respect, supervisory bodies, such as the <a href="/wiki/European_Aviation_Safety_Agency" class="mw-redirect" title="European Aviation Safety Agency">European Aviation Safety Agency</a> (EASA),<sup id="cite_ref-easa1_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-easa1-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> regulate the aerospace market with strict certification standards. This is meant to reach and ensure the highest possible level of safety. The standards <a href="/wiki/AS_9100" class="mw-redirect" title="AS 9100">AS 9100</a> in America, EN 9100 on the European market or JISQ 9100 in Asia particularly address the aerospace and aviation industry. These are standards applying to the functional safety of aerospace vehicles. Some companies are therefore specialized in the certification, inspection, verification and testing of the vehicles and spare parts to ensure and attest compliance with the appropriate regulations. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Spinoffs">Spinoffs</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aerospace&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Spinoffs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Spinoffs refer to any technology that is a direct result of coding or products created by NASA and redesigned for an alternate purpose.<sup id="cite_ref-spinoff.nasa.gov_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-spinoff.nasa.gov-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These technological advancements are one of the primary results of the aerospace industry, with $5.2 billion worth of revenue generated by spinoff technology, including computers and cellular devices.<sup id="cite_ref-spinoff.nasa.gov_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-spinoff.nasa.gov-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These spinoffs have applications in a variety of different fields including medicine, transportation, energy, consumer goods, public safety and more.<sup id="cite_ref-spinoff.nasa.gov_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-spinoff.nasa.gov-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> NASA publishes an annual report called "Spinoffs", regarding many of the specific products and benefits to the aforementioned areas in an effort to highlight some of the ways funding is put to use.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, in the most recent edition of this publication, "Spinoffs 2015", endoscopes are featured as one of the medical derivations of aerospace achievement.<sup id="cite_ref-spinoff.nasa.gov_13-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-spinoff.nasa.gov-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This device enables more precise and subsequently cost-effective neurosurgery by reducing complications through a minimally invasive procedure that abbreviates hospitalization.<sup id="cite_ref-spinoff.nasa.gov_13-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-spinoff.nasa.gov-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "These <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a> technologies are not only giving companies and <a href="/wiki/Entrepreneurship" title="Entrepreneurship">entrepreneurs</a> a competitive edge in their own industries, but are also helping to shape budding industries, such as commercial <a href="/wiki/Lunar_lander" title="Lunar lander">lunar landers</a>," said Daniel Lockney.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aerospace&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_aerospace" title="Outline of aerospace">Outline of aerospace</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerodynamics" title="Aerodynamics">Aerodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aeronautics" title="Aeronautics">Aeronautics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aerospace_engineering" title="Aerospace engineering">Aerospace engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft" title="Aircraft">Aircraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astronautics" title="Astronautics">Astronautics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NewSpace" class="mw-redirect" title="NewSpace">NewSpace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_space_agencies" class="mw-redirect" title="List of space agencies">Space agencies</a> (List of)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_exploration" title="Space exploration">Space exploration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spacecraft" title="Spacecraft">Spacecraft</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Aviation,_aerospace,_and_aeronautical_terms" class="extiw" title="wikt:Appendix:Aviation, aerospace, and aeronautical terms">Wiktionary: Aviation, aerospace, and aeronautical terms</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aerospace&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist 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a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cranfield.ac.uk/themes/aerospace">"Aerospace"</a>. <i>www.cranfield.ac.uk</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-06-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=EASA+-+European+Aviation+Safety+Agency&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.easa.eu.int%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAerospace" class="Z3988"></span> European Aviation Safety Agency</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-spinoff.nasa.gov-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-spinoff.nasa.gov_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-spinoff.nasa.gov_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-spinoff.nasa.gov_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-spinoff.nasa.gov_13-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-spinoff.nasa.gov_13-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://spinoff.nasa.gov/Spinoff2015/pdf/Spinoff2015.pdf">"Spinoff 2015"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151016211503/http://spinoff.nasa.gov/Spinoff2015/pdf/Spinoff2015.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2015-10-16<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-03-12</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Spinoff+2015&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fspinoff.nasa.gov%2FSpinoff2015%2Fpdf%2FSpinoff2015.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAerospace" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.universetoday.com/37079/benefits-of-space-exploration/">"What Are The Benefits Of Space Exploration? - Universe Today"</a>. 26 January 2015. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321111726/http://www.universetoday.com/37079/benefits-of-space-exploration/">Archived</a> from the original on 21 March 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+Are+The+Benefits+Of+Space+Exploration%3F+-+Universe+Today&rft.date=2015-01-26&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.universetoday.com%2F37079%2Fbenefits-of-space-exploration%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAerospace" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://spinoff.nasa.gov/Spinoff-2022-release">"NASA Spinoffs Help Fight Coronavirus, Clean Pollution, Grow Food, More | NASA Spinoff"</a>. <i>spinoff.nasa.gov</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-02-10</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=spinoff.nasa.gov&rft.atitle=NASA+Spinoffs+Help+Fight+Coronavirus%2C+Clean+Pollution%2C+Grow+Food%2C+More+%7C+NASA+Spinoff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fspinoff.nasa.gov%2FSpinoff-2022-release&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAerospace" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aerospace&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Blockley, Richard, and Wei Shyy. <i>Encyclopedia of aerospace engineering</i> (American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc., 2010).</li> <li>Brunton, Steven L., et al. "Data-driven aerospace engineering: reframing the industry with machine learning." <i>AIAA Journal</i>. 59.8 (2021): 2820-2847. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/pdf/10.2514/1.J060131?download=true">online</a></li></ul> <ul><li>Davis, Jeffrey R., Robert Johnson, and Jan Stepanek, eds. <i>Fundamentals of aerospace medicine</i> (Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2008) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_6hymYAgC6MC&dq=aerospace&pg=PR3">online</a>.</li></ul> <ul><li>Mouritz, Adrian P. <i>Introduction to aerospace materials</i> (Elsevier, 2012) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=U5RwAgAAQBAJ&dq=aerospace&pg=PP1">online</a>.</li></ul> <ul><li>Petrescu, Relly Victoria, et al. "Modern propulsions for aerospace-a review." <i>Journal of Aircraft and Spacecraft Technology</i> 1.1 (2017).</li></ul> <ul><li>Phero, Graham C., and Kessler Sterne. "The aerospace revolution: development, intellectual property, and value." (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sternekessler.com/sites/default/files/2022-03/wlt_phero_sterne_stevens.pdf">online</a></li></ul> <ul><li>Wills, Jocelyn. <i>Tug of War: Surveillance Capitalism, Military Contracting, and the Rise of the Security State</i> (McGill-Queen's University Press, 2017), scholarly history of <a href="/wiki/MDA_(company)" title="MDA (company)">MDA</a> in Canada. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showpdf.php?id=59519">online book review</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aerospace&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/aerospace" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:aerospace">aerospace</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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