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</div> </a> <ul id="toc-Soweto_uprising-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Student_organisations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Student_organisations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Student organisations </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Student_organisations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Student organisations subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Student_organisations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-South_African_Students_Movement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#South_African_Students_Movement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 South African Students Movement </div> </a> <ul id="toc-South_African_Students_Movement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-National_Union_of_South_African_Students" class="vector-toc-list-item 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</div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Internal resistance to apartheid</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%88%D9%85%D8%AA_%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%AE%D9%84%DB%8C_%D8%B9%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%87_%D8%A2%D9%BE%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%AF" title="مقاومت داخلی علیه آپارتاید – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مقاومت داخلی علیه آپارتاید" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opposition_interne_%C3%A0_l%27apartheid" title="Opposition interne à l'apartheid – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Opposition interne à l'apartheid" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perlawanan_dalam_negeri_terhadap_apartheid_di_Afrika_Selatan" title="Perlawanan dalam negeri terhadap apartheid di Afrika 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class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">1950–1994 social movement in South Africa</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r963460841">@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .desktop-float-right{box-sizing:border-box;float:right;clear:right}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.vevent .status>p:first-child{margin:0}</style><table class="infobox vevent" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;"><tbody><tr><th class="summary" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Internal resistance to apartheid</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Part of the <a href="/wiki/Decolonisation_of_Africa" title="Decolonisation of Africa">decolonisation of Africa</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;line-height:1.5em;"><a href="/wiki/File:Mandela_burn_pass_1960.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Mandela_burn_pass_1960.jpg/290px-Mandela_burn_pass_1960.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="402" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Mandela_burn_pass_1960.jpg/435px-Mandela_burn_pass_1960.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Mandela_burn_pass_1960.jpg/580px-Mandela_burn_pass_1960.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1665" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Nelson_Mandela" title="Nelson Mandela">Nelson Mandela</a> burns his <a href="/wiki/Pass_law" title="Pass law">passbook</a> in 1960 as part of a civil disobedience campaign.</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><table style="width:100%;margin:0;padding:0;border:0;display:inline-table"><tbody><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Date</th><td>4 June 1948 – 10 May 1994 (45 years, 11 months and 6 days)<a href="#cite_note-ASK-2">[note 1]</a></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Location</th><td><div class="location"><a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a></div></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Result</th><td class="status"> Military stalemate between MK and South African security forces<a href="#cite_note-Brittle-3">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Powell-4">[3]</a> <a href="/wiki/Negotiations_to_end_apartheid_in_South_Africa" title="Negotiations to end apartheid in South Africa">Bilateral negotiations</a> to end apartheid<a href="#cite_note-Diplomacy-5">[4]</a> <ul><li>Abolition of <a href="/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">apartheid</a> in 1991</li> <li>Dissolution of the <a href="/wiki/Bantustan" title="Bantustan">bantustans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1994_South_African_general_election" title="1994 South African general election">Multiracial elections</a> under a <a href="/wiki/Universal_suffrage" title="Universal suffrage">universal franchise</a> held in 1994</li></ul></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Territorial changes</th><td> Integration of the bantustans, change of <a href="/wiki/Provinces_of_South_Africa" title="Provinces of South Africa">provincial borders in South Africa</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Belligerents</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_South_Africa_%281928-1982%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_South_Africa_%281928-1982%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_South_Africa_%281928-1982%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_South_Africa_%281928-1982%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_South_Africa_%281928-1982%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_South_Africa_%281928-1982%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Union_of_South_Africa" title="Union of South Africa">Union of South Africa</a> (to 1961)</li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Flag_of_South_Africa_%281982%E2%80%931994%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_South_Africa_%281982%E2%80%931994%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Flag_of_South_Africa_%281982%E2%80%931994%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_South_Africa_%281982%E2%80%931994%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Flag_of_South_Africa_%281982%E2%80%931994%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_South_Africa_%281982%E2%80%931994%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">Republic of South Africa</a> (from 1961)</li></ul> </div> <hr /> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Afrikaner_Vryheidsvlag.svg/23px-Afrikaner_Vryheidsvlag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Afrikaner_Vryheidsvlag.svg/35px-Afrikaner_Vryheidsvlag.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Afrikaner_Vryheidsvlag.svg/45px-Afrikaner_Vryheidsvlag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="341" /> <a href="/wiki/Afrikaner_Volksfront" title="Afrikaner Volksfront">AVF</a> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Flag_of_the_Afrikaner-Weerstandsbeweging.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Afrikaner-Weerstandsbeweging.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Flag_of_the_Afrikaner-Weerstandsbeweging.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Afrikaner-Weerstandsbeweging.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Flag_of_the_Afrikaner-Weerstandsbeweging.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Afrikaner-Weerstandsbeweging.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Afrikaner_Weerstandsbeweging" title="Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging">AWB</a></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/UMkhonto_weSizwe" title="UMkhonto weSizwe">MK</a> (<a href="/wiki/African_National_Congress" title="African National Congress">ANC</a>/<a href="/wiki/South_African_Communist_Party" title="South African Communist Party">SACP</a>) <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Flag_of_the_Azanian_People%27s_Organisation.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Azanian_People%27s_Organisation.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Flag_of_the_Azanian_People%27s_Organisation.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Azanian_People%27s_Organisation.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Flag_of_the_Azanian_People%27s_Organisation.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Azanian_People%27s_Organisation.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="1600" /> AZANLA (<a href="/wiki/Azanian_People%27s_Organisation" title="Azanian People's Organisation">AZAPO</a>) <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_placeholder.svg/23px-Flag_placeholder.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_placeholder.svg/35px-Flag_placeholder.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_placeholder.svg/45px-Flag_placeholder.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="24" data-file-height="16" /> <a href="/wiki/Azanian_People%27s_Liberation_Army" title="Azanian People's Liberation Army">APLA</a> (<a href="/wiki/Pan_Africanist_Congress_of_Azania" title="Pan Africanist Congress of Azania">PAC</a>) <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Flag_of_the_UNIA.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_UNIA.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Flag_of_the_UNIA.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_UNIA.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Flag_of_the_UNIA.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_UNIA.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/African_Resistance_Movement" title="African Resistance Movement">ARM</a> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Flag_of_the_UNIA.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_UNIA.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Flag_of_the_UNIA.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_UNIA.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Flag_of_the_UNIA.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_UNIA.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/South_African_Youth_Revolutionary_Council" title="South African Youth Revolutionary Council">SAYRCO</a> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/United_Democratic_Front_(South_Africa)" title="United Democratic Front (South Africa)">UDF</a> (non-violent resistance only) <a href="/wiki/Torch_Commando" title="Torch Commando">Torch Commando</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Commanders and leaders</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa"><img alt="South Africa" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_South_Africa_%281928-1982%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_South_Africa_%281928-1982%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_South_Africa_%281928-1982%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_South_Africa_%281928-1982%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_South_Africa_%281928-1982%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_South_Africa_%281928-1982%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/D._F._Malan" title="D. F. Malan">D. F. Malan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa"><img alt="South Africa" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_South_Africa_%281928-1982%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_South_Africa_%281928-1982%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_South_Africa_%281928-1982%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_South_Africa_%281928-1982%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_South_Africa_%281928-1982%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_South_Africa_%281928-1982%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Hendrik_Verwoerd" title="Hendrik Verwoerd">H. F. Verwoerd</a> <a href="/wiki/Assassination" title="Assassination">X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa"><img alt="South Africa" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_South_Africa_%281928-1982%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_South_Africa_%281928-1982%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_South_Africa_%281928-1982%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_South_Africa_%281928-1982%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_South_Africa_%281928-1982%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_South_Africa_%281928-1982%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/John_Vorster" title="John Vorster">B. J. Vorster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa"><img alt="South Africa" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_South_Africa_%281928-1982%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_South_Africa_%281928-1982%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_South_Africa_%281928-1982%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_South_Africa_%281928-1982%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_South_Africa_%281928-1982%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_South_Africa_%281928-1982%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Hendrik_van_den_Bergh_(police_official)" title="Hendrik van den Bergh (police official)">H. van den Bergh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa"><img alt="South Africa" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_South_Africa_%281928-1982%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_South_Africa_%281928-1982%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_South_Africa_%281928-1982%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_South_Africa_%281928-1982%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_South_Africa_%281928-1982%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_South_Africa_%281928-1982%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Dirk_Coetzee" title="Dirk Coetzee">Dirk Coetzee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa"><img alt="South Africa" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_South_Africa_%281928-1982%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_South_Africa_%281928-1982%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_South_Africa_%281928-1982%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_South_Africa_%281928-1982%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_South_Africa_%281928-1982%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_South_Africa_%281928-1982%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Eugene_de_Kock" title="Eugene de Kock">Eugene de Kock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa"><img alt="South Africa" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Flag_of_South_Africa_%281982%E2%80%931994%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_South_Africa_%281982%E2%80%931994%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Flag_of_South_Africa_%281982%E2%80%931994%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_South_Africa_%281982%E2%80%931994%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Flag_of_South_Africa_%281982%E2%80%931994%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_South_Africa_%281982%E2%80%931994%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/P._W._Botha" title="P. W. Botha">P. W. Botha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa"><img alt="South Africa" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Flag_of_South_Africa_%281982%E2%80%931994%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_South_Africa_%281982%E2%80%931994%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Flag_of_South_Africa_%281982%E2%80%931994%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_South_Africa_%281982%E2%80%931994%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Flag_of_South_Africa_%281982%E2%80%931994%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_South_Africa_%281982%E2%80%931994%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/F._W._de_Klerk" title="F. W. de Klerk">F. W. de Klerk</a></li></ul> </div> <hr /> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Afrikaner_Vryheidsvlag.svg/23px-Afrikaner_Vryheidsvlag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Afrikaner_Vryheidsvlag.svg/35px-Afrikaner_Vryheidsvlag.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Afrikaner_Vryheidsvlag.svg/45px-Afrikaner_Vryheidsvlag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="341" /> <a href="/wiki/Constand_Viljoen" title="Constand Viljoen">Constand Viljoen</a> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Flag_of_the_Afrikaner-Weerstandsbeweging.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Afrikaner-Weerstandsbeweging.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Flag_of_the_Afrikaner-Weerstandsbeweging.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Afrikaner-Weerstandsbeweging.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Flag_of_the_Afrikaner-Weerstandsbeweging.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Afrikaner-Weerstandsbeweging.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Terre%27Blanche" title="Eugène Terre'Blanche">Eugène Terre'Blanche</a></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Tambo" title="Oliver Tambo">Oliver Tambo</a> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Nelson_Mandela" title="Nelson Mandela">Nelson Mandela</a> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Winnie_Madikizela-Mandela" title="Winnie Madikizela-Mandela">Winnie Mandela</a> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Joe_Slovo" title="Joe Slovo">Joe Slovo</a> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Joe_Modise" title="Joe Modise">Joe Modise</a> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Moses_Mabhida" title="Moses Mabhida">Moses Mabhida</a> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Moses_Kotane" title="Moses Kotane">Moses Kotane</a> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Walter_Sisulu" title="Walter Sisulu">Walter Sisulu</a> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Govan_Mbeki" title="Govan Mbeki">Govan Mbeki</a> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Mhlaba" title="Raymond Mhlaba">Raymond Mhlaba</a> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_African_National_Congress.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Lennox_Lagu" title="Lennox Lagu">Lennox Lagu</a> <a href="/wiki/Sailor_Malan" title="Sailor Malan">Sailor Malan</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Casualties and losses</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center"> 21,000 dead as a result of political violence (1948–94)<a href="#cite_note-Justice-6">[5]</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl 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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Apartheid" title="Category:Apartheid">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">Apartheid</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:DurbanSign1989.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/DurbanSign1989.jpg/150px-DurbanSign1989.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="256" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/DurbanSign1989.jpg/225px-DurbanSign1989.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/DurbanSign1989.jpg/300px-DurbanSign1989.jpg 2x" data-file-width="587" data-file-height="1000" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Events_associated_with_apartheid" title="Category:Events associated with apartheid">Events</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:3px;padding-bottom:1px;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_African_general_election,_1948" class="mw-redirect" title="South African general election, 1948">1948 general election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coloured_vote_constitutional_crisis" title="Coloured vote constitutional crisis">Coloured vote constitutional crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1956_Treason_Trial" title="1956 Treason Trial">1956 Treason Trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharpeville_massacre" title="Sharpeville massacre">Sharpeville massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rivonia_Trial" title="Rivonia Trial">Rivonia Trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soweto_uprising" title="Soweto uprising">Soweto uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Street,_Pretoria_bombing" title="Church Street, Pretoria bombing">Church Street, Pretoria bombing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaal_uprising" title="Vaal uprising">Vaal uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Sinton_Secondary_School#Trojan_Horse_Incident" title="Alexander Sinton Secondary School">Trojan Horse Incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Council_of_Churches#1988_bombing_of_Khotso_House" title="South African Council of Churches">Khotso House bombing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cape_Town_peace_march" title="Cape Town peace march">Cape Town peace march</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negotiations_to_end_apartheid_in_South_Africa" title="Negotiations to end apartheid in South Africa">CODESA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Chris_Hani" title="Assassination of Chris Hani">Assassination of Chris Hani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_James_Church_massacre" title="Saint James Church massacre">Saint James Church massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1994_Bophuthatswana_crisis" title="1994 Bophuthatswana crisis">1994 Bophuthatswana crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shell_House_massacre" title="Shell House massacre">Shell House massacre</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Category:Organisations_associated_with_apartheid" title="Category:Organisations associated with apartheid">Organisations</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_National_Congress" title="African National Congress">ANC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azanian_People%27s_Liberation_Army" title="Azanian People's Liberation Army">APLA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inkatha_Freedom_Party" title="Inkatha Freedom Party">IFP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrikaner_Weerstandsbeweging" title="Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging">AWB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blanke_Bevrydingsbeweging" title="Blanke Bevrydingsbeweging">BBB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Sash" title="Black Sash">Black Sash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Cooperation_Bureau" title="Civil Cooperation Bureau">CCB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Party_of_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservative Party of South Africa">Conservative Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(South_Africa)" title="Democratic Party (South Africa)">DP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/End_Conscription_Campaign" title="End Conscription Campaign">ECC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federation_of_South_African_Trade_Unions" title="Federation of South African Trade Unions">FOSATU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Party_(South_Africa)" title="Progressive Party (South Africa)">PP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reform_Party_(South_Africa)" title="Reform Party (South Africa)">RP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Federal_Party" title="Progressive Federal Party">PFP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herstigte_Nasionale_Party" title="Herstigte Nasionale Party">HNP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umkhonto_we_Sizwe" class="mw-redirect" title="Umkhonto we Sizwe">MK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan_Africanist_Congress_of_Azania" title="Pan Africanist Congress of Azania">PAC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Democratic_Front_(South_Africa)" title="United Democratic Front (South Africa)">UDF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrikaner_Broederbond" title="Afrikaner Broederbond">Broederbond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Party_(South_Africa)" title="National Party (South Africa)">National Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_South_African_Trade_Unions" title="Congress of South African Trade Unions">COSATU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_Branch_(South_Africa)" title="Security Branch (South Africa)">Security Branch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Council_of_Churches" title="South African Council of Churches">SACC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Defence_Force" title="South African Defence Force">SADF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Indian_Congress" title="South African Indian Congress">SAIC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Musicians%27_Alliance" title="South African Musicians' Alliance">SAMA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Police" title="South African Police">SAP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Communist_Party" title="South African Communist Party">SACP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_Security_Council" title="State Security Council">State Security Council</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">People</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vernon_Berrang%C3%A9" title="Vernon Berrangé">Vernon Berrangé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P._W._Botha" title="P. W. Botha">P. W. Botha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steve_Biko" title="Steve Biko">Steve Biko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mangosuthu_Buthelezi" title="Mangosuthu Buthelezi">Mangosuthu Buthelezi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F._W._de_Klerk" title="F. W. de Klerk">F. W. de Klerk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruth_First" title="Ruth First">Ruth First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bram_Fischer" title="Bram Fischer">Bram Fischer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Goldreich" title="Arthur Goldreich">Arthur Goldreich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chris_Hani" title="Chris Hani">Chris Hani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bantu_Holomisa" title="Bantu Holomisa">Bantu Holomisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joel_Joffe,_Baron_Joffe" title="Joel Joffe, Baron Joffe">Joel Joffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Kathrada" title="Ahmed Kathrada">Ahmed Kathrada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Luthuli" title="Albert Luthuli">Albert Luthuli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winnie_Madikizela-Mandela" title="Winnie Madikizela-Mandela">Winnie Madikizela-Mandela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mac_Maharaj" title="Mac Maharaj">Mac Maharaj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Fran%C3%A7ois_Malan" class="mw-redirect" title="Daniel François Malan">D. F. Malan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nelson_Mandela" title="Nelson Mandela">Nelson Mandela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Govan_Mbeki" title="Govan Mbeki">Govan Mbeki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thabo_Mbeki" title="Thabo Mbeki">Thabo Mbeki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Mhlaba" title="Raymond Mhlaba">Raymond Mhlaba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Execution_of_Benjamin_Moloise" title="Execution of Benjamin Moloise">Benjamin Moloise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albertina_Sisulu" title="Albertina Sisulu">Albertina Sisulu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Sisulu" title="Walter Sisulu">Walter Sisulu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johannes_Gerhardus_Strijdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Johannes Gerhardus Strijdom">J. G. Strijdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_Slovo" title="Joe Slovo">Joe Slovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Sobukwe" title="Robert Sobukwe">Robert Sobukwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helen_Suzman" title="Helen Suzman">Helen Suzman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adelaide_Tambo" title="Adelaide Tambo">Adelaide Tambo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Tambo" title="Oliver Tambo">Oliver Tambo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Terre%27Blanche" title="Eugène Terre'Blanche">Eugène Terre'Blanche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desmond_Tutu" title="Desmond Tutu">Desmond Tutu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hendrik_Verwoerd" title="Hendrik Verwoerd">H. F. Verwoerd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._J._Vorster" class="mw-redirect" title="B. J. Vorster">B. J. Vorster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Zuma" title="Jacob Zuma">Jacob Zuma</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Places</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bantustan" title="Bantustan">Bantustan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_Six" title="District Six">District Six</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximum_Security_Prison,_Robben_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Maximum Security Prison, Robben Island">Robben Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophiatown" title="Sophiatown">Sophiatown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South-West_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="South-West Africa">South-West Africa</a></li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Soweto" title="Soweto">Soweto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_City,_North_West" class="mw-redirect" title="Sun City, North West">Sun City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vlakplaas" title="Vlakplaas">Vlakplaas</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrikaner_nationalism" title="Afrikaner nationalism">Afrikaner nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apartheid_in_popular_culture" title="Apartheid in popular culture">Apartheid in popular culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apartheid_legislation" title="Apartheid legislation">Apartheid legislation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cape_Qualified_Franchise" title="Cape Qualified Franchise">Cape Qualified Franchise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disinvestment_from_South_Africa" title="Disinvestment from South Africa">Disinvestment campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Charter" title="Freedom Charter">Freedom Charter</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Internal resistance to apartheid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kairos_Document" title="Kairos Document">Kairos Document</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_in_the_movement_against_apartheid" title="Music in the movement against apartheid">Music in the movement against apartheid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nostalgia_for_apartheid" title="Nostalgia for apartheid">Nostalgia for apartheid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Coast" title="Project Coast">Project Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sullivan_principles" title="Sullivan principles">Sullivan Principles</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist" style="border:none;"> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Apartheid_in_South_Africa" title="Category:Apartheid in South Africa">Category</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Apartheid" title="Template:Apartheid"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Apartheid" title="Template talk:Apartheid"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Apartheid" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Apartheid"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Internal resistance to apartheid in <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a> originated from several independent sectors of South African society and took forms ranging from <a href="/wiki/Social_movement" title="Social movement">social movements</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nonviolent_resistance" title="Nonviolent resistance">passive resistance</a> to <a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare" title="Guerrilla warfare">guerrilla warfare</a>. Mass action against the ruling <a href="/wiki/National_Party_(South_Africa)" title="National Party (South Africa)">National Party</a> (NP) government, coupled with South Africa's growing international isolation and economic sanctions, were instrumental in leading to <a href="/wiki/Negotiations_to_end_apartheid_in_South_Africa" title="Negotiations to end apartheid in South Africa">negotiations to end apartheid</a>, which began formally in 1990 and ended with South Africa's <a href="/wiki/1994_South_African_general_election" title="1994 South African general election">first multiracial elections</a> under a <a href="/wiki/Universal_suffrage" title="Universal suffrage">universal franchise</a> in 1994.<a href="#cite_note-7">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-Diplomacy-5">[4]</a> <a href="/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">Apartheid</a> was adopted as a formal South African government policy by the NP following their victory in the <a href="/wiki/1948_South_African_general_election" title="1948 South African general election">1948 general election</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Ottoway-8">[7]</a> From the early 1950s, the <a href="/wiki/African_National_Congress" title="African National Congress">African National Congress</a> (ANC) initiated its <a href="/wiki/Defiance_Campaign" title="Defiance Campaign">Defiance Campaign</a> of passive resistance.<a href="#cite_note-:1-1">[1]</a> Subsequent civil disobedience protests targeted curfews, <a href="/wiki/Pass_laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Pass laws">pass laws</a>, and "petty apartheid" segregation in public facilities. Some anti-apartheid demonstrations resulted in widespread rioting in <a href="/wiki/Port_Elizabeth" class="mw-redirect" title="Port Elizabeth">Port Elizabeth</a> and <a href="/wiki/East_London,_Eastern_Cape" class="mw-redirect" title="East London, Eastern Cape">East London</a> in 1952, but organised destruction of property was not deliberately employed until 1959.<a href="#cite_note-Lodge-9">[8]</a> That year, anger over <a href="/wiki/Pass_laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Pass laws">pass laws</a> and environmental regulations perceived as unjust by black farmers resulted in a series of arsons targeting sugarcane plantations.<a href="#cite_note-Lodge-9">[8]</a> Organisations such as the ANC, the <a href="/wiki/South_African_Communist_Party" title="South African Communist Party">South African Communist Party</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Pan_Africanist_Congress_of_Azania" title="Pan Africanist Congress of Azania">Pan Africanist Congress</a> (PAC) remained preoccupied with organising student strikes and work boycotts between 1959 and 1960.<a href="#cite_note-Lodge-9">[8]</a> Following the <a href="/wiki/Sharpeville_massacre" title="Sharpeville massacre">Sharpeville massacre</a>, some anti-apartheid movements, including the ANC and PAC, began a shift in tactics from peaceful non-cooperation to the formation of armed resistance wings.<a href="#cite_note-Morton-10">[9]</a> Mass strikes and student demonstrations continued into the 1970s, powered by growing black unemployment, the unpopularity of the <a href="/wiki/South_African_Border_War" title="South African Border War">South African Border War</a>, and a newly assertive <a href="/wiki/Black_Consciousness_Movement" title="Black Consciousness Movement">Black Consciousness Movement</a>.<a href="#cite_note-War-11">[10]</a> The brutal suppression of the 1976 <a href="/wiki/Soweto_uprising" title="Soweto uprising">Soweto uprising</a> radicalised a generation of black activists and greatly bolstered the strength of the ANC's guerrilla force, <a href="/wiki/UMkhonto_we_Sizwe" class="mw-redirect" title="UMkhonto we Sizwe">uMkhonto we Sizwe</a> (MK).<a href="#cite_note-Ottoway50-12">[11]</a> From 1976 to 1987 MK carried out a series of successful bomb attacks targeting government facilities, transportation lines, power stations, and other civil infrastructure. South Africa's military often retaliated by raiding ANC <a href="/wiki/Safe_house" title="Safe house">safe houses</a> in neighbouring states.<a href="#cite_note-Minter-13">[12]</a> The NP made several attempts to reform the apartheid system, beginning with the <a href="/wiki/1983_South_African_constitutional_reform_referendum" class="mw-redirect" title="1983 South African constitutional reform referendum">Constitutional Referendum of 1983</a>. This introduced the <a href="/wiki/Tricameral_Parliament" title="Tricameral Parliament">Tricameral Parliament</a>, which allowed for some parliamentary representation of <a href="/wiki/Coloureds" title="Coloureds">Coloureds</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indian_South_Africans" title="Indian South Africans">Indians</a>, but continued to deny political rights to black South Africans.<a href="#cite_note-Diplomacy-5">[4]</a> The resulting controversy triggered a new wave of anti-apartheid social movements and community groups which articulated their interests through a national front in politics, the <a href="/wiki/United_Democratic_Front_(South_Africa)" title="United Democratic Front (South Africa)">United Democratic Front</a> (UDF).<a href="#cite_note-Diplomacy-5">[4]</a> Simultaneously, inter-factional rivalry between the ANC, the PAC and the <a href="/wiki/Azanian_People%27s_Organisation" title="Azanian People's Organisation">Azanian People's Organisation</a> (AZAPO), a third militant force, escalated into sectarian violence as the three groups fought for influence.<a href="#cite_note-Mitchell-14">[13]</a> The government took the opportunity to declare a <a href="/wiki/State_of_emergency" title="State of emergency">state of emergency</a> in 1986 and detain thousands of its political opponents without trial.<a href="#cite_note-Pandey-15">[14]</a> Secret bilateral negotiations to end apartheid commenced in 1987 as the National Party reacted to increased external pressure and the atmosphere of political unrest.<a href="#cite_note-Diplomacy-5">[4]</a> Leading ANC officials such as <a href="/wiki/Govan_Mbeki" title="Govan Mbeki">Govan Mbeki</a> and <a href="/wiki/Walter_Sisulu" title="Walter Sisulu">Walter Sisulu</a> were released from prison between 1987 and 1989, and in 1990 the ANC and PAC were formally delisted as banned organisations by President <a href="/wiki/F._W._de_Klerk" title="F. W. de Klerk">F. W. de Klerk</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nelson_Mandela" title="Nelson Mandela">Nelson Mandela</a> was released from prison. The same year, MK reached a formal ceasefire with the <a href="/wiki/South_African_Defence_Force" title="South African Defence Force">South African Defence Force</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Mitchell-14">[13]</a> Further apartheid laws were abolished on 17 June 1991, and multiparty negotiations proceeded until the first multi-racial general election held in April 1994.<a href="#cite_note-16">[15]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Internal_resistance_to_apartheid&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/African_National_Congress" title="African National Congress">African National Congress</a> and <a href="/wiki/Umkhonto_we_Sizwe" class="mw-redirect" title="Umkhonto we Sizwe">Umkhonto we Sizwe</a></div> Although its creation predated apartheid, the <a href="/wiki/African_National_Congress" title="African National Congress">African National Congress</a> (ANC) became the primary force in opposition to the government after its moderate leadership was superseded by the organisation's more radical <a href="/wiki/African_National_Congress_Youth_League" title="African National Congress Youth League">Youth League</a> (ANCYL) in 1949. Led by <a href="/wiki/Walter_Sisulu" title="Walter Sisulu">Walter Sisulu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nelson_Mandela" title="Nelson Mandela">Nelson Mandela</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Tambo" title="Oliver Tambo">Oliver Tambo</a>, elected to the ANC's National Executive that year, the ANCYL advocated a radical black nationalist programme that combined the Africanist ideas of <a href="/wiki/Anton_Lembede" title="Anton Lembede">Anton Lembede</a> with <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a>. They proposed that white authority could only be overthrown through mass campaigns. The ideals of the ANC and ANCYL are stated in the ANC official web site and state, concerning the Tripartite Alliance: "The Alliance is founded on a common commitment to the objectives of the <a href="/wiki/National_Democratic_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="National Democratic Revolution">National Democratic Revolution</a>, and the need to unite the largest possible cross-section of South Africans behind these objectives," citing the actionable intent and their goal to end oppression.<a href="#cite_note-17">[16]</a> When the ANCYL took control of the ANC, the organisation advocated a policy of open defiance and resistance for the first time, which unleashed the 1950s Programme of Action, instituted in 1949, that emphasised the right of the African people to freedom under the flag of African Nationalism. It laid out plans for <a href="/wiki/Strike_action" title="Strike action">strikes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Boycott" title="Boycott">boycotts</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Civil_disobedience" title="Civil disobedience">civil disobedience</a>, resulting in mass protests, <a href="/wiki/Stay-away" title="Stay-away">stay-aways</a>, boycotts, strikes and occasional violent clashes. The 1950 May Day stay-away was a strong, successful expression of black grievances.<a href="#cite_note-18">[17]</a> In 1952, the Joint Planning Council, made up of members from the ANC, the <a href="/wiki/South_African_Indian_Congress" title="South African Indian Congress">South African Indian Congress</a> and the Coloured People's Congress, agreed on a plan for the defiance of unfair laws. They wrote to Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/D._F._Malan" title="D. F. Malan">D. F. Malan</a> and demanded that he repeal the Pass Laws, the <a href="/wiki/Group_Areas_Act" title="Group Areas Act">Group Areas Act</a>, the Bantu Administration Act and other legislation, warning that refusal to do so would be met with a campaign of defiance. Malan referred the Council to the Native Affairs Department and threatened to treat insolence callously.<a href="#cite_note-19">[18]</a> The Programme of Action was launched with the Defiance Campaign in June 1952. By defying the laws, the organisation hoped to incite mass arrests that would overwhelm the government. Mandela led a crowd of 50 men down the streets of a white area in <a href="/wiki/Johannesburg" title="Johannesburg">Johannesburg</a> after the 11 pm curfew that forbade black people's presence. The group was apprehended, but the rest of the country followed its example. Defiance spread throughout the country and black people disregarded racial laws; for example, they walked through "whites only" entries. At the campaign's zenith in September 1952, more than 2,500 people from 24 different towns were arrested for defying various laws. After five months, the African and Indian Congresses decided to call off the campaign because of the increasing number of riots, strikes and heavier sentences on participants. During the campaign, almost 8,000 black and Indian people had been detained;<a href="#cite_note-20">[19]</a> at the same time, ANC membership grew from 7,000 to 100,000, and the number of subdivisions went from 14 at the campaign's beginning to 87 at its end. There was also a change in leadership: shortly before the campaign ended, Albert Luthuli was elected as the new ANC president.<a href="#cite_note-21">[20]</a> By the end of the campaign, the government was forced to temporarily relax its apartheid legislation. Once things had calmed down, however, the government responded harshly and took several extreme measures, among which were the Unlawful Organisations Act, the <a href="/wiki/Suppression_of_Communism_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Suppression of Communism Act">Suppression of Communism Act</a>, the Public Safety Act and the Criminal Procedures Act.<a href="#cite_note-22">[21]</a> Criminal Law Amendment Act No 8 stated that "[any] person who in any way whatsoever advises, encourages, incites, commands, aids or procures any other person ... or uses language calculated to cause any other person to commit an offence by way of protest against the law... shall be guilty of an offence."<a href="#cite_note-23">[22]</a> In December 1952, Mandela, Sisulu and 18 others were tried under the Suppression of Communism Act for leading the <a href="/wiki/Defiance_Campaign" title="Defiance Campaign">Defiance Campaign</a>. They received nine months' imprisonment, which was suspended for two years.<a href="#cite_note-24">[23]</a> The government also tightened the regulation of separate amenities. Protesters had argued to the courts that different amenities for different races ought to be of an equal standard. The Separate Amenities Act removed the façade of mere separation; it gave the owners of public amenities the right to bar people on the basis of colour or race and made it lawful for different races to be treated inequitably. Sisulu, Mandela, <a href="/wiki/Albert_Luthuli" title="Albert Luthuli">Albert Luthuli</a>, other famous ANC members, Indian Congress, and trade union chiefs' activities were all proscribed under the Suppression of Communism Act. The proscription meant that the headship was restricted to their homes and adjacent areas and they were banned from attending public gatherings.<a href="#cite_note-25">[24]</a> On the global stage, <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> demanded that apartheid be challenged by the United Nations, which led to the establishment of a UN commission on apartheid.<a href="#cite_note-26">[25]</a> Although the movement was subjected to increasing restrictions, it was still able to struggle against the oppressive instruments of the state. Collaboration between the ANC and NIC increased and strengthened through the Defiance Campaign. Support for the ANC and its endeavours increased.<a href="#cite_note-27">[26]</a> On 15 August 1953, at the Cape ANC conference in Cradock, Professor Z. K. Matthews proposed a national convention of the people to study the national problems on an all-inclusive basis and outline a manifesto of amity.<a href="#cite_note-28">[27]</a> In March 1954, the ANC, the South African Indian Congress (SAIC), the Coloured People's Congress, the <a href="/wiki/South_African_Congress_of_Democrats" title="South African Congress of Democrats">South African Congress of Democrats</a> (SACOD) and the South African Congress of Trade Unions (SACTU) met and founded the National Action Council for the Congress of the People.<a href="#cite_note-29">[28]</a> Delegates were drawn from each of these establishments and a nationwide organiser was assigned. A campaign was publicised for the drafting of a freedom charter, and asked for 10,000 volunteers to help with the conscription of views across the country and the Congress of the People. Demands were documented and sent to the local board of the National Action Council in preparation for drafting the Charter.<a href="#cite_note-30">[29]</a> The Congress of the People was held 25–26 June 1955 in <a href="/wiki/Kliptown" title="Kliptown">Kliptown</a>, south of <a href="/wiki/Johannesburg" title="Johannesburg">Johannesburg</a>.<a href="#cite_note-31">[30]</a> 3,000 delegates gathered under police watch to revise and accept the <a href="/wiki/Freedom_Charter" title="Freedom Charter">Freedom Charter</a> that had been endorsed by the ANC's National Executive on the eve of the Congress. Among the organisations present were the Indian Congress and the ANC. The Freedom Charter articulated a vision for South Africa that radically differed from the partition policy of apartheid. It: <ul><li>emphasised that South Africa should be a just and non-racial society,</li> <li>called for a one-person-one-vote democracy within a single unified state,</li> <li>stated that all people should be treated equally before the law,</li> <li>that land should be "shared among those who work it" and</li> <li>that the people should "share in the country's wealth" – a statement often been interpreted as a call for socialist nationalisation.<a href="#cite_note-32">[31]</a></li></ul> The congress delegates had consented to almost all the sections of the charter when the police announced that they suspected treason and recorded the names and addresses of all those present.<a href="#cite_note-33">[32]</a> In 1956, the <a href="/wiki/Federation_of_South_African_Women" title="Federation of South African Women">Federation of South African Women (FEDSAW)</a> was founded and led by <a href="/wiki/Lilian_Ngoyi" class="mw-redirect" title="Lilian Ngoyi">Lilian Ngoyi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Helen_Joseph" title="Helen Joseph">Helen Joseph</a> and <a href="/wiki/Amina_Cachalia" title="Amina Cachalia">Amina Cachalia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-34">[33]</a> On 9 August that year, the women marched to the <a href="/wiki/Union_Buildings" title="Union Buildings">Union Buildings</a> in Pretoria and protested against the pass laws.<a href="#cite_note-35">[34]</a> On the morning of 5 December 1956, the police detained 156 Congress Alliance leaders: 104 African, 23 white, 21 Indian and eight Coloured people. They were charged with high treason and plotting a violent overthrow of the state, and replacing it with a communist government. The charge was based on statements and speeches made during the Defiance Campaign and the Congress of the People. The Freedom Charter was used as proof of the Alliance's communist intent and their conspiracy to oust the government. The State greatly relied on the evidence of Professor Arthur Murray, an ostensible authority on <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a> and Communism. His evidence was that the ANC papers were full of communist terms like "<a href="/wiki/Comrade" title="Comrade">comrade</a>" and "<a href="/wiki/Proletariat" title="Proletariat">proletariat</a>", which are often found in the writings of <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a>. Halfway through the drawn-out trial, charges against 61 of the accused were withdrawn, and, five years after their arrest, the remaining 30 were acquitted after the court held that the state had failed to prove its case.<a href="#cite_note-36">[35]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Sharpeville_Massacre">The Sharpeville Massacre</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Internal_resistance_to_apartheid&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: The Sharpeville Massacre">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Murder_at_Sharpeville_21_March_1960.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Murder_at_Sharpeville_21_March_1960.jpg/220px-Murder_at_Sharpeville_21_March_1960.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Murder_at_Sharpeville_21_March_1960.jpg/330px-Murder_at_Sharpeville_21_March_1960.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Murder_at_Sharpeville_21_March_1960.jpg/440px-Murder_at_Sharpeville_21_March_1960.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2018" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption>Painting depicting the Sharpeville Massacre</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Pan_Africanist_Congress_of_Azania" title="Pan Africanist Congress of Azania">Pan Africanist Congress of Azania</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sharpeville_massacre" title="Sharpeville massacre">Sharpeville massacre</a></div> In 1958 a group of disenchanted ANC members broke away from the ANC and formed the <a href="/wiki/Pan_Africanist_Congress_of_Azania" title="Pan Africanist Congress of Azania">Pan Africanist Congress of Azania</a> (PAC) in 1959. First on the PAC's agenda was a series of nationwide demonstrations against the <a href="/wiki/Pass_laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Pass laws">pass laws</a>.<a href="#cite_note-37">[36]</a> The PAC called for blacks to demonstrate against pass books on 21 March 1960. One of the mass demonstrations organised by the PAC took place at <a href="/wiki/Sharpeville" title="Sharpeville">Sharpeville</a>, a township near <a href="/wiki/Vereeniging" title="Vereeniging">Vereeniging</a>. The size of the crowd was estimated to be 20,000 people.<a href="#cite_note-38">[37]</a> The crowd converged on the Sharpeville police station, singing and offering themselves up for arrest for not carrying their pass books. A group of police officers panicked and opened fire on the demonstrators shortly after the crowd approached the police station, killing 69 people and injuring 186. All the victims were black, and most of them had been shot in the back.<a href="#cite_note-39">[38]</a> Many witnesses stated that the crowd was not violent, but Colonel J. Pienaar, the senior police officer in charge on the day, said: "Hordes of natives surrounded the police station. My car was struck with a stone. If they do these things they must learn their lesson the hard way." The event became known as the <a href="/wiki/Sharpeville_massacre" title="Sharpeville massacre">Sharpeville massacre</a>. In the aftermath the government banned the African National Congress (ANC) and the PAC.<a href="#cite_note-40">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-41">[40]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Armed_resistance_and_sabotage">Armed resistance and sabotage</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Internal_resistance_to_apartheid&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Armed resistance and sabotage">edit</a>]</div> The Sharpeville Massacre persuaded several anti-apartheid movements that nonviolent civil disobedience alone was ineffective at encouraging the National Party government to seek reform.<a href="#cite_note-Stapleton1-42">[41]</a> The resurgent tide of armed revolutions in many developing nations and European colonial territories during the early 1960s gave ANC and PAC leaders the idea that nonviolent civil disobedience should be complemented by acts of insurrection and sabotage.<a href="#cite_note-Louw-43">[42]</a> <a href="/wiki/Nelson_Mandela" title="Nelson Mandela">Nelson Mandela</a> and <a href="/wiki/Walter_Sisulu" title="Walter Sisulu">Walter Sisulu</a> were instrumental in persuading the ANC's executive to adopt armed struggle.<a href="#cite_note-Stapleton1-42">[41]</a> Mandela first advocated this option during the Defiance Campaign of 1952, but his proposal was rejected by his fellow activists for being too radical.<a href="#cite_note-Louw-43">[42]</a> However, with the subsequent success of revolutionary struggles in <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Cuba_(1902%E2%80%931959)" title="Republic of Cuba (1902–1959)">Cuba</a>, <a href="/wiki/French_Indochina" title="French Indochina">French Indochina</a>, and <a href="/wiki/French_Algeria" title="French Algeria">French Algeria</a>, the ANC executive became increasingly more open to suggestions by Mandela and Sisulu that it was time for armed struggle.<a href="#cite_note-Louw-43">[42]</a> From 1961 to 1963, the ground in South Africa was slowly being readied for armed revolution. A hierarchical network of covert ANC cells was created for underground operations, military aid solicited from sympathetic African states and the Soviet Union, and a guerrilla training camp established in <a href="/wiki/Tanganyika_(1961%E2%80%931964)" title="Tanganyika (1961–1964)">Tanganyika</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Louw-43">[42]</a> In June 1961, the <a href="/wiki/Umkhonto_we_Sizwe" class="mw-redirect" title="Umkhonto we Sizwe">uMkhonto we Sizwe</a> (abbreviated as MK) had been set up by the ANC to coordinate underground militant activity throughout South Africa. By the end of 1962 the ANC established an MK high command consisting of Mandela, Sisulu, <a href="/wiki/Govan_Mbeki" title="Govan Mbeki">Govan Mbeki</a>, <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Mhlaba" title="Raymond Mhlaba">Raymond Mhlaba</a>, and prominent <a href="/wiki/South_African_Communist_Party" title="South African Communist Party">South African Communist Party</a> (SACP) activist <a href="/wiki/Joe_Slovo" title="Joe Slovo">Joe Slovo</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Stapleton1-42">[41]</a> Slovo and the SACP were instrumental in bolstering MK and developing its tactics for guerrilla warfare, inciting insurrection and urban sabotage.<a href="#cite_note-Stapleton1-42">[41]</a> White SACP members such as Jack Hodgson, who had served in the South African Army during World War II, were instrumental in training MK recruits.<a href="#cite_note-44">[43]</a> The SACP was also able to secure promises of military aid from the Soviet Union for the fledgling guerrilla army, and purchased <a href="/wiki/Liliesleaf_Farm" title="Liliesleaf Farm">Liliesleaf Farm</a> in <a href="/wiki/Rivonia,_Gauteng" class="mw-redirect" title="Rivonia, Gauteng">Rivonia</a>, just outside Johannesburg, to serve as MK's headquarters.<a href="#cite_note-45">[44]</a> Throughout the 1960s, MK was still a relatively small unit of poorly equipped guerrilla fighters incapable of taking significant action against the South African security forces.<a href="#cite_note-46">[45]</a> Success of the MK's strategy depended on its ability to stoke the anger of a politically conscious black underclass and its armed struggle was essentially a strategic attempt at mass socialisation.This reflected the principles of <a href="/wiki/Vanguardism" title="Vanguardism">Leninist vanguardism</a> which heavily influenced SACP and ANC political theory to a lesser extent. MK commanders hoped that through their actions, they could appeal to the masses and inspire a popular uprising against the South African regime.<a href="#cite_note-Louw-43">[42]</a> A popular uprising would compensate for the MK's weaknesses as it offered a way to defeat the National Party politically without having to engage in a direct military confrontation which the guerrillas would have no hope of winning.<a href="#cite_note-Narrative-47">[46]</a> On 16 December 1961, MK operatives bombed a number of public facilities in several major South African cities, namely Johannesburg, Cape Town, Port Elizabeth and Durban.<a href="#cite_note-First-48">[47]</a> This programme of controlled sabotage was timed to coincide with the <a href="/wiki/Day_of_the_Vow" title="Day of the Vow">Day of the Vow</a>, the anniversary of an important battle between the <a href="/wiki/Voortrekkers" class="mw-redirect" title="Voortrekkers">voortrekkers</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Zulu_Kingdom" title="Zulu Kingdom">Zulu Kingdom</a> in 1838.<a href="#cite_note-Louw-43">[42]</a> Over the next eighteen months, MK carried out 200 acts of sabotage, mostly targeting pass offices, power pylons, and police stations. In October 1962 the ANC publicly declared responsibility for the sabotage campaign and acknowledged the existence of MK.<a href="#cite_note-Stapleton1-42">[41]</a> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MK_Attacks.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/3b/MK_Attacks.JPG/300px-MK_Attacks.JPG" decoding="async" width="300" height="236" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/3b/MK_Attacks.JPG/450px-MK_Attacks.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/3/3b/MK_Attacks.JPG 2x" data-file-width="574" data-file-height="451" /></a><figcaption>List of attacks attributed to MK in <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a> between 1980 and 1983.</figcaption></figure> Mandela began planning for MK members to be given military training outside South Africa and slipped past authorities as he himself moved in and out of the country, earning him the moniker "The Black Pimpernel". Mandela initially avoided arrest within South Africa, but in August 1962, after receiving some inside information, the police put up a roadblock and captured him. MK's success declined with his arrest and the police infiltrated the organisation.<a href="#cite_note-49">[48]</a> In July 1963, the police found the location of the MK headquarters at Lilliesleaf. They raided the farm and arrested many major leaders of the ANC and MK, including Sisulu, Mbeki and <a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Kathrada" title="Ahmed Kathrada">Ahmed Kathrada</a>. They were detained and indicted with sabotage and attempting to bring down the government. At the same time, police collected evidence to be used in the trial that allowed them to arrest others like <a href="/wiki/Denis_Goldberg" title="Denis Goldberg">Denis Goldberg</a>. Particularly damaging was the information on Operation Mayibuye (Operation Comeback), a plan for bringing exiles back into the country. It also revealed that MK was planning to use <a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare" title="Guerrilla warfare">guerrilla warfare</a>.<a href="#cite_note-50">[49]</a> The PAC's secretive martial arm was called Poqo, meaning "go it alone". It was prepared to take lives in the quest for liberation: it murdered whites, police informants and black people who supported the government. It sought to arrange a national revolution to conquer the white government, but poor organisation and in-house nuisances crippled the PAC and Poqo.<a href="#cite_note-51">[50]</a> The PAC did not have adequate direction. Many PAC principals were taken into custody on 21 March 1960, and those released were hampered by bans. When <a href="/wiki/Robert_Sobukwe" title="Robert Sobukwe">Robert Sobukwe</a> (who was jailed following the Sharpeville massacre) was discharged from <a href="/wiki/Robben_Island" title="Robben Island">Robben Island</a> in 1969, he was placed under house arrest in <a href="/wiki/Kimberley,_Northern_Cape" title="Kimberley, Northern Cape">Kimberley</a> until he died in 1978. Police repeatedly lengthened his incarceration through the "Sobukwe clause", which permitted the state to detain people even after they had served their sentences.<a href="#cite_note-52">[51]</a> The PAC's management difficulties also existed in exile. When they were outlawed, PAC leaders set up headquarters in places like <a href="/wiki/Dar_es_Salaam" title="Dar es Salaam">Dar es Salaam</a>, London and the United States.<a href="#cite_note-53">[52]</a> In 1962, Potlako Leballo left the country for <a href="/wiki/Maseru" title="Maseru">Maseru</a>, <a href="/wiki/Basutoland" title="Basutoland">Basutoland</a>, and became the PAC's acting president.<a href="#cite_note-auto-54">[53]</a> Soon after he was elected as acting president, he made a public statement that he would launch an attack on South African Police with an army of 150.000 cadres.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] A few days after that statement, he send two women PAC couriers, Cynthia Lichaba and Thabisa Lethala, to post letters in Ladybrand, a South African town near Lesotho. The letters contained instructions and details of Poqo cadres. The two women were arrested by Basutoland police and correspondence addressed to poqo cells was confiscated. 3,246 PAC and Poqo members were arrested.<a href="#cite_note-auto-54">[53]</a> In 1968, PAC was expelled from Maseru (where it was allied with the opposition Basutoland Congress Party) and Zambia (which was friendlier to the ANC).<a href="#cite_note-55">[54]</a> Between 1974 and 1976 Leballo and Ntantala trained the <a href="/wiki/Lesotho_Liberation_Army" title="Lesotho Liberation Army">Lesotho Liberation Army</a> (LLA) and the Azanian People's Liberation Army (APLA) in Libya. American pressures split the PAC into a "reformist-diplomatic" group under Sibeko, Make, and Pokela, and a Ghanaian Maoist group led by Leballo. APLA was destroyed by the Tanzanian military at Chunya on 11 March 1980 for refusing to accept the reformist-diplomatic leadership by Make. Leballo was influential in the South African 1985 student risings and pivotal in removing Leabua Jonathan's regime in Lesotho, the stress of which caused his death. The PAC never recovered from the 1980 massacre of Leballo's troops and his death and only won 1.2% of the vote in the 1994 South African election.<a href="#cite_note-56">[55]</a> The widely publicised <a href="/wiki/Rivonia_Trial" title="Rivonia Trial">Rivonia Trial</a> began in October 1963. Ten men were accused of <a href="/wiki/Treason" title="Treason">treason</a> for trying to depose the government and sabotage. Mandela, along with those arrested at Lilliesleaf and another 24 co-conspirators, were tried. Many of them, including Tambo, had already fled the country.<a href="#cite_note-:0-57">[56]</a> The ANC used the lawsuit to draw international interest to its cause. During the trial, Mandela gave his "<a href="/wiki/I_am_prepared_to_die" class="mw-redirect" title="I am prepared to die">I am prepared to die</a>" speech.<a href="#cite_note-58">[57]</a> In June 1964, eight were found guilty of terrorism, sabotage, planning and executing guerrilla warfare and working towards an armed invasion of the country. The <a href="/wiki/Treason" title="Treason">treason</a> charge was dropped and all eight were sentenced to life imprisonment. They did not get the death penalty, as it received too much international criticism. Goldberg was sent to the Pretoria Central Prison, and the other seven were imprisoned on Robben Island. <a href="/wiki/Bram_Fischer" title="Bram Fischer">Bram Fischer</a>, the defence trial attorney, was also arrested and tried shortly thereafter. The instructions that Mandela gave to make MK an African force were ignored: it continued to be organised and led by the SACP.<a href="#cite_note-:0-57">[56]</a> The trial was condemned by the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council" title="United Nations Security Council">United Nations Security Council</a> and was a major force in the introduction of <a href="/wiki/International_sanctions" title="International sanctions">international sanctions</a> against the South African government. After Sharpeville the ANC and PAC were banned.<a href="#cite_note-59">[58]</a> The SACP denied it existed, having dissolved in 1950 to escape banning as the CPSA. Leaders like Mandela and Sobukwe were either in jail or in exile. Consequently, there were serious mutinies in Angolan camps by Soweto and Cape student recruits angry at the corrupt and brutal consequences of minority control.<a href="#cite_note-60">[59]</a> The government was able to dismantle the ANC's power within South Africa's borders by incarcerating leaders of MK and the ANC, and greatly affect its efficiency outside of them. The ANC faced many problems in the aftermath of the Rivonia Trial, as its inner administration was severely damaged.<a href="#cite_note-61">[60]</a> By 1964, the ANC went into hiding and planned guerilla activities from overseas. At the end of the 1960s, new organisations and ideas would form to confront apartheid. The next key act of opposition came in 1976 with the <a href="/wiki/Soweto_uprising" title="Soweto uprising">Soweto uprising</a>.<a href="#cite_note-62">[61]</a> The government's effort at defeating all opposition had been effective. The State of Emergency was de-proclaimed, the economy boomed and the government began implementing apartheid by building the infrastructures of the ten separate <a href="/wiki/Homeland" title="Homeland">Homelands</a> and relocating blacks into these homelands. In 1966, <a href="/wiki/Hendrik_Frensch_Verwoerd" class="mw-redirect" title="Hendrik Frensch Verwoerd">Hendrik Frensch Verwoerd</a> was stabbed to death in parliament, but his policies continued under <a href="/wiki/B.J._Vorster" class="mw-redirect" title="B.J. Vorster">B.J. Vorster</a> and later <a href="/wiki/Pieter_Willem_Botha" class="mw-redirect" title="Pieter Willem Botha">P.W. Botha</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClarkWorger201163-72-63">[62]</a> Despite these developments, the ANC was able to launch several successful guerrilla attacks against the South African Defense Force from their locations in-hiding. For example, On 20 May 1983, the ANC detonated a car bomb outside the South African Air Force headquarters in Pretoria, killing 19 people and injuring more than 200. The attack was one of the deadliest in the ANC's armed struggle against Apartheid.<a href="#cite_note-auto2-64">[63]</a> On 30 January 1981, ANC guerrillas launched a surprise attack on the SADF base in Matola, Mozambique, killing 16 SADF soldiers and wounding more than 40.<a href="#cite_note-auto1-65">[64]</a> On 8 December 1982, ANC guerrillas attacked the South African embassy in Maseru, Lesotho, killing three people and injuring several others and on 14 November 1987, the ANC targeted the Vlakplaas police station in Pretoria with a car bomb, killing three police officers and injuring 18 others. Vlakplaas was notorious for its role in the repression of anti-apartheid activists.<a href="#cite_note-auto1-65">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-auto2-64">[63]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Black_Consciousness_Movement">Black Consciousness Movement</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Internal_resistance_to_apartheid&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Black Consciousness Movement">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Black_Consciousness_Movement" title="Black Consciousness Movement">Black Consciousness Movement</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Internal_resistance_to_apartheid" title="Special:EditPage/Internal resistance to apartheid">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>. (January 2008) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> Prior to the 1960s, the NP government managed to quell much of the anti-apartheid opposition within South Africa by outlawing movements like the ANC and PAC, and driving their leaders into exile or captivity. Tertiary-education organisations such as the <a href="/wiki/University_of_the_North" class="mw-redirect" title="University of the North">University of the North</a> and Zululand University began to resist apartheid; they were fashioned by the Extension of University Education Act of 1959, which guaranteed that black and white students would be taught individually and inequitably. After the <a href="/wiki/Rivonia_Trial" title="Rivonia Trial">Rivonia Trial</a> and the banning of the ANC and PAC, the struggle within South Africa was significantly suppressed. The age bracket that had seen the <a href="/wiki/Sharpeville_massacre" title="Sharpeville massacre">Sharpeville massacre</a> became apathetic. A revival in anti-apartheid sentiment came in the late 1960s and mid-1970s from a more radical generation. During this epoch, new anti-apartheid ideas and establishments were created, and they gathered support from across South Africa. The surfacing of the South African Black Consciousness Movement was influenced by its American equivalent, the American <a href="/wiki/Black_Power" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Power">Black Power</a> movement, and directors like <a href="/wiki/Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a>. African heads like <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Kaunda" title="Kenneth Kaunda">Kenneth Kaunda</a> suggested ideas of autonomy and Black Pride by means of their anti-colonialist writings. Scholars grew in assurance and became far more candid about the NP's bigoted policies and the repression of the black people. During the 1970s, resistance grew stronger through trade unions and strikes, and was then spearheaded by the <a href="/wiki/South_African_Students%27_Organisation" title="South African Students' Organisation">South African Students' Organisation</a> under <a href="/wiki/Steve_Biko" title="Steve Biko">Steve Biko</a>'s leadership. A medical student, Biko was the main force behind the growth of South Africa's <a href="/wiki/Black_Consciousness_Movement" title="Black Consciousness Movement">Black Consciousness Movement</a> (BCM), which stressed the need for psychological liberation, <a href="/wiki/Black_pride" title="Black pride">black pride</a>, and non-violent opposition to apartheid.<a href="#cite_note-black-conscious-66">[65]</a> The BCM faction was founded by Biko and materialised out of the ideas of the <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">civil rights movement</a> and <a href="/wiki/Black_Power" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Power">Black Power</a> movement in the USA. The motto of the movement was "Black is Beautiful", first made popular by boxer Mohammed Ali. BCM endorsed black pride and African customs, and did much to alter feelings of inadequacy while raising awareness of the fallacy of blacks being seen as inferior. It defied practices and merchandise that were meant to make black people "whiter", such as hair straighteners and skin lighteners. Western culture was criticised to be destructive and alien to Africa. Black people became conscious of their own distinctive identity and self-worth and grew more outspoken about their right to freedom. The <a href="/wiki/National_Union_of_South_African_Students" title="National Union of South African Students">National Union of South African Students</a> (NUSAS) was the first organisation to represent students in South Africa, but it had a principally white membership, and black students saw this as an impediment. White students' concerns were more scholastic than political, and although the administration was multiracial, it was not addressing many of the issues of the mounting number of black students since 1960. This resulted in the 1967 creation of the University Christian Movement (UCM), an organisation rooted in African-American philosophy. In July 1967, the annual NUSAS symposium took place at <a href="/wiki/Rhodes_University" title="Rhodes University">Rhodes University</a> in <a href="/wiki/Grahamstown" class="mw-redirect" title="Grahamstown">Grahamstown</a>. White students were permitted to live on university grounds, but black students were relegated to accommodation further away in a church vestibule, which led to the creation of the South African Students Organisation (SASO), under Biko, in 1969. The BCM was an umbrella organisation for groups such as SASO. It was created in 1967, and among its members were the <a href="/wiki/Azanian_People%27s_Organisation" title="Azanian People's Organisation">Azanian People's Organisation</a>, the black Community Programme (which directed welfare schemes for blacks), the <a href="/wiki/Black_People%27s_Convention" title="Black People's Convention">Black People's Convention</a> (BPC) and the South African Students Movement (SASM), which represented high-school learners. The BPC originally attempted to unite charitable associations like the Education and Cultural Advancement of African People of South Africa before expanding into a political administration with Biko as its honorary president. When the BCM's principles were revealed, a number of fresh organisations staunch in their endorsement of black liberation were founded. The Azanian People's Organisation was only launched in 1978, a long time after the birth of the Black Consciousness Movement, as a medium for its message. The BCM drew most of its backing from high schools and tertiary institutions. Black Consciousness ethics were crucial in lifting consciousness amongst black people of their value and right to a better existence, along with the need to insist on these. The BCM's non-violent approach subsided in favour of a more radical element as its resolve to attain liberty was met with state hostility. After the carnage in Soweto the ANC's Nelson Mandela grudgingly concurred that bloodshed was the only means left to convince the NP to accede to commands for an end to its apartheid policy. A subversive plan of terror was mapped out, with Biko and the BCM at the forefront. The BCM and other opinionated elements were prohibited during the 1970s because the government saw them as dangerous. Black Consciousness in South Africa adopted a drastic theory, much like socialism, as the liberation movement progressed to challenging class divisions and shifting from an ethnic stress to focusing more on <a href="/wiki/Non-racialism" title="Non-racialism">non-racialism</a>. The BCM became more worried about the destiny of the black people as workers and believed that "economic and political exploitation has reduced the black people into a class". With Black Consciousness increasing throughout black communities, a number of other organisations were formed to combat apartheid. In 1972, the Black People's Convention was founded, and the black Allied Worker's Union, formed in 1973, focused on black labour matters. The black community programmes gave attention to the more global issues of black communities. School learners began to confront the Bantu education policy, which was designed to prepare them to be second-class citizens. They created the South African Student's Movement (SASM). It was particularly popular in Soweto, where the 1976 insurrection against Bantu Education would prove to be a crossroads in the fight against apartheid. Biko was taken into custody on 18 August 1977 and brutally tortured by unidentified security personnel until he lapsed into a coma. He was not medically treated for three days and died in Pretoria. At the subsequent inquest, the <a href="/wiki/Magistrate" title="Magistrate">magistrate</a> ruled that no-one was culpable, but the <a href="/wiki/South_African_Medical_Association" title="South African Medical Association">South African Medical Association</a> eventually took action against the doctors who had failed to treat Biko. There was a strong reaction both within and outside South Africa. Foreign countries imposed even more stringent sanctions, and the United Nations imposed an <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_418" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 418">arms embargo</a>. Young blacks inside South Africa committed themselves even more fervently to the struggle against apartheid, under the catchphrase "<a href="/wiki/Liberation_before_education" title="Liberation before education">Liberation before education</a>". Black communities became highly politicised. The Black Consciousness Movement began to change its focus during the 1980s from issues of nation and community to issues of class; as a result, they may have made of an impact than in the mid-1970s, though there is some evidence to suggest that it retained at least some influence, particularly in workers' organisations. The role of Black Consciousness could be clearly seen in the approach of the National Forum, which believed that the struggle should hold little or no place for whites. The ideal of blacks leading the resistance campaign was an important aim of the traditional Black Consciousness groups, and it shaped the thinking of many 1980s activists, especially those in the workforce. Furthermore, the NF focused on workers' issues, which became more and more important to BC supporters. The Azanian People's Organisation was the leading Black Consciousness group of the 1980s. Most of its support came from young black men and women—many of whom were educated at colleges and universities. The organisation received a lot of support in Soweto and also amongst journalists, who helped to popularise its views. It also focused on workers' issues, but refused to form any ties with whites. Although it did not achieve quite the same level of support that it had in the late 1970s, Black Consciousness still influenced the thinking of a few resistance groups. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Soweto_uprising">Soweto uprising</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Internal_resistance_to_apartheid&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Soweto uprising">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Soweto_uprising" title="Soweto uprising">Soweto uprising</a></div> In 1974 the Afrikaans Medium Decree forced all black schools to use Afrikaans and English in a 50–50 mix as languages of instruction. The intention was to forcibly promote the use of Afrikaans among black Africans. The Afrikaner-dominated government used the clause of the 1909 Constitution that recognised only English and Afrikaans as official languages as a pretext. The decree was resented deeply by blacks as Afrikaans was widely viewed, in the words of Desmond Tutu and Dean of Johannesburg, as "the language of the oppressor". Teacher organisations such as the <a href="/wiki/African_Teachers%27_Association_of_South_Africa" title="African Teachers' Association of South Africa">African Teachers' Association of South Africa</a> objected to the decree. The resentment grew until 30 April 1976, when children at Orlando West Junior School in Soweto went on strike and refused to go to school. Their rebellion spread to many other schools in Soweto. Students formed an Action Committee (later known as the Soweto Students' Representative Council) and organised a mass rally for 16 June 1976. The protest was intended to be peaceful.<a href="#cite_note-67">[66]</a> Stones were thrown in a confrontation with police, who had barricaded the road along the intended route. Attempts to disperse the crowd with dogs and tear gas failed; pandemonium broke out when the police fired shots into the crowd after they were surrounded by the students. 23 people were killed on the first day of rioting. The following day 1,500 heavily armed police officers were deployed to Soweto. Crowd control methods used by South African police were primarily dispersal techniques. Many of the officers shot indiscriminately and killed 176 people.<a href="#cite_note-68">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-Harrison_1987-69">[68]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Student_organisations">Student organisations</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Internal_resistance_to_apartheid&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Student organisations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Internal_resistance_to_apartheid" title="Special:EditPage/Internal resistance to apartheid">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>. (September 2020) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> Student organisations played a significant role in the Soweto uprisings, and after 1976 protests by school children became frequent. There were two major urban school boycotts in 1980 and 1983 that continued for months. Both involved black, Indian and coloured children. There were also extended protests in rural areas in 1985 and 1986. In all of these areas, schools were closed and thousands of students, teachers and parents were arrested. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="South_African_Students_Movement">South African Students Movement</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Internal_resistance_to_apartheid&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: South African Students Movement">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/South_African_Students%27_Movement" title="South African Students' Movement">South African Students' Movement</a></div> Students from Soweto high schools Orlando West and Diepkloof created the African Students Movement in 1970, which spread to the Eastern Cape and Transvaal, encouraging other high schools. In March 1972, the <a href="/wiki/South_African_Students%27_Movement" title="South African Students' Movement">South African Students Movement</a> (SASM) was instituted. SASM supported its members with school work, exams and progress from lower school levels to university. Security forces continuously harassed its members until some of its leaders fled the country in 1973. In 1974 and 1975, some affiliates were captured and tried under the Suppression of Communism and Terrorism Acts, which hindered the SASM's progress. Many headmasters and headmistresses forbade the organisation from becoming involved in their schools. When the Southern Transvaal local Bantu Education Department concluded that all junior secondary black students had to be taught in Afrikaans in 1974, SASM groups at <a href="/wiki/Naledi_High_School" title="Naledi High School">Naledi High School</a> and Orlando West Secondary Schools vented their grievances on school books and refused to attend their schools. This form of protest spread quickly to other schools in Soweto and peaked around 8 June 1976. When law enforcement officers attempted to arrest a regional SASM secretary, they were stoned and had their cars torched. On 13 June 1976, nearly 400 SASM associates gathered to start a movement for mass action. An Action Committee was created with two agents from each school in Soweto. The committee became known as the Soweto Students' Representatives Council (SSRC). The protest was scheduled for 16 June 1976 and the organisers were determined to only use aggression if they were assaulted by the police. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="National_Union_of_South_African_Students">National Union of South African Students</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Internal_resistance_to_apartheid&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: National Union of South African Students">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/National_Union_of_South_African_Students" title="National Union of South African Students">National Union of South African Students</a></div> After the Sharpeville Massacre, some black student organisations were founded but short-lived under state proscription and antagonism from university staff. They were also unsuccessful in cooperating effectively with one another. By 1963, one of the few envoys for tertiary students was the National Union of South African Students (NUSAS). Although the organisation was meant to be non-racial and anti-government, it was primarily made up of white English students from customarily broad-minded universities such as those in Natal, Cape Town, the Witwatersrand and Grahamstown. These students sympathised the effort against the state. By 1967, however, NUSAS was prohibited from functioning on black universities, which made it almost impossible for black Student Representative Councils to join the union. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="South_African_Students_Organisation">South African Students Organisation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Internal_resistance_to_apartheid&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: South African Students Organisation">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/South_African_Students_Organisation" class="mw-redirect" title="South African Students Organisation">South African Students Organisation</a></div> Growing displeasure among black students and the expansion of Black Consciousness led to the incarnation of the South African Students Organisation (SASO) at Turfloop. In July 1969, Steve Biko became the organisation's inaugural head, which boosted the mood of the students and the Black Consciousness Movement. Under the unified configuration of SASO, the principles of Black Consciousness came to the forefront as a fresh incentive for the strugglers. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Congress_of_South_African_Students">Congress of South African Students</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Internal_resistance_to_apartheid&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Congress of South African Students">edit</a>]</div> The Congress of South African Students (COSAS) was aimed at co-ordinating the education struggle and organised strikes, boycotts and mass protests around community issues. After 1976 it made a number of demands from the Department of Education and Training (DET), including the scrapping of matric examination fees.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] COSAS barred many DET officials from entering schools, demanded that all students pass their exams—"pass one, pass all"—and disrupted exams. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="National_Education_Crisis_Committee">National Education Crisis Committee</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Internal_resistance_to_apartheid&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: National Education Crisis Committee">edit</a>]</div> In 1986, the National Education Crisis Committee (NECC) was created from parents, teachers and students after the school boycotts. It encouraged students to return to their studies and protest in less disruptive ways to their education. Consumer boycotts were recommended instead and teachers and students were encouraged to work together to develop an alternative education system. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Trade_union_movement">Trade union movement</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Internal_resistance_to_apartheid&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Trade union movement">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Internal_resistance_to_apartheid" title="Special:EditPage/Internal resistance to apartheid">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2020) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> After apartheid began, South Africa economically flourished due to its newly found trade relations. Products such as gold and coal were being traded along the nation's coastal lines to western countries. The products were mined by black labour workers, who were split up by Bantustan law, which designated different black South African tribes to work in give areas. It was a strategic move that allowed the white people to easily direct labour.<a href="#cite_note-70">[69]</a> In 1973, labour action in South Africa was renewed as a result of the numerous strikes in Durban. Abuse of black workers was common, and many black people were consequently paid less than a <a href="/wiki/Living_wage" title="Living wage">living wage</a>. In January, 2,000 workers of the Coronation Brick and Tile Company went on strike for a pay raise (from under R10 to R20 a week), incorporating <a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Mahatma Gandhi</a>'s views of civil resistance into their rebellions.<a href="#cite_note-auto3-71">[70]</a> The strike drew a lot attention and encouraged other workers to strike. Strikes for higher wages, improved working conditions and the end of exploitation occurred throughout this period. Other industrial and municipal workers were inspired by the brick and tile workers and also walked off their jobs. A month later, 30,000 black labour workers were on strike in Durban. The entire apartheid system, relied on black labour workers to keep its economy growing, thus the strikes strategically disrupted the system of power. Not only did these strikes distort the nation's economy, they also inspired students to strike on their own. The Durban labour strikes were a foundation for rebellions such as the Soweto Uprising.<a href="#cite_note-auto3-71">[70]</a> Police employed tear gas and violence against the strikers, but could not apprehend the masses of people involved. The strikers never chose individuals to stand for them because they would be the first to be detained. Blacks were not permitted trade unions, which meant that the government could not act against any particular individuals. Strikes usually concluded when income boosts were tendered, but these were generally lower than what had been insisted upon. The influence of the Durban strikes extended to other parts of the country. In 1973 and 1974 opposition to labour expanded to the entire country. There was also a growing resilience among black workers as they found that the state did not retort as harshly as they had expected. They began to form trade unions despite being illegitimate and unofficial. After 1976, trade unions and their workers began to play a massive role in the fight against apartheid. With their thousands of members, the trade unions had great strength in numbers, which they used to their advantage to campaign for the rights of black workers and to force the government to make changes to its apartheid policies. Trade unions filled the gap left by banned political parties; they assumed tremendous importance because they could act on a wide variety of issues and problems for their people beyond those that were work-related, as links between work issues and broader community grievances became more palpable. Fewer trade-union officials (harassed less by the police and army) were jailed than political leaders in the townships. Union members could meet and make plans within the factory. In this way, trade unions played a pivotal role in the struggle against apartheid, and their efforts generally had wide community support. In 1979, one year after <a href="/wiki/P._W._Botha" title="P. W. Botha">P. W. Botha</a>'s accession to power, black trade unions were legalised and their role in the resistance struggle grew to all-new proportions. Before 1979, black trade unions had had no legal clout in dealings with employers. All strikes that took place were illegal, but they did help to establish the trade unions and their collective cause. Although the legalisation of black trade unions gave workers the legal right to strike, it also gave the government a degree of control over them, as they had to be registered and hand in their membership records to the government. They were not allowed to support political parties either, though some trade unions did not comply. Later in 1979, the <a href="/wiki/Federation_of_South_African_Trade_Unions" title="Federation of South African Trade Unions">Federation of South African Trade Unions</a> (FOSATU) was formed as the first genuinely national and non-racial trade union federation in South Africa. It was followed by the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Unions_of_South_Africa" title="Council of Unions of South Africa">Council of Unions of South Africa</a> (CUSA), which was influenced strongly by the ideas of Black Consciousness and wanted to work to ensure black leadership of unions. The establishment of the trade union federations led to greater unity amongst the workers. The tremendous size of the federations gave them increased voice and power. In 1980 many black high-school and university students boycotted their schools and there was a country-wide protest over wages, rents and bus fares. In 1982, there were 394 strikes involving 141,571 workers. FOSATU and CUSA grew from 70,000 members in 1979 to 320,000 by 1983, which is also the year that the National Forum and the UDF were established. The largest and longest <a href="/wiki/Vaal_uprising" title="Vaal uprising">black uprising</a> exploded in the <a href="/wiki/Vaal_Triangle" title="Vaal Triangle">Vaal Triangle</a> in 1984 when the new constitution was established. COSAS and FOSATU organised the longest stay-away in South African history, and there were 469 strikes that year, amounting to 378,000 hours in lost business time. In accordance with the State of Emergency in 1985, COSAS was banned and many UDF leaders were arrested. A meeting in Zambia between leaders of white businesses and the ANC influenced the formation of <a href="/wiki/COSATU" class="mw-redirect" title="COSATU">COSATU</a> in 1985. The newly formed trade-union governing body, committed to improved working conditions and the fight against apartheid, organised a nationwide strike the following year, and a new State of Emergency was declared. COSATU's membership quickly grew to 500,000. With South Africa facing an unprecedented shortage of skilled white labour, the government was forced to allow black people to fill the vacancies. This, in turn, led to an increase in spending on black, Coloured and Indian education. There were still divides amongst the trade-union faction, which had the membership of only ten per cent of the country's workforce. Not all trade unions joined the federations, while agricultural and domestic workers did not have a trade union to join and were thus more liable. Nevertheless, by the end of this period, the unions emerged as one of the most effective vehicles for black opposition. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Churches">Churches</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Internal_resistance_to_apartheid&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Churches">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Internal_resistance_to_apartheid" title="Special:EditPage/Internal resistance to apartheid">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2020) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Desmond_Tutu_making_speech_in_Los_Angeles,_1986.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Desmond_Tutu_making_speech_in_Los_Angeles%2C_1986.jpg/220px-Desmond_Tutu_making_speech_in_Los_Angeles%2C_1986.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Desmond_Tutu_making_speech_in_Los_Angeles%2C_1986.jpg/330px-Desmond_Tutu_making_speech_in_Los_Angeles%2C_1986.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Desmond_Tutu_making_speech_in_Los_Angeles%2C_1986.jpg/440px-Desmond_Tutu_making_speech_in_Los_Angeles%2C_1986.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3885" data-file-height="2591" /></a><figcaption>Desmond Tutu makes a speech in <a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles" title="Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a>, 1986</figcaption></figure> The government's suppression of anti-apartheid political parties limited their influence but not church activism. The government was far less likely to attack or arrest religious leaders, allowing them to potentially be more politically active in the resistance, though the government took action against some churches. <a href="/wiki/Beyers_Naud%C3%A9" title="Beyers Naudé">Beyers Naudé</a> left the pro-apartheid <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Reformed_Church" title="Dutch Reformed Church">Dutch Reformed Church</a> and founded the <a href="/wiki/Christian_Institute_of_Southern_Africa" title="Christian Institute of Southern Africa">Christian Institute of Southern Africa</a> with other theologians, including <a href="/wiki/Albert_Geyser" title="Albert Geyser">Albert Geyser</a>, Ben Marais and John de Gruchy. Naudé and the Institute were banned in 1977, but he later became the general secretary of the <a href="/wiki/South_African_Council_of_Churches" title="South African Council of Churches">South African Council of Churches</a> (SACC), a religious association that supported anti-apartheid activities. It also notably refused to condemn violence as a means of ending apartheid. <a href="/wiki/Frank_Chikane" title="Frank Chikane">Frank Chikane</a> was another general secretary of the SACC. He was detained four times because of his criticism of the government and once allegedly had an attempt on his life initiated by <a href="/wiki/Adriaan_Vlok" title="Adriaan Vlok">Adriaan Vlok</a>, former Minister of Law and Order. Archbishop <a href="/wiki/Desmond_Tutu" title="Desmond Tutu">Desmond Tutu</a> was another general secretary of the SACC. He was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts in 1984 and used his position and popularity to denounce the government and its policies. On 29 February 1988 Tutu and some other church leaders were arrested during a protest in front of the parliamentary buildings in Cape Town.<a href="#cite_note-72">[71]</a> <a href="/wiki/Alan_Boesak" class="mw-redirect" title="Alan Boesak">Alan Boesak</a> led the <a href="/wiki/World_Alliance_of_Reformed_Churches" title="World Alliance of Reformed Churches">World Alliance of Reformed Churches</a> (WARC). He influenced the founding the UDF and was once jailed for a month after organising a march demanding the release of Nelson Mandela. Although church leaders were not completely immune to prosecution, they were able to criticise the government more freely than the leaders of militant groups. They were pivotal in altering public opinion regarding apartheid policies. A 1977 New York Times article reported that the Catholic Church in South Africa had caught up and surpassed Protestant Churches by authorizing the admission of black students to previously all-white schools. This was done in disregard of South African law which required segregation. Protestant churches such as the Anglicans had generally followed a conciliatory approach to attempt to gain prior government approval. The Catholics also announced they were laying the groundwork to extend their approach to hospitals, homes and orphanages. In contrast, the Dutch Reformed Church continued to offer biblical justifications for segregation in 1977, although some reformers within the denomination challenged those rationales.<a href="#cite_note-73">[72]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mass_Democratic_Movements">Mass Democratic Movements</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Internal_resistance_to_apartheid&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Mass Democratic Movements">edit</a>]</div> The Mass Democratic Movement played a brief but very important role in the resistance. It was formed in 1989 as an alliance between the UDF and COSATU, and organised a campaign that aimed to end segregation in hospitals, schools and beaches. The campaign was successful and managed to bring segregation to an end. Some historians, however, argue that this occurred because the government had planned to end segregation anyway and did not, therefore, feel at all threatened by the MDM's actions. Later in 1989, the MDM organised a number of peaceful marches against the State of Emergency (extended to four years now) in the major cities. Even though these marches were illegal, no-one was arrested—evidence that apartheid was coming to an end and that the government's hold was weakening. The MDM emerged very late into the resistance, but it added to the effective resistance that the government faced. It organised a series of protests and further united the opposition movement. It was characteristic of the "mass resistance" that characterised the 1980s: many organisations united and dealt with different aspects of the fight against apartheid and its implications. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="White_resistance">White resistance</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Internal_resistance_to_apartheid&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: White resistance">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RuthFirst.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/15/RuthFirst.jpg" decoding="async" width="214" height="266" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="214" data-file-height="266" /></a><figcaption>Anti-apartheid activist <a href="/wiki/Ruth_First" title="Ruth First">Ruth First</a>, assassinated by police in 1982</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Internal_resistance_to_apartheid" title="Special:EditPage/Internal resistance to apartheid">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>. (September 2020) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> While the majority of white South African voters supported the apartheid system for the first few decades, a minority fervently opposed it. Although assassination attempts against government members were rare, Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Hendrik_Verwoerd" title="Hendrik Verwoerd">Hendrik Verwoerd</a>, called the "architect of grand apartheid", had two attempts made on his life (the second of which was successful) by <a href="/wiki/David_Pratt_(assassin)" class="mw-redirect" title="David Pratt (assassin)">David Pratt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dimitri_Tsafendas" title="Dimitri Tsafendas">Dimitri Tsafendas</a>, both legally considered white (although Tsafendas had a mother from <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_East_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Portuguese East Africa">Portuguese East Africa</a>). The moderate <a href="/wiki/United_Party_(South_Africa)" title="United Party (South Africa)">United Party</a> of <a href="/wiki/Jan_Smuts" title="Jan Smuts">Jan Smuts</a> (the official opposition in 1948–1977) initially opposed the Nationalists' apartheid program and favoured the dismantling of racial segregation by the <a href="/wiki/Fagan_Commission" title="Fagan Commission">Fagan Commission</a>, but eventually reverted its policy and even criticised the <a href="/wiki/National_Party_(South_Africa)" title="National Party (South Africa)">National Party</a> for "handing out" too much South African land to the Bantustans. In parliamentary elections during the 1970s and 1980s between 15% and 20% of white voters voted for the liberal <a href="/wiki/Progressive_Party_(South_Africa)" title="Progressive Party (South Africa)">Progressive Party</a>, whose main champion <a href="/wiki/Helen_Suzman" title="Helen Suzman">Helen Suzman</a> was the only MP consistently voting against apartheid legislation for many years. Suzman's critics argue that she did not achieve any notable political successes, but helped to shore up claims by the Nationalists that internal, public criticism of apartheid was permitted. Suzman's supporters point to her use of her parliamentary privileges to help the poorest and most disempowered South Africans in any way she could. <a href="/wiki/Harry_Schwarz" title="Harry Schwarz">Harry Schwarz</a> was in minority opposition politics for over 40 years and was one of the most prominent opponents of the National Party and its policy of apartheid. After assisting in the 1948 general election, Schwarz, <a href="/wiki/Uys_Krige" title="Uys Krige">Uys Krige</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sailor_Malan" title="Sailor Malan">Sailor Malan</a>, and others formed the <a href="/wiki/Torch_Commando" title="Torch Commando">Torch Commando</a>, an ex-soldiers' movement to protest against the disenfranchisement of the coloured people in South Africa. From the 1960s, when he was Leader of the <a href="/wiki/Opposition_(parliamentary)" class="mw-redirect" title="Opposition (parliamentary)">Opposition</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Transvaal_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Transvaal Province">Transvaal</a>, he became well-known and achieved prominence as a race relations and economic reformist in the <a href="/wiki/United_Party_(South_Africa)" title="United Party (South Africa)">United Party</a>. As an early and powerful advocate of non-violent resistance, he signed the <a href="/wiki/Mahlabatini_Declaration" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahlabatini Declaration">Mahlabatini Declaration of Faith</a> with <a href="/wiki/Mangosuthu_Buthelezi" title="Mangosuthu Buthelezi">Mangosuthu Buthelezi</a> in 1974, which enshrined the principles of peaceful negotiated transition of power and equality for all. It was the first of such agreements by black and white political leaders in South Africa. In 1975 he led a breakaway from the United Party due to its ineffective approach to criticism of apartheid, and became leader of the new <a href="/wiki/Reform_Party_(South_Africa)" title="Reform Party (South Africa)">Reform Party</a> that led to the realignment of opposition politics in South Africa. Schwarz was one of the defence attorneys in the <a href="/wiki/Rivonia_Trial" title="Rivonia Trial">Rivonia Trial</a> who defended <a href="/wiki/James_Kantor" title="James Kantor">Jimmy Kantor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nelson_Mandela" title="Nelson Mandela">Nelson Mandela</a>'s lawyer until he was also arrested and charged. Through the 1970s and 1980s Schwarz was amongst the most forthright and effective campaigners against apartheid in Parliament who was feared by many National Party ministers. <a href="/wiki/Helen_Zille" title="Helen Zille">Helen Zille</a>, a white anti-apartheid activist, exposed a police <a href="/wiki/Cover-up" title="Cover-up">cover-up</a> regarding the death of <a href="/wiki/Black_Consciousness" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Consciousness">Black Consciousness</a> founder <a href="/wiki/Steve_Biko" title="Steve Biko">Steve Biko</a> as a reporter for the <a href="/wiki/Rand_Daily_Mail" class="mw-redirect" title="Rand Daily Mail">Rand Daily Mail</a>. Zille was active in the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sash" title="Black Sash">Black Sash</a>, an organisation of white women formed in 1955 to oppose the removal of Coloured (mixed-race) voters from the <a href="/wiki/Cape_Province" title="Cape Province">Cape Province</a> voters' roll. Although they failed, the organisation continued to assist blacks with issues such as <a href="/wiki/Pass_laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Pass laws">pass laws</a>, housing and unemployment. Covert resistance was expressed by banned organisations like the largely white <a href="/wiki/South_African_Communist_Party" title="South African Communist Party">South African Communist Party</a>, whose leader <a href="/wiki/Joe_Slovo" title="Joe Slovo">Joe Slovo</a> was also Chief of Staff of the ANC's armed wing, Umkhonto we Sizwe. Whites also played a significant role in opposing apartheid during the 1980s through the <a href="/wiki/United_Democratic_Front_(South_Africa)" title="United Democratic Front (South Africa)">United Democratic Front</a> and <a href="/wiki/End_Conscription_Campaign" title="End Conscription Campaign">End Conscription Campaign</a>. The latter was formed in 1983 to oppose the conscription of white males into the South African military. The ECC's support base was not particularly large, but the government still banned it in 1988. The army played a major role in the government's maintenance of its apartheid policies. It expanded considerably to fight the resistance, and more money was spent on increasing its effectiveness. It is estimated that between 4 billion and 5 billion <a href="/wiki/South_African_rand" title="South African rand">rand</a> was spent on defence in the mid-1980s. <a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">Conscription</a> was used to increase the size of the army, with stiff prison sentences imposed for draft evasion or <a href="/wiki/Desertion" title="Desertion">desertion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-74">[73]</a> Only white males were conscripted, but volunteers from other races were also drawn in. The army was used to fight battles on South African borders and in neighbouring states, against the liberation movements and the countries that supported them. During the 1980s, the military was also used to suppress township uprisings, which saw support for the ECC increase markedly. Literary opposition to apartheid came from internationally known figures in <a href="/wiki/South_African_literature" title="South African literature">South African literature</a> like <a href="/wiki/Roy_Campbell_(poet)" title="Roy Campbell (poet)">Roy Campbell</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alan_Paton" title="Alan Paton">Alan Paton</a>, and in <a href="/wiki/Afrikaans_literature" title="Afrikaans literature">Afrikaans literature</a> by <a href="/wiki/Uys_Krige" title="Uys Krige">Uys Krige</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ingrid_Jonker" title="Ingrid Jonker">Ingrid Jonker</a>, <a href="/wiki/Breyten_Breytenbach" title="Breyten Breytenbach">Breyten Breytenbach</a>, <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Brink" title="André Brink">André Brink</a> and from <a href="/wiki/Afrikaner_Calvinism" title="Afrikaner Calvinism">Afrikaner Calvinist</a> <a href="/wiki/Dominie" title="Dominie">dominies</a> like <a href="/wiki/Beyers_Naud%C3%A9" title="Beyers Naudé">Beyers Naudé</a>. Some of the first violent incidents of resistance to the system was organised by the African Resistance Movement (ARM), which was founded in the 1960s and were responsible for setting off bombs at power stations (for example, the Park Station bomb). The membership of this group was almost completely recruited from the marginalised white intellectual scene. Many of ARM's members had been part of the National Union of South African Students (NUSAS). Unlike pro-peace opposition NUSAS, ARM was a radical organisation. Its backing came mostly from Johannesburg, Port Elizabeth and Cape Town. By 1964, ARM ceased to exist, as most of its members having been arrested or fled the country. On 24 July 1964, Frederick John Harris, an associate of ARM, planted a time bomb in the Johannesburg station. One person was killed and 22 were injured. Harris explained that he had wanted to show that ARM still existed, but both ARM and the ANC slammed his actions. He was sentenced to death and executed in 1965. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Jewish_resistance">Jewish resistance</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Internal_resistance_to_apartheid&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Jewish resistance">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Israel%E2%80%93South_Africa_relations" title="Israel–South Africa relations">Israel–South Africa relations</a></div> Many Jewish South Africans, both individuals and organisations, helped support the anti-apartheid movement. It was estimated that Jews were disproportionately represented (some sources maintain by as much as 2,500%) among whites involved in anti-apartheid political activities.<a href="#cite_note-75">[74]</a> Much like other English-speaking white South Africans, Jews supported either the Progressive Party or the United Party. One organisation, the Union of Jewish Women, sought to alleviate the suffering of blacks through charitable projects and self-help schemes. Fourteen of the 23 whites involved in the 1956 Treason Trial were Jewish and all five whites of the 17 members of the African National Congress who were arrested for anti-apartheid activities in 1963 were Jewish. Some Jewish university students vehemently opposed the apartheid movement. A large number of Jews were also involved in organisations such as the Springbok Legion, the <a href="/wiki/Torch_Commando" title="Torch Commando">Torch Commando</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sash" title="Black Sash">Black Sash</a>. These anti-apartheid organisations led protests that were both active (e.g. marching through the streets with torches) and passive (e.g. standing silently in black). Two Jewish organisations were formed in 1985: Jews for Justice (in Cape Town) and Jews for Social Justice (in Johannesburg). They tried to reform South African society and build bridges between the white and black communities. The South African Jewish Board also passed a resolution rejecting apartheid in 1985.<a href="#cite_note-76">[75]</a> In addition to the well-known high profile Jewish anti-apartheid personalities, there were very many ordinary Jews who expressed their revulsion of apartheid in diverse ways and contributed to its eventual downfall. Many Jews actively provided humanitarian assistance for black communities. Johannesburg's Oxford Synagogue and Cape Town's Temple Israel established nurseries, medical clinics and adult education programs in the townships and provided legal aid for victims of apartheid laws. Many Jewish lawyers acted as nominees for non-whites who were not allowed to buy properties in white areas.<a href="#cite_note-77">[76]</a> In 1980, South Africa's National Congress of the Jewish Board of Deputies passed a resolution urging "all concerned [people] and, in particular, members of our community to cooperate in securing the immediate amelioration and ultimate removal of all unjust discriminatory laws and practices based on race, creed, or colour". This inspired some Jews to intensify their anti-apartheid activism, but the bulk of the community either emigrated or avoided public conflict with the National Party government.<a href="#cite_note-78">[77]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Indian_resistance">Indian resistance</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Internal_resistance_to_apartheid&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Indian resistance">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/India%E2%80%93South_Africa_relations" title="India–South Africa relations">India–South Africa relations</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Hilda_Kuper" title="Hilda Kuper">Hilda Kuper</a>, writing in 1960, observed of the <a href="/wiki/Natal_Indian_Congress" title="Natal Indian Congress">Natal Indian Congress</a>: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">Congress considers that in South Africa the first objective is the removal of discrimination based on race, and is prepared to co-operate with people of all groups who share this ideological outlook.<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Hilda_Kuper" title="Hilda Kuper">Hilda Kuper</a>, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFKuper1960" class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161022211752/http://www.sahistory.org.za/archive/indian-people-natal-hilda-kuper">Indian People in Natal</a>. <a href="/wiki/Natal_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Natal Province">Natal</a>: University Press. 1960. p. 53. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sahistory.org.za/archive/indian-people-natal-hilda-kuper">the original</a> on 22 October 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indian+People+in+Natal&rft.place=Natal&rft.pages=53&rft.pub=University+Press&rft.date=1960&rft.aulast=Kuper&rft.aufirst=Hilda&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sahistory.org.za%2Farchive%2Findian-people-natal-hilda-kuper&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternal+resistance+to+apartheid" class="Z3988"></cite></div></blockquote> <a href="/wiki/Fatima_Meer" title="Fatima Meer">Fatima Meer</a> was notable among South African anti-apartheid activists from the Indian diaspora.<a href="#cite_note-TL2010-79">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-mg60-80">[79]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Role_of_women">Role of women</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Internal_resistance_to_apartheid&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Role of women">edit</a>]</div> South African women participated in the <a href="/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">anti-apartheid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Liberation_movements" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberation movements">liberation movements</a> that took hold of South Africa. Although these female activists were rarely at the head of the main organisations, at least at the beginning of the movement, they were prime actors. One of the earliest organisations was The Bantu Women's League founded in 1913.<a href="#cite_note-81">[80]</a> In the 1930s and 1940s, female activists were prevalent in trade union movements, which also served as a vehicle for future organisation. In the 1950s, women-exclusive organisations were created such as the <a href="/wiki/ANC_Women%27s_League" class="mw-redirect" title="ANC Women's League">ANC Women's League</a> (ANCWL) and the Women's Council within the <a href="/wiki/South_West_Africa_People%27s_Organization" class="mw-redirect" title="South West Africa People's Organization">South West Africa People's Organization</a> (SWAPO).<a href="#cite_note-82">[81]</a> In April 1954, the more global <a href="/wiki/Federation_of_South_African_Women" title="Federation of South African Women">Federation of South African Women</a> (FSAW or FedSAW) was founded with the objectives to fight against racism and oppression of women and to make African women understand that they had rights both as human beings and as women. While female activists fought along men and participated to demonstrations and guerrilla movements, FSAW and ANCWL also acted independently and organised bus boycotts and campaigns against restrictive passes in <a href="/wiki/Pretoria" title="Pretoria">Pretoria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sharpeville" title="Sharpeville">Sharpeville</a>.<a href="#cite_note-83">[82]</a> 20,000 women attended the demonstrations. Many participants were arrested, forced into exile or imprisoned, such as <a href="/wiki/Lilian_Ngoyi" class="mw-redirect" title="Lilian Ngoyi">Lilian Ngoyi</a>. In 1958, 2000 women were arrested during an anti-pass campaign.<a href="#cite_note-84">[83]</a> After the <a href="/wiki/Sharpeville_massacre" title="Sharpeville massacre">Sharpeville massacre</a>, many organisations such as FSAW were banned and went into hiding. At the same time, South African women fought against gender discrimination and called for rights specific to women, such as family, children, gender equality and access to education. At a conference in <a href="/wiki/Johannesburg" title="Johannesburg">Johannesburg</a> in 1954, the Federation of South African Women adopted the "Women's Charter",<a href="#cite_note-85">[84]</a> which focused on rights specific to women both as women and mothers. The Charter referred both to human rights and women's rights and asked for universal equality and national liberation. In 1955, in a document drafted in preparation for the Congress of People,<a href="#cite_note-86">[85]</a> the FSAW made more demands, including free education for children, proper housing facilities and good working conditions, such as the abolition of child labour and a minimum wage.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Their actions and demands gradually attracted the attention of the United Nations and put pressure on the international community. In 1954, Ngoyi attended the World Congress of Women in <a href="/wiki/Lausanne" title="Lausanne">Lausanne</a>, Switzerland.<a href="#cite_note-87">[86]</a> The ANC was present at the 1975 <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Decade_for_Women" title="United Nations Decade for Women">United Nations Decade for Women</a> in Copenhagen and in 1980 an essay on the role of women in the liberation movement was prepared for the United Nations World Conference,<a href="#cite_note-88">[87]</a> which was crucial for the recognition of Southern African women and their role in the anti-apartheid movement.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Among important activists during the anti-apartheid movement were <a href="/wiki/Ida_Mntwana" title="Ida Mntwana">Ida Mntwana</a>, Ngoyi, <a href="/wiki/Helen_Joseph" title="Helen Joseph">Helen Joseph</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Nyembe" title="Dorothy Nyembe">Dorothy Nyembe</a>.<a href="#cite_note-89">[88]</a> Ngoyi joined the ANC National Executive and was elected first vice-president and later president of FSAW in 1959. Many of these leaders served long prison sentences.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Internal_resistance_to_apartheid&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Flag_of_South_Africa.svg/32px-Flag_of_South_Africa.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Flag_of_South_Africa.svg/48px-Flag_of_South_Africa.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Flag_of_South_Africa.svg/64px-Flag_of_South_Africa.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:South_Africa" title="Portal:South Africa">South Africa portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_massacres_in_South_Africa" title="List of massacres in South Africa">List of massacres in South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protests_in_South_Africa" title="Protests in South Africa">Protests in South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Musicians%27_Alliance" title="South African Musicians' Alliance">South African Musicians' Alliance</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes_and_references">Notes and references</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Internal_resistance_to_apartheid&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Notes and references">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Annotations">Annotations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Internal_resistance_to_apartheid&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Annotations">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-ASK-2"><a href="#cite_ref-ASK_2-0">^</a> The ANC made its decision to begin passive resistance against the apartheid system on 17 December 1950. The first significant organised protests against apartheid did not occur until the <a href="/wiki/Defiance_Campaign" title="Defiance Campaign">Defiance Campaign</a> in 1952.<a href="#cite_note-:1-1">[1]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Internal_resistance_to_apartheid&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:1-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_1-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161201155811/http://overcomingapartheid.msu.edu/multimedia.php?id=65-259-9">"The Defiance Campaign"</a>. South Africa: Overcoming Apartheid Building Democracy. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://overcomingapartheid.msu.edu/multimedia.php?id=65-259-9">the original</a> on 1 December 2016. Retrieved 3 September 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=South+Africa%3A+Overcoming+Apartheid+Building+Democracy&rft.atitle=The+Defiance+Campaign&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fovercomingapartheid.msu.edu%2Fmultimedia.php%3Fid%3D65-259-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternal+resistance+to+apartheid" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brittle-3"><a href="#cite_ref-Brittle_3-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFdu_Toit2001" class="citation book cs1">du Toit, Pierre (2001). South Africa's Brittle Peace: The Problem of Post-Settlement Violence. Basingstoke: Palgrave-Macmillan. pp. 90–94. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0333779187" title="Special:BookSources/978-0333779187"><bdi>978-0333779187</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=South+Africa%27s+Brittle+Peace%3A+The+Problem+of+Post-Settlement+Violence&rft.place=Basingstoke&rft.pages=90-94&rft.pub=Palgrave-Macmillan&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0333779187&rft.aulast=du+Toit&rft.aufirst=Pierre&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternal+resistance+to+apartheid" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Powell-4"><a href="#cite_ref-Powell_4-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPowell2015" class="citation book cs1">Powell, Jonathan (2015). Terrorists at the Table: Why Negotiating is the Only Way to Peace. New York: St. Martin's Press. pp. 146–147. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1250069887" title="Special:BookSources/978-1250069887"><bdi>978-1250069887</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Terrorists+at+the+Table%3A+Why+Negotiating+is+the+Only+Way+to+Peace&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=146-147&rft.pub=St.+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1250069887&rft.aulast=Powell&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternal+resistance+to+apartheid" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Diplomacy-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Diplomacy_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diplomacy_5-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diplomacy_5-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diplomacy_5-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diplomacy_5-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas1995" class="citation book cs1">Thomas, Scott (1995). The Diplomacy of Liberation: The Foreign Relations of the ANC Since 1960. London: Tauris Academic Studies. pp. 202–210. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1850439936" title="Special:BookSources/978-1850439936"><bdi>978-1850439936</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Diplomacy+of+Liberation%3A+The+Foreign+Relations+of+the+ANC+Since+1960&rft.place=London&rft.pages=202-210&rft.pub=Tauris+Academic+Studies&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-1850439936&rft.aulast=Thomas&rft.aufirst=Scott&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternal+resistance+to+apartheid" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Justice-6"><a href="#cite_ref-Justice_6-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUgorji2012" class="citation book cs1">Ugorji, Basil (2012). From Cultural Justice to Inter-Ethnic Mediation: A Reflection on the Possibility of Ethno-Religious Mediation in Africa. Denver: Outskirts Press. pp. 65–66. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1432788353" title="Special:BookSources/978-1432788353"><bdi>978-1432788353</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Cultural+Justice+to+Inter-Ethnic+Mediation%3A+A+Reflection+on+the+Possibility+of+Ethno-Religious+Mediation+in+Africa&rft.place=Denver&rft.pages=65-66&rft.pub=Outskirts+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1432788353&rft.aulast=Ugorji&rft.aufirst=Basil&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternal+resistance+to+apartheid" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> Tom Lodge, "Action against Apartheid in South Africa, 1983–94", in <a href="/wiki/Adam_Roberts_(scholar)" title="Adam Roberts (scholar)">Adam Roberts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Timothy_Garton_Ash" title="Timothy Garton Ash">Timothy Garton Ash</a> (eds), Civil Resistance and Power Politics: The Experience of Non-violent Action from Gandhi to the Present. Oxford & New York: Oxford University Press, 2009, pp. 213–30. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-955201-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-955201-6">978-0-19-955201-6</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Ottoway-8"><a href="#cite_ref-Ottoway_8-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOttoway1993" class="citation book cs1">Ottoway, Marina (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/southafricastrug00mari/page/23">South Africa: The Struggle for a New Order</a>. Washington: Brookings Institution Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/southafricastrug00mari/page/23">23–26</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0815767152" title="Special:BookSources/978-0815767152"><bdi>978-0815767152</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=South+Africa%3A+The+Struggle+for+a+New+Order&rft.place=Washington&rft.pages=23-26&rft.pub=Brookings+Institution+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0815767152&rft.aulast=Ottoway&rft.aufirst=Marina&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsouthafricastrug00mari%2Fpage%2F23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternal+resistance+to+apartheid" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lodge-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lodge_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lodge_9-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lodge_9-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLodge2011" class="citation book cs1">Lodge, Tim (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sharpevilleapart0000lodg/page/31">Sharpeville: An Apartheid Massacre and Its Consequences</a>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sharpevilleapart0000lodg/page/31">31–34</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0192801852" title="Special:BookSources/978-0192801852"><bdi>978-0192801852</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sharpeville%3A+An+Apartheid+Massacre+and+Its+Consequences&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=31-34&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0192801852&rft.aulast=Lodge&rft.aufirst=Tim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsharpevilleapart0000lodg%2Fpage%2F31&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternal+resistance+to+apartheid" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Morton-10"><a href="#cite_ref-Morton_10-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorton2013" class="citation book cs1">Morton, Stephen (2013). States of Emergency: Colonialism, Literature and Law. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press. pp. 94–96. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1846318498" title="Special:BookSources/978-1846318498"><bdi>978-1846318498</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=States+of+Emergency%3A+Colonialism%2C+Literature+and+Law&rft.place=Liverpool&rft.pages=94-96&rft.pub=Liverpool+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1846318498&rft.aulast=Morton&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternal+resistance+to+apartheid" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-War-11"><a href="#cite_ref-War_11-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacklyn_Cock,_Laurie_Nathan1989" class="citation book cs1">Jacklyn Cock, Laurie Nathan (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zEQ-Km_KShAC&q=Coventry+Four&pg=PA238">War and Society: The Militarisation of South Africa</a>. New Africa Books. pp. 135–136. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86486-115-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-86486-115-3"><bdi>978-0-86486-115-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=War+and+Society%3A+The+Militarisation+of+South+Africa&rft.pages=135-136&rft.pub=New+Africa+Books&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-86486-115-3&rft.au=Jacklyn+Cock%2C+Laurie+Nathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzEQ-Km_KShAC%26q%3DCoventry%2BFour%26pg%3DPA238&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternal+resistance+to+apartheid" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ottoway50-12"><a href="#cite_ref-Ottoway50_12-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOttoway1993" class="citation book cs1">Ottoway, Marina (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/southafricastrug00mari/page/50">South Africa: The Struggle for a New Order</a>. Washington: Brookings Institution Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/southafricastrug00mari/page/50">50–52</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0815767152" title="Special:BookSources/978-0815767152"><bdi>978-0815767152</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=South+Africa%3A+The+Struggle+for+a+New+Order&rft.place=Washington&rft.pages=50-52&rft.pub=Brookings+Institution+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0815767152&rft.aulast=Ottoway&rft.aufirst=Marina&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsouthafricastrug00mari%2Fpage%2F50&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternal+resistance+to+apartheid" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Minter-13"><a href="#cite_ref-Minter_13-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMinter1994" class="citation book cs1">Minter, William (1994). Apartheid's Contras: An Inquiry into the Roots of War in Angola and Mozambique. Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press. pp. 114–117. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1439216187" title="Special:BookSources/978-1439216187"><bdi>978-1439216187</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Apartheid%27s+Contras%3A+An+Inquiry+into+the+Roots+of+War+in+Angola+and+Mozambique&rft.place=Johannesburg&rft.pages=114-117&rft.pub=Witwatersrand+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-1439216187&rft.aulast=Minter&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternal+resistance+to+apartheid" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mitchell-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mitchell_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mitchell_14-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMitchell2008" class="citation book cs1">Mitchell, Thomas (2008). Native vs Settler: Ethnic Conflict in Israel/Palestine, Northern Ireland and South Africa. Westport: Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 194–196. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0313313578" title="Special:BookSources/978-0313313578"><bdi>978-0313313578</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Native+vs+Settler%3A+Ethnic+Conflict+in+Israel%2FPalestine%2C+Northern+Ireland+and+South+Africa&rft.place=Westport&rft.pages=194-196&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0313313578&rft.aulast=Mitchell&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternal+resistance+to+apartheid" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pandey-15"><a href="#cite_ref-Pandey_15-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPandey2006" class="citation book cs1">Pandey, Satish Chandra (2006). International Terrorism and the Contemporary World. New Delhi: Sarup & Sons, Publishers. pp. 197–199. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8176256384" title="Special:BookSources/978-8176256384"><bdi>978-8176256384</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=International+Terrorism+and+the+Contemporary+World&rft.place=New+Delhi&rft.pages=197-199&rft.pub=Sarup+%26+Sons%2C+Publishers&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-8176256384&rft.aulast=Pandey&rft.aufirst=Satish+Chandra&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternal+resistance+to+apartheid" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMyre,_Greg1991" class="citation news cs1">Myre, Greg (18 June 1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1893&dat=19910618&id=3sQfAAAAIBAJ&pg=5582,6356040&hl=en">"South Africa ends racial classifications"</a>. Southeast Missourian. Cape Girardeau. 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Greenwood Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-313-29938-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-313-29938-2"><bdi>0-313-29938-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/246092999">246092999</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+end+of+apartheid+in+South+Africa&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F246092999&rft.isbn=0-313-29938-2&rft.au=Eades%2C+Lindsay+Michie+1962-&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fendofapartheidin00eade&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternal+resistance+to+apartheid" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-auto3-71">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto3_71-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto3_71-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nonviolent-conflict.org/anti-apartheid-struggle-south-africa-1912-1992/">"The Anti-Apartheid Struggle in South Africa (1912-1992)"</a>. ICNC. Retrieved 26 November 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ICNC&rft.atitle=The+Anti-Apartheid+Struggle+in+South+Africa+%281912-1992%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nonviolent-conflict.org%2Fanti-apartheid-struggle-south-africa-1912-1992%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternal+resistance+to+apartheid" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thecrimson.com/article.aspx?ref=137105">"Tutu, Other Clergy Arrested in Protest"</a>, The Harvard Crimson, 1 March 1988. </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> New York Times (archives), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1977/02/06/archives/catholic-defiance-of-apartheid-is-stirring-south-africa.html">"Catholic Defiance of Apartheid Is Stirring South Africa,"</a> John Burns, 6 Feb. 1977. </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_D._Battersby1988" class="citation news cs1">John D. Battersby (28 March 1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=940DE0DF1239F93BA15750C0A96E948260">"More Whites in South Africa Resisting the Draft"</a>. <a href="/wiki/New_York_Times" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Times">New York Times</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+York+Times&rft.atitle=More+Whites+in+South+Africa+Resisting+the+Draft&rft.date=1988-03-28&rft.au=John+D.+Battersby&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fquery.nytimes.com%2Fgst%2Ffullpage.html%3Fres%3D940DE0DF1239F93BA15750C0A96E948260&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternal+resistance+to+apartheid" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110305041425/http://www.legendaryheroesofafrica.com/">"Legendary Heroes of Africa - Stamps to Commemorate Jewish anti Apartheid South African Liberation struggle"</a>. Legendary Heroes of Africa. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.legendaryheroesofafrica.com">the original</a> on 5 March 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Legendary+Heroes+of+Africa+-+Stamps+to+Commemorate+Jewish+anti+Apartheid+South+African+Liberation+struggle&rft.pub=Legendary+Heroes+of+Africa&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.legendaryheroesofafrica.com&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternal+resistance+to+apartheid" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/south-africa-virtual-jewish-history-tour">"South Africa Virtual Jewish History Tour"</a>. www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org&rft.atitle=South+Africa+Virtual+Jewish+History+Tour&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishvirtuallibrary.org%2Fsouth-africa-virtual-jewish-history-tour&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternal+resistance+to+apartheid" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130328230304/http://www.2nd-thoughts.org/id27.html">"South African Jews Against Apartheid"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.2nd-thoughts.org/id27.html">the original</a> on 28 March 2013. Retrieved 26 June 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=South+African+Jews+Against+Apartheid&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.2nd-thoughts.org%2Fid27.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternal+resistance+to+apartheid" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050425031231/http://www.mindspring.com/~jaypsand/sa2.htm">"The Jews of Africa -- the Jews of South Africa"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mindspring.com/~jaypsand/sa2.htm">the original</a> on 25 April 2005. Retrieved 6 July 2005.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Jews+of+Africa+--+the+Jews+of+South+Africa&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mindspring.com%2F~jaypsand%2Fsa2.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternal+resistance+to+apartheid" class="Z3988"> The Jews of Africa </li> <li id="cite_note-TL2010-79"><a href="#cite_ref-TL2010_79-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPillay2010" class="citation web cs1">Pillay, Taschica (12 March 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100315162802/http://www.timeslive.co.za/local/article353289.ece">"Fatima Meer dies"</a>. TIMES Live. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.timeslive.co.za/local/article353289.ece">the original</a> on 15 March 2010. Retrieved 5 October 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=TIMES+Live&rft.atitle=Fatima+Meer+dies&rft.date=2010-03-12&rft.aulast=Pillay&rft.aufirst=Taschica&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.timeslive.co.za%2Flocal%2Farticle353289.ece&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternal+resistance+to+apartheid" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-mg60-80"><a href="#cite_ref-mg60_80-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mg.co.za/article/2016-08-25-60-iconic-women-the-people-behind-the-1956-womens-march-to-pretoria-11-20/">"60 Iconic Women — The people behind the 1956 Women's March to Pretoria (11-20)"</a>. Mail & Guardian. 25 August 2016. Retrieved 8 September 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mail+%26+Guardian&rft.atitle=60+Iconic+Women+%E2%80%94+The+people+behind+the+1956+Women%27s+March+to+Pretoria+%2811-20%29&rft.date=2016-08-25&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmg.co.za%2Farticle%2F2016-08-25-60-iconic-women-the-people-behind-the-1956-womens-march-to-pretoria-11-20%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternal+resistance+to+apartheid" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> Bernstein, Hilda. For their Triumphs and for their Tears: Women in Apartheid South Africa(International Defense and Aid Fund for Southern Africa. Revised and enlarged edition, London, March 1985), p. 86. </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> Lachick and Urdang, p. 110. </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> Rob Davies, Dan O'Meara and Sipho Dlamini, The Struggle For South Africa: A Reference Guide to Movements, Organizations and Institutions. Volume Two (London: Zed Books, 1984), p. 366. </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> Bernstein, p. 96. </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> ANC/FSAW, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/history/women/wcharter.html">Women's Charter.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080228051827/http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/history/women/wcharter.html">Archived</a> 28 February 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> ANC/FSAW, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/history/women/demand.html">What Women Want</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080302175816/http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/history/women/demand.html">Archived</a> 2 March 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Compiled in Preparation for the Congress of the People, 1955. </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> ANC official website, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/history/people/lngoyi.html">Lilian Nogyi</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080316045933/http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/history/people/lngoyi.html">Archived</a> 16 March 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> ANC, Secretariat for the World Conference of the United Nations Decade for Women. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.anc.org.za/un/womenrole.html">The Role of Women in the Struggle Against Apartheid, 1980.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080622003552/http://www.anc.org.za/un/womenrole.html">Archived</a> 22 June 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> Bernstein, pp. 100–101. </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Internal_resistance_to_apartheid&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDouek2020" class="citation book cs1">Douek, Daniel L. (2020). Insurgency and Counterinsurgency in South Africa. London: C. Hurst & Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1849048804" title="Special:BookSources/978-1849048804"><bdi>978-1849048804</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Insurgency+and+Counterinsurgency+in+South+Africa&rft.place=London&rft.pub=C.+Hurst+%26+Co.&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1849048804&rft.aulast=Douek&rft.aufirst=Daniel+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternal+resistance+to+apartheid" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvan_Vuuren2018" class="citation book cs1">van Vuuren, Hennie (2018). Apartheid Guns and Money. A Tale of Profit. London: C. Hurst & Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1787380974" title="Special:BookSources/978-1787380974"><bdi>978-1787380974</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Apartheid+Guns+and+Money.+A+Tale+of+Profit&rft.place=London&rft.pub=C.+Hurst+%26+Co.&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1787380974&rft.aulast=van+Vuuren&rft.aufirst=Hennie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternal+resistance+to+apartheid" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Political_history_of_South_Africa" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Political_history_of_South_Africa" title="Template:Political history of South Africa"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Political_history_of_South_Africa" title="Template talk:Political history of South Africa"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Political_history_of_South_Africa" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Political history of South Africa"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Political_history_of_South_Africa" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Political history of <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Defunct <a href="/wiki/Polity" title="Polity">polities</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Mapungubwe" title="Kingdom of Mapungubwe">Kingdom of Mapungubwe</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1075–<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1220)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Cape_Colony" title="Dutch Cape Colony">Dutch Cape Colony</a> (1652–1806)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mthethwa_Paramountcy" class="mw-redirect" title="Mthethwa Paramountcy">Mthethwa Paramountcy</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1780–1817)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ndwandwe" title="Ndwandwe">Ndwandwe Kingdom</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1780–1819)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cape_Colony" title="Cape Colony">Cape Colony</a> (1795–1910)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zulu_Kingdom" title="Zulu Kingdom">Zulu Kingdom</a> (1816–1897)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natalia_Republic" title="Natalia Republic">Natalia Republic</a> (1839–1843)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Natal" title="Colony of Natal">Natal Colony</a> (1843–1910)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orange_Free_State" title="Orange Free State">Orange Free State</a> (1854–1902)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Republic" title="South African Republic">South African Republic</a> (1856–1902)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Griqualand_East" title="Griqualand East">Griqualand East</a> (1861–1879)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Griqualand_West" title="Griqualand West">Griqualand West</a> (1870–1873)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_Goshen" title="State of Goshen">Goshen</a> (1882–1883)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellaland" title="Stellaland">Stellaland</a> (1882–1885)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nieuwe_Republiek" title="Nieuwe Republiek">Nieuwe Republiek</a> (1884–1888)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upingtonia" title="Upingtonia">Upingtonia</a> (1885–1887)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klein_Vrystaat" title="Klein Vrystaat">Klein Vrystaat</a> (1886–1891)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orange_River_Colony" title="Orange River Colony">Orange River Colony</a> (1902–1910)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transvaal_Colony" title="Transvaal Colony">Transvaal Colony</a> (1902–1910)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_of_South_Africa" title="Union of South Africa">Union of South Africa</a> (1910–1961)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transkei" title="Transkei">Transkei</a> (1976–1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bophuthatswana" title="Bophuthatswana">Bophuthatswana</a> (1977–1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venda" title="Venda">Venda</a> (1979–1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ciskei" title="Ciskei">Ciskei</a> (1981–1994)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Early_history_of_South_Africa" title="Early history of South Africa">Pre-colonial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bantu_expansion" title="Bantu expansion">Bantu migrations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Salt_River" title="Battle of Salt River">Battle of Salt River</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Africa_(1652%E2%80%931815)" title="History of South Africa (1652–1815)">1652–1815</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Cape_Colony_before_1806#First_settlement" title="History of the Cape Colony before 1806">Dutch settlement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huguenots_in_South_Africa" title="Huguenots in South Africa">French Huguenot settlement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khoikhoi%E2%80%93Dutch_Wars" title="Khoikhoi–Dutch Wars">Khoikhoi–Dutch Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xhosa_Wars" title="Xhosa Wars">Xhosa Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Muizenberg" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Muizenberg">Battle of Muizenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Blaauwberg" title="Battle of Blaauwberg">Battle of Blaauwberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Dutch_Treaty_of_1814" title="Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814">Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Africa_(1815%E2%80%931910)" title="History of South Africa (1815–1910)">1815–1910</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mfecane" title="Mfecane">Mfecane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1820_Settlers" title="1820 Settlers">1820 Settlers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Trek" title="Great Trek">Great Trek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boer_Republics" class="mw-redirect" title="Boer Republics">Boer Republics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transvaal_Civil_War" title="Transvaal Civil War">Transvaal Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral_Revolution" title="Mineral Revolution">Mineral Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witwatersrand_Gold_Rush" title="Witwatersrand Gold Rush">Witwatersrand Gold Rush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Wars_(1879%E2%80%931915)" title="South African Wars (1879–1915)">South African Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Africa_Act_1909" title="South Africa Act 1909">South Africa Act 1909</a> (<a href="/wiki/National_Convention_(South_Africa)" title="National Convention (South Africa)">National Convention</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Africa_(1910%E2%80%9348)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of South Africa (1910–48)">1910–1948</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_West_Africa_campaign" title="South West Africa campaign">South West Africa campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritz_rebellion" title="Maritz rebellion">Maritz rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rand_Rebellion" title="Rand Rebellion">Rand Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_South_Africa" title="Great Depression in South Africa">Great Depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1946_African_Mine_Workers%27_Union_strike" title="1946 African Mine Workers' Union strike">1946 African Mine Workers' Union strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bantustan" title="Bantustan">Bantustans</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">Apartheid</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1948_South_African_general_election" title="1948 South African general election">1948 general election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apartheid_legislation" title="Apartheid legislation">Apartheid legislation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pass_laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Pass laws">Pass laws</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Internal resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coloured-vote_constitutional_crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="Coloured-vote constitutional crisis">Coloured-vote constitutional crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defiance_Campaign" title="Defiance Campaign">Defiance Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_the_People_(1955)" title="Congress of the People (1955)">Congress of the People</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Charter" title="Freedom Charter">Freedom Charter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_March_(South_Africa)" title="Women's March (South Africa)">Women's March 1956</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1957_Alexandra_bus_boycott" title="1957 Alexandra bus boycott">1957 Alexandra bus boycott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharpeville_massacre" title="Sharpeville massacre">Sharpeville massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1960_South_African_republic_referendum" title="1960 South African republic referendum">1960 republic referendum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_South_Africa_during_apartheid" title="Foreign relations of South Africa during apartheid">International isolation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly_Resolution_1761" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations General Assembly Resolution 1761">UN Resolution 1761</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_591" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 591">UNSC Resolution 591</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academic_boycott_of_South_Africa" title="Academic boycott of South Africa">Academic boycott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disinvestment_from_South_Africa" title="Disinvestment from South Africa">Disinvestment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_engagement" title="Constructive engagement">Constructive engagement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tar_Baby_Option" class="mw-redirect" title="Tar Baby Option">Tar Baby Option</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporting_boycott_of_South_Africa_during_the_apartheid_era" title="Sporting boycott of South Africa during the apartheid era">Sporting boycott</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apartheid-era_South_Africa_and_the_Olympics" title="Apartheid-era South Africa and the Olympics">Olympics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rugby_union_and_apartheid" title="Rugby union and apartheid">Rugby union</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rivonia_Trial" title="Rivonia Trial">Rivonia Trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Durban_Moment" title="Durban Moment">Durban Moment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Border_War" title="South African Border War">Border War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israel%E2%80%93South_Africa_relations#Strategic_relations" title="Israel–South Africa relations">Israeli alliance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Israel%E2%80%93South_Africa_Agreement" title="Israel–South Africa Agreement">Israel–South Africa Agreement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mafeje_affair" title="Mafeje affair">Mafeje affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soweto_uprising" title="Soweto uprising">Soweto Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Africa_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="South Africa and weapons of mass destruction">Weapons of mass destruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Coast" title="Project Coast">Project Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Street_bombing" class="mw-redirect" title="Church Street bombing">Church Street bombing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1983_South_African_constitutional_referendum" title="1983 South African constitutional referendum">1983 constitutional referendum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Langa_massacre" title="Langa massacre">Langa massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rubicon_speech" title="Rubicon speech">Rubicon speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Vula" title="Operation Vula">Operation Vula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dakar_Conference" title="Dakar Conference">Dakar Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1987_Transkei_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1987 Transkei coup d'état">Transkei coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1990_Ciskei_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1990 Ciskei coup d'état">Ciskei coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1990_Venda_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1990 Venda coup d'état">Venda coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Force_(South_Africa)" title="Third Force (South Africa)">Third Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negotiations_to_end_apartheid_in_South_Africa" title="Negotiations to end apartheid in South Africa">CODESA</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Storming_of_the_Kempton_Park_World_Trade_Centre" title="Storming of the Kempton Park World Trade Centre">Storming of the Kempton Park World Trade Centre</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bisho_massacre" title="Bisho massacre">Bisho massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1992_South_African_apartheid_referendum" title="1992 South African apartheid referendum">1992 apartheid referendum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_James_Church_massacre" title="Saint James Church massacre">Saint James Church massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1994_Bophuthatswana_crisis" title="1994 Bophuthatswana crisis">Bophuthatswana crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shell_House_massacre" title="Shell House massacre">Shell House massacre</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Africa_(1994%E2%80%93present)" title="History of South Africa (1994–present)">Post- apartheid</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1994_South_African_general_election" title="1994 South African general election">1994 general election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_Nelson_Mandela" title="Cabinet of Nelson Mandela">Government of National Unity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_and_Development_Programme" title="Reconstruction and Development Programme">Reconstruction and Development Programme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth_and_Reconciliation_Commission_(South_Africa)" title="Truth and Reconciliation Commission (South Africa)">Truth and Reconciliation Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Arms_Deal" title="South African Arms Deal">Arms Deal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floor_crossing_(South_Africa)" title="Floor crossing (South Africa)">Floor crossing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2002_Soweto_bombings" title="2002 Soweto bombings">Soweto bombings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Renaissance" title="African Renaissance">African Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Travelgate_(South_Africa)" title="Travelgate (South Africa)">Travelgate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophobia_in_South_Africa" title="Xenophobia in South Africa">Xenophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Kennedy_Road" title="Attack on Kennedy Road">Attack on Kennedy Road</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blikkiesdorp" title="Blikkiesdorp">Blikkiesdorp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marikana_killings" class="mw-redirect" title="Marikana killings">Marikana massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Cape_2012_Farm_Workers%27_strike" title="Western Cape 2012 Farm Workers' strike">2012 Western Cape farm workers' strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nkandla_(homestead)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nkandla (homestead)">Nkandlagate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_South_Africa" title="Racism in South Africa">Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2014_South_African_platinum_strike" title="2014 South African platinum strike">2014 platinum strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhodes_Must_Fall" title="Rhodes Must Fall">#RhodesMustFall protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FeesMustFall" title="FeesMustFall">#FeesMustFall student protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tshwane_riots,_2016" class="mw-redirect" title="Tshwane riots, 2016">Tshwane riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_service_delivery_protests" title="2019 service delivery protests">2019 service delivery protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_Johannesburg_riots" title="2019 Johannesburg riots">2019 Johannesburg riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_South_Africa" title="COVID-19 pandemic in South Africa">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_Phala_Phala_Robbery" title="2020 Phala Phala Robbery">2020 Phala Phala Robbery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_South_African_unrest" title="2021 South African unrest">2021 unrest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lady_R_incident" title="Lady R incident">Lady R incident</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Political culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_nationalism" title="African nationalism">African nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrikaner_Calvinism" title="Afrikaner Calvinism">Afrikaner Calvinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrikaner_nationalism" title="Afrikaner nationalism">Afrikaner nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_South_Africa" title="Anarchism in South Africa">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azania" title="Azania">Azania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baasskap" title="Baasskap">Baasskap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boerehaat" title="Boerehaat">Boerehaat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Consciousness_Movement" title="Black Consciousness Movement">Black Consciousness Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cape_Independence" class="mw-redirect" title="Cape Independence">Cape Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Day_of_the_Vow" title="Day of the Vow">Day of the Vow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_South_Africa" title="Greater South Africa">Greater South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honorary_whites" title="Honorary whites">Honorary whites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rooi_gevaar" title="Rooi gevaar">Rooi gevaar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_South_Africa" title="Slavery in South Africa">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swart_gevaar" title="Swart gevaar">Swart gevaar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uitlander" title="Uitlander">Uitlander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volkstaat" title="Volkstaat">Volkstaat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Defunct organisations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Civic and political organisations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrikaner_Bond" title="Afrikaner Bond">Afrikaner Bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrikaner_Broederbond" title="Afrikaner Broederbond">Afrikaner Broederbond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrikaner_Party" title="Afrikaner Party">Afrikaner Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolition_of_Income_Tax_and_Usury_Party" title="Abolition of Income Tax and Usury Party">AITUP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Political_Organization" class="mw-redirect" title="African Political Organization">APO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrikaner_Volksfront" title="Afrikaner Volksfront">AVF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_People%27s_Convention" title="Black People's Convention">BPC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Sash" title="Black Sash">Black Sash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boerestaat_Party" title="Boerestaat Party">Boerestaat Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Democratic_Alliance_(South_Africa)" title="Christian Democratic Alliance (South Africa)">CDA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ciskei_National_Independence_Party" title="Ciskei National Independence Party">CNIP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cape_Town_Ecology_Group" title="Cape Town Ecology Group">CTEG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Congress_of_Democrats" title="South African Congress of Democrats">COD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_Alliance" title="Congress Alliance">Congress Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscientious_Objector_Support_Group" title="Conscientious Objector Support Group">COSG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Party_of_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservative Party of South Africa">CP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Left_Front" title="Democratic Left Front">DLF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominion_Party_(South_Africa)" title="Dominion Party (South Africa)">Dominion Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(South_Africa,_1973)" title="Democratic Party (South Africa, 1973)">DP (1973–1977)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(South_Africa)" title="Democratic Party (South Africa)">DP (1989–2000)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Progressive_Party_(Transkei)" title="Democratic Progressive Party (Transkei)">DPP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Socialist_Movement_(South_Africa)" class="mw-redirect" title="Democratic Socialist Movement (South Africa)">DSM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/End_Conscription_Campaign" title="End Conscription Campaign">ECC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Alliance_(South_Africa)" title="Federal Alliance (South Africa)">FA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federation_of_Democrats_(South_Africa)" title="Federation of Democrats (South Africa)">FD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genootskap_van_Regte_Afrikaners" title="Genootskap van Regte Afrikaners">Genootskap van Regte Afrikaners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purified_National_Party" title="Purified National Party">GNP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Het_Volk_(political_party)" title="Het Volk (political party)">Het Volk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herenigde_Nasionale_Party" title="Herenigde Nasionale Party">HNP (Herenigde)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herstigte_Nasionale_Party" title="Herstigte Nasionale Party">HNP (Herstigte)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institute_for_Democratic_Alternatives_in_South_Africa" title="Institute for Democratic Alternatives in South Africa">IDASA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_Democrats" title="Independent Democrats">ID</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_Party_(South_Africa)" title="Independent Party (South Africa)">IP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Socialist_League_(South_Africa)" title="International Socialist League (South Africa)">ISL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeugkrag" title="Jeugkrag">Jeugkrag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johannesburg_Reform_Committee" title="Johannesburg Reform Committee">Johannesburg Reform Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labour_Party_(South_Africa)" title="Labour Party (South Africa)">Labour Party (1910–1958)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labour_Party_(South_Africa,_1969)" title="Labour Party (South Africa, 1969)">Labour Party (1969–1994)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_Party_of_South_Africa" title="Liberal Party of South Africa">Liberal Party (1953–1968)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Action_(South_Africa)" title="National Action (South Africa)">NA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Conservative_Party_(South_Africa)" title="National Conservative Party (South Africa)">NCP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natal_Indian_Congress" title="Natal Indian Congress">Natal Indian Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Labour_Party_(South_Africa)" title="New Labour Party (South Africa)">NLP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_National_Party_(South_Africa)" title="New National Party (South Africa)">NNP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Party_(South_Africa)" title="National Party (South Africa)">NP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_People%27s_Party_(South_Africa,_1981)" title="National People's Party (South Africa, 1981)">NPP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Republic_Party_(South_Africa)" title="New Republic Party (South Africa)">NRP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Union_of_South_African_Students" title="National Union of South African Students">NUSAS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupy_South_Africa" title="Occupy South Africa">Occupy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orangia_Unie" title="Orangia Unie">Orangia Unie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vereniging_van_Oranjewerkers" title="Vereniging van Oranjewerkers">Oranjewerkers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orde_Boerevolk" title="Orde Boerevolk">Orde Boerevolk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_ANC_Voters_Network" title="Progressive ANC Voters Network">PAVN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Federal_Party" title="Progressive Federal Party">PFP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Party_(Cape_Colony)" title="Progressive Party (Cape Colony)">Progressive Party (Cape Colony)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Party_(South_Africa)" title="Progressive Party (South Africa)">Progressive Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Reform_Party_(South_Africa)" title="Progressive Reform Party (South Africa)">PRP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_Freedom" title="Radio Freedom">Radio Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reform_Party_(South_Africa)" title="Reform Party (South Africa)">Reform Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Business_Party" title="South African Business Party">SABP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Democratic_Convention" class="mw-redirect" title="South African Democratic Convention">SADECO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Indian_Congress" title="South African Indian Congress">SAIC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Students%27_Organisation" title="South African Students' Organisation">SASO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Youth_Congress" title="South African Youth Congress">SAYCO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Youth_Revolutionary_Council" title="South African Youth Revolutionary Council">SAYRCO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Party_(Cape_Colony)" title="South African Party (Cape Colony)">South African Party (Cape Colony)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Party" title="South African Party">South African Party (1911–1934)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Party_(Republic_of_South_Africa)" title="South African Party (Republic of South Africa)">South African Party (1977–1980)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transkei_National_Independence_Party" title="Transkei National Independence Party">TNIP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torch_Commando" title="Torch Commando">Torch Commando</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_Federal_Party" title="Union Federal Party">UFP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Party_(South_Africa)" title="United Party (South Africa)">United Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unionist_Party_(South_Africa)" title="Unionist Party (South Africa)">Unionist Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Party_of_Venda" title="National Party of Venda">National Party of Venda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volksparty" title="Volksparty">Volksparty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workers_Party_of_South_Africa" title="Workers Party of South Africa">Workers Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workers_Organisation_for_Socialist_Action" title="Workers Organisation for Socialist Action">WOSA</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Trade unions and social movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Privatisation_Forum" title="Anti-Privatisation Forum">APF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Consciousness_Movement" title="Black Consciousness Movement">BCM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Trade_Union_of_Transnet_Workers" title="Black Trade Union of Transnet Workers">BLATU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Non-European_Trade_Unions" title="Council of Non-European Trade Unions">CNETU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cape_Town_Stevedoring_Workers_Union" title="Cape Town Stevedoring Workers Union">CTSWU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_and_Canning_Workers%27_Union" title="Food and Canning Workers' Union">FCWU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federation_of_Non-European_Trade_Unions" title="Federation of Non-European Trade Unions">FNETU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federation_of_South_African_Trade_Unions" title="Federation of South African Trade Unions">FOSATU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_and_Commercial_Workers%27_Union" title="Industrial and Commercial Workers' Union">ICU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Workers_of_the_World_(South_Africa)" title="Industrial Workers of the World (South Africa)">IWW</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musicians_Union_of_South_Africa" title="Musicians Union of South Africa">MUSA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-European_Unity_Movement" title="Non-European Unity Movement">NEUM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Union_of_Railway_and_Harbour_Servants" title="National Union of Railway and Harbour Servants">NURHS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performing_Arts_Workers%27_Equity" title="Performing Arts Workers' Equity">PAWE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Agricultural_Plantation_and_Allied_Workers_Union" title="South African Agricultural Plantation and Allied Workers Union">SAAPAWU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Congress_of_Trade_Unions" title="South African Congress of Trade Unions">SACTU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Industrial_Federation" title="South African Industrial Federation">SAIF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Railways_and_Harbours_Union" title="South African Railways and Harbours Union">SARHU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Trades_Union_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="South African Trades Union Council">SATUC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Die_Spoorbund" class="mw-redirect" title="Die Spoorbund">Die Spoorbund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Democratic_Front_(South_Africa)" title="United Democratic Front (South Africa)">UDF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umkosi_Wezintaba" title="Umkosi Wezintaba">Umkosi Wezintaba</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Paramilitary and terrorist organisations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azanian_People%27s_Liberation_Army" title="Azanian People's Liberation Army">APLA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Resistance_Movement" title="African Resistance Movement">ARM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrikaner_Weerstandsbeweging" title="Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging">AWB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blanke_Bevrydingsbeweging" title="Blanke Bevrydingsbeweging">BBB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boeremag" title="Boeremag">Boeremag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Gentile_National_Socialist_Movement" title="South African Gentile National Socialist Movement">Greyshirts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umkhonto_we_Sizwe" class="mw-redirect" title="Umkhonto we Sizwe">MK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ossewabrandwag" title="Ossewabrandwag">Ossewabrandwag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orde_van_die_Dood" title="Orde van die Dood">Orde van die Dood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_Against_Gangsterism_and_Drugs" title="People Against Gangsterism and Drugs">PAGAD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_National_Front" title="South African National Front">SANF</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Histories of political parties</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_African_National_Congress" title="History of the African National Congress">African National Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Democratic_Alliance_(South_Africa)" title="History of the Democratic Alliance (South Africa)">Democratic Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Pan_Africanist_Congress_of_Azania" title="History of the Pan Africanist Congress of Azania">Pan Africanist Congress of Azania</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Political_history_of_South_Africa" title="Category:Political history of South Africa">Category</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" 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