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Bibliographie </a> </li> </ul> <button class="btn btn-sm btn-universalis" data-bs-toggle="collapse" data-bs-target="#free-toc" aria-expanded="false" title="Afficher / masquer le sommaire"> <i aria-hidden="true" class="fa fa-fw fa-eye"></i> Sommaire </button> </div> <h1 class="mb-1"> <strong>ANTHROPOLOGIE ÉCONOMIQUE</strong> </h1> <ul class="pagination justify-content-center public-links "><li class="page-item active"><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 1" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">1</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 2" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">2</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 3" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">3</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 4" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">4</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 5" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">5</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 6" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">6</a></li></ul><p class="text-sm text-muted mb-1">Article modifié le <time datetime="2025-01-29"> 29/01/2025 </time></p><div class="content paged type-article" ><div class="block_1" data-ucode="yB920611_0"><i class="anchor" id="yB920611_0"></i><p>L'<a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="La relative jeunesse d'une discipline qui ne se comprend qu'au travers des conditions de son avènement, de ses hésitations, de ses multiples cheminements rend malaisé de définir en quelques lignes l'anthropologie, son objet, ses méthodes et son histoire. Par ailleurs, le succès que connaît cette science – et que marque à l'évidence la dimension anthropologique dont sont affectées tout..." title="Article : ANTHROPOLOGIE" href="/encyclopedie/anthropologie/">anthropologie</a> économique en tant que branche spécialisée des recherches anthropologiques devint possible et nécessaire au début du <span class="pc">xx</span><sup>e</sup> siècle avec la découverte par Boas et Malinowski du <em>potlatch</em> des Indiens Kwakiutl et du <em>kula</em> <em>ring</em> des Mélanésiens de l'île de Trobiand.</p><p> Pour comprendre la portée théorique de ces découvertes, il faut revenir au <em>Traité de la richesse des nations</em> d'<a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Biographie d'ADAM SMITH (1723-1790). Adam Smith, « le père de l'économie politique » : qualification bien connue et qui, sous une forme concise, a le mérite de bien exprimer ce que cette discipline lui a dû à ses véritables débuts, c'est-à-dire dans le dernier tiers du xviii e siècle, mais qualification insuffisamment précise, car il ne paraît pas exagéré d'avancer que ses i..." title="Article : ADAM SMITH (1723-1790)" href="/encyclopedie/adam-smith/">Adam Smith</a> (1776) : « Au contraire des nations sauvages, chez les nations civilisées et en progrès, quoiqu'il y ait un grand nombre de gens tout à fait oisifs et beaucoup d'entre eux qui consomment un produit du travail décuple et souvent centuple de ce que consomme la plus grande partie des travailleurs, la somme du produit du travail de la <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Les hommes vivent en société. Or, lorsqu'il s'agit de le définir, cet espace familier, dans lequel s'inscrivent toutes leurs pratiques – individuelles ou collectives –, et toutes leurs représentations, révèle une opacité inattendue.. L'analyse sociologique construit des niveaux de réalité sociale, des systèmes de relations : ordre du politique, de l'économique, du religieux ou, p..." title="Article : SOCIÉTÉ" href="/encyclopedie/societe/">société</a> est si grande que tout le monde est souvent pourvu avec abondance et que l'ouvrier, même de la classe la plus basse et la plus pauvre, s'il est sobre et laborieux, peut jouir, en choses propres aux besoins et aux aisances de la vie, d'une part bien plus grande que celle qu'aucun sauvage pourrait jamais se procurer. »</p><p>À lire ce texte on ne peut douter que, pour le fondateur de l'économie politique, l'économie des peuples primitifs ne valait pas de si longues heures d'étude. Pourquoi ?</p><div class="clearfix"></div></div><div class="block_1" data-ucode="yB920611_1"><i class="anchor" id="yB920611_1"></i><h2>Une naissance difficile</h2><div class="block_2" data-ucode="yB920611_1_0"><i class="anchor" id="yB920611_1_0"></i><h3>La vision libérale et la critique marxiste</h3><p>À la fin du <span class="pc">xviii</span><sup>e</sup> siècle, les sociétés primitives apparaissent généralement, du moins chez les adversaires de J.-J. Rousseau, comme les vestiges témoins de l'enfance de l'Humanité, d'un stade où l'outillage <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="À l'idée grecque de l' homme, zoon logon echon – vivant possédant le logos , le parler-penser – les modernes ont juxtaposé, et même opposé, l'idée de l' Homo faber , l'homme défini par la fabrication d'instruments, donc la possession d'outils. Les documents anthropologiques ont paru, un temps , leur donner raison, mais ce n'était qu'apparence : les galets éclatés se conservent..." title="Article : TECHNIQUE" href="/encyclopedie/technique/">technique</a> et <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Le mot intellectuel est né durant l' affaire Dreyfus , quand des professeurs, des écrivains, des artistes dénoncèrent l'injustice faite au capitaine Dreyfus, accusé de haute trahison. Dès lors, le mot intellectuel renvoya plus à une prise de position éthique et politique qu'à la nature intellectuelle des activités professionnelles de ceux qui s'en réclamaient. Le mot se répandi..." title="Article : INTELLECTUEL" href="/encyclopedie/intellectuel/">intellectuel</a> ne permettait « pas encore » aux individus de produire plus que pour leurs besoins. Sans surplus pas d'échanges, sans échanges pas de monnaie. Caractérisée négativement, l'« économie naturelle » se bornait à assurer à l'humanité primitive les moyens matériels de « subsister ». Au-delà commençait l'Histoire réelle, qui devait s'achever dans l'Harmonie réglée de l'économie capitaliste fondée sur l'<a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Au sens général, le terme « échange » s'applique à tout mouvement d'intention réciproque entre deux parties. En économie, on appelle « échange » les différents modes de transferts de biens et de services exécutés en contrepartie et en équivalence les uns des autres.. L'échange économique n'est pas un phénomène universel. Il n'intervient pas entre les membres des com..." title="Article : ÉCHANGE" href="/encyclopedie/echange/">échange</a> universel des biens et du travail et guidée par une « main invisible » vers les emplois les mieux assortis à l'intérêt général de la société. Cette vision cohérente ne répétait donc pas seulement les « vides » d'une information ethnologique disparate et balbutiante. Elle étalait au grand jour le « plein idéologique » des concepts de l'Économie politique, le jugement de <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="La notion de valeur a différentes acceptions en économie, qui témoignent des difficultés à la définir ainsi que des enjeux théoriques dont elle est l'objet. La valeur d'un bien peut renvoyer à la satisfaction que retire un individu de l'usage de ce bien. Cette valeur, qualifiée alors de valeur d'usage, dépend des caractéristiques physiques du bien mais aussi des goûts de l'individu..." title="Article : VALEUR, économie" href="/encyclopedie/valeur-economie/">valeur</a> que la société bourgeoise portait sur elle-même, se concevant et se vivant comme terme du Progrès de l'Humanité et de la <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Le mot « civilisation » est employé en des sens très variés et souvent fort imprécis. D'une manière générale, on peut classer sous trois rubriques les significations qui lui sont attribuées explicitement ou implicitement. Premièrement, dans le langage le plus courant, le terme de civilisation est associé à un jugement de valeur et qualifie favorablement les sociétés à propos desq..." title="Article : CIVILISATION" href="/encyclopedie/civilisation/">Civilisation</a>.</p><p>Cependant, dès le milieu du <span class="pc">xix</span><sup>e</sup> siècle, les <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Les économistes de la première moitié du xix e siècle portèrent leur attention sur des dérèglements du fonctionnement de l'économie qui, par leur gravité et leur régularité, leur semblèrent des phénomènes nouveaux. Les identifiant comme des désordres pathologiques de la circulation des marchandises, du crédit et de la monnaie, ils recoururent, pour évoquer ces « crises comm..." title="Article : CRISES ÉCONOMIQUES" href="/encyclopedie/crises-economiques/">crises économiques</a> périodiques, la misère ouvrière chronique allaient mettre en question cette vision apologétique de la société capitaliste. Marx devait la contester de façon radicale en affirmant que le secret du dynamisme du capitalisme, le profit, n'avait d'autre <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="L'âge classique et l'époque des Lumières ont mis au point une démarche consistant à aborder les objets de leur réflexion à partir de leur origine : origine de la société , origine des connaissances, origine des langues, origine de l'inégalité parmi les hommes. La question est de savoir s'il s'agit là d'une démarche historique ou bien d'un procédé visant à un dévoilement de l..." title="Article : ORIGINE" href="/encyclopedie/origine/">origine</a> ni d'autre contenu que l'exploitation du travail de la classe ouvrière. Par contraste, les sociétés primitives offraient désormais l'image d'un monde disparu où l'exploitation de l'homme par l'homme n'existait pas encore et justifiaient l'espoir d'un monde meilleur où elle n'existerait plus. Mais, pour Marx, et en ceci il rejoignait les principes théoriques de la vision libérale, ce trait positif des sociétés primitives n'exprimait que le bas niveau de leurs forces productives, leur incapacité à produire plus que pour leur subsistance, à dégager un surplus. Il était donc considéré comme un fait acquis que l'autarcie économique et sociale était le mode d'existence normal des communautés « primitives », ce qui expliquait leur capacité de se reproduire identiques à elles-mêmes au long des millénaires.</p><p>À peine différentes d'elles, bien qu'intégrées dans des États<a href="javascript:" title="Lire la suite" class="read-more ms-1">[...]</a></p></div></div><div class="clearfix"></div></div><ul class="pagination justify-content-center public-links "><li class="page-item active"><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 1" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">1</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 2" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">2</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 3" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">3</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 4" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">4</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 5" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">5</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 6" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">6</a></li></ul><div class="folio-block"><p class="folio-block-title text-center text-uc"><strong>La suite de cet article est accessible aux abonnés</strong></p><ul class="list-unstyled"><li><i class="fa fa-fw fa-check-circle"></i> Des contenus variés, complets et fiables</li><li><i class="fa fa-fw fa-check-circle"></i> Accessible sur tous les écrans</li><li><i class="fa fa-fw fa-check-circle"></i> Pas de publicité</li></ul><p class="text-center"><a href="/abonnement/" class="btn btn-cta text-uc" id="folio-button" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="Block bottom">Découvrez nos offres </a></p><p class="text-center text-sm"> Déjà abonné ? <a href="/identification/" id="folio-login">Se connecter</a></p></div><div id="ad_mpuslot" class="pub-container text-center"><div class="pub-placeholder"></div></div><section class="mt-3 mb-5"><i class="anchor" id="B920611_AUTHORS"></i><p class="title-minor">Écrit par</p><ul class="list-group"><li class="list-group-item" data-dc-author="GODELIER, Maurice"><a title="Auteur : Maurice GODELIER" rel="author" href="/auteurs/maurice-godelier/"><strong>Maurice GODELIER</strong></a> : directeur d'études de classe exceptionnelle à l'École des hautes études en sciences sociales </li></ul></section><section class="mb-5"><div class="text-center mb-3 d-print-none"><a class="d-inline-flex flex-row justify-content-center align-items-center btn btn-light btn-large text-start" title="Carte mentale : ANTHROPOLOGIE ÉCONOMIQUE" href="/carte-mentale/anthropologie-economique/"><i class="fa fa-sitemap fa-rotate-270 me-1 fs-1 text-universalis"></i><p class="m-0"><strong class="fs-4">Carte mentale</strong><br /> Élargissez votre recherche dans Universalis </p></a></div></section> <section class="mb-5 article-classification" data-print-label="la classification" data-print-target=".article-classification"> <i class="anchor" id="yB920611_ROOT_LINES"></i> <p class="title-minor">Classification</p> <nav aria-label="Classification 1"> <ol class="breadcrumb"> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Sciences humaines et sociales" href="/classification/sciences-humaines-et-sociales/"> Sciences humaines et sociales </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Anthropologie et ethnologie" href="/classification/sciences-humaines-et-sociales/anthropologie-et-ethnologie/"> Anthropologie et ethnologie </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item active" data-dc-subject="Anthropologie économique"> <a title="Classification : Anthropologie économique" href="/classification/sciences-humaines-et-sociales/anthropologie-et-ethnologie/anthropologie-economique/"> Anthropologie économique </a> </li> </ol> </nav> <nav aria-label="Classification 2"> <ol class="breadcrumb"> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Sciences humaines et sociales" href="/classification/sciences-humaines-et-sociales/"> Sciences humaines et sociales </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Anthropologie et ethnologie" href="/classification/sciences-humaines-et-sociales/anthropologie-et-ethnologie/"> Anthropologie et ethnologie </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item active" data-dc-subject="Histoire de l'anthropologie"> <a title="Classification : Histoire de l'anthropologie" href="/classification/sciences-humaines-et-sociales/anthropologie-et-ethnologie/histoire-de-l-anthropologie/"> Histoire de l'anthropologie </a> </li> </ol> </nav> </section> <section class="mb-5 d-print-none learn-more"> <i class="anchor" id="yB920611_REFERENCES"></i> <p class="title-minor">Autres références</p> <ul class="list-group"> <li class="list-group-item"> <h3 class="fs-5 m-0 mt-1"> <a href="/encyclopedie/afrique-noire-culture-et-societe-civilisations-traditionnelles/"> <span class="rg">AFRIQUE NOIRE </span><span class="rm">(Culture et société) - Civilisations traditionnelles</span> </a> </h3> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet mb-1 text-muted"> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">Écrit par <span rel="author">Jacques MAQUET</span> </li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">2 910 mots</li> </ul> <div class="snippet-content mt-3"> <p>Les sociétés globales – ainsi appelées parce qu'en chacune d'elles l'individu trouve l'ensemble des réseaux de relations sociales dont il a besoin au cours de sa vie – furent nombreuses dans l'Afrique traditionnelle, celle qui prit fin avec la période coloniale en ses débuts, vers le dernier quart...</p> </div> </li> <li class="list-group-item"> <h3 class="fs-5 m-0 mt-1"> <a href="/encyclopedie/anthropologie/#c5206"> <span class="rg">ANTHROPOLOGIE</span> </a> </h3> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet mb-1 text-muted"> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">Écrit par <span rel="author">Élisabeth COPET-ROUGIER</span> et <span rel="author">Christian GHASARIAN</span> </li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">16 161 mots</li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">1 média </li> </ul> <div class="d-none d-md-inline-block float-start me-3"> <a class="protected" title="Article : ANTHROPOLOGIE" href="/encyclopedie/anthropologie/"> <img class="rounded shadow" loading="lazy" alt="Claude Lévi-Strauss - crédits : Marc Gantier/ Gamma-Rapho/ Getty Images" width="125" height="125" src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/f/8/csm_pa082775_9ac7d4816e.webp"/> </a> </div> <div class="snippet-content mt-3"> ...reçu –, le potlatch atteint un point extrême chez les Kwakiutl, qui vont jusqu'à détruire les richesses accumulées. Une nouvelle réflexion s'ouvrait sur l'économie primitive, économie où les « sauvages » ne sont pas écrasés par la nature, mais où production, <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Au sens général, le terme « échange » s'applique à tout mouvement d'intention réciproque entre deux parties. En économie, on appelle « échange » les différents modes de transferts de biens et de services exécutés en contrepartie et en équivalence les uns des autres.. L'échange économique n'est pas un phénomène universel. Il n'intervient pas entre les membres des com..." title="Article : ÉCHANGE" href="/encyclopedie/echange/">échange</a>, consommation et compétition... </div> </li> <li class="list-group-item"> <h3 class="fs-5 m-0 mt-1"> <a href="/encyclopedie/azteques/#c5206"> <span class="rg">AZTÈQUES</span> </a> </h3> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet mb-1 text-muted"> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">Écrit par <span rel="author">Rosario ACOSTA NIEVA</span> , <span rel="author">Alexandra BIAR</span> et <span rel="author">Mireille SIMONI</span> </li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">12 581 mots</li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">22 médias </li> </ul> <div class="d-none d-md-inline-block float-start me-3"> <a class="protected" title="Article : AZT&Egrave;QUES" href="/encyclopedie/azteques/"> <img class="rounded shadow" loading="lazy" alt="Mexico-Tenochtitlán : la fondation - crédits : DEA Picture Library/ Getty Images" width="125" height="125" src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/6/8/csm_ph050063_76db090882.webp"/> </a> </div> <div class="snippet-content mt-3"> Les conquérants décrivent avec admiration l'extraordinaire richesse et la beauté des marchés de Tenochtitlán regorgeant de richesses de tous les coins de l'empire, denrées précieuses, céramiques fines, objets d'or et de pierres fines, ouvrages de plumes, etc. L'économie, si précaire lors de l'établissement... </div> </li> <li class="list-group-item"> <h3 class="fs-5 m-0 mt-1"> <a href="/encyclopedie/karl-bucher/"> <span class="rg">BÜCHER </span><span class="pc">KARL </span><span class="rm">(1847-1930)</span> </a> </h3> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet mb-1 text-muted"> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">Écrit par <span rel="author">Raymond ECHES</span> </li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">284 mots</li> </ul> <div class="snippet-content mt-3"> <p> Professeur d'économie politique à Dorpat, à Munich, à Bâle, à Karlsruhe et à Leipzig, Karl Bücher fut un des principaux animateurs de l'école historique d'économie politique nationale. Il fonda et dirigea, à Leipzig, l'important institut pour l'étude de la presse....</p> </div> </li> <li class="list-unstyled text-center mt-3"> <a class="btn btn-sm btn-primary" title="Afficher la liste complète des références" rel="related" href="/index/anthropologie-economique/"> Afficher les 28 références <i aria-hidden="true" class="fa fa-fw fa-chevron-right"></i> </a> </li> </ul> </section> <section class="mb-5 d-print-none article-indexes learn-more"> <i class="anchor" id="yB920611_INDEXES"></i> <p class="title-minor">Voir aussi</p> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet"> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : COMPÉTITION, anthropologie" href="/index/competition-anthropologie/"> <span class="rg">COMPÉTITION, </span><em class="it">anthropologie</em> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : OBLIGATION, anthropologie" href="/index/obligation-anthropologie/"> <span class="rg">OBLIGATION, </span><em class="it">anthropologie</em> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : SOCIÉTÉS PRIMITIVES ou PRIMITIFS" href="/index/societes-primitives-primitifs/"> <span class="rg">SOCIÉTÉS PRIMITIVES </span><span class="rm">ou </span><span class="rg">PRIMITIFS</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : SAHLINS MARSHALL (1931-2021)" href="/index/marshall-sahlins/"> <span class="rg">SAHLINS </span><span class="pc">MARSHALL </span><span class="rm">(1931-2021)</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : PRESTIGE" href="/index/prestige/"> <span class="rg">PRESTIGE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : ETHNOLOGIE HISTOIRE DE L'" href="/index/histoire-de-l-ethnologie/"> <span class="rg">ETHNOLOGIE </span><span class="pc">HISTOIRE DE L'</span> </a> </li> </ul> </section> </div> <div class="col-lg-4 col-xl-3 px-0 d-none d-lg-block side-bar position-relative"> <div id="ad_rightslot" class="pub-container text-center"> <div class="pub-placeholder"></div> </div> <div id="ad_rightslot2" class="pub-container text-center"> <div class="pub-placeholder"></div> </div> <a class="wrapper cta" href="/abonnement" title="Abonnez-vous à Universalis pour 1 euro" data-matomo-category="CTA" data-matomo-name="Clic" data-matomo-value="Col right"> <img src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/b/6/csm_abo-3_74169bae4d.webp" class="full-height" loading="lazy" width="290" height="476" alt="Abonnez-vous à Universalis pour 1 euro"> </a> <div id="newsletter_subscription" class="wrapper p-3"> <p class="fs-3 fw-bold text-center text-light mb-1">Rejoignez-nous</p> <p class="text-center"> Inscrivez-vous à notre <strong>newsletter</strong></p> <div class="input-group mb-3"> <input type="text" class="form-control" placeholder="votre email"> <div class="input-group-append"> <button id="newsletter_subscription_button" class="btn btn-primary text-uppercase" type="button"> <strong>S'inscrire</strong></button> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </main> <div id="bandeau-footer"> <div class="container"> <p><a href="/abonnement" title="Abonnez-vous à Universalis pour 1 euro">Accédez à l'intégralité d'Universalis.fr <strong>sans publicité</strong></a></p> </div> </div> <footer class="container footer text-center d-print-none"> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet mb-2"> <li class="list-inline-item"> <a href="http://www.encyclopaedia-universalis.fr/" title="Encyclopædia Universalis" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Encyclopædia Universalis </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item"> <a href="https://www.encyclopaedia-universalis.fr/nous-contacter/infos/" title="Contactez-nous" rel="noopener nofollow" target="_blank">Contact</a></li> <li class="list-inline-item"> <a title="Mentions légales" rel="nofollow" href="/mentions-legales/">Mentions légales et politique de confidentialité</a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item"> <a title="Crédits images Accueil" rel="nofollow" href="/credits-illustrations/">Crédits images</a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item"> <a href="https://abonnement.universalis.fr/typo3conf/ext/mailer/Resources/Public/Pdf/cgv.pdf" rel="noopener nofollow" target="_blank" title="Conditions générales de vente">CGV</a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item"> <a href="javascript:" id="rgpd" rel="nofollow" title="Consentement RGPD">RGPD</a> </li> </ul> <p class="mb-2">Consulter le <a title="Dictionnaire de l'Encyclopædia Universalis" href="/dictionnaire/"> dictionnaire </a> de l'Encyclopædia Universalis </p> <p class="mb-3">© 2025 Encyclopædia Universalis France. 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