CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Superconductivity - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy","wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"db68a4d3-cf7f-47e5-a224-2e6e9e0635f3","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Superconductivity","wgTitle":"Superconductivity","wgCurRevisionId":1277322148,"wgRevisionId":1277322148,"wgArticleId":26884,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["CS1 French-language sources (fr)","Articles intentionally citing retracted publications","Articles with short description","Short description matches Wikidata","Articles needing additional references from April 2018","All articles needing additional references","All accuracy disputes","Articles with disputed statements from August 2016","Webarchive template wayback links","Articles containing video clips","Superconductivity","Phases of matter","Exotic matter","Unsolved problems in physics","Magnetic levitation","Physical phenomena","Spintronics","Phase transitions","Science and technology in the Netherlands","Dutch inventions","1911 in science"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Superconductivity","wgRelevantArticleId":26884,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgRedirectedFrom":"Superconductors","wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":70000,"wgInternalRedirectTargetUrl":"/wiki/Superconductivity","wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q124131","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false}; RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","ext.math.styles":"ready","ext.tmh.player.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["mediawiki.action.view.redirect","ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.tmh.player","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.math.styles%7Cext.tmh.player.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.19"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Stickstoff_gek%C3%BChlter_Supraleiter_schwebt_%C3%BCber_Dauermagneten_2009-06-21.jpg/1200px-Stickstoff_gek%C3%BChlter_Supraleiter_schwebt_%C3%BCber_Dauermagneten_2009-06-21.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="800"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Stickstoff_gek%C3%BChlter_Supraleiter_schwebt_%C3%BCber_Dauermagneten_2009-06-21.jpg/800px-Stickstoff_gek%C3%BChlter_Supraleiter_schwebt_%C3%BCber_Dauermagneten_2009-06-21.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="533"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Stickstoff_gek%C3%BChlter_Supraleiter_schwebt_%C3%BCber_Dauermagneten_2009-06-21.jpg/640px-Stickstoff_gek%C3%BChlter_Supraleiter_schwebt_%C3%BCber_Dauermagneten_2009-06-21.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="427"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Superconductivity - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superconductivity"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Superconductivity&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superconductivity"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Superconductivity rootpage-Superconductivity skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" title="Main menu" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="n-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages"><span>Special pages</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Superconductivity" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Superconductivity" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Superconductivity" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Superconductivity" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-London_constitutive_equations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#London_constitutive_equations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>London constitutive equations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-London_constitutive_equations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conventional_theories_(1950s)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conventional_theories_(1950s)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Conventional theories (1950s)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conventional_theories_(1950s)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Further history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Classification</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Classification-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Classification subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Classification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Response_to_a_magnetic_field" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Response_to_a_magnetic_field"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Response to a magnetic field</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Response_to_a_magnetic_field-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-By_theory_of_operation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#By_theory_of_operation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>By theory of operation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-By_theory_of_operation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-By_critical_temperature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#By_critical_temperature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>By critical temperature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-By_critical_temperature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-By_material" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#By_material"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>By material</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-By_material-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Elementary_properties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Elementary_properties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Elementary properties</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Elementary_properties-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Elementary properties subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Elementary_properties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Zero_electrical_DC_resistance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Zero_electrical_DC_resistance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Zero electrical DC resistance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Zero_electrical_DC_resistance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phase_transition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phase_transition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Phase transition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phase_transition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Meissner_effect" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Meissner_effect"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Meissner effect</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Meissner_effect-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-London_moment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#London_moment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>London moment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-London_moment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-High-temperature_superconductivity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#High-temperature_superconductivity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>High-temperature superconductivity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-High-temperature_superconductivity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Applications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nobel_Prizes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nobel_Prizes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Nobel Prizes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nobel_Prizes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Superconductivity</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 77 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-77" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">77 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B5%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%82%D8%A9" title="موصلية فائقة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="موصلية فائقة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE" title="অতি পৰিবাহিতা – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="অতি পৰিবাহিতা" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superconductivid%C3%A1" title="Superconductividá – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Superconductividá" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0fratke%C3%A7iricilik" title="İfratkeçiricilik – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="İfratkeçiricilik" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE" title="অতিপরিবাহিতা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="অতিপরিবাহিতা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B2%D1%8B%D1%88%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%86%D1%8C" title="Звышправоднасць – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Звышправоднасць" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B2%D1%80%D1%8A%D1%85%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82" title="Свръхпроводимост – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Свръхпроводимост" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superprovodljivost" title="Superprovodljivost – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Superprovodljivost" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superconductivitat" title="Superconductivitat – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Superconductivitat" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supravodivost" title="Supravodivost – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Supravodivost" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superledende" title="Superledende – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Superledende" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B2" title="سوپردواز – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="سوپردواز" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>الدارجة</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supraleitung" title="Supraleitung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Supraleitung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9Clijuhtivus" title="Ülijuhtivus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Ülijuhtivus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A5%CF%80%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B1%CE%B3%CF%89%CE%B3%CE%B9%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%84%CE%B1" title="Υπεραγωγιμότητα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Υπεραγωγιμότητα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superconductividad" title="Superconductividad – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Superconductividad" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superkonduktiveco" title="Superkonduktiveco – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Superkonduktiveco" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supereroankortasun" title="Supereroankortasun – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Supereroankortasun" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="ابررسانایی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ابررسانایی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supraconductivit%C3%A9" title="Supraconductivité – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Supraconductivité" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forsheoltacht" title="Forsheoltacht – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Forsheoltacht" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercondutividade" title="Supercondutividade – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Supercondutividade" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%B4%88%EC%A0%84%EB%8F%84_%ED%98%84%EC%83%81" title="초전도 현상 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="초전도 현상" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B3%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%B0%D5%A1%D5%B2%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%A4%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Գերհաղորդականություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Գերհաղորդականություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE" title="अतिचालकता – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अतिचालकता" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supravodljivost" title="Supravodljivost – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Supravodljivost" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superkonduktivitas" title="Superkonduktivitas – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Superkonduktivitas" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superconduttivit%C3%A0" title="Superconduttività – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Superconduttività" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%9B%D7%95%D7%AA-%D7%A2%D7%9C" title="מוליכות-על – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מוליכות-על" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%96%E1%83%94%E1%83%92%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%A2%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%91%E1%83%90" title="ზეგამტარობა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ზეგამტარობა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%81%D2%9B%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D3%A9%D1%82%D0%BA%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%88%D1%82%D1%96%D0%BA" title="Асқын өткізгіштік – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Асқын өткізгіштік" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siprakondikt%C3%A8" title="Siprakondiktè – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Siprakondiktè" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superconductrum" title="Superconductrum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Superconductrum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supravad%C4%ABtsp%C4%93ja" title="Supravadītspēja – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Supravadītspēja" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superlaidumas" title="Superlaidumas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Superlaidumas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Szupravezet%C3%A9s" title="Szupravezetés – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Szupravezetés" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%83%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82" title="Суперспроводливост – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Суперспроводливост" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%85%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%A4" title="അതിചാലകത – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="അതിചാലകത" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE" title="अतिसंवाहकता – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="अतिसंवाहकता" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A7" title="ابررسانا – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="ابررسانا" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keberaliran_lampau" title="Keberaliran lampau – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Keberaliran lampau" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%8D%D1%82_%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B6%D1%83%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B3%D1%87" title="Хэт дамжуулагч – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Хэт дамжуулагч" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%85%E1%80%B0%E1%80%95%E1%80%AB%E1%80%80%E1%80%BD%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA%E1%80%92%E1%80%95%E1%80%BA%E1%80%90%E1%80%AE%E1%80%97%E1%80%AE%E1%80%90%E1%80%AE" title="စူပါကွန်ဒပ်တီဗီတီ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="စူပါကွန်ဒပ်တီဗီတီ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supergeleiding" title="Supergeleiding – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Supergeleiding" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%B6%85%E4%BC%9D%E5%B0%8E" title="超伝導 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="超伝導" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superkonduktivitet" title="Superkonduktivitet – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Superkonduktivitet" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superleiing" title="Superleiing – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Superleiing" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%A8%D8%B1%DB%90%DA%9A%D9%86%D8%A7_%D9%81%D9%88%D9%82_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%87_%D9%84%DB%90%DA%96%D8%AF" title="د برېښنا فوق العاده لېږد – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د برېښنا فوق العاده لېږد" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dzor-condutivit%C3%A0" title="Dzor-condutività – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Dzor-condutività" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nadprzewodnictwo" title="Nadprzewodnictwo – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Nadprzewodnictwo" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercondutividade" title="Supercondutividade – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Supercondutividade" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supraconductibilitate" title="Supraconductibilitate – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Supraconductibilitate" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%85%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C" title="Сверхпроводимость – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Сверхпроводимость" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superconductivity" title="Superconductivity – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Superconductivity" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superp%C3%ABrcjellshm%C3%ABria" title="Superpërcjellshmëria – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Superpërcjellshmëria" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%94%E0%B6%B4%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%92_%E0%B7%83%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%BA%E0%B6%9A%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80" title="සුපිරි සන්නායකතාව – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="සුපිරි සන්නායකතාව" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%BE%D8%B1%DA%AA%D9%86%DA%8A%DA%AA%D9%BD%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%8A%D9%BD%D9%8A" title="سپرڪنڊڪٽيويٽي – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="سپرڪنڊڪٽيويٽي" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supravodivos%C5%A5" title="Supravodivosť – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Supravodivosť" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superprevodnost" title="Superprevodnost – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Superprevodnost" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%DB%95%DB%8C%DB%95%D9%86%DB%95%D8%B1%DB%8C_%DA%95%DB%95%DA%BE%D8%A7" title="گەیەنەری ڕەھا – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="گەیەنەری ڕەھا" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%83%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82" title="Суперпроводност – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Суперпроводност" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supraprovodnost" title="Supraprovodnost – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Supraprovodnost" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suprajohde" title="Suprajohde – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Suprajohde" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supraledning" title="Supraledning – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Supraledning" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%80%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D" title="மீக்கடத்துதிறன் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மீக்கடத்துதிறன்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%AE%D1%82%D3%99_%D2%AF%D1%82%D0%BA%D3%99%D1%80%D2%AF%D1%87%D3%99%D0%BD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA" title="Үтә үткәрүчәнлек – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Үтә үткәрүчәнлек" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%85%E0%B0%A4%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B9%E0%B0%95%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%81" title="అతివాహకత్వము – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="అతివాహకత్వము" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B3%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B4%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%87" title="สภาพนำยวดยิ่ง – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="สภาพนำยวดยิ่ง" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%BCperiletkenlik" title="Süperiletkenlik – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Süperiletkenlik" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%B4%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C" title="Надпровідність – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Надпровідність" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%88%D9%82_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B5%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%AA" title="فوق ایصالیت – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="فوق ایصالیت" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercondutivit%C3%A0" title="Supercondutività – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Supercondutività" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Si%C3%AAu_d%E1%BA%ABn" title="Siêu dẫn – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Siêu dẫn" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superconductividad" title="Superconductividad – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Superconductividad" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%B6%85%E5%AF%BC%E7%8E%B0%E8%B1%A1" title="超导现象 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="超导现象" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%B6%85%E5%B0%8E%E7%8F%BE%E8%B1%A1" title="超導現象 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="超導現象" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%B6%85%E5%AF%BC%E7%8E%B0%E8%B1%A1" title="超导现象 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="超导现象" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q124131#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Superconductivity" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Superconductivity" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Superconductivity"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Superconductivity&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Superconductivity&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Superconductivity"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Superconductivity&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Superconductivity&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Superconductivity" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Superconductivity" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Superconductivity&oldid=1277322148" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Superconductivity&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Superconductivity&id=1277322148&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FSuperconductivity"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FSuperconductivity"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Superconductivity&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Superconductivity&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Superconductivity" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikiquote mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Superconductivity" hreflang="en"><span>Wikiquote</span></a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikiversity mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Superconductivity" hreflang="en"><span>Wikiversity</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q124131" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Superconductors&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Superconductors">Superconductors</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Electrical conductivity with exactly zero resistance</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stickstoff_gek%C3%BChlter_Supraleiter_schwebt_%C3%BCber_Dauermagneten_2009-06-21.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Stickstoff_gek%C3%BChlter_Supraleiter_schwebt_%C3%BCber_Dauermagneten_2009-06-21.jpg/270px-Stickstoff_gek%C3%BChlter_Supraleiter_schwebt_%C3%BCber_Dauermagneten_2009-06-21.jpg" decoding="async" width="270" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Stickstoff_gek%C3%BChlter_Supraleiter_schwebt_%C3%BCber_Dauermagneten_2009-06-21.jpg/405px-Stickstoff_gek%C3%BChlter_Supraleiter_schwebt_%C3%BCber_Dauermagneten_2009-06-21.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Stickstoff_gek%C3%BChlter_Supraleiter_schwebt_%C3%BCber_Dauermagneten_2009-06-21.jpg/540px-Stickstoff_gek%C3%BChlter_Supraleiter_schwebt_%C3%BCber_Dauermagneten_2009-06-21.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3375" data-file-height="2250" /></a><figcaption>A high-temperature superconductor levitating above a magnet. Persistent electric current flows on the surface of the superconductor, acting to exclude the magnetic field of the magnet (<a href="/wiki/Meissner_effect" title="Meissner effect">Meissner effect</a>). This current effectively forms an electromagnet that repels the magnet.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Articles about</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">Electromagnetism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="skin-invert-image" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:VFPt_Solenoid_correct2.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Solenoid"><img alt="Solenoid" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/VFPt_Solenoid_correct2.svg/190px-VFPt_Solenoid_correct2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="190" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/VFPt_Solenoid_correct2.svg/285px-VFPt_Solenoid_correct2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/VFPt_Solenoid_correct2.svg/380px-VFPt_Solenoid_correct2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="490" data-file-height="200" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electricity" title="Electricity">Electricity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetism" title="Magnetism">Magnetism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optics" title="Optics">Optics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_electromagnetic_theory" title="History of electromagnetic theory">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_electromagnetics" title="Computational electromagnetics">Computational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_textbooks_in_electromagnetism" title="List of textbooks in electromagnetism">Textbooks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_electrical_phenomena" title="List of electrical phenomena">Phenomena</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Electrostatics" title="Electrostatics">Electrostatics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charge_density" title="Charge density">Charge density</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_conductor" title="Electrical conductor">Conductor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coulomb%27s_law" title="Coulomb's law">Coulomb law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electret" title="Electret">Electret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_charge" title="Electric charge">Electric charge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_dipole_moment" title="Electric dipole moment">Electric dipole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_field" title="Electric field">Electric field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_flux" title="Electric flux">Electric flux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_potential" title="Electric potential">Electric potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrostatic_discharge" title="Electrostatic discharge">Electrostatic discharge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrostatic_induction" title="Electrostatic induction">Electrostatic induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gauss%27s_law" title="Gauss's law">Gauss law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insulator_(electricity)" title="Insulator (electricity)">Insulator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permittivity" title="Permittivity">Permittivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polarization_density" title="Polarization density">Polarization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_potential_energy" title="Electric potential energy">Potential energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Static_electricity" title="Static electricity">Static electricity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triboelectric_effect" title="Triboelectric effect">Triboelectricity</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Magnetostatics" title="Magnetostatics">Magnetostatics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amp%C3%A8re%27s_circuital_law" title="Ampère's circuital law">Ampère law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biot%E2%80%93Savart_law" title="Biot–Savart law">Biot–Savart law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gauss%27s_law_for_magnetism" title="Gauss's law for magnetism">Gauss magnetic law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_moment" title="Magnetic moment">Magnetic dipole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_field" title="Magnetic field">Magnetic field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_flux" title="Magnetic flux">Magnetic flux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_scalar_potential" title="Magnetic scalar potential">Magnetic scalar potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_vector_potential" title="Magnetic vector potential">Magnetic vector potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetization" title="Magnetization">Magnetization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permeability_(electromagnetism)" title="Permeability (electromagnetism)">Permeability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-hand_rule#Electromagnetism" title="Right-hand rule">Right-hand rule</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Classical_electromagnetism" title="Classical electromagnetism">Electrodynamics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bremsstrahlung" title="Bremsstrahlung">Bremsstrahlung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclotron_radiation" title="Cyclotron radiation">Cyclotron radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Displacement_current" title="Displacement current">Displacement current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eddy_current" title="Eddy current">Eddy current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_field" title="Electromagnetic field">Electromagnetic field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_induction" title="Electromagnetic induction">Electromagnetic induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_pulse" title="Electromagnetic pulse">Electromagnetic pulse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation" title="Electromagnetic radiation">Electromagnetic radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faraday%27s_law_of_induction" title="Faraday's law of induction">Faraday law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jefimenko%27s_equations" title="Jefimenko's equations">Jefimenko equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larmor_formula" title="Larmor formula">Larmor formula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lenz%27s_law" title="Lenz's law">Lenz law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li%C3%A9nard%E2%80%93Wiechert_potential" title="Liénard–Wiechert potential">Liénard–Wiechert potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/London_equations" title="London equations">London equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lorentz_force" title="Lorentz force">Lorentz force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maxwell%27s_equations" title="Maxwell's equations">Maxwell equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maxwell_stress_tensor" title="Maxwell stress tensor">Maxwell tensor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poynting_vector" title="Poynting vector">Poynting vector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synchrotron_radiation" title="Synchrotron radiation">Synchrotron radiation</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Electrical_network" title="Electrical network">Electrical network</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternating_current" title="Alternating current">Alternating current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capacitance" title="Capacitance">Capacitance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Current_density" title="Current density">Current density</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_current" title="Direct current">Direct current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_current" title="Electric current">Electric current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_power" title="Electric power">Electric power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrolysis" title="Electrolysis">Electrolysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromotive_force" title="Electromotive force">Electromotive force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_impedance" title="Electrical impedance">Impedance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductance" title="Inductance">Inductance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joule_heating" title="Joule heating">Joule heating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirchhoff%27s_circuit_laws" title="Kirchhoff's circuit laws">Kirchhoff laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_analysis_(electrical_circuits)" title="Network analysis (electrical circuits)">Network analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ohm%27s_law" title="Ohm's law">Ohm's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Series_and_parallel_circuits#Parallel_circuits" title="Series and parallel circuits">Parallel circuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_resistance_and_conductance" title="Electrical resistance and conductance">Resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resonator#Electromagnetics" title="Resonator">Resonant cavities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Series_and_parallel_circuits#Series_circuits" title="Series and parallel circuits">Series circuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltage" title="Voltage">Voltage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watt" title="Watt">Watt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waveguide_(radio_frequency)" title="Waveguide (radio frequency)">Waveguides</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_circuit" title="Magnetic circuit">Magnetic circuit</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AC_motor" title="AC motor">AC motor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DC_motor" title="DC motor">DC motor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_machine" title="Electric machine">Electric machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_motor" title="Electric motor">Electric motor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gyrator%E2%80%93capacitor_model" title="Gyrator–capacitor model">Gyrator–capacitor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Induction_motor" title="Induction motor">Induction motor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_motor" title="Linear motor">Linear motor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetomotive_force" title="Magnetomotive force">Magnetomotive force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permeance" title="Permeance">Permeance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_complex_reluctance" title="Magnetic complex reluctance">Reluctance (complex)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_reluctance" title="Magnetic reluctance">Reluctance (real)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotor_(electric)" title="Rotor (electric)">Rotor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stator" title="Stator">Stator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transformer" title="Transformer">Transformer</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Covariant_formulation_of_classical_electromagnetism" title="Covariant formulation of classical electromagnetism">Covariant formulation</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_tensor" title="Electromagnetic tensor">Electromagnetic tensor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_electromagnetism_and_special_relativity" title="Classical electromagnetism and special relativity">Electromagnetism and special relativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four-current" title="Four-current">Four-current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_four-potential" title="Electromagnetic four-potential">Four-potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_descriptions_of_the_electromagnetic_field" title="Mathematical descriptions of the electromagnetic field">Mathematical descriptions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maxwell%27s_equations_in_curved_spacetime" title="Maxwell's equations in curved spacetime">Maxwell equations in curved spacetime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativistic_electromagnetism" title="Relativistic electromagnetism">Relativistic electromagnetism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_stress%E2%80%93energy_tensor" title="Electromagnetic stress–energy tensor">Stress–energy tensor</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Scientists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9-Marie_Amp%C3%A8re" title="André-Marie Ampère">Ampère</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Biot" title="Jean-Baptiste Biot">Biot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles-Augustin_de_Coulomb" title="Charles-Augustin de Coulomb">Coulomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humphry_Davy" title="Humphry Davy">Davy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Einstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Faraday" title="Michael Faraday">Faraday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Fizeau" title="Hippolyte Fizeau">Fizeau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss">Gauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Heaviside" title="Oliver Heaviside">Heaviside</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_von_Helmholtz" title="Hermann von Helmholtz">Helmholtz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Henry" title="Joseph Henry">Henry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Hertz" title="Heinrich Hertz">Hertz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hopkinson" title="John Hopkinson">Hopkinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oleg_D._Jefimenko" title="Oleg D. Jefimenko">Jefimenko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Prescott_Joule" title="James Prescott Joule">Joule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord_Kelvin" title="Lord Kelvin">Kelvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustav_Kirchhoff" title="Gustav Kirchhoff">Kirchhoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Larmor" title="Joseph Larmor">Larmor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emil_Lenz" title="Emil Lenz">Lenz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred-Marie_Li%C3%A9nard" title="Alfred-Marie Liénard">Liénard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hendrik_Lorentz" title="Hendrik Lorentz">Lorentz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell">Maxwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Ernst_Neumann" title="Franz Ernst Neumann">Neumann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Ohm" title="Georg Ohm">Ohm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Christian_%C3%98rsted" title="Hans Christian Ørsted">Ørsted</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sim%C3%A9on_Denis_Poisson" title="Siméon Denis Poisson">Poisson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Henry_Poynting" title="John Henry Poynting">Poynting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Ritchie_(physicist)" title="William Ritchie (physicist)">Ritchie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_Savart" title="Félix Savart">Savart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Singer" title="George Singer">Singer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Proteus_Steinmetz" title="Charles Proteus Steinmetz">Steinmetz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikola_Tesla" title="Nikola Tesla">Tesla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._J._Thomson" title="J. J. Thomson">Thomson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Volta" title="Alessandro Volta">Volta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Eduard_Weber" title="Wilhelm Eduard Weber">Weber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emil_Wiechert" title="Emil Wiechert">Wiechert</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Electromagnetism" title="Template:Electromagnetism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Electromagnetism" title="Template talk:Electromagnetism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Electromagnetism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Electromagnetism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Superconductivity</b> is a set of physical properties observed in <b>superconductors</b>: materials where <a href="/wiki/Electrical_resistance_and_conductance" title="Electrical resistance and conductance">electrical resistance</a> vanishes and <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_field" title="Magnetic field">magnetic fields</a> are expelled from the material. Unlike an ordinary metallic <a href="/wiki/Electrical_conductor" title="Electrical conductor">conductor</a>, whose resistance decreases gradually as its temperature is lowered, even down to near <a href="/wiki/Absolute_zero" title="Absolute zero">absolute zero</a>, a superconductor has a characteristic <a href="/wiki/Phase_transition" title="Phase transition">critical temperature</a> below which the resistance drops abruptly to zero.<sup id="cite_ref-Combescot_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Combescot-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fossheim_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fossheim-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An <a href="/wiki/Electric_current" title="Electric current">electric current</a> through a loop of <a href="/wiki/Superconducting_wire" title="Superconducting wire">superconducting wire</a> can persist indefinitely with no power source.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Daintith_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Daintith-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gallop_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gallop-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Durrant_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Durrant-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The superconductivity phenomenon was discovered in 1911 by Dutch physicist <a href="/wiki/Heike_Kamerlingh_Onnes" title="Heike Kamerlingh Onnes">Heike Kamerlingh Onnes</a>. Like <a href="/wiki/Ferromagnetism" title="Ferromagnetism">ferromagnetism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Atomic_spectral_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic spectral line">atomic spectral lines</a>, superconductivity is a phenomenon which can only be explained by <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a>. It is characterized by the <a href="/wiki/Meissner_effect" title="Meissner effect">Meissner effect</a>, the complete cancellation of the magnetic field in the interior of the superconductor during its transitions into the superconducting state. The occurrence of the Meissner effect indicates that superconductivity cannot be understood simply as the <a href="/wiki/Idealization_(science_philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Idealization (science philosophy)">idealization</a> of <i><a href="/wiki/Perfect_conductor" title="Perfect conductor">perfect conductivity</a></i> in <a href="/wiki/Classical_physics" title="Classical physics">classical physics</a>. </p><p>In 1986, it was discovered that some <a href="/wiki/Cuprate_superconductor" title="Cuprate superconductor">cuprate</a>-<a href="/wiki/Perovskite_(structure)" title="Perovskite (structure)">perovskite</a> <a href="/wiki/Ceramic" title="Ceramic">ceramic</a> materials have a critical temperature above 35 K (−238 °C).<sup id="cite_ref-Bednorz_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bednorz-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was shortly found (by <a href="/wiki/Ching-Wu_Chu" class="mw-redirect" title="Ching-Wu Chu">Ching-Wu Chu</a>) that replacing the lanthanum with <a href="/wiki/Yttrium" title="Yttrium">yttrium</a>, i.e. making <a href="/wiki/YBCO" class="mw-redirect" title="YBCO">YBCO</a>, raised the critical temperature to 92 K (−181 °C), which was important because <a href="/wiki/Liquid_nitrogen" title="Liquid nitrogen">liquid nitrogen</a> could then be used as a refrigerant. Such a high transition temperature is theoretically impossible for a <a href="/wiki/Conventional_superconductor" title="Conventional superconductor">conventional superconductor</a>, leading the materials to be termed <a href="/wiki/High-temperature_superconductors" class="mw-redirect" title="High-temperature superconductors">high-temperature superconductors</a>. The cheaply available coolant <a href="/wiki/Liquid_nitrogen" title="Liquid nitrogen">liquid nitrogen</a> boils at 77 K (−196 °C) and thus the existence of superconductivity at higher temperatures than this facilitates many experiments and applications that are less practical at lower temperatures. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Superconductivity&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_superconductivity" title="History of superconductivity">History of superconductivity</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ehrenfest_Lorentz_Bohr_Kamerlingh_Onnes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Ehrenfest_Lorentz_Bohr_Kamerlingh_Onnes.jpg/220px-Ehrenfest_Lorentz_Bohr_Kamerlingh_Onnes.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Ehrenfest_Lorentz_Bohr_Kamerlingh_Onnes.jpg/330px-Ehrenfest_Lorentz_Bohr_Kamerlingh_Onnes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Ehrenfest_Lorentz_Bohr_Kamerlingh_Onnes.jpg/440px-Ehrenfest_Lorentz_Bohr_Kamerlingh_Onnes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="348" /></a><figcaption>Heike Kamerlingh Onnes (right), the discoverer of superconductivity. <a href="/wiki/Paul_Ehrenfest" title="Paul Ehrenfest">Paul Ehrenfest</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hendrik_Lorentz" title="Hendrik Lorentz">Hendrik Lorentz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a> stand to his left.</figcaption></figure> <p>Superconductivity was discovered on April 8, 1911, by Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, who was studying the resistance of solid mercury at <a href="/wiki/Cryogenic" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryogenic">cryogenic</a> temperatures using the recently produced <a href="/wiki/Liquid_helium" title="Liquid helium">liquid helium</a> as a <a href="/wiki/Refrigerant" title="Refrigerant">refrigerant</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the temperature of 4.2 K, he observed that the resistance abruptly disappeared.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the same experiment, he also observed the <a href="/wiki/Superfluid" class="mw-redirect" title="Superfluid">superfluid</a> transition of helium at 2.2 K, without recognizing its significance. The precise date and circumstances of the discovery were only reconstructed a century later, when Onnes's notebook was found.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In subsequent decades, superconductivity was observed in several other materials. In 1913, <a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead</a> was found to superconduct at 7 K, and in 1941 <a href="/wiki/Niobium_nitride" title="Niobium nitride">niobium nitride</a> was found to superconduct at 16 K. </p><p>Great efforts have been devoted to finding out how and why superconductivity works; the important step occurred in 1933, when <a href="/wiki/Walther_Meissner" title="Walther Meissner">Meissner</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Ochsenfeld" title="Robert Ochsenfeld">Ochsenfeld</a> discovered that superconductors expelled applied magnetic fields, a phenomenon which has come to be known as the Meissner effect.<sup id="cite_ref-MeissnerOchsenfeld_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MeissnerOchsenfeld-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1935, <a href="/wiki/Fritz_London" title="Fritz London">Fritz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Heinz_London" title="Heinz London">Heinz London</a> showed that the Meissner effect was a consequence of the minimization of the electromagnetic <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_free_energy" title="Thermodynamic free energy">free energy</a> carried by superconducting current.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="London_constitutive_equations">London constitutive equations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Superconductivity&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: London constitutive equations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The theoretical model that was first conceived for superconductivity was completely classical: it is summarized by <a href="/wiki/London_equations" title="London equations">London constitutive equations</a>. It was put forward by the brothers Fritz and Heinz London in 1935, shortly after the discovery that magnetic fields are expelled from superconductors. A major triumph of the equations of this theory is their ability to explain the Meissner effect,<sup id="cite_ref-MeissnerOchsenfeld_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MeissnerOchsenfeld-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> wherein a material exponentially expels all internal magnetic fields as it crosses the superconducting threshold. By using the London equation, one can obtain the dependence of the magnetic field inside the superconductor on the distance to the surface.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The two constitutive equations for a superconductor by London are: </p><p><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\frac {\partial \mathbf {j} }{\partial t}}={\frac {ne^{2}}{m}}\mathbf {E} ,\qquad \mathbf {\nabla } \times \mathbf {j} =-{\frac {ne^{2}}{m}}\mathbf {B} .}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">∂</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">j</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">∂</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <msup> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> <mi>m</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">E</mi> </mrow> <mo>,</mo> <mspace width="2em"></mspace> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">∇</mi> </mrow> <mo>×</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">j</mi> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <msup> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> <mi>m</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">B</mi> </mrow> <mo>.</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {\partial \mathbf {j} }{\partial t}}={\frac {ne^{2}}{m}}\mathbf {E} ,\qquad \mathbf {\nabla } \times \mathbf {j} =-{\frac {ne^{2}}{m}}\mathbf {B} .}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0bd5aa930c2cb98bf7ce92147ffa1e36de4f42cd" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.005ex; width:35.313ex; height:5.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\frac {\partial \mathbf {j} }{\partial t}}={\frac {ne^{2}}{m}}\mathbf {E} ,\qquad \mathbf {\nabla } \times \mathbf {j} =-{\frac {ne^{2}}{m}}\mathbf {B} .}" /></span> </p><p>The first equation follows from <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_second_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Newton's second law">Newton's second law</a> for superconducting electrons. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conventional_theories_(1950s)"><span id="Conventional_theories_.281950s.29"></span>Conventional theories (1950s)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Superconductivity&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Conventional theories (1950s)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the 1950s, theoretical <a href="/wiki/Condensed_matter_physics" title="Condensed matter physics">condensed matter</a> physicists arrived at an understanding of "conventional" superconductivity, through a pair of remarkable and important theories: the phenomenological <a href="/wiki/Ginzburg%E2%80%93Landau_theory" title="Ginzburg–Landau theory">Ginzburg–Landau theory</a> (1950) and the microscopic BCS theory (1957).<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-BardeenCooperSchrieffer_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BardeenCooperSchrieffer-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1950, the <a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(particle_physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Phenomenology (particle physics)">phenomenological</a> <a href="/wiki/Ginzburg%E2%80%93Landau_theory" title="Ginzburg–Landau theory">Ginzburg–Landau theory</a> of superconductivity was devised by <a href="/wiki/Lev_Landau" title="Lev Landau">Landau</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vitaly_Ginzburg" title="Vitaly Ginzburg">Ginzburg</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This theory, which combined Landau's theory of second-order phase transitions with a <a href="/wiki/Schr%C3%B6dinger_equation" title="Schrödinger equation">Schrödinger</a>-like wave equation, had great success in explaining the macroscopic properties of superconductors. In particular, <a href="/wiki/Alexei_Alexeyevich_Abrikosov" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexei Alexeyevich Abrikosov">Abrikosov</a> showed that Ginzburg–Landau theory predicts the division of superconductors into the two categories now referred to as Type I and Type II. Abrikosov and Ginzburg were awarded the 2003 Nobel Prize for their work (Landau had received the 1962 Nobel Prize for other work, and died in 1968). The four-dimensional extension of the Ginzburg–Landau theory, the <a href="/wiki/Coleman%E2%80%93Weinberg_potential" title="Coleman–Weinberg potential">Coleman-Weinberg model</a>, is important in <a href="/wiki/Quantum_field_theory" title="Quantum field theory">quantum field theory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">cosmology</a>. </p><p>Also in 1950, Maxwell and Reynolds et al. found that the critical temperature of a superconductor depends on the <a href="/wiki/Isotope" title="Isotope">isotopic mass</a> of the constituent element.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This important discovery pointed to the <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electron</a>–<a href="/wiki/Phonon" title="Phonon">phonon</a> interaction as the microscopic mechanism responsible for superconductivity. </p><p>The complete microscopic theory of superconductivity was finally proposed in 1957 by <a href="/wiki/John_Bardeen" title="John Bardeen">Bardeen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leon_Neil_Cooper" class="mw-redirect" title="Leon Neil Cooper">Cooper</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Robert_Schrieffer" title="John Robert Schrieffer">Schrieffer</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-BardeenCooperSchrieffer_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BardeenCooperSchrieffer-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This BCS theory explained the superconducting current as a superfluid of Cooper pairs, pairs of electrons interacting through the exchange of phonons. For this work, the authors were awarded the Nobel Prize in 1972. </p><p>The BCS theory was set on a firmer footing in 1958, when <a href="/wiki/N._N._Bogolyubov" class="mw-redirect" title="N. N. Bogolyubov">N. N. Bogolyubov</a> showed that the BCS wavefunction, which had originally been derived from a variational argument, could be obtained using a canonical transformation of the electronic <a href="/wiki/Hamiltonian_(quantum_mechanics)" title="Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)">Hamiltonian</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1959, <a href="/wiki/Lev_Gor%27kov" title="Lev Gor'kov">Lev Gor'kov</a> showed that the BCS theory reduced to the Ginzburg–Landau theory close to the critical temperature.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-BCS-boboliubov_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BCS-boboliubov-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Generalizations of BCS theory for conventional superconductors form the basis for the understanding of the phenomenon of <a href="/wiki/Superfluidity" title="Superfluidity">superfluidity</a>, because they fall into the <a href="/wiki/Lambda_transition" title="Lambda transition">lambda transition</a> universality class. The extent to which such generalizations can be applied to <a href="/wiki/Unconventional_superconductor" title="Unconventional superconductor">unconventional superconductors</a> is still controversial. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Further_history">Further history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Superconductivity&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Further history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first practical application of superconductivity was developed in 1954 with <a href="/wiki/Dudley_Allen_Buck" title="Dudley Allen Buck">Dudley Allen Buck</a>'s invention of the <a href="/wiki/Cryotron" title="Cryotron">cryotron</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-mit-memo_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mit-memo-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Two superconductors with greatly different values of the critical magnetic field are combined to produce a fast, simple switch for computer elements. </p><p>Soon after discovering superconductivity in 1911, Kamerlingh Onnes attempted to make an electromagnet with superconducting windings but found that relatively low magnetic fields destroyed superconductivity in the materials he investigated. Much later, in 1955, G. B. Yntema<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> succeeded in constructing a small 0.7-tesla iron-core electromagnet with superconducting niobium wire windings. Then, in 1961, <a href="/wiki/John_Eugene_Kunzler" title="John Eugene Kunzler">J. E. Kunzler</a>, E. Buehler, F. S. L. Hsu, and J. H. Wernick<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> made the startling discovery that, at 4.2 kelvin, <a href="/wiki/Niobium%E2%80%93tin" title="Niobium–tin">niobium–tin</a>, a compound consisting of three parts niobium and one part tin, was capable of supporting a current density of more than 100,000 amperes per square centimeter in a magnetic field of 8.8 tesla. Despite being brittle and difficult to fabricate, niobium–tin has since proved extremely useful in supermagnets generating magnetic fields as high as 20 tesla. In 1962, T. G. Berlincourt and R. R. Hake<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> discovered that more ductile alloys of niobium and titanium are suitable for applications up to 10 tesla. Promptly thereafter, commercial production of <a href="/wiki/Niobium%E2%80%93titanium" title="Niobium–titanium">niobium–titanium</a> supermagnet wire commenced at <a href="/wiki/Westinghouse_Electric_Corporation" title="Westinghouse Electric Corporation">Westinghouse Electric Corporation</a> and at <a href="/wiki/Wah_Chang_Corporation" title="Wah Chang Corporation">Wah Chang Corporation</a>. Although niobium–titanium boasts less-impressive superconducting properties than those of niobium–tin, niobium–titanium has, nevertheless, become the most widely used "workhorse" supermagnet material, in large measure a consequence of its very high <a href="/wiki/Ductility" title="Ductility">ductility</a> and ease of fabrication. However, both niobium–tin and niobium–titanium find wide application in MRI medical imagers, bending and focusing magnets for enormous high-energy-particle accelerators, and a host of other applications. Conectus, a European superconductivity consortium, estimated that in 2014, global economic activity for which superconductivity was indispensable amounted to about five billion euros, with MRI systems accounting for about 80% of that total. </p><p>In 1962, <a href="/wiki/Brian_David_Josephson" class="mw-redirect" title="Brian David Josephson">Josephson</a> made the important theoretical prediction that a supercurrent can flow between two pieces of superconductor separated by a thin layer of insulator.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This phenomenon, now called the <a href="/wiki/Josephson_effect" title="Josephson effect">Josephson effect</a>, is exploited by superconducting devices such as <a href="/wiki/SQUID" title="SQUID">SQUIDs</a>. It is used in the most accurate available measurements of the <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_flux_quantum" title="Magnetic flux quantum">magnetic flux quantum</a> <i>Φ</i><sub>0</sub> = <i>h</i>/(2<i>e</i>), where <i>h</i> is the <a href="/wiki/Planck_constant" title="Planck constant">Planck constant</a>. Coupled with the <a href="/wiki/Quantum_Hall_effect" title="Quantum Hall effect">quantum Hall resistivity</a>, this leads to a precise measurement of the Planck constant. Josephson was awarded the Nobel Prize for this work in 1973.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2008, it was proposed that the same mechanism that produces superconductivity could produce a <a href="/wiki/Superinsulator" title="Superinsulator">superinsulator</a> state in some materials, with almost infinite <a href="/wiki/Electrical_resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical resistance">electrical resistance</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first development and study of superconducting <a href="/wiki/Bose%E2%80%93Einstein_condensate" title="Bose–Einstein condensate">Bose–Einstein condensate</a> (BEC) in 2020 suggests that there is a "smooth transition between" BEC and <a href="/wiki/BCS_theory" title="BCS theory">Bardeen-Cooper-Shrieffer</a> regimes.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification">Classification</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Superconductivity&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Classification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Superconductor_classification" title="Superconductor classification">Superconductor classification</a></div> <p>There are many criteria by which superconductors are classified. The most common are: </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Response_to_a_magnetic_field">Response to a magnetic field</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Superconductivity&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Response to a magnetic field"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A superconductor can be <i><a href="/wiki/Type_I_superconductor" class="mw-redirect" title="Type I superconductor">Type I</a></i>, meaning it has a single <a href="/wiki/Critical_field" title="Critical field">critical field</a>, above which all superconductivity is lost and below which the magnetic field is completely expelled from the superconductor; or <i><a href="/wiki/Type_II_superconductor" class="mw-redirect" title="Type II superconductor">Type II</a></i>, meaning it has two critical fields, between which it allows partial penetration of the magnetic field through isolated points.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These points are called <a href="/wiki/Quantum_vortex" title="Quantum vortex">vortices</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, in multicomponent superconductors it is possible to have a combination of the two behaviours. In that case the superconductor is of <a href="/wiki/Type-1.5_superconductor" title="Type-1.5 superconductor">Type-1.5</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="By_theory_of_operation">By theory of operation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Superconductivity&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: By theory of operation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A superconductor is <i><a href="/wiki/Conventional_superconductor" title="Conventional superconductor">conventional</a></i> if it is driven by electron–phonon interaction and explained by the usual <a href="/wiki/BCS_theory" title="BCS theory">BCS theory</a> or its extension, the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Eliashberg_theory&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Eliashberg theory (page does not exist)">Eliashberg theory</a>. Otherwise, it is <i><a href="/wiki/Unconventional_superconductor" title="Unconventional superconductor">unconventional</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alternatively, a superconductor is called unconventional if the superconducting <a href="/wiki/Order_parameter" class="mw-redirect" title="Order parameter">order parameter</a> transforms according to a non-trivial <a href="/wiki/Irreducible_representation" title="Irreducible representation">irreducible representation</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Point_group" title="Point group">point group</a> or <a href="/wiki/Space_group" title="Space group">space group</a> of the system.<sup id="cite_ref-c718_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-c718-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="By_critical_temperature">By critical temperature</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Superconductivity&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: By critical temperature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A superconductor is generally considered <i><a href="/wiki/High-temperature_superconductivity" title="High-temperature superconductivity">high-temperature</a></i> if it reaches a superconducting state above a temperature of 30 K (−243.15 °C);<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as in the initial discovery by <a href="/wiki/Georg_Bednorz" title="Georg Bednorz">Georg Bednorz</a> and <a href="/wiki/K._Alex_M%C3%BCller" title="K. Alex Müller">K. Alex Müller</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bednorz_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bednorz-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It may also reference materials that transition to superconductivity when cooled using <a href="/wiki/Liquid_nitrogen" title="Liquid nitrogen">liquid nitrogen</a> – that is, at only <i>T</i><sub>c</sub> > 77 K, although this is generally used only to emphasize that liquid nitrogen coolant is sufficient. Low temperature superconductors refer to materials with a critical temperature below 30 K, and are cooled mainly by <a href="/wiki/Liquid_helium" title="Liquid helium">liquid helium</a> (<i>T</i><sub>c</sub> > 4.2 K). One exception to this rule is the <a href="/wiki/Iron-based_superconductor" title="Iron-based superconductor">iron pnictide</a> group of superconductors which display behaviour and properties typical of high-temperature superconductors, yet some of the group have critical temperatures below 30 K. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="By_material">By material</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Superconductivity&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: By material"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Periodic_table_with_superconducting_temperatures.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Periodic_table_with_superconducting_temperatures.jpg/440px-Periodic_table_with_superconducting_temperatures.jpg" decoding="async" width="440" height="492" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Periodic_table_with_superconducting_temperatures.jpg/660px-Periodic_table_with_superconducting_temperatures.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Periodic_table_with_superconducting_temperatures.jpg/880px-Periodic_table_with_superconducting_temperatures.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2680" data-file-height="2994" /></a><figcaption>Top: Periodic table of superconducting elemental solids and their experimental critical temperature (T)<br />Bottom: Periodic table of superconducting binary hydrides (0–300 GPa). Theoretical predictions indicated in blue and experimental results in red<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Superconductor material classes include <a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">chemical elements</a> (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">mercury</a> or <a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead</a>), <a href="/wiki/Alloy" title="Alloy">alloys</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/Niobium%E2%80%93titanium" title="Niobium–titanium">niobium–titanium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Germanium%E2%80%93niobium" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanium–niobium">germanium–niobium</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Niobium_nitride" title="Niobium nitride">niobium nitride</a>), <a href="/wiki/Ceramic" title="Ceramic">ceramics</a> (<a href="/wiki/YBCO" class="mw-redirect" title="YBCO">YBCO</a> and <a href="/wiki/Magnesium_diboride" title="Magnesium diboride">magnesium diboride</a>), <a href="/wiki/Iron-based_superconductor" title="Iron-based superconductor">superconducting pnictides</a> (like fluorine-doped LaOFeAs) or <a href="/wiki/Organic_superconductor" title="Organic superconductor">organic superconductors</a> (<a href="/wiki/Fullerene" title="Fullerene">fullerenes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_nanotube" title="Carbon nanotube">carbon nanotubes</a>; though perhaps these examples should be included among the chemical elements, as they are composed entirely of <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Elementary_properties">Elementary properties</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Superconductivity&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Elementary properties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Superconductivity" title="Special:EditPage/Superconductivity">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Superconductivity%22">"Superconductivity"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Superconductivity%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Superconductivity%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Superconductivity%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Superconductivity%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Superconductivity%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2018</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Several physical properties of superconductors vary from material to material, such as the critical temperature, the value of the <a href="/wiki/Energy_gap#Superconductors" title="Energy gap">superconducting gap</a>, the critical magnetic field, and the critical current density at which superconductivity is destroyed. On the other hand, there is a class of properties that are independent of the underlying material. The Meissner effect, the quantization of the <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_flux_quantum" title="Magnetic flux quantum">magnetic flux</a> or permanent currents, i.e. the state of zero resistance are the most important examples. The existence of these "universal" properties is rooted in the nature of the <a href="/wiki/Symmetry_breaking" title="Symmetry breaking">broken symmetry</a> of the superconductor and the emergence of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Off-diagonal_long_range_order&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Off-diagonal long range order (page does not exist)">off-diagonal long range order</a>. Superconductivity is a <a href="/wiki/Phase_(matter)" title="Phase (matter)">thermodynamic phase</a>, and thus possesses certain distinguishing properties which are largely independent of microscopic details. Off diagonal long range order is closely connected to the formation of <a href="/wiki/Cooper_pair" title="Cooper pair">Cooper pairs</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Zero_electrical_DC_resistance">Zero electrical DC resistance</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Superconductivity&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Zero electrical DC resistance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CERN-cables-p1030764.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/CERN-cables-p1030764.jpg/220px-CERN-cables-p1030764.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/CERN-cables-p1030764.jpg/330px-CERN-cables-p1030764.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/CERN-cables-p1030764.jpg/440px-CERN-cables-p1030764.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption>Electric cables for accelerators at <a href="/wiki/CERN" title="CERN">CERN</a>. Both the massive and slim cables are rated for 12,500 <a href="/wiki/Amperes" class="mw-redirect" title="Amperes">A</a>. <i>Top:</i> regular cables for <a href="/wiki/Large_Electron%E2%80%93Positron_Collider" title="Large Electron–Positron Collider">LEP</a>; <i>bottom:</i> superconductor-based cables for the <a href="/wiki/Large_Hadron_Collider" title="Large Hadron Collider">LHC</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cross_section_of_preform_superconductor_cable.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Cross_section_of_preform_superconductor_cable.jpg/220px-Cross_section_of_preform_superconductor_cable.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Cross_section_of_preform_superconductor_cable.jpg/330px-Cross_section_of_preform_superconductor_cable.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Cross_section_of_preform_superconductor_cable.jpg/440px-Cross_section_of_preform_superconductor_cable.jpg 2x" data-file-width="778" data-file-height="584" /></a><figcaption>Cross section of a preformed superconductor rod from the abandoned <a href="/wiki/Superconducting_Super_Collider" title="Superconducting Super Collider">Texas Superconducting Super Collider (SSC)</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The simplest method to measure the <a href="/wiki/Electrical_resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical resistance">electrical resistance</a> of a sample of some material is to place it in an <a href="/wiki/Electrical_circuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical circuit">electrical circuit</a> in series with a <a href="/wiki/Current_source" title="Current source">current source</a> <i>I</i> and measure the resulting <a href="/wiki/Voltage" title="Voltage">voltage</a> <i>V</i> across the sample. The resistance of the sample is given by <a href="/wiki/Ohm%27s_law" title="Ohm's law">Ohm's law</a> as <i>R = V / I</i>. If the voltage is zero, this means that the resistance is zero. </p><p>Superconductors are also able to maintain a current with no applied voltage whatsoever, a property exploited in <a href="/wiki/Superconducting_magnet" title="Superconducting magnet">superconducting electromagnets</a> such as those found in <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Magnetic resonance imaging">MRI</a> machines. Experiments have demonstrated that currents in superconducting coils can persist for years without any measurable degradation. Experimental evidence points to a lifetime of at least 100,000 years. Theoretical estimates for the lifetime of a persistent current can exceed the estimated lifetime of the universe, depending on the wire geometry and the temperature.<sup id="cite_ref-Gallop_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gallop-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In practice, currents injected in superconducting coils persisted for 28 years, 7 months, 27 days in a superconducting gravimeter in Belgium, from August 4, 1995 until March 31, 2024.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In such instruments, the measurement is based on the monitoring of the levitation of a superconducting niobium sphere with a mass of four grams. </p><p>In a normal conductor, an electric current may be visualized as a fluid of <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a> moving across a heavy ionic lattice. The electrons are constantly colliding with the ions in the lattice, and during each collision some of the energy carried by the current is absorbed by the lattice and converted into <a href="/wiki/Heat" title="Heat">heat</a>, which is essentially the vibrational <a href="/wiki/Kinetic_energy" title="Kinetic energy">kinetic energy</a> of the lattice ions. As a result, the energy carried by the current is constantly being dissipated. This is the phenomenon of electrical resistance and <a href="/wiki/Joule_heating" title="Joule heating">Joule heating</a>. </p><p>The situation is different in a superconductor. In a conventional superconductor, the electronic fluid cannot be resolved into individual electrons. Instead, it consists of bound <i>pairs</i> of electrons known as <a href="/wiki/Cooper_pair" title="Cooper pair">Cooper pairs</a>. This pairing is caused by an attractive force between electrons from the exchange of <a href="/wiki/Phonon" title="Phonon">phonons</a>. This pairing is very weak, and small thermal vibrations can fracture the bond. Due to <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Energy_spectrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy spectrum">energy spectrum</a> of this Cooper pair fluid possesses an <i><a href="/wiki/Energy_gap" title="Energy gap">energy gap</a></i>, meaning there is a minimum amount of energy Δ<i>E</i> that must be supplied in order to excite the fluid. Therefore, if Δ<i>E</i> is larger than the <a href="/wiki/Thermal_energy" title="Thermal energy">thermal energy</a> of the lattice, given by <i>kT</i>, where <i>k</i> is the <a href="/wiki/Boltzmann_constant" title="Boltzmann constant">Boltzmann constant</a> and <i>T</i> is the <a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">temperature</a>, the fluid will not be scattered by the lattice.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Cooper pair fluid is thus a <a href="/wiki/Superfluid" class="mw-redirect" title="Superfluid">superfluid</a>, meaning it can flow without energy dissipation. </p><p>In the class of superconductors known as <a href="/wiki/Type_II_superconductor" class="mw-redirect" title="Type II superconductor">type II superconductors</a>, including all known <a href="/wiki/High-temperature_superconductor" class="mw-redirect" title="High-temperature superconductor">high-temperature superconductors</a>, an extremely low but non-zero resistivity appears at temperatures not too far below the nominal superconducting transition when an electric current is applied in conjunction with a strong magnetic field, which may be caused by the electric current. This is due to the motion of <a href="/wiki/Abrikosov_vortex" title="Abrikosov vortex">magnetic vortices</a> in the electronic superfluid, which dissipates some of the energy carried by the current. If the current is sufficiently small, the vortices are stationary, and the resistivity vanishes. The resistance due to this effect is minuscule compared with that of non-superconducting materials, but must be taken into account in sensitive experiments. However, as the temperature decreases far enough below the nominal superconducting transition, these vortices can become frozen into a disordered but stationary phase known as a "vortex glass". Below this vortex glass transition temperature, the resistance of the material becomes truly zero. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Phase_transition">Phase transition <span class="anchor" id="Superconducting_phase_transition"></span></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Superconductivity&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Phase transition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cvandrhovst.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Cvandrhovst.png/330px-Cvandrhovst.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="234" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Cvandrhovst.png/495px-Cvandrhovst.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Cvandrhovst.png/660px-Cvandrhovst.png 2x" data-file-width="681" data-file-height="483" /></a><figcaption>Behavior of heat capacity (<i>c</i><sub>v</sub>, blue) and resistivity (<i>ρ</i>, green) at the superconducting phase transition</figcaption></figure> <p>In superconducting materials, the characteristics of superconductivity appear when the temperature <i>T</i> is lowered below a critical temperature <i>T</i><sub>c</sub>. The value of this critical temperature varies from material to material. Conventional superconductors usually have critical temperatures ranging from around 20 <a href="/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin">K</a> to less than 1 K. Solid <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">mercury</a>, for example, has a critical temperature of 4.2 K. As of 2015, the highest critical temperature found for a conventional superconductor is 203 K for H<sub>2</sub>S, although high pressures of approximately 90 gigapascals were required.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Cuprate_superconductor" title="Cuprate superconductor">Cuprate superconductors</a> can have much higher critical temperatures: <a href="/wiki/YBCO" class="mw-redirect" title="YBCO">YBa<sub>2</sub>Cu<sub>3</sub>O<sub>7</sub></a>, one of the first cuprate superconductors to be discovered, has a critical temperature above 90 K, and mercury-based cuprates have been found with critical temperatures in excess of 130 K. The basic physical mechanism responsible for the high critical temperature is not yet clear. However, it is clear that a two-electron pairing is involved, although the nature of the pairing (<span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle s}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>s</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle s}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/01d131dfd7673938b947072a13a9744fe997e632" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.09ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle s}" /></span> wave vs. <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle d}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>d</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle d}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e85ff03cbe0c7341af6b982e47e9f90d235c66ab" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.216ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle d}" /></span> wave) remains controversial.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Similarly, at a fixed temperature below the critical temperature, superconducting materials cease to superconduct when an external <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_field" title="Magnetic field">magnetic field</a> is applied which is greater than the <i>critical magnetic field</i>. This is because the <a href="/wiki/Gibbs_free_energy" title="Gibbs free energy">Gibbs free energy</a> of the superconducting phase increases quadratically with the magnetic field while the free energy of the normal phase is roughly independent of the magnetic field. If the material superconducts in the absence of a field, then the superconducting phase free energy is lower than that of the normal phase and so for some finite value of the magnetic field (proportional to the square root of the difference of the free energies at zero magnetic field) the two free energies will be equal and a phase transition to the normal phase will occur. More generally, a higher temperature and a stronger magnetic field lead to a smaller fraction of electrons that are superconducting and consequently to a longer <a href="/wiki/London_penetration_depth" title="London penetration depth">London penetration depth</a> of external magnetic fields and currents. The penetration depth becomes infinite at the phase transition. </p><p>The onset of superconductivity is accompanied by abrupt changes in various physical properties, which is the hallmark of a <a href="/wiki/Phase_transition" title="Phase transition">phase transition</a>. For example, the electronic <a href="/wiki/Heat_capacity" title="Heat capacity">heat capacity</a> is proportional to the temperature in the normal (non-superconducting) regime. At the superconducting transition, it suffers a discontinuous jump and thereafter ceases to be linear. At low temperatures, it varies instead as <i>e</i><sup>−<i>α</i>/<i>T</i></sup> for some constant, <i>α</i>. This exponential behavior is one of the pieces of evidence for the existence of the <a href="/wiki/Energy_gap" title="Energy gap">energy gap</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Second-order_transition" class="mw-redirect" title="Second-order transition">order</a> of the superconducting <a href="/wiki/Phase_transition#Order_parameters" title="Phase transition">phase transition</a> was long a matter of debate. Experiments indicate that the transition is second-order, meaning there is no <a href="/wiki/Latent_heat" title="Latent heat">latent heat</a>. However, in the presence of an external magnetic field there is latent heat, because the superconducting phase has a lower entropy below the critical temperature than the normal phase. It has been experimentally demonstrated<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that, as a consequence, when the magnetic field is increased beyond the critical field, the resulting phase transition leads to a decrease in the temperature of the superconducting material. </p><p>Calculations in the 1970s suggested that it may actually be weakly first-order due to the effect of long-range fluctuations in the electromagnetic field. In the 1980s it was shown theoretically with the help of a <a href="/w/index.php?title=Disorder_field&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Disorder field (page does not exist)">disorder field theory</a>, in which the <a href="/wiki/Vortex_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Vortex line">vortex lines</a> of the superconductor play a major role, that the transition is of second order within the <a href="/wiki/Type-II_superconductor" title="Type-II superconductor">type II</a> regime and of first order (i.e., <a href="/wiki/Latent_heat" title="Latent heat">latent heat</a>) within the <a href="/wiki/Type-I_superconductor" title="Type-I superconductor">type I</a> regime, and that the two regions are separated by a <a href="/wiki/Tricritical_point" title="Tricritical point">tricritical point</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The results were strongly supported by Monte Carlo computer simulations.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Meissner_effect">Meissner effect</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Superconductivity&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Meissner effect"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Meissner_effect" title="Meissner effect">Meissner effect</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Meissner_effect.ogv/270px--Meissner_effect.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="270" height="152" data-durationhint="40" data-mwtitle="Meissner_effect.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Meissner_effect.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/ba/Meissner_effect.ogv/Meissner_effect.ogv.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/ba/Meissner_effect.ogv/Meissner_effect.ogv.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/ba/Meissner_effect.ogv/Meissner_effect.ogv.1080p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="1080p.vp9.webm" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/ba/Meissner_effect.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/ba/Meissner_effect.ogv/Meissner_effect.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/ba/Meissner_effect.ogv/Meissner_effect.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/ba/Meissner_effect.ogv/Meissner_effect.ogv.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/ba/Meissner_effect.ogv/Meissner_effect.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /></video></span><figcaption>Meissner effect in a high-temperature superconductor (black pellet) with a NdFeB magnet (metallic)</figcaption></figure> <p>When a superconductor is placed in a weak external magnetic field <i>H</i>, and cooled below its transition temperature, the magnetic field is ejected. The Meissner effect does not cause the field to be completely ejected but instead, the field penetrates the superconductor but only to a very small distance, characterized by a parameter <i>λ</i>, called the <a href="/wiki/London_penetration_depth" title="London penetration depth">London penetration depth</a>, decaying exponentially to zero within the bulk of the material. The Meissner effect is a defining characteristic of superconductivity. For most superconductors, the London penetration depth is on the order of 100 nm. </p><p>The Meissner effect is sometimes confused with the kind of <a href="/wiki/Diamagnetism" title="Diamagnetism">diamagnetism</a> one would expect in a perfect electrical conductor: according to <a href="/wiki/Lenz%27s_law" title="Lenz's law">Lenz's law</a>, when a <i>changing</i> magnetic field is applied to a conductor, it will induce an electric current in the conductor that creates an opposing magnetic field. In a perfect conductor, an arbitrarily large current can be induced, and the resulting magnetic field exactly cancels the applied field. </p><p>The Meissner effect is distinct from this – it is the spontaneous expulsion that occurs during transition to superconductivity. Suppose we have a material in its normal state, containing a constant internal magnetic field. When the material is cooled below the critical temperature, we would observe the abrupt expulsion of the internal magnetic field, which we would not expect based on Lenz's law. </p><p>The Meissner effect was given a phenomenological explanation by the brothers <a href="/wiki/Fritz_London" title="Fritz London">Fritz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Heinz_London" title="Heinz London">Heinz London</a>, who showed that the electromagnetic <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_free_energy" title="Thermodynamic free energy">free energy</a> in a superconductor is minimized provided <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \nabla ^{2}\mathbf {H} =\lambda ^{-2}\mathbf {H} \,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mi mathvariant="normal">∇</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">H</mi> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <msup> <mi>λ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">H</mi> </mrow> <mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \nabla ^{2}\mathbf {H} =\lambda ^{-2}\mathbf {H} \,}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/57d717daee621d38ce18f56caf7ddb65f191e567" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:14.347ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \nabla ^{2}\mathbf {H} =\lambda ^{-2}\mathbf {H} \,}" /></span> where <i>H</i> is the magnetic field and <i>λ</i> is the London penetration depth. </p><p>This equation, which is known as the <a href="/wiki/London_equation" class="mw-redirect" title="London equation">London equation</a>, predicts that the magnetic field in a superconductor <a href="/wiki/Exponential_decay" title="Exponential decay">decays exponentially</a> from whatever value it possesses at the surface. </p><p>A superconductor with little or no magnetic field within it is said to be in the Meissner state. The Meissner state breaks down when the applied magnetic field is too large. Superconductors can be divided into two classes according to how this breakdown occurs. In Type I superconductors, superconductivity is abruptly destroyed when the strength of the applied field rises above a critical value <i>H</i><sub>c</sub>. Depending on the geometry of the sample, one may obtain an intermediate state<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> consisting of a baroque pattern<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of regions of normal material carrying a magnetic field mixed with regions of superconducting material containing no field. In Type II superconductors, raising the applied field past a critical value <i>H</i><sub>c1</sub> leads to a mixed state (also known as the vortex state) in which an increasing amount of <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_flux" title="Magnetic flux">magnetic flux</a> penetrates the material, but there remains no resistance to the flow of electric current as long as the current is not too large. At a second critical field strength <i>H</i><sub>c2</sub>, superconductivity is destroyed. The mixed state is actually caused by vortices in the electronic superfluid, sometimes called <a href="/wiki/Fluxon" title="Fluxon">fluxons</a> because the flux carried by these <a href="/wiki/Abrikosov_vortex" title="Abrikosov vortex">vortices</a> is <a href="/wiki/Quantum" title="Quantum">quantized</a>. Most pure <a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">elemental</a> superconductors, except <a href="/wiki/Niobium" title="Niobium">niobium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_nanotube" title="Carbon nanotube">carbon nanotubes</a>, are Type I, while almost all impure and compound superconductors are Type II. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="London_moment">London moment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Superconductivity&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: London moment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/London_moment" title="London moment">London moment</a></div> <p>Conversely, a spinning superconductor generates a magnetic field, precisely aligned with the spin axis. The effect, the London moment, was put to good use in <a href="/wiki/Gravity_Probe_B" title="Gravity Probe B">Gravity Probe B</a>. This experiment measured the magnetic fields of four superconducting gyroscopes to determine their spin axes. This was critical to the experiment since it is one of the few ways to accurately determine the spin axis of an otherwise featureless sphere. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="High-temperature_superconductivity">High-temperature superconductivity</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Superconductivity&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: High-temperature superconductivity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/High-temperature_superconductivity" title="High-temperature superconductivity">High-temperature superconductivity</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Timeline_of_Superconductivity_from_1900_to_2015.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Timeline_of_Superconductivity_from_1900_to_2015.svg/480px-Timeline_of_Superconductivity_from_1900_to_2015.svg.png" decoding="async" width="480" height="297" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Timeline_of_Superconductivity_from_1900_to_2015.svg/720px-Timeline_of_Superconductivity_from_1900_to_2015.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Timeline_of_Superconductivity_from_1900_to_2015.svg/960px-Timeline_of_Superconductivity_from_1900_to_2015.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="953" data-file-height="589" /></a><figcaption>Timeline of superconducting materials. Colors represent different classes of materials: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul style="margin-left: 2em;"><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#acc294; color:black;-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/BCS_theory" title="BCS theory">BCS</a> (dark green circle)</div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959" /><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#dbef9C; color:black;-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Heavy_fermion_material" title="Heavy fermion material">Heavy fermion-based</a> (light green star)</div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959" /><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#bddef5; color:black;-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Cuprate_superconductor" title="Cuprate superconductor">Cuprate</a> (blue diamond)</div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959" /><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#cfa1d6; color:black;-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Buckminsterfullerene" title="Buckminsterfullerene">Buckminsterfullerene</a>-based (purple inverted triangle)</div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959" /><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#f79aaa; color:black;-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">Carbon</a>-<a href="/wiki/Allotrope" class="mw-redirect" title="Allotrope">allotrope</a> (red triangle)</div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959" /><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#fddfa2; color:black;-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">Iron</a>-<a href="/wiki/Pnictogen" title="Pnictogen">pnictogen</a>-based (orange square)</div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959" /><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#b3b3b3ff; color:;-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Strontium_ruthenate" title="Strontium ruthenate">Strontium ruthenate</a> (grey pentagon)</div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959" /><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ff55ffff; color:;-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">Nickel</a>-based (pink six-point star)</div></li></ul></div></figcaption></figure> <p>Until 1986, physicists had believed that BCS theory forbade superconductivity at temperatures above about 30 K. In that year, <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Georg_Bednorz" class="mw-redirect" title="Johannes Georg Bednorz">Bednorz</a> and Müller discovered superconductivity in <a href="/wiki/Lanthanum_barium_copper_oxide" title="Lanthanum barium copper oxide">lanthanum barium copper oxide</a> (LBCO), a <a href="/wiki/Lanthanum" title="Lanthanum">lanthanum</a>-based cuprate <a href="/wiki/Perovskite_(structure)" title="Perovskite (structure)">perovskite</a> material, which had a transition temperature of 35 K (Nobel Prize in Physics, 1987).<sup id="cite_ref-Bednorz_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bednorz-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was soon found that replacing the lanthanum with <a href="/wiki/Yttrium" title="Yttrium">yttrium</a> (i.e., making YBCO) raised the critical temperature above 90 K.<sup id="cite_ref-wu_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wu-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This temperature jump is of particular engineering significance, since it allows liquid nitrogen as a refrigerant, replacing liquid helium.<sup id="cite_ref-wu_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wu-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Liquid nitrogen can be produced relatively cheaply, even on-site. The higher temperatures additionally help to avoid some of the problems that arise at liquid helium temperatures, such as the formation of plugs of frozen air that can block cryogenic lines and cause unanticipated and potentially hazardous pressure buildup.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many other cuprate superconductors have since been discovered, and the theory of superconductivity in these materials is one of the major outstanding challenges of theoretical <a href="/wiki/Condensed_matter_physics" title="Condensed matter physics">condensed matter physics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are currently two main hypotheses – the <a href="/wiki/Resonating_valence_bond_theory" title="Resonating valence bond theory">resonating-valence-bond theory</a>, and spin fluctuation which has the most support in the research community.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The second hypothesis proposed that electron pairing in high-temperature superconductors is mediated by short-range spin waves known as <a href="/wiki/Paramagnon" class="mw-redirect" title="Paramagnon">paramagnons</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute"><span title="The material near this tag is possibly inaccurate or nonfactual. (August 2016)">dubious</span></a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Superconductivity#Dubious" title="Talk:Superconductivity">discuss</a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In 2008, holographic superconductivity, which uses holographic duality or <a href="/wiki/AdS/CFT_correspondence" title="AdS/CFT correspondence">AdS/CFT correspondence</a> theory, was proposed by Gubser, Hartnoll, Herzog, and Horowitz, as a possible explanation of high-temperature superconductivity in certain materials.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From about 1993, the highest-temperature superconductor known was a ceramic material consisting of <a href="/wiki/Cuprate_superconductor" title="Cuprate superconductor">mercury, barium, calcium, copper and oxygen (HgBa<sub>2</sub>Ca<sub>2</sub>Cu<sub>3</sub>O<sub>8+δ</sub>)</a> with <span class="nowrap"><i>T</i><sub>c</sub> = 133–138 K</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-aschi_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aschi-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In February 2008, an iron-based family of high-temperature superconductors was discovered.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hideo Hosono, of the <a href="/wiki/Tokyo_Institute_of_Technology" title="Tokyo Institute of Technology">Tokyo Institute of Technology</a>, and colleagues found lanthanum oxygen fluorine iron arsenide (LaO<sub>1−x</sub>F<sub>x</sub>FeAs), an <a href="/wiki/Oxypnictide" title="Oxypnictide">oxypnictide</a> that superconducts below 26 K. Replacing the lanthanum in LaO<sub>1−<i>x</i></sub>F<sub><i>x</i></sub>FeAs with <a href="/wiki/Samarium" title="Samarium">samarium</a> leads to superconductors that work at 55 K.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2014 and 2015, <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide" title="Hydrogen sulfide">hydrogen sulfide</a> (<span class="chemf nowrap">H<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sub></span></span>S</span>) at extremely high pressures (around 150 gigapascals) was first predicted and then confirmed to be a high-temperature superconductor with a transition temperature of 80 K.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-DrozdovEremets2015_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DrozdovEremets2015-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, in 2019 it was discovered that <a href="/wiki/Lanthanum_hydride" class="mw-redirect" title="Lanthanum hydride">lanthanum hydride</a> (<span class="chemf nowrap">LaH<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">10</sub></span></span></span>) becomes a superconductor at 250 K under a pressure of 170 gigapascals.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2018, a research team from the Department of Physics, <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a>, discovered <a href="/wiki/Bilayer_graphene#Superconductivity_in_twisted_bilayer_graphene" title="Bilayer graphene">superconductivity in bilayer graphene</a> with one layer <a href="/wiki/Twistronics" title="Twistronics">twisted at an angle</a> of approximately 1.1 degrees with cooling and applying a small electric charge. Even if the experiments were not carried out in a high-temperature environment, the results are correlated less to classical but high temperature superconductors, given that no foreign atoms need to be introduced.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The superconductivity effect came about as a result of electrons twisted into a vortex between the graphene layers, called "<a href="/wiki/Skyrmion" title="Skyrmion">skyrmions</a>". These act as a single particle and can pair up across the graphene's layers, leading to the basic conditions required for superconductivity.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2020, a <a href="/wiki/Room-temperature_superconductor" title="Room-temperature superconductor">room-temperature superconductor</a> (critical temperature 288 K) made from hydrogen, carbon and sulfur under pressures of around 270 gigapascals was described in a paper in <i>Nature</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, in 2022 the article was <a href="/wiki/Retraction_in_academic_publishing" title="Retraction in academic publishing">retracted</a> by the editors because the validity of background subtraction procedures had been called into question. All nine authors maintain that the raw data strongly support the main claims of the paper.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 31 December 2023 "Global Room-Temperature Superconductivity in Graphite" was published in the journal "Advanced Quantum Technologies" claiming to demonstrate superconductivity at room temperature and ambient pressure in <a href="/wiki/Highly_oriented_pyrolytic_graphite" title="Highly oriented pyrolytic graphite">Highly oriented pyrolytic graphite</a> with dense arrays of nearly parallel line defects.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Superconductivity&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Technological_applications_of_superconductivity" title="Technological applications of superconductivity">Technological applications of superconductivity</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_1" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Flyingsuperconductor.ogv/220px--Flyingsuperconductor.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="155" data-durationhint="10" data-mwtitle="Flyingsuperconductor.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Flyingsuperconductor.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/08/Flyingsuperconductor.ogv/Flyingsuperconductor.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="342" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/08/Flyingsuperconductor.ogv/Flyingsuperconductor.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="342" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/08/Flyingsuperconductor.ogv/Flyingsuperconductor.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="204" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/08/Flyingsuperconductor.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="341" data-height="240" /></video></span><figcaption>Video of superconducting levitation of YBCO</figcaption></figure> <p>Superconductors are promising candidate materials for devising fundamental circuit elements of electronic, spintronic, and quantum technologies. One such example is a superconducting diode,<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in which supercurrent flows along one direction only, that promise dissipationless superconducting and semiconducting-superconducting hybrid technologies. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Superconducting_magnet" title="Superconducting magnet">Superconducting magnets</a> are some of the most powerful <a href="/wiki/Electromagnet" title="Electromagnet">electromagnets</a> known. They are used in <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Magnetic resonance imaging">MRI</a>/<a href="/wiki/NMR" class="mw-redirect" title="NMR">NMR</a> machines, <a href="/wiki/Mass_spectrometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass spectrometer">mass spectrometers</a>, the beam-steering magnets used in <a href="/wiki/Particle_accelerator" title="Particle accelerator">particle accelerators</a> and plasma confining magnets in some <a href="/wiki/Tokamaks" class="mw-redirect" title="Tokamaks">tokamaks</a>. They can also be used for magnetic separation, where weakly magnetic particles are extracted from a background of less or non-magnetic particles, as in the <a href="/wiki/Pigment" title="Pigment">pigment</a> industries. They can also be used in large wind turbines to overcome the restrictions imposed by high electrical currents, with an industrial grade 3.6 megawatt superconducting windmill generator having been tested successfully in Denmark.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 1950s and 1960s, superconductors were used to build experimental digital computers using <a href="/wiki/Cryotron" title="Cryotron">cryotron</a> switches.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More recently, superconductors have been used to make <a href="/wiki/Digital_circuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital circuit">digital circuits</a> based on <a href="/wiki/Rapid_single_flux_quantum" title="Rapid single flux quantum">rapid single flux quantum</a> technology and <a href="/wiki/RF_and_microwave_filter" title="RF and microwave filter">RF and microwave filters</a> for <a href="/wiki/Mobile_phone" title="Mobile phone">mobile phone</a> base stations. </p><p>Superconductors are used to build <a href="/wiki/Josephson_junction" class="mw-redirect" title="Josephson junction">Josephson junctions</a> which are the building blocks of <a href="/wiki/SQUID" title="SQUID">SQUIDs</a> (superconducting quantum interference devices), the most sensitive <a href="/wiki/Magnetometer" title="Magnetometer">magnetometers</a> known. SQUIDs are used in <a href="/wiki/Scanning_SQUID_microscope" class="mw-redirect" title="Scanning SQUID microscope">scanning SQUID microscopes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Magnetoencephalography" title="Magnetoencephalography">magnetoencephalography</a>. Series of Josephson devices are used to realize the <a href="/wiki/International_System_of_Units" title="International System of Units">SI</a> <a href="/wiki/Volt" title="Volt">volt</a>. Superconducting photon detectors<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> can be realised in a variety of device configurations. Depending on the particular mode of operation, a <a href="/wiki/Superconductor%E2%80%93insulator%E2%80%93superconductor" class="mw-redirect" title="Superconductor–insulator–superconductor">superconductor–insulator–superconductor</a> Josephson junction can be used as a photon <a href="/wiki/Detector" class="mw-redirect" title="Detector">detector</a> or as a <a href="/wiki/Electronic_mixer" title="Electronic mixer">mixer</a>. The large resistance change at the transition from the normal to the superconducting state is used to build thermometers in cryogenic <a href="/wiki/Calorimeter" title="Calorimeter">micro-calorimeter</a> photon <a href="/wiki/Detector" class="mw-redirect" title="Detector">detectors</a>. The same effect is used in ultrasensitive <a href="/wiki/Bolometer" title="Bolometer">bolometers</a> made from superconducting materials. <a href="/wiki/Superconducting_nanowire_single-photon_detector" title="Superconducting nanowire single-photon detector">Superconducting nanowire single-photon detectors</a> offer high speed, low noise single-photon detection and have been employed widely in advanced <a href="/wiki/Photon_counting" title="Photon counting">photon-counting</a> applications.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other early markets are arising where the relative efficiency, size and weight advantages of devices based on <a href="/wiki/High-temperature_superconductivity" title="High-temperature superconductivity">high-temperature superconductivity</a> outweigh the additional costs involved. For example, in <a href="/wiki/Wind_turbine" title="Wind turbine">wind turbines</a> the lower weight and volume of superconducting generators could lead to savings in construction and tower costs, offsetting the higher costs for the generator and lowering the total <a href="/wiki/Levelized_cost_of_electricity" title="Levelized cost of electricity">levelized cost of electricity</a> (LCOE).<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Promising future applications include high-performance <a href="/wiki/Smart_grid" title="Smart grid">smart grid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electric_power_transmission" title="Electric power transmission">electric power transmission</a>, <a href="/wiki/Transformer" title="Transformer">transformers</a>, <a href="/wiki/SMES" class="mw-redirect" title="SMES">power storage devices</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fusion_power" title="Fusion power">compact fusion power devices</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electric_motor" title="Electric motor">electric motors</a> (e.g. for vehicle propulsion, as in <a href="/wiki/Vactrain" title="Vactrain">vactrains</a> or <a href="/wiki/Maglev_train" class="mw-redirect" title="Maglev train">maglev trains</a>), <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_levitation_device" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnetic levitation device">magnetic levitation devices</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fault_current_limiter" title="Fault current limiter">fault current limiters</a>, enhancing spintronic devices with superconducting materials,<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and superconducting <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_refrigeration" title="Magnetic refrigeration">magnetic refrigeration</a>. However, superconductivity is sensitive to moving magnetic fields, so applications that use <a href="/wiki/Alternating_current" title="Alternating current">alternating current</a> (e.g. transformers) will be more difficult to develop than those that rely upon <a href="/wiki/Direct_current" title="Direct current">direct current</a>. Compared to traditional power lines, <a href="/wiki/Superconducting_transmission_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Superconducting transmission line">superconducting transmission lines</a> are more efficient and require only a fraction of the space, which would not only lead to a better environmental performance but could also improve public acceptance for expansion of the electric grid.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another attractive industrial aspect is the ability for high power transmission at lower voltages.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Advancements in the efficiency of cooling systems and use of cheap coolants such as liquid nitrogen have also significantly decreased cooling costs needed for superconductivity. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nobel_Prizes">Nobel Prizes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Superconductivity&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Nobel Prizes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As of 2022, there have been five <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Nobel Prizes in Physics</a> for superconductivity related subjects: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heike_Kamerlingh_Onnes" title="Heike Kamerlingh Onnes">Heike Kamerlingh Onnes</a> (1913), "for his investigations on the properties of matter at low temperatures which led, inter alia, to the production of liquid helium".</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Bardeen" title="John Bardeen">John Bardeen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leon_N._Cooper" class="mw-redirect" title="Leon N. Cooper">Leon N. Cooper</a>, and <a href="/wiki/J._Robert_Schrieffer" class="mw-redirect" title="J. Robert Schrieffer">J. Robert Schrieffer</a> (1972), "for their jointly developed theory of superconductivity, usually called the BCS-theory".</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Esaki" title="Leo Esaki">Leo Esaki</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ivar_Giaever" title="Ivar Giaever">Ivar Giaever</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Brian_D._Josephson" class="mw-redirect" title="Brian D. Josephson">Brian D. Josephson</a> (1973), "for their experimental discoveries regarding tunneling phenomena in semiconductors and superconductors, respectively" and "for his theoretical predictions of the properties of a supercurrent through a tunnel barrier, in particular those phenomena which are generally known as the Josephson effects".</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Bednorz" title="Georg Bednorz">Georg Bednorz</a> and <a href="/wiki/K._Alex_M%C3%BCller" title="K. Alex Müller">K. Alex Müller</a> (1987), "for their important break-through in the discovery of superconductivity in ceramic materials".</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexei_A._Abrikosov" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexei A. Abrikosov">Alexei A. Abrikosov</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vitaly_L._Ginzburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Vitaly L. Ginzburg">Vitaly L. Ginzburg</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Anthony_J._Leggett" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthony J. Leggett">Anthony J. Leggett</a> (2003), "for pioneering contributions to the theory of superconductors and superfluids".<sup id="cite_ref-Nobel_Prizes_in_Physics_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nobel_Prizes_in_Physics-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Superconductivity&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_cryomagnetics" title="Hydrogen cryomagnetics">Hydrogen cryomagnetics</a> – Use of cryogenic liquid hydrogen to cool an electromagnet</li> <li><a href="/wiki/MXenes" title="MXenes">MXenes</a> – Class of two-dimensional inorganic compounds</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potential_applications_of_graphene" title="Potential applications of graphene">Potential applications of graphene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superconducting_magnetic_energy_storage" title="Superconducting magnetic energy storage">Superconducting magnetic energy storage</a> – Energy storage technique</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Superconductivity&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Combescot-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Combescot_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFCombescot2022" class="citation book cs1">Combescot, Roland (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lRhdEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1"><i>Superconductivity</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">1–</span>2. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781108428415" title="Special:BookSources/9781108428415"><bdi>9781108428415</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Superconductivity&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E2&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=9781108428415&rft.aulast=Combescot&rft.aufirst=Roland&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlRhdEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fossheim-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Fossheim_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFossheimSudboe2005" class="citation book cs1">Fossheim, Kristian; Sudboe, Asle (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ep1MLS9YQX8C&pg=PA13"><i>Superconductivity: Physics and Applications</i></a>. John Wiley and Sons. p. 7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780470026434" title="Special:BookSources/9780470026434"><bdi>9780470026434</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Superconductivity%3A+Physics+and+Applications&rft.pages=7&rft.pub=John+Wiley+and+Sons&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9780470026434&rft.aulast=Fossheim&rft.aufirst=Kristian&rft.au=Sudboe%2C+Asle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEp1MLS9YQX8C%26pg%3DPA13&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBardeenCooperSchrieffer1957" class="citation journal cs1">Bardeen, John; Cooper, Leon; Schrieffer, J. R. (December 1, 1957). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_QKPGDG-cuAC&q=%22persist+indefinitely&pg=PA76">"Theory of Superconductivity"</a>. <i>Physical Review</i>. <b>108</b> (5): 1175. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1957PhRv..108.1175B">1957PhRv..108.1175B</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2Fphysrev.108.1175">10.1103/physrev.108.1175</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-677-00080-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-677-00080-0"><bdi>978-0-677-00080-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:73661301">73661301</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 6,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review&rft.atitle=Theory+of+Superconductivity&rft.volume=108&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=1175&rft.date=1957-12-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2Fphysrev.108.1175&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A73661301%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1957PhRv..108.1175B&rft.isbn=978-0-677-00080-0&rft.aulast=Bardeen&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Cooper%2C+Leon&rft.au=Schrieffer%2C+J.+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_QKPGDG-cuAC%26q%3D%2522persist%2Bindefinitely%26pg%3DPA76&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span> Reprinted in Nikolaĭ Nikolaevich Bogoliubov (1963) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_QKPGDG-cuAC&pg=PA73">The Theory of Superconductivity, Vol. 4</a></i>, CRC Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0677000804" title="Special:BookSources/0677000804">0677000804</a>, p. 73.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Daintith-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Daintith_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDaintith2009" class="citation book cs1">Daintith, John (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VdEVdJo3CDgC&pg=PA238"><i>The Facts on File Dictionary of Physics</i></a> (4th ed.). Infobase Publishing. p. 238. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4381-0949-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4381-0949-7"><bdi>978-1-4381-0949-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Facts+on+File+Dictionary+of+Physics&rft.pages=238&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Infobase+Publishing&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4381-0949-7&rft.aulast=Daintith&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVdEVdJo3CDgC%26pg%3DPA238&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gallop-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gallop_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gallop_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGallop1990" class="citation book cs1">Gallop, John C. (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ad8_JsfCdKQC"><i>SQUIDS, the Josephson Effects and Superconducting Electronics</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/CRC_Press" title="CRC Press">CRC Press</a>. pp. 1, 20. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7503-0051-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7503-0051-3"><bdi>978-0-7503-0051-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=SQUIDS%2C+the+Josephson+Effects+and+Superconducting+Electronics&rft.pages=1%2C+20&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-7503-0051-3&rft.aulast=Gallop&rft.aufirst=John+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dad8_JsfCdKQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Durrant-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Durrant_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDurrant2000" class="citation book cs1">Durrant, Alan (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=F0JmHRkJHiUC&q=%22persist+indefinitely&pg=PA103"><i>Quantum Physics of Matter</i></a>. CRC Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">102–</span>103. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7503-0721-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7503-0721-5"><bdi>978-0-7503-0721-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Quantum+Physics+of+Matter&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E102-%3C%2Fspan%3E103&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-7503-0721-5&rft.aulast=Durrant&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DF0JmHRkJHiUC%26q%3D%2522persist%2Bindefinitely%26pg%3DPA103&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bednorz-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bednorz_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bednorz_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bednorz_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBednorzMüller1986" class="citation journal cs1">Bednorz, J. G. & Müller, K. A. (1986). "Possible high T<sub>c</sub> superconductivity in the Ba−La−Cu−O system". <i>Z. Phys. B</i>. <b>64</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">189–</span>193. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1986ZPhyB..64..189B">1986ZPhyB..64..189B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01303701">10.1007/BF01303701</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:118314311">118314311</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Z.+Phys.+B&rft.atitle=Possible+high+T%3Csub%3Ec%3C%2Fsub%3E+superconductivity+in+the+Ba%E2%88%92La%E2%88%92Cu%E2%88%92O+system&rft.volume=64&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E189-%3C%2Fspan%3E193&rft.date=1986&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A118314311%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF01303701&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1986ZPhyB..64..189B&rft.aulast=Bednorz&rft.aufirst=J.+G.&rft.au=M%C3%BCller%2C+K.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFvan_DelftKes2010" class="citation journal cs1">van Delft, Dirk; Kes, Peter (2010-09-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.europhysicsnews.org/10.1051/epn/2011104/pdf">"The discovery of superconductivity"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Physics_Today" title="Physics Today">Physics Today</a></i>. <b>63</b> (9): <span class="nowrap">38–</span>43. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010PhT....63i..38V">2010PhT....63i..38V</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.3490499">10.1063/1.3490499</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0031-9228">0031-9228</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physics+Today&rft.atitle=The+discovery+of+superconductivity&rft.volume=63&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E38-%3C%2Fspan%3E43&rft.date=2010-09-01&rft.issn=0031-9228&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1063%2F1.3490499&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010PhT....63i..38V&rft.aulast=van+Delft&rft.aufirst=Dirk&rft.au=Kes%2C+Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.europhysicsnews.org%2F10.1051%2Fepn%2F2011104%2Fpdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKamerlingh_Onnes1911" class="citation journal cs1">Kamerlingh Onnes, Heike (1911). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dwc.knaw.nl/toegangen/digital-library-knaw/?pagetype=publDetail&pId=PU00013358&lang=en">"Further experiments with liquid helium. C. On the change of electric resistance of pure metals at very low temperatures etc. IV. The resistance of pure mercury at helium temperatures"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the Section of Sciences</i>. <b>13</b>: <span class="nowrap">1274–</span>1276. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1910KNAB...13.1274K">1910KNAB...13.1274K</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Section+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Further+experiments+with+liquid+helium.+C.+On+the+change+of+electric+resistance+of+pure+metals+at+very+low+temperatures+etc.+IV.+The+resistance+of+pure+mercury+at+helium+temperatures&rft.volume=13&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1274-%3C%2Fspan%3E1276&rft.date=1911&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1910KNAB...13.1274K&rft.aulast=Kamerlingh+Onnes&rft.aufirst=Heike&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dwc.knaw.nl%2Ftoegangen%2Fdigital-library-knaw%2F%3Fpagetype%3DpublDetail%26pId%3DPU00013358%26lang%3Den&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFvanDelftKes2010" class="citation journal cs1">vanDelft, Dirk; Kes, Peter (September 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ilorentz.org/history/cold/DelftKes_HKO_PT.pdf">"The Discovery of Superconductivity"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Physics Today</i>. <b>63</b> (9): <span class="nowrap">38–</span>43. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010PhT....63i..38V">2010PhT....63i..38V</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.3490499">10.1063/1.3490499</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physics+Today&rft.atitle=The+Discovery+of+Superconductivity&rft.volume=63&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E38-%3C%2Fspan%3E43&rft.date=2010-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1063%2F1.3490499&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010PhT....63i..38V&rft.aulast=vanDelft&rft.aufirst=Dirk&rft.au=Kes%2C+Peter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Filorentz.org%2Fhistory%2Fcold%2FDelftKes_HKO_PT.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MeissnerOchsenfeld-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MeissnerOchsenfeld_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MeissnerOchsenfeld_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMeissnerOchsenfeld1933" class="citation journal cs1">Meissner, W. & Ochsenfeld, R. (1933). "Ein neuer Effekt bei Eintritt der Supraleitfähigkeit". <i><a href="/wiki/Naturwissenschaften" class="mw-redirect" title="Naturwissenschaften">Naturwissenschaften</a></i>. <b>21</b> (44): <span class="nowrap">787–</span>788. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1933NW.....21..787M">1933NW.....21..787M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01504252">10.1007/BF01504252</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:37842752">37842752</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Naturwissenschaften&rft.atitle=Ein+neuer+Effekt+bei+Eintritt+der+Supraleitf%C3%A4higkeit&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=44&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E787-%3C%2Fspan%3E788&rft.date=1933&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A37842752%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF01504252&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1933NW.....21..787M&rft.aulast=Meissner&rft.aufirst=W.&rft.au=Ochsenfeld%2C+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLondonLondon1935" class="citation journal cs1">London, F. & London, H. (1935). "The Electromagnetic Equations of the Supraconductor". <i><a href="/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_Royal_Society_of_London_A" class="mw-redirect" title="Proceedings of the Royal Society of London A">Proceedings of the Royal Society of London A</a></i>. <b>149</b> (866): <span class="nowrap">71–</span>88. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1935RSPSA.149...71L">1935RSPSA.149...71L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspa.1935.0048">10.1098/rspa.1935.0048</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/96265">96265</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Royal+Society+of+London+A&rft.atitle=The+Electromagnetic+Equations+of+the+Supraconductor&rft.volume=149&rft.issue=866&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E71-%3C%2Fspan%3E88&rft.date=1935&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F96265%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frspa.1935.0048&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1935RSPSA.149...71L&rft.aulast=London&rft.aufirst=F.&rft.au=London%2C+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20121223034603/http://openlearn.open.ac.uk/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=398540&section=3.3">"The London equations"</a>. The Open University. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://openlearn.open.ac.uk/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=398540&section=3.3">the original</a> on December 23, 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-10-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+London+equations&rft.pub=The+Open+University&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fopenlearn.open.ac.uk%2Fmod%2Foucontent%2Fview.php%3Fid%3D398540%26section%3D3.3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBardeenCooperSchrieffer1957" class="citation journal cs1">Bardeen, J.; Cooper, L. N. & Schrieffer, J. R. (1957). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.106.162">"Microscopic Theory of Superconductivity"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Physical_Review" title="Physical Review">Physical Review</a></i>. <b>106</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">162–</span>164. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1957PhRv..106..162B">1957PhRv..106..162B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.106.162">10.1103/PhysRev.106.162</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review&rft.atitle=Microscopic+Theory+of+Superconductivity&rft.volume=106&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E162-%3C%2Fspan%3E164&rft.date=1957&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRev.106.162&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1957PhRv..106..162B&rft.aulast=Bardeen&rft.aufirst=J.&rft.au=Cooper%2C+L.+N.&rft.au=Schrieffer%2C+J.+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1103%252FPhysRev.106.162&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BardeenCooperSchrieffer-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BardeenCooperSchrieffer_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BardeenCooperSchrieffer_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBardeenCooperSchrieffer1957" class="citation journal cs1">Bardeen, J.; Cooper, L. N. & Schrieffer, J. R. (1957). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.108.1175">"Theory of Superconductivity"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Physical_Review" title="Physical Review">Physical Review</a></i>. <b>108</b> (5): <span class="nowrap">1175–</span>1205. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1957PhRv..108.1175B">1957PhRv..108.1175B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.108.1175">10.1103/PhysRev.108.1175</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review&rft.atitle=Theory+of+Superconductivity&rft.volume=108&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1175-%3C%2Fspan%3E1205&rft.date=1957&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRev.108.1175&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1957PhRv..108.1175B&rft.aulast=Bardeen&rft.aufirst=J.&rft.au=Cooper%2C+L.+N.&rft.au=Schrieffer%2C+J.+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1103%252FPhysRev.108.1175&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGinzburgLandau1950" class="citation journal cs1">Ginzburg, V. L. & Landau, L. D. (1950). "On the theory of superconductivity". <i><a href="/wiki/Zhurnal_Eksperimental%27noi_i_Teoreticheskoi_Fiziki" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhurnal Eksperimental'noi i Teoreticheskoi Fiziki">Zhurnal Eksperimental'noi i Teoreticheskoi Fiziki</a></i>. <b>20</b>: 1064.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zhurnal+Eksperimental%27noi+i+Teoreticheskoi+Fiziki&rft.atitle=On+the+theory+of+superconductivity&rft.volume=20&rft.pages=1064&rft.date=1950&rft.aulast=Ginzburg&rft.aufirst=V.+L.&rft.au=Landau%2C+L.+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMaxwell1950" class="citation journal cs1">Maxwell, E. (1950). "Isotope Effect in the Superconductivity of Mercury". <i><a href="/wiki/Physical_Review" title="Physical Review">Physical Review</a></i>. <b>78</b> (4): 477. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1950PhRv...78..477M">1950PhRv...78..477M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.78.477">10.1103/PhysRev.78.477</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review&rft.atitle=Isotope+Effect+in+the+Superconductivity+of+Mercury&rft.volume=78&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=477&rft.date=1950&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRev.78.477&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1950PhRv...78..477M&rft.aulast=Maxwell&rft.aufirst=E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFReynoldsSerinWrightNesbitt1950" class="citation journal cs1">Reynolds, C. A.; Serin, B.; Wright, W. H. & Nesbitt, L. B. (1950). "Superconductivity of Isotopes of Mercury". <i><a href="/wiki/Physical_Review" title="Physical Review">Physical Review</a></i>. <b>78</b> (4): 487. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1950PhRv...78..487R">1950PhRv...78..487R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.78.487">10.1103/PhysRev.78.487</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review&rft.atitle=Superconductivity+of+Isotopes+of+Mercury&rft.volume=78&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=487&rft.date=1950&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRev.78.487&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1950PhRv...78..487R&rft.aulast=Reynolds&rft.aufirst=C.+A.&rft.au=Serin%2C+B.&rft.au=Wright%2C+W.+H.&rft.au=Nesbitt%2C+L.+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBogoliubov1958" class="citation journal cs1">Bogoliubov, N. N. (1958). "A new method in the theory of superconductivity". <i><a href="/wiki/Zhurnal_Eksperimental%27noi_i_Teoreticheskoi_Fiziki" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhurnal Eksperimental'noi i Teoreticheskoi Fiziki">Zhurnal Eksperimental'noi i Teoreticheskoi Fiziki</a></i>. <b>34</b>: 58.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zhurnal+Eksperimental%27noi+i+Teoreticheskoi+Fiziki&rft.atitle=A+new+method+in+the+theory+of+superconductivity&rft.volume=34&rft.pages=58&rft.date=1958&rft.aulast=Bogoliubov&rft.aufirst=N.+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGor'kov1959" class="citation journal cs1">Gor'kov, L. P. (1959). "Microscopic derivation of the Ginzburg–Landau equations in the theory of superconductivity". <i><a href="/wiki/Zhurnal_Eksperimental%27noi_i_Teoreticheskoi_Fiziki" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhurnal Eksperimental'noi i Teoreticheskoi Fiziki">Zhurnal Eksperimental'noi i Teoreticheskoi Fiziki</a></i>. <b>36</b>: 1364.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zhurnal+Eksperimental%27noi+i+Teoreticheskoi+Fiziki&rft.atitle=Microscopic+derivation+of+the+Ginzburg%E2%80%93Landau+equations+in+the+theory+of+superconductivity&rft.volume=36&rft.pages=1364&rft.date=1959&rft.aulast=Gor%27kov&rft.aufirst=L.+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BCS-boboliubov-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BCS-boboliubov_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCombescotPogosovBetbeder-Matibet2013" class="citation journal cs1">Combescot, M.; Pogosov, W. V.; Betbeder-Matibet, O. (2013). "BCS ansatz for superconductivity in the light of the Bogoliubov approach and the Richardson–Gaudin exact wave function". <i>Physica C: Superconductivity</i>. <b>485</b>: <span class="nowrap">47–</span>57. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1111.4781">1111.4781</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013PhyC..485...47C">2013PhyC..485...47C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.physc.2012.10.011">10.1016/j.physc.2012.10.011</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119121639">119121639</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physica+C%3A+Superconductivity&rft.atitle=BCS+ansatz+for+superconductivity+in+the+light+of+the+Bogoliubov+approach+and+the+Richardson%E2%80%93Gaudin+exact+wave+function&rft.volume=485&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E47-%3C%2Fspan%3E57&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1111.4781&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A119121639%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.physc.2012.10.011&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2013PhyC..485...47C&rft.aulast=Combescot&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Pogosov%2C+W.+V.&rft.au=Betbeder-Matibet%2C+O.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-mit-memo-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-mit-memo_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBuck" class="citation web cs1">Buck, Dudley A. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dome.mit.edu/bitstream/handle/1721.3/40618/MC665_r15_M-3843.pdf">"The Cryotron – A Superconductive Computer Component"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Lincoln Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 August</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Cryotron+%E2%80%93+A+Superconductive+Computer+Component&rft.pub=Lincoln+Laboratory%2C+Massachusetts+Institute+of+Technology&rft.aulast=Buck&rft.aufirst=Dudley+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdome.mit.edu%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F1721.3%2F40618%2FMC665_r15_M-3843.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFYntema1955" class="citation journal cs1">Yntema, G. B. (1955). "Superconducting Winding for Electromagnet". <i><a href="/wiki/Physical_Review" title="Physical Review">Physical Review</a></i>. <b>98</b> (4): 1197. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1955PhRv...98.1144.">1955PhRv...98.1144.</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.98.1144">10.1103/PhysRev.98.1144</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review&rft.atitle=Superconducting+Winding+for+Electromagnet&rft.volume=98&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=1197&rft.date=1955&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRev.98.1144&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1955PhRv...98.1144.&rft.aulast=Yntema&rft.aufirst=G.+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKunzlerBuehlerHsuWernick1961" class="citation journal cs1">Kunzler, J. E.; Buehler, E.; Hsu, F. L. S.; Wernick, J. H. (1961). "Superconductivity in Nb3Sn at High Current Density in a Magnetic Field of 88 kgauss". <i>Physical Review Letters</i>. <b>6</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">89–</span>91. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1961PhRvL...6...89K">1961PhRvL...6...89K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.6.89">10.1103/PhysRevLett.6.89</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review+Letters&rft.atitle=Superconductivity+in+Nb3Sn+at+High+Current+Density+in+a+Magnetic+Field+of+88+kgauss&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E89-%3C%2Fspan%3E91&rft.date=1961&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.6.89&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1961PhRvL...6...89K&rft.aulast=Kunzler&rft.aufirst=J.+E.&rft.au=Buehler%2C+E.&rft.au=Hsu%2C+F.+L.+S.&rft.au=Wernick%2C+J.+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBerlincourtHake1962" class="citation journal cs1">Berlincourt, T. G. & Hake, R. R. (1962). "Pulsed-Magnetic-Field Studies of Superconducting Transition Metal Alloys at High and Low Current Densities". <i>Bulletin of the American Physical Society</i>. <b>II-7</b>: 408.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+American+Physical+Society&rft.atitle=Pulsed-Magnetic-Field+Studies+of+Superconducting+Transition+Metal+Alloys+at+High+and+Low+Current+Densities&rft.volume=II-7&rft.pages=408&rft.date=1962&rft.aulast=Berlincourt&rft.aufirst=T.+G.&rft.au=Hake%2C+R.+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBerlincourt1987" class="citation journal cs1">Berlincourt, T. G. (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://fs.magnet.fsu.edu/~lee/superconductor-history_files/Centennial_Supplemental/11_2_Nb-Ti_from_beginnings_to_perfection-fullreferences.pdf">"Emergence of Nb-Ti as Supermagnet Material"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Cryogenics</i>. <b>27</b> (6): <span class="nowrap">283–</span>289. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1987Cryo...27..283B">1987Cryo...27..283B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0011-2275%2887%2990057-9">10.1016/0011-2275(87)90057-9</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cryogenics&rft.atitle=Emergence+of+Nb-Ti+as+Supermagnet+Material&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E283-%3C%2Fspan%3E289&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0011-2275%2887%2990057-9&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1987Cryo...27..283B&rft.aulast=Berlincourt&rft.aufirst=T.+G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffs.magnet.fsu.edu%2F~lee%2Fsuperconductor-history_files%2FCentennial_Supplemental%2F11_2_Nb-Ti_from_beginnings_to_perfection-fullreferences.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJosephson1962" class="citation journal cs1">Josephson, B. D. (1962). "Possible new effects in superconductive tunnelling". <i><a href="/wiki/Physics_Letters" title="Physics Letters">Physics Letters</a></i>. <b>1</b> (7): <span class="nowrap">251–</span>253. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1962PhL.....1..251J">1962PhL.....1..251J</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0031-9163%2862%2991369-0">10.1016/0031-9163(62)91369-0</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physics+Letters&rft.atitle=Possible+new+effects+in+superconductive+tunnelling&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E251-%3C%2Fspan%3E253&rft.date=1962&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0031-9163%2862%2991369-0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1962PhL.....1..251J&rft.aulast=Josephson&rft.aufirst=B.+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1973/summary/">"The Nobel Prize in Physics 1973"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Foundation" title="Nobel Foundation">NobelPrize.org</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210325040501/https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1973/summary/">Archived</a> from the original on Mar 25, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-03-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NobelPrize.org&rft.atitle=The+Nobel+Prize+in+Physics+1973&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nobelprize.org%2Fprizes%2Fphysics%2F1973%2Fsummary%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/04/080408160614.htm">"Newly discovered fundamental state of matter, a superinsulator, has been created"</a>. <i>Science Daily</i>. April 9, 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-10-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Science+Daily&rft.atitle=Newly+discovered+fundamental+state+of+matter%2C+a+superinsulator%2C+has+been+created.&rft.date=2008-04-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedaily.com%2Freleases%2F2008%2F04%2F080408160614.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://phys.org/news/2020-11-superconductor-previously-thought-impossible.html">"Researchers demonstrate a superconductor previously thought impossible"</a>. <i>phys.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 December</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=phys.org&rft.atitle=Researchers+demonstrate+a+superconductor+previously+thought+impossible&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphys.org%2Fnews%2F2020-11-superconductor-previously-thought-impossible.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHashimotoOtaTsuzukiNagashima2020" class="citation journal cs1">Hashimoto, Takahiro; Ota, Yuichi; Tsuzuki, Akihiro; Nagashima, Tsubaki; Fukushima, Akiko; Kasahara, Shigeru; Matsuda, Yuji; Matsuura, Kohei; Mizukami, Yuta; Shibauchi, Takasada; Shin, Shik; Okazaki, Kozo (1 November 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7673702">"Bose–Einstein condensation superconductivity induced by disappearance of the nematic state"</a>. <i>Science Advances</i>. <b>6</b> (45): eabb9052. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020SciA....6.9052H">2020SciA....6.9052H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fsciadv.abb9052">10.1126/sciadv.abb9052</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2375-2548">2375-2548</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7673702">7673702</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33158862">33158862</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science+Advances&rft.atitle=Bose%E2%80%93Einstein+condensation+superconductivity+induced+by+disappearance+of+the+nematic+state&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=45&rft.pages=eabb9052&rft.date=2020-11-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7673702%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2020SciA....6.9052H&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33158862&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fsciadv.abb9052&rft.issn=2375-2548&rft.aulast=Hashimoto&rft.aufirst=Takahiro&rft.au=Ota%2C+Yuichi&rft.au=Tsuzuki%2C+Akihiro&rft.au=Nagashima%2C+Tsubaki&rft.au=Fukushima%2C+Akiko&rft.au=Kasahara%2C+Shigeru&rft.au=Matsuda%2C+Yuji&rft.au=Matsuura%2C+Kohei&rft.au=Mizukami%2C+Yuta&rft.au=Shibauchi%2C+Takasada&rft.au=Shin%2C+Shik&rft.au=Okazaki%2C+Kozo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7673702&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://home.cern/science/engineering/superconductivity">"Superconductivity | CERN"</a>. <i>home.cern</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-10-29</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=home.cern&rft.atitle=Superconductivity+%7C+CERN&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhome.cern%2Fscience%2Fengineering%2Fsuperconductivity&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFOrthacker" class="citation web cs1">Orthacker, Angelina. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lampx.tugraz.at/~hadley/ss2/problems/super/s.pdf">"Superconductivity"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Technical University of Graz</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Technical+University+of+Graz&rft.atitle=Superconductivity&rft.aulast=Orthacker&rft.aufirst=Angelina&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flampx.tugraz.at%2F~hadley%2Fss2%2Fproblems%2Fsuper%2Fs.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://physicsworld.com/a/type-1-5-superconductor-shows-its-stripes/">"Type-1.5 superconductor shows its stripes"</a>. <i>Physics World</i>. 2009-02-17<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-10-29</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Physics+World&rft.atitle=Type-1.5+superconductor+shows+its+stripes&rft.date=2009-02-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphysicsworld.com%2Fa%2Ftype-1-5-superconductor-shows-its-stripes%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGibney2018" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Gibney" title="Elizabeth Gibney">Gibney, Elizabeth</a> (5 March 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fd41586-018-02773-w">"Surprise graphene discovery could unlock secrets of superconductivity"</a>. News. <i>Nature</i>. <b>555</b> (7695): <span class="nowrap">151–</span>152. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018Natur.555..151G">2018Natur.555..151G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fd41586-018-02773-w">10.1038/d41586-018-02773-w</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29517044">29517044</a>. <q>Superconductors come broadly in two types: conventional, in which the activity can be explained by the mainstream theory of superconductivity, and unconventional, where it can't.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Surprise+graphene+discovery+could+unlock+secrets+of+superconductivity&rft.volume=555&rft.issue=7695&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E151-%3C%2Fspan%3E152&rft.date=2018-03-05&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29517044&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fd41586-018-02773-w&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2018Natur.555..151G&rft.aulast=Gibney&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252Fd41586-018-02773-w&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHirschMapleMarsiglio2015" class="citation journal cs1">Hirsch, J. E.; Maple, M. B.; Marsiglio, F. (2015-07-15). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0921453415000933">"Superconducting materials classes: Introduction and overview"</a>. <i>Physica C: Superconductivity and Its Applications</i>. Superconducting Materials: Conventional, Unconventional and Undetermined. <b>514</b>: <span class="nowrap">1–</span>8. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1504.03318">1504.03318</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015PhyC..514....1H">2015PhyC..514....1H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.physc.2015.03.002">10.1016/j.physc.2015.03.002</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0921-4534">0921-4534</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physica+C%3A+Superconductivity+and+Its+Applications&rft.atitle=Superconducting+materials+classes%3A+Introduction+and+overview&rft.volume=514&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E8&rft.date=2015-07-15&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1504.03318&rft.issn=0921-4534&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.physc.2015.03.002&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015PhyC..514....1H&rft.aulast=Hirsch&rft.aufirst=J.+E.&rft.au=Maple%2C+M.+B.&rft.au=Marsiglio%2C+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FS0921453415000933&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-c718-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-c718_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMineevSamokhin1999" class="citation book cs1">Mineev, V.P.; Samokhin, K (1999-09-21). <i>Introduction to Unconventional Superconductivity</i>. Amsterdam: CRC Press. pp. vii, 20. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-5699-209-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-5699-209-5"><bdi>978-90-5699-209-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Unconventional+Superconductivity&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.pages=vii%2C+20&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=1999-09-21&rft.isbn=978-90-5699-209-5&rft.aulast=Mineev&rft.aufirst=V.P.&rft.au=Samokhin%2C+K&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGrant2011" class="citation journal cs1">Grant, Paul Michael (2011). "The great quantum conundrum". <i>Nature</i>. <b>476</b> (7358). Nature Publishing Group, a division of Macmillan Publishers Limited. All Rights Reserved.: <span class="nowrap">37–</span>39. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F476037a">10.1038/476037a</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21814269">21814269</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:27665903">27665903</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=The+great+quantum+conundrum&rft.volume=476&rft.issue=7358&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E37-%3C%2Fspan%3E39&rft.date=2011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A27665903%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21814269&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F476037a&rft.aulast=Grant&rft.aufirst=Paul+Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFlores-Livas2020" class="citation journal cs1">Flores-Livas, José A.; et al. (29 April 2020). "A perspective on conventional high-temperature superconductors at high pressure: Methods and materials". <i>Physics Reports</i>. <b>856</b>: <span class="nowrap">1–</span>78. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1905.06693">1905.06693</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020PhR...856....1F">2020PhR...856....1F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.physrep.2020.02.003">10.1016/j.physrep.2020.02.003</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:155100283">155100283</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physics+Reports&rft.atitle=A+perspective+on+conventional+high-temperature+superconductors+at+high+pressure%3A+Methods+and+materials&rft.volume=856&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E78&rft.date=2020-04-29&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1905.06693&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A155100283%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.physrep.2020.02.003&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2020PhR...856....1F&rft.aulast=Flores-Livas&rft.aufirst=Jos%C3%A9+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHirschMapleMarsiglio2015" class="citation journal cs1">Hirsch, J. E.; Maple, M. B.; Marsiglio, F. (2015-07-15). "Superconducting materials classes: Introduction and overview". <i>Physica C: Superconductivity and Its Applications</i>. Superconducting Materials: Conventional, Unconventional and Undetermined. <b>514</b>: <span class="nowrap">1–</span>8. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1504.03318">1504.03318</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015PhyC..514....1H">2015PhyC..514....1H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.physc.2015.03.002">10.1016/j.physc.2015.03.002</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0921-4534">0921-4534</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:12895850">12895850</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physica+C%3A+Superconductivity+and+Its+Applications&rft.atitle=Superconducting+materials+classes%3A+Introduction+and+overview&rft.volume=514&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E8&rft.date=2015-07-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A12895850%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015PhyC..514....1H&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1504.03318&rft.issn=0921-4534&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.physc.2015.03.002&rft.aulast=Hirsch&rft.aufirst=J.+E.&rft.au=Maple%2C+M.+B.&rft.au=Marsiglio%2C+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cds.cern.ch/record/1252368/files/978-3-540-70977-0_BookBackMatter.pdf">"Classification of Superconductors"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>CERN</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CERN&rft.atitle=Classification+of+Superconductors&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcds.cern.ch%2Frecord%2F1252368%2Ffiles%2F978-3-540-70977-0_BookBackMatter.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFVan_CampFrancisLecocq2017" class="citation journal cs1">Van Camp, Michel; Francis, Olivier; Lecocq, Thomas (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2F2017eo089743">"Recording Belgium's Gravitational History"</a>. <i>Eos</i>. <b>98</b>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2F2017eo089743">10.1029/2017eo089743</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Eos&rft.atitle=Recording+Belgium%27s+Gravitational+History&rft.volume=98&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1029%2F2017eo089743&rft.aulast=Van+Camp&rft.aufirst=Michel&rft.au=Francis%2C+Olivier&rft.au=Lecocq%2C+Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1029%252F2017eo089743&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFVan_Campde_VironWatletMeurers2017" class="citation journal cs1">Van Camp, Michel; de Viron, Olivier; Watlet, Arnaud; Meurers, Bruno; Francis, Olivier; Caudron, Corentin (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01631032/file/Reviews%20of%20Geophysics%20-%202017%20-%20Van%20Camp%20-%20Geophysics%20From%20Terrestrial%20Time%25u2010Variable%20Gravity%20Measurements.pdf">"Geophysics From Terrestrial Time-Variable Gravity Measurements"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Reviews_of_Geophysics" title="Reviews of Geophysics">Reviews of Geophysics</a></i>. <b>55</b> (4): 2017RG000566. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017RvGeo..55..938V">2017RvGeo..55..938V</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F2017rg000566">10.1002/2017rg000566</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1944-9208">1944-9208</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:134876430">134876430</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reviews+of+Geophysics&rft.atitle=Geophysics+From+Terrestrial+Time-Variable+Gravity+Measurements&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=2017RG000566&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F2017rg000566&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A134876430%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1944-9208&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2017RvGeo..55..938V&rft.aulast=Van+Camp&rft.aufirst=Michel&rft.au=de+Viron%2C+Olivier&rft.au=Watlet%2C+Arnaud&rft.au=Meurers%2C+Bruno&rft.au=Francis%2C+Olivier&rft.au=Caudron%2C+Corentin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhal.archives-ouvertes.fr%2Fhal-01631032%2Ffile%2FReviews%2520of%2520Geophysics%2520-%25202017%2520-%2520Van%2520Camp%2520-%2520Geophysics%2520From%2520Terrestrial%2520Time%2525u2010Variable%2520Gravity%2520Measurements.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTinkham1996" class="citation book cs1">Tinkham, Michael (1996). <i>Introduction to Superconductivity</i>. Mineola, New York: Dover Publications, Inc. p. 8. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0486435032" title="Special:BookSources/0486435032"><bdi>0486435032</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Superconductivity&rft.place=Mineola%2C+New+York&rft.pages=8&rft.pub=Dover+Publications%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0486435032&rft.aulast=Tinkham&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDrozdovEremetsTroyanKsenofontov2015" class="citation journal cs1">Drozdov, A.; Eremets, M.; Troyan, I.; Ksenofontov, V. (17 August 2015). "Conventional superconductivity at 203 kelvin at high pressures in the sulfur hydride system". <i>Nature</i>. <b>525</b> (<span class="nowrap">2–</span>3): <span class="nowrap">73–</span>76. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1506.08190">1506.08190</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015Natur.525...73D">2015Natur.525...73D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature14964">10.1038/nature14964</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11369082">11369082</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4468914">4468914</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Conventional+superconductivity+at+203+kelvin+at+high+pressures+in+the+sulfur+hydride+system&rft.volume=525&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E2%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E73-%3C%2Fspan%3E76&rft.date=2015-08-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4468914%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015Natur.525...73D&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1506.08190&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11369082&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature14964&rft.aulast=Drozdov&rft.aufirst=A.&rft.au=Eremets%2C+M.&rft.au=Troyan%2C+I.&rft.au=Ksenofontov%2C+V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTinkham1996" class="citation book cs1">Tinkham, Michael (1996). <i>Introduction to Superconductivity</i>. Mineola, New York: Dover Publications, Inc. p. 16. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0486435032" title="Special:BookSources/0486435032"><bdi>0486435032</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Superconductivity&rft.place=Mineola%2C+New+York&rft.pages=16&rft.pub=Dover+Publications%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0486435032&rft.aulast=Tinkham&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDolecek1954" class="citation journal cs1">Dolecek, R. L. (1954). "Adiabatic Magnetization of a Superconducting Sphere". <i><a href="/wiki/Physical_Review" title="Physical Review">Physical Review</a></i>. <b>96</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">25–</span>28. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1954PhRv...96...25D">1954PhRv...96...25D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.96.25">10.1103/PhysRev.96.25</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review&rft.atitle=Adiabatic+Magnetization+of+a+Superconducting+Sphere&rft.volume=96&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E25-%3C%2Fspan%3E28&rft.date=1954&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRev.96.25&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1954PhRv...96...25D&rft.aulast=Dolecek&rft.aufirst=R.+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKleinert1982" class="citation journal cs1">Kleinert, H. (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.physik.fu-berlin.de/~kleinert/97/97.pdf">"Disorder Version of the Abelian Higgs Model and the Order of the Superconductive Phase Transition"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Lettere_al_Nuovo_Cimento" class="mw-redirect" title="Lettere al Nuovo Cimento">Lettere al Nuovo Cimento</a></i>. <b>35</b> (13): <span class="nowrap">405–</span>412. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF02754760">10.1007/BF02754760</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:121012850">121012850</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Lettere+al+Nuovo+Cimento&rft.atitle=Disorder+Version+of+the+Abelian+Higgs+Model+and+the+Order+of+the+Superconductive+Phase+Transition&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=13&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E405-%3C%2Fspan%3E412&rft.date=1982&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF02754760&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A121012850%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Kleinert&rft.aufirst=H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.physik.fu-berlin.de%2F~kleinert%2F97%2F97.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHoveMoSudbo2002" class="citation journal cs1">Hove, J.; Mo, S.; Sudbo, A. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.physik.fu-berlin.de/~kleinert/papers/sudbotre064524.pdf">"Vortex interactions and thermally induced crossover from type-I to type-II superconductivity"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Physical_Review_B" title="Physical Review B">Physical Review B</a></i>. <b>66</b> (6): 064524. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/cond-mat/0202215">cond-mat/0202215</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002PhRvB..66f4524H">2002PhRvB..66f4524H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevB.66.064524">10.1103/PhysRevB.66.064524</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:13672575">13672575</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review+B&rft.atitle=Vortex+interactions+and+thermally+induced+crossover+from+type-I+to+type-II+superconductivity&rft.volume=66&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=064524&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fcond-mat%2F0202215&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A13672575%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRevB.66.064524&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2002PhRvB..66f4524H&rft.aulast=Hove&rft.aufirst=J.&rft.au=Mo%2C+S.&rft.au=Sudbo%2C+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.physik.fu-berlin.de%2F~kleinert%2Fpapers%2Fsudbotre064524.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLandauLifschitz1984" class="citation book cs1">Landau, Lev D.; Lifschitz, Evgeny M. (1984). <i>Electrodynamics of Continuous Media</i>. <a href="/wiki/Course_of_Theoretical_Physics" title="Course of Theoretical Physics">Course of Theoretical Physics</a>. Vol. 8. Oxford, England: Butterworth-Heinemann. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7506-2634-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7506-2634-7"><bdi>978-0-7506-2634-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Electrodynamics+of+Continuous+Media&rft.place=Oxford%2C+England&rft.series=Course+of+Theoretical+Physics&rft.pub=Butterworth-Heinemann&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-7506-2634-7&rft.aulast=Landau&rft.aufirst=Lev+D.&rft.au=Lifschitz%2C+Evgeny+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCallaway1990" class="citation journal cs1">Callaway, David J. E. (1990). "On the remarkable structure of the superconducting intermediate state". <i><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_Physics_B" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear Physics B">Nuclear Physics B</a></i>. <b>344</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">627–</span>645. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1990NuPhB.344..627C">1990NuPhB.344..627C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0550-3213%2890%2990672-Z">10.1016/0550-3213(90)90672-Z</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nuclear+Physics+B&rft.atitle=On+the+remarkable+structure+of+the+superconducting+intermediate+state&rft.volume=344&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E627-%3C%2Fspan%3E645&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0550-3213%2890%2990672-Z&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1990NuPhB.344..627C&rft.aulast=Callaway&rft.aufirst=David+J.+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-wu-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-wu_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wu_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWu1987" class="citation journal cs1">Wu, M. K.; et al. (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.58.908">"Superconductivity at 93 K in a New Mixed-Phase Y–Ba–Cu–O Compound System at Ambient Pressure"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Physical_Review_Letters" title="Physical Review Letters">Physical Review Letters</a></i>. <b>58</b> (9): <span class="nowrap">908–</span>910. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1987PhRvL..58..908W">1987PhRvL..58..908W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.58.908">10.1103/PhysRevLett.58.908</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10035069">10035069</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review+Letters&rft.atitle=Superconductivity+at+93+K+in+a+New+Mixed-Phase+Y%E2%80%93Ba%E2%80%93Cu%E2%80%93O+Compound+System+at+Ambient+Pressure&rft.volume=58&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E908-%3C%2Fspan%3E910&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10035069&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.58.908&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1987PhRvL..58..908W&rft.aulast=Wu&rft.aufirst=M.+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1103%252FPhysRevLett.58.908&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cryo.gsfc.nasa.gov/introduction/liquid_helium.html">"Introduction to Liquid Helium"</a>. <i>Cryogenics and Fluid Branch</i>. Goddard Space Flight Center, NASA.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Cryogenics+and+Fluid+Branch&rft.atitle=Introduction+to+Liquid+Helium&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcryo.gsfc.nasa.gov%2Fintroduction%2Fliquid_helium.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090506030203/http://www.2genterprises.com/cryo_manual_4.html">"Section 4.1 'Air plug in the fill line'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>Superconducting Rock Magnetometer Cryogenic System Manual</i>. 2G Enterprises. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.2genterprises.com/cryo_manual_4.html">the original</a> on May 6, 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 October</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Superconducting+Rock+Magnetometer+Cryogenic+System+Manual&rft.atitle=Section+4.1+%27Air+plug+in+the+fill+line%27&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.2genterprises.com%2Fcryo_manual_4.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAbrikosov2003" class="citation web cs1">Abrikosov, Alexei A. (8 December 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/2003/abrikosov-lecture.html">"type II Superconductors and the Vortex Lattice"</a>. <i>Nobel Lecture</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Nobel+Lecture&rft.atitle=type+II+Superconductors+and+the+Vortex+Lattice&rft.date=2003-12-08&rft.aulast=Abrikosov&rft.aufirst=Alexei+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fphysics%2Flaureates%2F2003%2Fabrikosov-lecture.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGingras2021" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Gingras, Olivier (Sep 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papyrus.bib.umontreal.ca/xmlui/handle/1866/26832"><i>La supraconductivité non-conventionnelle du ruthénate de strontium: corrélations électroniques et couplage spin-orbite</i></a> (in French).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+supraconductivit%C3%A9+non-conventionnelle+du+ruth%C3%A9nate+de+strontium%3A+corr%C3%A9lations+%C3%A9lectroniques+et+couplage+spin-orbite&rft.date=2021-09&rft.aulast=Gingras&rft.aufirst=Olivier&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapyrus.bib.umontreal.ca%2Fxmlui%2Fhandle%2F1866%2F26832&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span> PhD thesis.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMann2011" class="citation journal cs1">Mann, Adam (July 20, 2011). "High-temperature superconductivity at 25: Still in suspense". <i>Nature</i>. <b>475</b> (7356): <span class="nowrap">280–</span>2. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011Natur.475..280M">2011Natur.475..280M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F475280a">10.1038/475280a</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21776057">21776057</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:205066154">205066154</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=High-temperature+superconductivity+at+25%3A+Still+in+suspense&rft.volume=475&rft.issue=7356&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E280-%3C%2Fspan%3E2&rft.date=2011-07-20&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F475280a&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A205066154%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21776057&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011Natur.475..280M&rft.aulast=Mann&rft.aufirst=Adam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPines2002" class="citation cs2">Pines, D. (2002), "The Spin Fluctuation Model for High Temperature Superconductivity: Progress and Prospects", <i>The Gap Symmetry and Fluctuations in High-Tc Superconductors</i>, NATO Science Series: B, vol. 371, New York: Kluwer Academic, pp. <span class="nowrap">111–</span>142, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F0-306-47081-0_7">10.1007/0-306-47081-0_7</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-306-45934-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-306-45934-4"><bdi>978-0-306-45934-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Spin+Fluctuation+Model+for+High+Temperature+Superconductivity%3A+Progress+and+Prospects&rft.btitle=The+Gap+Symmetry+and+Fluctuations+in+High-Tc+Superconductors&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=NATO+Science+Series%3A+B&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E111-%3C%2Fspan%3E142&rft.pub=Kluwer+Academic&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F0-306-47081-0_7&rft.isbn=978-0-306-45934-4&rft.aulast=Pines&rft.aufirst=D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMonthouxBalatskyPines1991" class="citation journal cs1">Monthoux, P.; Balatsky, A. V. & Pines, D. (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.67.3448">"Toward a theory of high-temperature superconductivity in the antiferromagnetically correlated cuprate oxides"</a>. <i>Physical Review Letters</i>. <b>67</b> (24): <span class="nowrap">3448–</span>3451. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1991PhRvL..67.3448M">1991PhRvL..67.3448M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.67.3448">10.1103/PhysRevLett.67.3448</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10044736">10044736</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review+Letters&rft.atitle=Toward+a+theory+of+high-temperature+superconductivity+in+the+antiferromagnetically+correlated+cuprate+oxides&rft.volume=67&rft.issue=24&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E3448-%3C%2Fspan%3E3451&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10044736&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.67.3448&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1991PhRvL..67.3448M&rft.aulast=Monthoux&rft.aufirst=P.&rft.au=Balatsky%2C+A.+V.&rft.au=Pines%2C+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1103%252FPhysRevLett.67.3448&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jan Zaanen, Yan Liu, Ya Sun K.Schalm (2015). <i>Holographic Duality in Condensed Matter Physics</i>. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-aschi-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-aschi_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSchilling1993" class="citation journal cs1">Schilling, A.; et al. (1993). "Superconductivity above 130 K in the Hg–Ba–Ca–Cu–O system". <i><a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a></i>. <b>363</b> (6424): <span class="nowrap">56–</span>58. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1993Natur.363...56S">1993Natur.363...56S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F363056a0">10.1038/363056a0</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4328716">4328716</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Superconductivity+above+130+K+in+the+Hg%E2%80%93Ba%E2%80%93Ca%E2%80%93Cu%E2%80%93O+system&rft.volume=363&rft.issue=6424&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E56-%3C%2Fspan%3E58&rft.date=1993&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4328716%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F363056a0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1993Natur.363...56S&rft.aulast=Schilling&rft.aufirst=A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDaiChakoumakosSunWong1995" class="citation journal cs1">Dai, P.; Chakoumakos, B. C.; Sun, G. F.; Wong, K. W.; et al. (1995). "Synthesis and neutron powder diffraction study of the superconductor HgBa<sub>2</sub>Ca<sub>2</sub>Cu<sub>3</sub>O<sub>8+δ</sub> by Tl substitution". <i><a href="/wiki/Physica_C" class="mw-redirect" title="Physica C">Physica C</a></i>. <b>243</b> (<span class="nowrap">3–</span>4): <span class="nowrap">201–</span>206. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995PhyC..243..201D">1995PhyC..243..201D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0921-4534%2894%2902461-8">10.1016/0921-4534(94)02461-8</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physica+C&rft.atitle=Synthesis+and+neutron+powder+diffraction+study+of+the+superconductor+HgBa%3Csub%3E2%3C%2Fsub%3ECa%3Csub%3E2%3C%2Fsub%3ECu%3Csub%3E3%3C%2Fsub%3EO%3Csub%3E8%2B%CE%B4%3C%2Fsub%3E+by+Tl+substitution&rft.volume=243&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E3%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E201-%3C%2Fspan%3E206&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0921-4534%2894%2902461-8&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1995PhyC..243..201D&rft.aulast=Dai&rft.aufirst=P.&rft.au=Chakoumakos%2C+B.+C.&rft.au=Sun%2C+G.+F.&rft.au=Wong%2C+K.+W.&rft.au=Xin%2C+Y.&rft.au=Lu%2C+D.+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTakahashiIgawaAriiKamihara2008" class="citation journal cs1">Takahashi, Hiroki; Igawa, Kazumi; Arii, Kazunobu; Kamihara, Yoichi; et al. (2008). "Superconductivity at 43 K in an iron-based layered compound LaO<sub>1−<i>x</i></sub>F<sub><i>x</i></sub>FeAs". <i><a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a></i>. <b>453</b> (7193): <span class="nowrap">376–</span>378. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008Natur.453..376T">2008Natur.453..376T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature06972">10.1038/nature06972</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18432191">18432191</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:498756">498756</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Superconductivity+at+43+K+in+an+iron-based+layered+compound+LaO%3Csub%3E1%E2%88%92x%3C%2Fsub%3EF%3Csub%3Ex%3C%2Fsub%3EFeAs&rft.volume=453&rft.issue=7193&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E376-%3C%2Fspan%3E378&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature06972&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A498756%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18432191&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008Natur.453..376T&rft.aulast=Takahashi&rft.aufirst=Hiroki&rft.au=Igawa%2C+Kazumi&rft.au=Arii%2C+Kazunobu&rft.au=Kamihara%2C+Yoichi&rft.au=Hirano%2C+Masahiro&rft.au=Hosono%2C+Hideo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCho2014" class="citation web cs1">Cho, Adrian (2014-10-30). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sciencenow.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/2008/417/1">"Second Family of High-Temperature Superconductors Discovered"</a>. ScienceNOW Daily News.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Second+Family+of+High-Temperature+Superconductors+Discovered&rft.pub=ScienceNOW+Daily+News&rft.date=2014-10-30&rft.aulast=Cho&rft.aufirst=Adrian&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsciencenow.sciencemag.org%2Fcgi%2Fcontent%2Ffull%2F2008%2F417%2F1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRen2008" class="citation journal cs1">Ren, Zhi-An; et al. (2008). "Superconductivity and phase diagram in iron-based arsenic-oxides ReFeAsO1-d (Re = rare-earth metal) without fluorine doping". <i><a href="/wiki/EPL_(journal)" title="EPL (journal)">EPL</a></i>. <b>83</b> (1): 17002. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/0804.2582">0804.2582</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008EL.....8317002R">2008EL.....8317002R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1209%2F0295-5075%2F83%2F17002">10.1209/0295-5075/83/17002</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:96240327">96240327</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=EPL&rft.atitle=Superconductivity+and+phase+diagram+in+iron-based+arsenic-oxides+ReFeAsO1-d+%28Re+%3D+rare-earth+metal%29+without+fluorine+doping&rft.volume=83&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=17002&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F0804.2582&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A96240327%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1209%2F0295-5075%2F83%2F17002&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008EL.....8317002R&rft.aulast=Ren&rft.aufirst=Zhi-An&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLiHaoLiuLi2014" class="citation journal cs1">Li, Yinwei; Hao, Jian; Liu, Hanyu; Li, Yanling; Ma, Yanming (2014-05-07). "The metallization and superconductivity of dense hydrogen sulfide". <i>The Journal of Chemical Physics</i>. <b>140</b> (17): 174712. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1402.2721">1402.2721</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014JChPh.140q4712L">2014JChPh.140q4712L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.4874158">10.1063/1.4874158</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-9606">0021-9606</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24811660">24811660</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:15633660">15633660</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Chemical+Physics&rft.atitle=The+metallization+and+superconductivity+of+dense+hydrogen+sulfide&rft.volume=140&rft.issue=17&rft.pages=174712&rft.date=2014-05-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A15633660%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014JChPh.140q4712L&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1402.2721&rft.issn=0021-9606&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1063%2F1.4874158&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24811660&rft.aulast=Li&rft.aufirst=Yinwei&rft.au=Hao%2C+Jian&rft.au=Liu%2C+Hanyu&rft.au=Li%2C+Yanling&rft.au=Ma%2C+Yanming&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-DrozdovEremets2015-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-DrozdovEremets2015_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDrozdovEremetsTroyanKsenofontov2015" class="citation journal cs1">Drozdov, A. P.; Eremets, M. I.; Troyan, I. A.; Ksenofontov, V.; Shylin, S. I. (2015). "Conventional superconductivity at 203 kelvin at high pressures in the sulfur hydride system". <i>Nature</i>. <b>525</b> (7567): <span class="nowrap">73–</span>6. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1506.08190">1506.08190</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015Natur.525...73D">2015Natur.525...73D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature14964">10.1038/nature14964</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0028-0836">0028-0836</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26280333">26280333</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4468914">4468914</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Conventional+superconductivity+at+203+kelvin+at+high+pressures+in+the+sulfur+hydride+system&rft.volume=525&rft.issue=7567&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E73-%3C%2Fspan%3E6&rft.date=2015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4468914%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015Natur.525...73D&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1506.08190&rft.issn=0028-0836&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature14964&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26280333&rft.aulast=Drozdov&rft.aufirst=A.+P.&rft.au=Eremets%2C+M.+I.&rft.au=Troyan%2C+I.+A.&rft.au=Ksenofontov%2C+V.&rft.au=Shylin%2C+S.+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_68-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_68-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWood2020" class="citation web cs1">Wood, Charlie (14 October 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.quantamagazine.org/physicists-discover-first-room-temperature-superconductor-20201014/">"Room-Temperature Superconductivity Achieved for the First Time"</a>. <i>Quanta Magazine</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-10-29</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Quanta+Magazine&rft.atitle=Room-Temperature+Superconductivity+Achieved+for+the+First+Time&rft.date=2020-10-14&rft.aulast=Wood&rft.aufirst=Charlie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.quantamagazine.org%2Fphysicists-discover-first-room-temperature-superconductor-20201014%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDrozdovKongMinkovBesedin2019" class="citation journal cs1">Drozdov, A. P.; Kong, P. P.; Minkov, V. S.; Besedin, S. P.; Kuzovnikov, M. A.; Mozaffari, S.; Balicas, L.; Balakirev, F. F.; Graf, D. E.; Prakapenka, V. B.; Greenberg, E.; Knyazev, D. A.; Tkacz, M.; Eremets, M. I. (2019). "Superconductivity at 250 K in Lanthanum Hydride under High Pressures". <i>Nature</i>. <b>569</b> (7757): <span class="nowrap">528–</span>531. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1812.01561">1812.01561</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019Natur.569..528D">2019Natur.569..528D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41586-019-1201-8">10.1038/s41586-019-1201-8</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31118520">31118520</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119231000">119231000</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Superconductivity+at+250+K+in+Lanthanum+Hydride+under+High+Pressures&rft.volume=569&rft.issue=7757&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E528-%3C%2Fspan%3E531&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A119231000%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2019Natur.569..528D&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1812.01561&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31118520&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41586-019-1201-8&rft.aulast=Drozdov&rft.aufirst=A.+P.&rft.au=Kong%2C+P.+P.&rft.au=Minkov%2C+V.+S.&rft.au=Besedin%2C+S.+P.&rft.au=Kuzovnikov%2C+M.+A.&rft.au=Mozaffari%2C+S.&rft.au=Balicas%2C+L.&rft.au=Balakirev%2C+F.+F.&rft.au=Graf%2C+D.+E.&rft.au=Prakapenka%2C+V.+B.&rft.au=Greenberg%2C+E.&rft.au=Knyazev%2C+D.+A.&rft.au=Tkacz%2C+M.&rft.au=Eremets%2C+M.+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCaoFatemiDemirFang2018" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Yuan_Cao" title="Yuan Cao">Cao, Yuan</a>; Fatemi, Valla; Demir, Ahmet; Fang, Shiang; Tomarken, Spencer L.; Luo, Jason Y.; Sanchez-Yamagishi, J. D.; Watanabe, K.; Taniguchi, T. (2018-03-05). "Correlated insulator behaviour at half-filling in magic-angle graphene superlattices". <i>Nature</i>. <b>556</b> (7699): <span class="nowrap">80–</span>84. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1802.00553">1802.00553</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018Natur.556...80C">2018Natur.556...80C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature26154">10.1038/nature26154</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1476-4687">1476-4687</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29512654">29512654</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4601086">4601086</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Correlated+insulator+behaviour+at+half-filling+in+magic-angle+graphene+superlattices&rft.volume=556&rft.issue=7699&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E80-%3C%2Fspan%3E84&rft.date=2018-03-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4601086%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2018Natur.556...80C&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1802.00553&rft.issn=1476-4687&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature26154&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29512654&rft.aulast=Cao&rft.aufirst=Yuan&rft.au=Fatemi%2C+Valla&rft.au=Demir%2C+Ahmet&rft.au=Fang%2C+Shiang&rft.au=Tomarken%2C+Spencer+L.&rft.au=Luo%2C+Jason+Y.&rft.au=Sanchez-Yamagishi%2C+J.+D.&rft.au=Watanabe%2C+K.&rft.au=Taniguchi%2C+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWood2021" class="citation web cs1">Wood, Charlie (16 March 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.quantamagazine.org/graphenes-new-twist-reveals-superconductivitys-secrets-20210316/">"A New Twist Reveals Superconductivity's Secrets"</a>. <i>Quanta Magazine</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-03-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Quanta+Magazine&rft.atitle=A+New+Twist+Reveals+Superconductivity%27s+Secrets&rft.date=2021-03-16&rft.aulast=Wood&rft.aufirst=Charlie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.quantamagazine.org%2Fgraphenes-new-twist-reveals-superconductivitys-secrets-20210316%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSnider2020" class="citation journal cs1">Snider, Eliot; et al. (Oct 14, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.osti.gov/biblio/1673473">"Room-temperature superconductivity in a carbonaceous sulfur hydride"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>586</b> (7829): <span class="nowrap">373–</span>377. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020Natur.586..373S">2020Natur.586..373S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41586-020-2801-z">10.1038/s41586-020-2801-z</a>. <a href="/wiki/OSTI_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OSTI (identifier)">OSTI</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.osti.gov/biblio/1673473">1673473</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33057222">33057222</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:222823227">222823227</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Room-temperature+superconductivity+in+a+carbonaceous+sulfur+hydride&rft.volume=586&rft.issue=7829&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E373-%3C%2Fspan%3E377&rft.date=2020-10-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A222823227%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.osti.gov%2Fbiblio%2F1673473%23id-name%3DOSTI&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2020Natur.586..373S&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33057222&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41586-020-2801-z&rft.aulast=Snider&rft.aufirst=Eliot&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.osti.gov%2Fbiblio%2F1673473&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span><span class="" style="font-size:0.95em; font-weight:bold; color: #555;"> (Retracted, see <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41586-022-05294-9">10.1038/s41586-022-05294-9</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36163290">36163290</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFChang2020" class="citation news cs1">Chang, Kenneth (October 14, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/14/science/superconductor-room-temperature.html">"Finally, the First Room-Temperature Superconductor"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Finally%2C+the+First+Room-Temperature+Superconductor&rft.date=2020-10-14&rft.aulast=Chang&rft.aufirst=Kenneth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2020%2F10%2F14%2Fscience%2Fsuperconductor-room-temperature.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSniderDasenbrock-GammonMcBrideDebessai2022" class="citation journal cs1">Snider, Elliot; Dasenbrock-Gammon, Nathan; McBride, Raymond; Debessai, Mathew; Vindana, Hiranya; Vencatasamy, Kevin; Lawler, Keith V.; Salamat, Ashkan; Dias, Ranga P. (26 September 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41586-022-05294-9">"Retraction Note: Room-temperature superconductivity in a carbonaceous sulfur hydride"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>610</b> (7933): 804. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022Natur.610..804S">2022Natur.610..804S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41586-022-05294-9">10.1038/s41586-022-05294-9</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36163290">36163290</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:252544156">252544156</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Retraction+Note%3A+Room-temperature+superconductivity+in+a+carbonaceous+sulfur+hydride&rft.volume=610&rft.issue=7933&rft.pages=804&rft.date=2022-09-26&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41586-022-05294-9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A252544156%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F36163290&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2022Natur.610..804S&rft.aulast=Snider&rft.aufirst=Elliot&rft.au=Dasenbrock-Gammon%2C+Nathan&rft.au=McBride%2C+Raymond&rft.au=Debessai%2C+Mathew&rft.au=Vindana%2C+Hiranya&rft.au=Vencatasamy%2C+Kevin&rft.au=Lawler%2C+Keith+V.&rft.au=Salamat%2C+Ashkan&rft.au=Dias%2C+Ranga+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252Fs41586-022-05294-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKopelevichTorresDa_SilvaOliveira2024" class="citation journal cs1">Kopelevich, Yakov; Torres, José; Da Silva, Robson; Oliveira, Felipe; Diamantini, Maria Cristina; Trugenberger, Carlo; Vinokur, Valerii (2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/qute.202300230?ref=upstract.com">"Global Room-Temperature Superconductivity in Graphite"</a>. <i>Advanced Quantum Technologies</i>. <b>7</b> (2). <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2208.00854">2208.00854</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fqute.202300230">10.1002/qute.202300230</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Advanced+Quantum+Technologies&rft.atitle=Global+Room-Temperature+Superconductivity+in+Graphite&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=2&rft.date=2024&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F2208.00854&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fqute.202300230&rft.aulast=Kopelevich&rft.aufirst=Yakov&rft.au=Torres%2C+Jos%C3%A9&rft.au=Da+Silva%2C+Robson&rft.au=Oliveira%2C+Felipe&rft.au=Diamantini%2C+Maria+Cristina&rft.au=Trugenberger%2C+Carlo&rft.au=Vinokur%2C+Valerii&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1002%2Fqute.202300230%3Fref%3Dupstract.com&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNadeemFuhrerWang2023" class="citation journal cs1">Nadeem, Muhammad; Fuhrer, Michael S.; Wang, Xiaolin (2023). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s42254-023-00632-w">"The superconducting diode effect"</a></span>. <i>Nature Reviews Physics</i>. <b>5</b> (10): <span class="nowrap">558–</span>577. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2023NatRP...5..558N">2023NatRP...5..558N</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs42254-023-00632-w">10.1038/s42254-023-00632-w</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2522-5820">2522-5820</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:261976918">261976918</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Reviews+Physics&rft.atitle=The+superconducting+diode+effect&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E558-%3C%2Fspan%3E577&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs42254-023-00632-w&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A261976918%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=2522-5820&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2023NatRP...5..558N&rft.aulast=Nadeem&rft.aufirst=Muhammad&rft.au=Fuhrer%2C+Michael+S.&rft.au=Wang%2C+Xiaolin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Farticles%2Fs42254-023-00632-w&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Design and in-field testing of the world's first ReBCO rotor for a 3.6 MW wind generator" by Anne Bergen, Rasmus Andersen, Markus Bauer, Hermann Boy, Marcel ter Brake, Patrick Brutsaert, Carsten Bührer, Marc Dhallé, Jesper Hansen and Herman ten Kate, 25 October 2019, Superconductor Science and Technology.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBrock2014" class="citation web cs1">Brock, David C. (2014-03-19). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/dudley-bucks-forgotten-cryotron-computer">"Dudley Buck's Forgotten Cryotron Computer"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Electrical_and_Electronics_Engineers" title="Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers">Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-03-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Institute+of+Electrical+and+Electronics+Engineers&rft.atitle=Dudley+Buck%27s+Forgotten+Cryotron+Computer&rft.date=2014-03-19&rft.aulast=Brock&rft.aufirst=David+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fspectrum.ieee.org%2Fdudley-bucks-forgotten-cryotron-computer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMorozovCasaburiHadfield2022" class="citation journal cs1">Morozov, Dmitry V.; Casaburi, Alessandro; Hadfield, Robert H. (2022-03-11). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eprints.gla.ac.uk/263345/2/263345.pdf">"Superconducting photon detectors"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Physics" title="Contemporary Physics">Contemporary Physics</a></i>. <b>62</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">69–</span>91. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00107514.2022.2043596">10.1080/00107514.2022.2043596</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0010-7514">0010-7514</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:247422273">247422273</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Contemporary+Physics&rft.atitle=Superconducting+photon+detectors&rft.volume=62&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E69-%3C%2Fspan%3E91&rft.date=2022-03-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A247422273%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0010-7514&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00107514.2022.2043596&rft.aulast=Morozov&rft.aufirst=Dmitry+V.&rft.au=Casaburi%2C+Alessandro&rft.au=Hadfield%2C+Robert+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Feprints.gla.ac.uk%2F263345%2F2%2F263345.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNatarajan2012" class="citation journal cs1">Natarajan, C. M. (April 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0953-2048/25/6/063001/meta">"Superconducting nanowire single-photon detectors: physics and applications"</a>. <i>Superconductor Science and Technology</i>. <b>25</b> (6): 063001. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1204.5560">1204.5560</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012SuScT..25f3001N">2012SuScT..25f3001N</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F0953-2048%2F25%2F6%2F063001">10.1088/0953-2048/25/6/063001</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4893642">4893642</a> – via IOP Publishing.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Superconductor+Science+and+Technology&rft.atitle=Superconducting+nanowire+single-photon+detectors%3A+physics+and+applications&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=063001&rft.date=2012-04&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1204.5560&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4893642%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1088%2F0953-2048%2F25%2F6%2F063001&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2012SuScT..25f3001N&rft.aulast=Natarajan&rft.aufirst=C.+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fiopscience.iop.org%2Farticle%2F10.1088%2F0953-2048%2F25%2F6%2F063001%2Fmeta&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFIslam2014" class="citation journal cs1">Islam; et al. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2081&context=eispapers1">"A review of offshore wind turbine nacelle: Technical challenges, and research and developmental trends"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Renewable_and_Sustainable_Energy_Reviews" title="Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews">Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews</a></i>. <b>33</b>: <span class="nowrap">161–</span>176. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014RSERv..33..161I">2014RSERv..33..161I</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.rser.2014.01.085">10.1016/j.rser.2014.01.085</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10453%2F33256">10453/33256</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Renewable+and+Sustainable+Energy+Reviews&rft.atitle=A+review+of+offshore+wind+turbine+nacelle%3A+Technical+challenges%2C+and+research+and+developmental+trends.&rft.volume=33&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E161-%3C%2Fspan%3E176&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10453%2F33256&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.rser.2014.01.085&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014RSERv..33..161I&rft.au=Islam&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fro.uow.edu.au%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D2081%26context%3Deispapers1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLinderRobinson2015" class="citation journal cs1">Linder, Jacob; Robinson, Jason W. A. (2 April 2015). "Superconducting spintronics". <i>Nature Physics</i>. <b>11</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">307–</span>315. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1510.00713">1510.00713</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015NatPh..11..307L">2015NatPh..11..307L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnphys3242">10.1038/nphys3242</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:31028550">31028550</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Physics&rft.atitle=Superconducting+spintronics&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E307-%3C%2Fspan%3E315&rft.date=2015-04-02&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1510.00713&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A31028550%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnphys3242&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015NatPh..11..307L&rft.aulast=Linder&rft.aufirst=Jacob&rft.au=Robinson%2C+Jason+W.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFThomas2016" class="citation journal cs1">Thomas; et al. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cds.cern.ch/record/2267162/files/1-s2.0-S136403211501120X-main.pdf">"Superconducting transmission lines – Sustainable electric energy transfer with higher public acceptance?"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Renewable_and_Sustainable_Energy_Reviews" title="Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews">Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews</a></i>. <b>55</b>: <span class="nowrap">59–</span>72. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016RSERv..55...59T">2016RSERv..55...59T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.rser.2015.10.041">10.1016/j.rser.2015.10.041</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Renewable+and+Sustainable+Energy+Reviews&rft.atitle=Superconducting+transmission+lines+%E2%80%93+Sustainable+electric+energy+transfer+with+higher+public+acceptance%3F&rft.volume=55&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E59-%3C%2Fspan%3E72&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.rser.2015.10.041&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2016RSERv..55...59T&rft.au=Thomas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcds.cern.ch%2Frecord%2F2267162%2Ffiles%2F1-s2.0-S136403211501120X-main.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRen2009" class="citation journal cs1">Ren, Li; et al. (2009). "Technical and Economical Assessment of HTS Cables". <i>IEEE Transactions on Applied Superconductivity</i>. <b>19</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">1774–</span>1777. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FTASC.2009.2019058">10.1109/TASC.2009.2019058</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:46117301">46117301</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IEEE+Transactions+on+Applied+Superconductivity&rft.atitle=Technical+and+Economical+Assessment+of+HTS+Cables&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1774-%3C%2Fspan%3E1777&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FTASC.2009.2019058&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A46117301%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Ren&rft.aufirst=Li&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nobel_Prizes_in_Physics-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Nobel_Prizes_in_Physics_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/">"All Nobel Prizes in Physics"</a>. <i>Nobelprize.org</i>. Nobel Media AB 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Nobelprize.org&rft.atitle=All+Nobel+Prizes+in+Physics&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fphysics%2Flaureates%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Superconductivity&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Electrotechnical_Commission" title="International Electrotechnical Commission">IEC</a> standard <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://webstore.iec.ch/preview/info_iec61788-3%7Bed2.0%7Den.pdf">60050-815:2000, International Electrotechnical Vocabulary (IEV) – Part 815: Superconductivity</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200307195214/https://webstore.iec.ch/preview/info_iec61788-3%7Bed2.0%7Den.pdf">Archived</a> 2020-03-07 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKleinert1989" class="citation book cs1">Kleinert, Hagen (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.physik.fu-berlin.de/~kleinert/kleiner_reb1/contents1.html">"Superflow and Vortex Lines"</a>. <i>Gauge Fields in Condensed Matter</i>. Vol. 1. World Scientific. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9971-5-0210-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-9971-5-0210-2"><bdi>978-9971-5-0210-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Superflow+and+Vortex+Lines&rft.btitle=Gauge+Fields+in+Condensed+Matter&rft.pub=World+Scientific&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-9971-5-0210-2&rft.aulast=Kleinert&rft.aufirst=Hagen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.physik.fu-berlin.de%2F~kleinert%2Fkleiner_reb1%2Fcontents1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLarkinVarlamov2005" class="citation book cs1">Larkin, Anatoly; Varlamov, Andrei (2005). <i>Theory of Fluctuations in Superconductors</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-852815-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-852815-9"><bdi>978-0-19-852815-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theory+of+Fluctuations+in+Superconductors&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-19-852815-9&rft.aulast=Larkin&rft.aufirst=Anatoly&rft.au=Varlamov%2C+Andrei&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLebed2008" class="citation book cs1">Lebed, A. G. (2008). <i>The Physics of Organic Superconductors and Conductors</i>. Vol. 110 (1st ed.). Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-76667-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-76667-4"><bdi>978-3-540-76667-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Physics+of+Organic+Superconductors+and+Conductors&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-3-540-76667-4&rft.aulast=Lebed&rft.aufirst=A.+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMatriconWaysandGlashausser2003" class="citation book cs1">Matricon, Jean; Waysand, Georges; Glashausser, Charles (2003). <i>The Cold Wars: A History of Superconductivity</i>. Rutgers University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8135-3295-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8135-3295-0"><bdi>978-0-8135-3295-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cold+Wars%3A+A+History+of+Superconductivity&rft.pub=Rutgers+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-8135-3295-0&rft.aulast=Matricon&rft.aufirst=Jean&rft.au=Waysand%2C+Georges&rft.au=Glashausser%2C+Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/08/060817101658.htm">"Physicist Discovers Exotic Superconductivity"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/ScienceDaily" title="ScienceDaily">ScienceDaily</a></i>. 17 August 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ScienceDaily&rft.atitle=Physicist+Discovers+Exotic+Superconductivity&rft.date=2006-08-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedaily.com%2Freleases%2F2006%2F08%2F060817101658.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTinkham2004" class="citation book cs1">Tinkham, Michael (2004). <i>Introduction to Superconductivity</i> (2nd ed.). Dover Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-43503-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-486-43503-9"><bdi>978-0-486-43503-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Superconductivity&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Dover+Books&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-486-43503-9&rft.aulast=Tinkham&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTiplerLlewellyn2002" class="citation book cs1">Tipler, Paul; Llewellyn, Ralph (2002). <i>Modern Physics</i> (4th ed.). W. H. Freeman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-4345-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-4345-3"><bdi>978-0-7167-4345-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+Physics&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=W.+H.+Freeman&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-7167-4345-3&rft.aulast=Tipler&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft.au=Llewellyn%2C+Ralph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFO'MahonyUniversity_of_Oxford2022" class="citation journal cs1">O'Mahony, Shane M.; University of Oxford (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9477408">"On the electron pairing mechanism of copper-oxide high temperature superconductivity"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a></i>. <b>119</b> (37): e2207449119. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2108.03655">2108.03655</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022PNAS..11907449O">2022PNAS..11907449O</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.2207449119">10.1073/pnas.2207449119</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9477408">9477408</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36067325">36067325</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=On+the+electron+pairing+mechanism+of+copper-oxide+high+temperature+superconductivity&rft.volume=119&rft.issue=37&rft.pages=e2207449119&rft.date=2022&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9477408%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2022PNAS..11907449O&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F2108.03655&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F36067325&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.2207449119&rft.aulast=O%27Mahony&rft.aufirst=Shane+M.&rft.au=University+of+Oxford&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9477408&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASuperconductivity" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Charlie Wood, <a href="/wiki/Quanta_Magazine" title="Quanta Magazine">Quanta Magazine</a> (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.quantamagazine.org/high-temperature-superconductivity-understood-at-last-20220921/">"High-Temperature Superconductivity Understood at Last"</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Superconductivity&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiquote-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Superconductivity" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Superconductivity">Superconductivity</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://alfredleitner.com/">Video about Type I Superconductors: R=0/transition temperatures/ B is a state variable/ Meissner effect/ Energy gap(Giaever)/ BCS model</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100821182614/http://www.msm.cam.ac.uk/ascg/lectures/">Lectures on Superconductivity (series of videos, including interviews with leading experts)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=indyz6O-Xyw&feature=user">YouTube Video Levitating magnet</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.doitpoms.ac.uk/tlplib/superconductivity/index.php">DoITPoMS Teaching and Learning Package – "Superconductivity"</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://feynmanlectures.caltech.edu/III_21.html">The Schrödinger Equation in a Classical Context: A Seminar on Superconductivity – The Feynman Lectures on Physics</a>.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Superconductivity212" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Superconductivity" title="Template:Superconductivity"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Superconductivity" title="Template talk:Superconductivity"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Superconductivity" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Superconductivity"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Superconductivity212" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Superconductivity</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/BCS_theory" title="BCS theory">BCS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bean%27s_critical_state_model" title="Bean's critical state model">Bean's critical state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ginzburg%E2%80%93Landau_theory" title="Ginzburg–Landau theory">Ginzburg–Landau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kohn%E2%80%93Luttinger_superconductivity" title="Kohn–Luttinger superconductivity">Kohn–Luttinger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/London_equations" title="London equations">London</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthias_rules" title="Matthias rules">Matthias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mattis%E2%80%93Bardeen_theory" title="Mattis–Bardeen theory">Mattis–Bardeen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resonating_valence_bond_theory" title="Resonating valence bond theory">RVB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Werthamer%E2%80%93Helfand%E2%80%93Hohenberg_theory" title="Werthamer–Helfand–Hohenberg theory">WHH</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Characteristic parameters</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Superconducting_coherence_length" title="Superconducting coherence length">coherence length</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_field" title="Critical field">critical field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/London_penetration_depth" title="London penetration depth">London penetration depth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silsbee_effect" title="Silsbee effect">Silsbee current</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Phenomena</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abrikosov_vortex" title="Abrikosov vortex">Abrikosov vortices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andreev_reflection" title="Andreev reflection">Andreev reflection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooper_pair" title="Cooper pair">Cooper pairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flux_pinning" title="Flux pinning">flux pinning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flux_pumping" title="Flux pumping">flux pumping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josephson_effect" title="Josephson effect">Josephson effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little%E2%80%93Parks_effect" title="Little–Parks effect">Little–Parks effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meissner_effect" title="Meissner effect">Meissner effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homes%27s_law" title="Homes's law">Homes's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persistent_current" title="Persistent current">persistent currents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proximity_effect_(superconductivity)" title="Proximity effect (superconductivity)">proximity effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reentrant_superconductivity" title="Reentrant superconductivity">reentrance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SU(2)_color_superconductivity" title="SU(2) color superconductivity">SU(2) color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supercurrent" title="Supercurrent">supercurrents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superdiamagnetism" title="Superdiamagnetism">superdiamagnetism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superstripes" title="Superstripes">superstripes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Superconductor_classification" title="Superconductor classification">Classification</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By magnetic response</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Types <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Type-I_superconductor" title="Type-I superconductor">I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type-II_superconductor" title="Type-II superconductor">II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type-1.5_superconductor" title="Type-1.5 superconductor">1.5</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferromagnetic_superconductor" title="Ferromagnetic superconductor">ferromagnetic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By explanation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conventional_superconductor" title="Conventional superconductor">conventional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unconventional_superconductor" title="Unconventional superconductor">unconventional</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By critical temperature</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>low temperature</li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-temperature_superconductivity" title="High-temperature superconductivity">high temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Room-temperature_superconductor" title="Room-temperature superconductor">room temperature</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By composition</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Covalent_superconductor" title="Covalent superconductor">covalent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuprate_superconductor" title="Cuprate superconductor">cuprates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heavy_fermion_superconductor" title="Heavy fermion superconductor">heavy fermion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron-based_superconductor" title="Iron-based superconductor">iron-based</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxypnictide" title="Oxypnictide">oxypnictides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_superconductor" title="Organic superconductor">organic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Technological_applications_of_superconductivity" title="Technological applications of superconductivity">Technological applications</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cryotron" title="Cryotron">cryotron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superconducting_magnet" title="Superconducting magnet">electromagnets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Magnetic resonance imaging">MRI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_magnetic_resonance" title="Nuclear magnetic resonance">NMR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superconducting_quantum_computing" title="Superconducting quantum computing">quantum computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rutherford_cable" title="Rutherford cable">Rutherford cable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SQUID" title="SQUID">SQUID</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superconducting_wire" title="Superconducting wire">wires</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SCMaglev" title="SCMaglev">SCMaglev</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">List of superconductors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bilayer_graphene" title="Bilayer graphene">bilayer graphene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BSCCO" class="mw-redirect" title="BSCCO">BSCCO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lanthanum_barium_copper_oxide" title="Lanthanum barium copper oxide">LBCO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnesium_diboride" title="Magnesium diboride">MgB<sub>2</sub></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niobium%E2%80%93tin" title="Niobium–tin">NbSn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niobium%E2%80%93titanium" title="Niobium–titanium">NbTi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thallium_barium_calcium_copper_oxide" title="Thallium barium calcium copper oxide">TBCCO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/YBCO" class="mw-redirect" title="YBCO">YBCO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_superconductors" title="List of superconductors">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="States_of_matter_(list)149" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:States_of_matter" title="Template:States of matter"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:States_of_matter" title="Template talk:States of matter"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:States_of_matter" title="Special:EditPage/Template:States of matter"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="States_of_matter_(list)149" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/State_of_matter" title="State of matter">States of matter</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_states_of_matter" title="List of states of matter">list</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">State</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solid" title="Solid">Solid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquid" title="Liquid">Liquid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas" title="Gas">Gas</a> / <a href="/wiki/Vapor" title="Vapor">Vapor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supercritical_fluid" title="Supercritical fluid">Supercritical fluid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasma_(physics)" title="Plasma (physics)">Plasma</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="7" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Phase_change_-_en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Phase_change_-_en.svg/150px-Phase_change_-_en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Phase_change_-_en.svg/225px-Phase_change_-_en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Phase_change_-_en.svg/300px-Phase_change_-_en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="493" data-file-height="524" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Low energy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bose%E2%80%93Einstein_condensate" title="Bose–Einstein condensate">Bose–Einstein condensate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fermionic_condensate" title="Fermionic condensate">Fermionic condensate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Degenerate_matter" title="Degenerate matter">Degenerate matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_Hall_effect" title="Quantum Hall effect">Quantum Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rydberg_matter" title="Rydberg matter">Rydberg matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strange_matter" title="Strange matter">Strange matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superfluidity" title="Superfluidity">Superfluid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supersolid" title="Supersolid">Supersolid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photonic_molecule" title="Photonic molecule">Photonic molecule</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">High energy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/QCD_matter" title="QCD matter">QCD matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quark%E2%80%93gluon_plasma" title="Quark–gluon plasma">Quark–gluon plasma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color-glass_condensate" title="Color-glass condensate">Color-glass condensate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colloid" title="Colloid">Colloid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystal" title="Crystal">Crystal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquid_crystal" title="Liquid crystal">Liquid crystal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_crystal" title="Time crystal">Time crystal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_spin_liquid" title="Quantum spin liquid">Quantum spin liquid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exotic_matter" title="Exotic matter">Exotic matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programmable_matter" title="Programmable matter">Programmable matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">Dark matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antimatter" title="Antimatter">Antimatter</a></li> <li>Magnetically ordered <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antiferromagnetism" title="Antiferromagnetism">Antiferromagnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferrimagnetism" title="Ferrimagnetism">Ferrimagnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferromagnetism" title="Ferromagnetism">Ferromagnet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/String-net_liquid" title="String-net liquid">String-net liquid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superglass" title="Superglass">Superglass</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Phase_transitions" class="mw-redirect" title="Phase transitions">Phase transitions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boiling" title="Boiling">Boiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boiling_point" title="Boiling point">Boiling point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Condensation" title="Condensation">Condensation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_line_(thermodynamics)" title="Critical line (thermodynamics)">Critical line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_point_(thermodynamics)" title="Critical point (thermodynamics)">Critical point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystallization" title="Crystallization">Crystallization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deposition_(phase_transition)" title="Deposition (phase transition)">Deposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evaporation" title="Evaporation">Evaporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flash_evaporation" title="Flash evaporation">Flash evaporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freezing" title="Freezing">Freezing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_ionization" title="Chemical ionization">Chemical ionization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ionization" title="Ionization">Ionization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lambda_point" title="Lambda point">Lambda point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melting" title="Melting">Melting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melting_point" title="Melting point">Melting point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasma_recombination" title="Plasma recombination">Recombination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regelation" title="Regelation">Regelation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vapor%E2%80%93liquid_equilibrium" title="Vapor–liquid equilibrium">Saturated fluid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sublimation_(phase_transition)" title="Sublimation (phase transition)">Sublimation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supercooling" title="Supercooling">Supercooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triple_point" title="Triple point">Triple point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaporization" title="Vaporization">Vaporization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitrification" title="Vitrification">Vitrification</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Quantities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enthalpy_of_fusion" title="Enthalpy of fusion">Enthalpy of fusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enthalpy_of_sublimation" title="Enthalpy of sublimation">Enthalpy of sublimation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enthalpy_of_vaporization" title="Enthalpy of vaporization">Enthalpy of vaporization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latent_heat" title="Latent heat">Latent heat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latent_internal_energy" title="Latent internal energy">Latent internal energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trouton%27s_rule" title="Trouton's rule">Trouton's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volatility_(chemistry)" title="Volatility (chemistry)">Volatility</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baryonic_matter" class="mw-redirect" title="Baryonic matter">Baryonic matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Binodal" title="Binodal">Binodal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compressed_fluid" title="Compressed fluid">Compressed fluid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooling_curve" title="Cooling curve">Cooling curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equation_of_state" title="Equation of state">Equation of state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leidenfrost_effect" title="Leidenfrost effect">Leidenfrost effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroscopic_quantum_phenomena" title="Macroscopic quantum phenomena">Macroscopic quantum phenomena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mpemba_effect" title="Mpemba effect">Mpemba effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Order_and_disorder_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Order and disorder (physics)">Order and disorder (physics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinodal" title="Spinodal">Spinodal</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Superconductivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superheated_water" title="Superheated water">Superheated vapor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superheating" title="Superheating">Superheating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermo-dielectric_effect" title="Thermo-dielectric effect">Thermo-dielectric effect</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q124131#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1443" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q124131#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1443" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q124131#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1138825/">FAST</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4058651-0">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85130584">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12109872v">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12109872v">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00573596">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="supravodivost"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph126281&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX540935">Spain</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007548597005171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10675917">NARA</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Superconductivity&oldid=1277322148">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Superconductivity&oldid=1277322148</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Superconductivity" title="Category:Superconductivity">Superconductivity</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Phases_of_matter" title="Category:Phases of matter">Phases of matter</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Exotic_matter" title="Category:Exotic matter">Exotic matter</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Unsolved_problems_in_physics" title="Category:Unsolved problems in physics">Unsolved problems in physics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Magnetic_levitation" title="Category:Magnetic levitation">Magnetic levitation</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Physical_phenomena" title="Category:Physical phenomena">Physical phenomena</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Spintronics" title="Category:Spintronics">Spintronics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Phase_transitions" title="Category:Phase transitions">Phase transitions</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Science_and_technology_in_the_Netherlands" title="Category:Science and technology in the Netherlands">Science and technology in the Netherlands</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Dutch_inventions" title="Category:Dutch inventions">Dutch inventions</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1911_in_science" title="Category:1911 in science">1911 in science</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_French-language_sources_(fr)" title="Category:CS1 French-language sources (fr)">CS1 French-language sources (fr)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_intentionally_citing_retracted_publications" title="Category:Articles intentionally citing retracted publications">Articles intentionally citing retracted publications</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_matches_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description matches Wikidata">Short description matches Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_needing_additional_references_from_April_2018" title="Category:Articles needing additional references from April 2018">Articles needing additional references from April 2018</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_needing_additional_references" title="Category:All articles needing additional references">All articles needing additional references</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_accuracy_disputes" title="Category:All accuracy disputes">All accuracy disputes</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_disputed_statements_from_August_2016" title="Category:Articles with disputed statements from August 2016">Articles with disputed statements from August 2016</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_video_clips" title="Category:Articles containing video clips">Articles containing video clips</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 24 February 2025, at 00:04<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Superconductivity&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><picture><source media="(min-width: 500px)" srcset="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia.svg" width="25" height="25" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" lang="en" loading="lazy"></picture></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><picture><source media="(min-width: 500px)" srcset="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" width="88" height="31"><img src="/w/resources/assets/mediawiki_compact.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" lang="en" width="25" height="25" loading="lazy"></picture></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-header-container vector-sticky-header-container"> <div id="vector-sticky-header" class="vector-sticky-header"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-start"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-start vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" aria-hidden="true"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-sticky-header-search-toggle" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.vector-sticky-search-form.icon"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </button> </div> <div role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box"> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="vector-sticky-search-form" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia"> <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-sticky-header-toc vector-sticky-header-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-sticky-header-toc-label" for="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar-primary" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="mw-page-title-main">Superconductivity</span></div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-end" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icons"> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-talk-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="talk-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbles mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbles"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-subject-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="subject-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-article mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-article"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-history-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="history-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-history mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-history"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only mw-watchlink" id="ca-watchstar-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="watch-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-star mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-star"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="wikitext-edit-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikiText mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-wikiText"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-ve-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-edit mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-edit"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-viewsource-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-protected-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-editLock mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-editLock"></span> <span></span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-buttons"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet mw-interlanguage-selector" id="p-lang-btn-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-language"></span> <span>77 languages</span> </button> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive" id="ca-addsection-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="addsection-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbleAdd-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbleAdd-progressive"></span> <span>Add topic</span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-end"> <div class="vector-user-links"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="mw-portlet mw-portlet-dock-bottom emptyPortlet" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul> </ul> </div> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.next-794b6d7456-fnwf6","wgBackendResponseTime":266,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.415","walltime":"1.702","ppvisitednodes":{"value":7789,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":303538,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":3415,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":18,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":9,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":385684,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1431.347 1 -total"," 46.99% 672.584 1 Template:Refs"," 24.20% 346.415 55 Template:Cite_journal"," 12.04% 172.370 16 Template:Cite_book"," 9.72% 139.191 4 Template:Anl"," 7.27% 104.123 1 Template:Electromagnetism"," 6.49% 92.929 1 Template:Sidebar_with_collapsible_lists"," 5.47% 78.301 1 Template:Short_description"," 4.69% 67.180 3 Template:Navbox"," 4.34% 62.106 17 Template:Cite_web"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.961","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":23631210,"limit":52428800}},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-7556665f6-bsrcb","timestamp":"20250310225137","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Superconductivity","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Superconductivity","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q124131","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q124131","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-10-13T23:01:52Z","dateModified":"2025-02-24T00:04:41Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/3\/3c\/Stickstoff_gek%C3%BChlter_Supraleiter_schwebt_%C3%BCber_Dauermagneten_2009-06-21.jpg","headline":"electrical conductivity with exactly zero resistance"}</script> </body> </html>