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href="#Pliny's_Natural_History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Pliny's <i>Natural History</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pliny's_Natural_History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" 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Available in 89 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-89" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">89 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinius_die_ouere" title="Plinius die ouere – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Plinius die ouere" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinius_der_%C3%84ltere" title="Plinius der Ältere – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Plinius der Ältere" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%B3_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%83%D8%A8%D8%B1" title="بلينيوس الأكبر – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="بلينيوس الأكبر" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinio_o_Viello" title="Plinio o Viello – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Plinio o Viello" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%93%D5%AC%D5%AB%D5%B6%D5%AB%D5%B8%D5%BD_%D5%84%D5%A5%D5%AE" title="Փլինիոս Մեծ – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Փլինիոս Մեծ" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Արեւմտահայերէն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frp mw-list-item"><a href="https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinio_lo_Viely" title="Plinio lo Viely – Arpitan" lang="frp" hreflang="frp" data-title="Plinio lo Viely" data-language-autonym="Arpetan" data-language-local-name="Arpitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Arpetan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF_%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF_%E0%A6%8F%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A1%E0%A6%BE%E0%A7%B0" title="প্লিনি দ্য এল্ডাৰ – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="প্লিনি দ্য এল্ডাৰ" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliniu_%22El_Vieyu%22" title="Pliniu "El Vieyu" – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Pliniu "El Vieyu"" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%B6y%C3%BCk_Plini" title="Böyük Plini – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Böyük Plini" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF_%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF_%E0%A6%8F%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A1%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0" title="প্লিনি দ্য এল্ডার – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="প্লিনি দ্য এল্ডার" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%B9_%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%B9%D1%88%D1%8B" title="Пліній Старэйшы – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Пліній Старэйшы" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8" title="Плиний Стари – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Плиний Стари" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinije_Stariji" title="Plinije Stariji – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Plinije Stariji" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinius_an_Hena%C3%B1" title="Plinius an Henañ – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Plinius an Henañ" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plini_el_Vell" title="Plini el Vell – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Plini el Vell" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinius_star%C5%A1%C3%AD" title="Plinius starší – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Plinius starší" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinius_yr_Hynaf" title="Plinius yr Hynaf – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Plinius yr Hynaf" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinius_den_%C3%A6ldre" title="Plinius den ældre – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Plinius den ældre" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%B3_%D9%84%D9%82%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%85" title="پلينيوس لقديم – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="پلينيوس لقديم" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>الدارجة</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinius_der_%C3%84ltere" title="Plinius der Ältere – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Plinius der Ältere" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinius_Vanem" title="Plinius Vanem – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Plinius Vanem" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%BB%CE%AF%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BF%CF%82_%CE%BF_%CE%A0%CF%81%CE%B5%CF%83%CE%B2%CF%8D%CF%84%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%82" title="Πλίνιος ο Πρεσβύτερος – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Πλίνιος ο Πρεσβύτερος" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-en mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder – English" lang="en" hreflang="en" data-title="Pliny the Elder" data-language-autonym="English" data-language-local-name="English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinio_el_Viejo" title="Plinio el Viejo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Plinio el Viejo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinio_la_Maljuna" title="Plinio la Maljuna – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Plinio la Maljuna" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinio_Zaharra" title="Plinio Zaharra – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Plinio Zaharra" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%B3" title="پلینیوس – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پلینیوس" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pline_l%27Ancien" title="Pline l'Ancien – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Pline l'Ancien" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinius_de_Aldere" title="Plinius de Aldere – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Plinius de Aldere" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plini_il_Vieli" title="Plini il Vieli – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Plini il Vieli" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Furlan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinias_M%C3%B3r" title="Plinias Mór – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Plinias Mór" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinio_o_Vello" title="Plinio o Vello – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Plinio o Vello" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B0%80%EC%9D%B4%EC%9A%B0%EC%8A%A4_%ED%94%8C%EB%A6%AC%EB%8B%88%EC%9A%B0%EC%8A%A4_%EC%84%B8%EC%BF%A4%EB%91%90%EC%8A%A4" title="가이우스 플리니우스 세쿤두스 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="가이우스 플리니우스 세쿤두스" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliny_Babba" title="Pliny Babba – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Pliny Babba" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8A%D5%AC%D5%AB%D5%B6%D5%AB%D5%B8%D5%BD_%D4%B1%D5%BE%D5%A1%D5%A3" title="Պլինիոս Ավագ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Պլինիոս Ավագ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80" title="प्लिनी – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="प्लिनी" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinije_Stariji" title="Plinije Stariji – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Plinije Stariji" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinius_Tua" title="Plinius Tua – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Plinius Tua" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinius_eldri" title="Plinius eldri – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Plinius eldri" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinio_il_Vecchio" title="Plinio il Vecchio – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Plinio il Vecchio" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%95%D7%A1_%D7%94%D7%96%D7%A7%D7%9F" title="פליניוס הזקן – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פליניוס הזקן" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9E%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A4%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98" title="პლინიუს უფროსი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="პლინიუს უფროსი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinio_Mzee" title="Plinio Mzee – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Plinio Mzee" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pline_asyen_an" title="Pline asyen an – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Pline asyen an" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaius_Plinius_Secundus" title="Gaius Plinius Secundus – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Gaius Plinius Secundus" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pl%C4%ABnijs_Vec%C4%81kais" title="Plīnijs Vecākais – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Plīnijs Vecākais" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinijus_Vyresnysis" title="Plinijus Vyresnysis – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Plinijus Vyresnysis" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinius_d%27r_Owwere" title="Plinius d'r Owwere – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Plinius d'r Owwere" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinio_la_Vea" title="Plinio la Vea – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Plinio la Vea" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caius_Plinius_Secundus" title="Caius Plinius Secundus – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Caius Plinius Secundus" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%98_%D0%9F%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D1%82" title="Плиниј Постариот – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Плиниј Постариот" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinio_Zokiny" title="Plinio Zokiny – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Plinio Zokiny" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BF" title="പ്ലീനി – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="പ്ലീനി" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9E%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A9%E1%83%90%E1%83%A8%E1%83%98" title="პლინიუს უნჩაში – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="პლინიუს უნჩაში" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%B3_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%83%D8%A8%D8%B1" title="بلينيوس الاكبر – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="بلينيوس الاكبر" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinius_yang_Tua" title="Plinius yang Tua – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Plinius yang Tua" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinius_de_Oudere" title="Plinius de Oudere – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Plinius de Oudere" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%AC%E3%82%A4%E3%82%A6%E3%82%B9%E3%83%BB%E3%83%97%E3%83%AA%E3%83%8B%E3%82%A6%E3%82%B9%E3%83%BB%E3%82%BB%E3%82%AF%E3%83%B3%E3%83%89%E3%82%A5%E3%82%B9" title="ガイウス・プリニウス・セクンドゥス – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ガイウス・プリニウス・セクンドゥス" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nap mw-list-item"><a href="https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinio_%27o_Viecchio" title="Plinio 'o Viecchio – Neapolitan" lang="nap" hreflang="nap" data-title="Plinio 'o Viecchio" data-language-autonym="Napulitano" data-language-local-name="Neapolitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Napulitano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinius_den_eldre" title="Plinius den eldre – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Plinius den eldre" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinius_den_eldre" title="Plinius den eldre – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Plinius den eldre" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plini_lo_Vi%C3%A8lh" title="Plini lo Vièlh – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Plini lo Vièlh" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B5%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%A1%E0%A8%BE_%E0%A8%AA%E0%A8%B2%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%A8%E0%A9%80" title="ਵੱਡਾ ਪਲੀਨੀ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਵੱਡਾ ਪਲੀਨੀ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%B3" title="پلینیوس – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="پلینیوس" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliniusz_Starszy" title="Pliniusz Starszy – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Pliniusz Starszy" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pl%C3%ADnio,_o_Velho" title="Plínio, o Velho – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Plínio, o Velho" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinius_cel_B%C4%83tr%C3%A2n" title="Plinius cel Bătrân – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Plinius cel Bătrân" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinius_il_Vegl" title="Plinius il Vegl – Romansh" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Plinius il Vegl" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="Romansh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Rumantsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Плиний Старший – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Плиний Старший" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plini_Plaku" title="Plini Plaku – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Plini Plaku" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%B3" title="پلينيوس – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="پلينيوس" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pl%C3%ADnius_Star%C5%A1%C3%AD" title="Plínius Starší – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Plínius Starší" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinij_starej%C5%A1i" title="Plinij starejši – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Plinij starejši" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B5_%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B8" title="Плиније Старији – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Плиније Старији" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinije_Stariji" title="Plinije Stariji – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Plinije Stariji" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinius_vanhempi" title="Plinius vanhempi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Plinius vanhempi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinius_den_%C3%A4ldre" title="Plinius den äldre – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Plinius den äldre" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B3%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BF" title="மூத்த பிளினி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மூத்த பிளினி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%9C%E0%B8%B9%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B8%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%AA" title="พลินีผู้อาวุโส – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="พลินีผู้อาวุโส" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%B8_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Плинийи Калон – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Плинийи Калон" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaius_Plinius_Secundus" title="Gaius Plinius Secundus – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Gaius Plinius Secundus" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%B9_%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Пліній Старший – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Пліній Старший" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%B3" title="پلینیوس – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="پلینیوس" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaius_Plinius_Secundus" title="Gaius Plinius Secundus – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Gaius Plinius Secundus" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinio_nga_magurang" title="Plinio nga magurang – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Plinio nga magurang" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%80%81%E6%99%AE%E6%9E%97%E5%B0%BC" title="老普林尼 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="老普林尼" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%95%D7%A1_%D7%93%D7%A2%D7%A8_%D7%A2%D7%9C%D7%98%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%A2%D7%A8" title="פליניוס דער עלטערער – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="פליניוס דער עלטערער" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%80%81%E6%99%AE%E6%9E%97%E5%B0%BC" title="老普林尼 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="老普林尼" data-language-autonym="粵語" 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lang="en" dir="ltr"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r10098372">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Pliny the Elder or Gaius Plinius Secundus</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Plinyelder.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Plinyelder.jpg/178px-Plinyelder.jpg" decoding="async" width="178" height="297" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Plinyelder.jpg/267px-Plinyelder.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Plinyelder.jpg/356px-Plinyelder.jpg 2x" data-file-width="630" data-file-height="1052" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Pliny the Elder: an imaginative 19th century portrait. No contemporary depiction of Pliny has survived.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data">23 AD<br /><div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Como" title="Como">Como</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Italia_(Roman_Empire)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Italia (Roman Empire) (not yet started)">Italy</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">August 25, 79 (aged 55–56)<br /><div style="display:inline" class="deathplace"><a href="/wiki/Stabiae" title="Stabiae">Stabiae</a>, near <a href="/wiki/Pompei" title="Pompei">Pompei</a>, Italy</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Cause of death</th><td class="infobox-data">Died in the eruption that destroyed Pompeii</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Body discovered</th><td class="infobox-data">By friends, under the pumice</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Citizenship</th><td class="infobox-data category">Roman</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Education</th><td class="infobox-data">Rhetoric, grammar</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Occupation(s)</th><td class="infobox-data role">Lawyer, author, <span class="nowrap">natural philosopher,</span> <span class="nowrap">military commander,</span> <span class="nowrap">provincial governor</span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><span style="white-space:nowrap;">Notable work</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_History_(Pliny)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Natural History (Pliny) (not yet started)">Natural History</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Spouse</th><td class="infobox-data">None</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Children</th><td class="infobox-data">None</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Parent(s)</th><td class="infobox-data">Celer and Marcella</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Relatives</th><td class="infobox-data">Sister (Plinia), <span class="nowrap">nephew (<a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Younger" title="Pliny the Younger">Pliny the Younger</a></span>)</td></tr></tbody></table> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Naturalishistoria.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Naturalishistoria.jpg/200px-Naturalishistoria.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="337" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/67/Naturalishistoria.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="235" data-file-height="396" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <p><b>Gaius Plinius Secundus</b> (23 AD – 25 August 79 AD), better known as <b>Pliny the Elder</b>, was a <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Roman</a> <a href="/wiki/Author" title="Author">author</a>, <a href="/wiki/Naturalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Naturalist">naturalist</a>, and natural philosopher, as well as naval and army commander of the early <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>, and personal friend of the emperor <a href="/wiki/Vespasian" title="Vespasian">Vespasian</a>. </p><p>Spending most of his spare time studying, writing or investigating natural and geographic phenomena in the field, he wrote an encyclopedic work, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_History_(Pliny)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Natural History (Pliny) (not yet started)">Natural History</a></i> ("Naturalis Historia"), which became a model for many subsequent encyclopedic texts. </p><p>Pliny the Elder died on 25 August 79 AD. He was attempting the rescue by ship of a friend and his family from the eruption of <a href="/wiki/Mount_Vesuvius" title="Mount Vesuvius">Mount Vesuvius</a>. The eruption had just destroyed the cities of <a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a> and <a href="/wiki/Herculaneum" title="Herculaneum">Herculaneum</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pliny's_Natural_History"><span id="Pliny.27s_Natural_History"></span>Pliny's <i>Natural History</i></h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pliny_the_Elder&veaction=edit&section=1" title="Change section: Pliny's Natural History" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>change</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pliny_the_Elder&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section's source code: Pliny's Natural History"><span>change source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <i>Naturalis Historia</i> is one of the largest works on <a href="/wiki/Natural_history" title="Natural history">natural history</a> to have survived from the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> to the modern day. It claims to cover the entire field of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">ancient</a> knowledge, based on the best authorities available to Pliny. He claims to be the only Roman ever to have undertaken such a work. It includes the fields of <a href="/wiki/Botany" title="Botany">botany</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zoology" title="Zoology">zoology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">geology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mineralogy" title="Mineralogy">mineralogy</a> as well as the exploitation of those <a href="/wiki/Resource" class="mw-disambig" title="Resource">resources</a>. It remains a standard work for the Roman period and the advances in <a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">technology</a> and understanding of natural <a href="/wiki/Phenomenon" title="Phenomenon">phenomena</a> at the time. </p><p>Some technical advances he discusses are the only sources for those <a href="/wiki/Invention" title="Invention">inventions</a>, such as hushing in <a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">mining</a> technology or the use of water <a href="/wiki/Watermill" title="Watermill">mills</a> for crushing or <a href="/wiki/Grind" class="mw-disambig" title="Grind">grinding</a> <a href="/wiki/Grain" title="Grain">grain</a>. Much of what he wrote about has been confirmed by <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeology</a>. It is virtually the only work which describes the work of <a href="/wiki/Art" title="Art">artists</a> of the time, and is a reference work for the <a href="/wiki/Art_history" title="Art history">history of art</a>. </p><p>The work became a <a href="/wiki/Model" class="mw-disambig" title="Model">model</a> for all later <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia" title="Encyclopedia">encyclopedias</a> in the breadth of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Subject_matter&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Subject matter (not yet started)">subject matter</a> examined, the need to <a href="https://simple.wiktionary.org/wiki/reference" class="extiw" title="wikt:reference">reference</a> original <a href="/wiki/Author" title="Author">authors</a>, and a comprehensive <a href="/wiki/Index_(publishing)" title="Index (publishing)">index</a> list of the <a href="/wiki/Content" class="mw-disambig" title="Content">contents</a>. The work is dedicated to the emperor <a href="/wiki/Titus" title="Titus">Titus</a>, son of Pliny's close friend, the emperor <a href="/wiki/Vespasian" title="Vespasian">Vespasian</a>, in the first year of Titus' reign. It is the only work by Pliny to have survived, and the last that he published, lacking a final revision at his sudden and unexpected death in the AD 79 eruption of Vesuvius. </p><p>The <i>Natural History</i> consists of 37 books. Pliny devised his own table of contents. The table below is a summary based on modern names for topics. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <td>I </td> <td>Preface and tables of contents, lists of authorities </td></tr> <tr> <td>II </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mathematical" class="mw-redirect" title="Mathematical">Mathematical</a> and physical description of the world </td></tr> <tr> <td>III–VI </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">Geography</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">ethnography</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>VII </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a> and human <a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">physiology</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>VIII–XI </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Zoology" title="Zoology">Zoology</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>XII–XXVII </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Botany" title="Botany">Botany</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Horticulture" title="Horticulture">horticulture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">pharmacology</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>XXVIII–XXXII </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">Pharmacology</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>XXXIII–XXXVII </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mining#Ancient_Greece_and_Rome" title="Mining">Mining</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mineralogy" title="Mineralogy">mineralogy</a>, especially in its application to life and art, including:<br /><a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">gold</a><br />casting in <a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">silver</a><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /><a href="/wiki/Sculpture" title="Sculpture">statuary</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bronze" title="Bronze">bronze</a><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /><a href="/wiki/Painting" title="Painting">painting</a><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br />modelling <sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /><a href="/wiki/Marble" title="Marble">sculpture in marble</a><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /><a href="/wiki/Gem" class="mw-redirect" title="Gem">precious stones and gems</a><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pliny_the_Elder&veaction=edit&section=2" title="Change section: References" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>change</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pliny_the_Elder&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section's source code: References"><span>change source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r9724317">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-1">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">xxxiii.154–751</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-2">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">xxxiv</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-3">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">xxxv.15–941</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-4">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">151–851</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-5">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">xxxvi</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-6">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">xxxvii</span> </li> </ol></div></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pliny_the_Elder&oldid=9151903">https://simple.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pliny_the_Elder&oldid=9151903</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Special:Categories" title="Special:Categories">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1st-century_books" title="Category:1st-century books">1st-century books</a></li><li><a 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