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dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">American psychiatrist (1935–2016)</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Frances Cress Welsing</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Dr._Frances_Cress_Welsing_receives_Community_Award_at_National_Black_LUV_Festival_in_WDC_on_21_September_2008.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Dr._Frances_Cress_Welsing_receives_Community_Award_at_National_Black_LUV_Festival_in_WDC_on_21_September_2008.jpg/220px-Dr._Frances_Cress_Welsing_receives_Community_Award_at_National_Black_LUV_Festival_in_WDC_on_21_September_2008.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Dr._Frances_Cress_Welsing_receives_Community_Award_at_National_Black_LUV_Festival_in_WDC_on_21_September_2008.jpg/330px-Dr._Frances_Cress_Welsing_receives_Community_Award_at_National_Black_LUV_Festival_in_WDC_on_21_September_2008.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Dr._Frances_Cress_Welsing_receives_Community_Award_at_National_Black_LUV_Festival_in_WDC_on_21_September_2008.jpg/440px-Dr._Frances_Cress_Welsing_receives_Community_Award_at_National_Black_LUV_Festival_in_WDC_on_21_September_2008.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="3456" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Welsing receiving Community Award at National Black LUV Festival on September 21, 2008</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display:inline" class="nickname">Frances Luella Cress</div><br /><span style="display:none">(<span class="bday">1935-03-18</span>)</span>March 18, 1935<br /><div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Chicago" title="Chicago">Chicago</a>, Illinois, U.S.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">January 2, 2016<span style="display:none">(2016-01-02)</span> (aged 80)<br /><div style="display:inline" class="deathplace"><a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a>, U.S.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Alma mater</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Antioch_College" title="Antioch College">Antioch College</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Science" title="Bachelor of Science">B.S.</a>),<br /><a href="/wiki/Howard_University" title="Howard University">Howard University</a> (<a href="/wiki/Medical_Degree" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical Degree">M.D.</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Occupation</th><td class="infobox-data role">Physician</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Known for</th><td class="infobox-data"><i>The Isis Papers: The Keys to the Colors</i> (1991)</td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Frances Luella Welsing</b> (née <b>Cress</b>; March 18, 1935 – January 2, 2016) was an American psychiatrist and well-known proponent of the <a href="/wiki/Black_supremacy" title="Black supremacy">black supremacist</a> <a href="/wiki/Melanin_theory" title="Melanin theory">melanin theory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 3">: 3 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 80">: 80 </span></sup> Her 1970 essay, <i>The Cress Theory of Color-Confrontation and Racism (White Supremacy)</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-theory_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-theory-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> offered her interpretation of what she described as the origins of <a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">white supremacy</a> culture. </p><p>She was the author of <i>The Isis Papers: The Keys to the Colors</i> (1991).<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_life">Early life</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Frances_Cress_Welsing&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Welsing was born Frances Luella Cress in <a href="/wiki/Chicago" title="Chicago">Chicago</a> on March 18, 1935. Her father, Henry Noah Cress, was a physician, and her mother, Ida Mae Griffin, was a teacher. She was the middle child of three girls, her elder sister named Lorne, and the younger Barbara. In 1957, she earned a <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Science" title="Bachelor of Science">B.S.</a> degree at <a href="/wiki/Antioch_College" title="Antioch College">Antioch College</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Yellow_Springs,_Ohio" title="Yellow Springs, Ohio">Yellow Springs</a>, Ohio. In 1961, she met Johannes Kramer Welsing, a Ghanaian, while enrolled at Howard University Medical School. They eventually married but had no children. </p><p>In 1962, Welsing received an <a href="/wiki/Medical_Degree" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical Degree">M.D.</a> from <a href="/wiki/Howard_University" title="Howard University">Howard University</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In the 1960s, Welsing moved to <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a>, and worked at many hospitals, especially children's hospitals. </p><p>While Welsing was an assistant professor at Howard University, she formulated her first body of work in 1969, <i>The Cress Theory of Color-Confrontation</i>. She self-published it in 1970.<sup id="cite_ref-theory_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-theory-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The paper subsequently appeared in the May 1974 edition of <i><a href="/wiki/The_Black_Scholar" title="The Black Scholar">The Black Scholar</a></i>. This was an introduction to her thoughts that would be developed in <i>The Isis Papers</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-:0_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> released 22 years later. This was a compilation of Welsing's essays about global and local race relations.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Career">Career</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Frances_Cress_Welsing&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Career"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1992, Welsing published <i>The Isis Papers: The Keys to the Colors</i>. The book is a compilation of essays that she had written over 18 years. </p><p>The title was inspired by the ancient Egyptian goddess <a href="/wiki/Isis" title="Isis">Isis</a>, the sister/wife of the most significant god <a href="/wiki/Osiris" title="Osiris">Osiris</a>. According to Welsing, all the names of the gods were significant; however, also according to Welsing, Osiris means "lord of the perfect Black,” although there is no etymological validity to this assertion. Welsing specifically chose the name Isis for her admiration of "truth and justice" that allowed for justice to be stronger than gold and silver.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In this book she talks about the <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a> of <a href="/wiki/Person_of_color" title="Person of color">people of color</a> globally, along with issues faced by black Americans. According to Welsing, the genocide of people of color is caused by white people's inability to produce melanin. The <a href="/wiki/Minority_group" title="Minority group">minority</a> status of whites has caused what she calls a preoccupation with white genetic survival. </p><p>She believed that injustice caused by <a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">racism</a> will end when "non-white people worldwide recognize, analyze, understand and discuss openly the genocidal dynamic."<sup id="cite_ref-:0_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She also tackled issues such as drug use, murder, teen pregnancy, infant mortality, incarceration, and unemployment. According to Welsing, the cause of these issues is white supremacy (the white man's race to the top). Black men are at the center of Welsing's discussion because, according to her, they "have the greatest potential to cause white genetic annihilation."<sup id="cite_ref-:0_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Views">Views</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Frances_Cress_Welsing&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Views"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <i>The Isis Papers</i>, she described <a href="/wiki/White_people" title="White people">white people</a> as the genetically defective descendants of <a href="/wiki/Recessive_genes" class="mw-redirect" title="Recessive genes">recessive genetic</a> <a href="/wiki/Mutants" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutants">mutants</a>. She wrote that due to this "defective" mutation, they may have been forcibly expelled from Africa, among other possibilities.<sup id="cite_ref-map_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-map-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Racism, in the views of Welsing, is a conspiracy "to ensure white genetic survival". She attributed <a href="/wiki/AIDS" class="mw-redirect" title="AIDS">AIDS</a> and <a href="/wiki/Substance_abuse" title="Substance abuse">addiction</a> to <a href="/wiki/Crack_cocaine" title="Crack cocaine">crack cocaine</a> and other substances to "<a href="/wiki/Chemical_warfare" title="Chemical warfare">chemical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biological_warfare" title="Biological warfare">biological warfare</a>" by white people.<sup id="cite_ref-map_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-map-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Welsing defined racism as: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>"Racism (white supremacy) is the local and global power system dynamic, structured and maintained by those who classify themselves as white; whether consciously or subconsciously determined; this system consists of patterns of perception, logic, symbol formation, thought, speech, action and emotional response, as conducted simultaneously in all areas of people activity: economics, education, entertainment, labor, law, politics, religion, sex, and war. The ultimate purpose of the system is to ensure white genetic survival and to prevent white genetic annihilation on Earth—a planet in which the overwhelming majority of people are classified as non-white (black, brown, red, and yellow) by white skinned people. All of the non-white people are genetically dominant (in terms of skin coloration) compared to the genetic recessive white skinned people".</p></blockquote><p> Welsing was against white supremacy and what she saw as the <a href="/wiki/Emasculation" title="Emasculation">emasculation</a> of black men.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_7-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She theorized that white people were the first people with <a href="/wiki/Albinism" title="Albinism">albinism</a> who were driven from Africa by the black natives.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticisms">Criticisms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Frances_Cress_Welsing&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Criticisms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Welsing's melanin theory has been criticized as pseudoscientific. She claimed, without basis, that melanin accumulates in the brain to give African-Americans supernatural powers such as <a href="/wiki/Extrasensory_perception" title="Extrasensory perception">extrasensory perception</a>. She gave as an example <a href="/wiki/George_Washington_Carver" title="George Washington Carver">George Washington Carver</a>, saying that his melanin enabled him to talk to <a href="/wiki/Peanut" title="Peanut">peanuts</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Welsing caused controversy after she said that <a href="/wiki/Homosexuality" title="Homosexuality">homosexuality</a> among African-Americans was a ploy by white males to decrease the black population,<sup id="cite_ref-homosexuality_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-homosexuality-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> arguing that the emasculation of the black man was a means to prevent the procreation of black people. She also believed that white homosexuality was effeminate and an attempt by weak men at gaining more masculinity. Welsing believed that homosexuality is one of the products of the white peoples' race toward supremacy (using their own weaknesses as a weapon).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (August 2022)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Death">Death</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Frances_Cress_Welsing&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Death"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By December 30, 2015, Welsing had suffered two <a href="/wiki/Stroke" title="Stroke">strokes</a> and was placed in critical care at a <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a>-area hospital.<sup id="cite_ref-death_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-death-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She died on January 2, 2016, at the age of 80.<sup id="cite_ref-death_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-death-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Welsing was mourned by Benjamin Chavis, president of the <a href="/wiki/National_Newspaper_Publishers_Association" title="National Newspaper Publishers Association">National Newspaper Publishers Association</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> by Kevin Washington, president of the <a href="/wiki/Association_of_Black_Psychologists" title="Association of Black Psychologists">Association of Black Psychologists</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and by <a href="/wiki/Chuck_D" title="Chuck D">Chuck D</a> of <a href="/wiki/Public_Enemy" title="Public Enemy">Public Enemy</a>, who credited her as inspiration for the album <i><a href="/wiki/Fear_of_a_Black_Planet" title="Fear of a Black Planet">Fear of a Black Planet</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Film_appearances">Film appearances</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Frances_Cress_Welsing&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Film appearances"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Welsing appeared in the documentary <i><a href="/wiki/500_Years_Later" title="500 Years Later">500 Years Later</a></i> (2005), directed by Owen Alik Shahadah, and written by <a href="/wiki/M._K._Asante" title="M. K. Asante">M. K. Asante</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Welsing also appeared in <i><a href="/wiki/Hidden_Colors" title="Hidden Colors">Hidden Colors</a>: The Untold History of People of Aboriginal, Moor, and African Descent</i>, a 2011 documentary film by <a href="/wiki/Tariq_Nasheed" title="Tariq Nasheed">Tariq Nasheed</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Works">Works</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Frances_Cress_Welsing&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Works"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i>The Isis Papers: The Keys to the Colors</i>, Chicago: Third World Press, c 1992 (3rd printing); <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88378-103-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88378-103-6">978-0-88378-103-6</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88378-104-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88378-104-3">978-0-88378-104-3</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Frances_Cress_Welsing&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNewkirk2002" class="citation book cs1">Newkirk, Pamela (September 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PqBrinKtzWAC&q=black+supremacist+welsing&pg=PA3"><i>Within the Veil: Black Journalists, White Media</i></a>. NYU Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-5800-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-5800-7"><bdi>978-0-8147-5800-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Within+the+Veil%3A+Black+Journalists%2C+White+Media&rft.pub=NYU+Press&rft.date=2002-09&rft.isbn=978-0-8147-5800-7&rft.aulast=Newkirk&rft.aufirst=Pamela&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPqBrinKtzWAC%26q%3Dblack%2Bsupremacist%2Bwelsing%26pg%3DPA3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrances+Cress+Welsing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/1980/09/25/controversial-black-doctor-provokes-reporters-reactions/fb5487f4-a45d-49d6-a235-b69d13d42ff0/">"Controversial Black Doctor Provokes Reporters' Reactions - The Washington Post"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Controversial+Black+Doctor+Provokes+Reporters%27+Reactions+-+The+Washington+Post&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Farchive%2Flocal%2F1980%2F09%2F25%2Fcontroversial-black-doctor-provokes-reporters-reactions%2Ffb5487f4-a45d-49d6-a235-b69d13d42ff0%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrances+Cress+Welsing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNewkirk2002" class="citation book cs1">Newkirk, Pamela (September 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PqBrinKtzWAC&q=Within+the+Veil+Black+Journalists,+White+Media"><i>Within the Veil: Black Journalists, White Media</i></a>. NYU Press. p. 3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-5800-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-5800-7"><bdi>978-0-8147-5800-7</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 31,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Within+the+Veil%3A+Black+Journalists%2C+White+Media&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=NYU+Press&rft.date=2002-09&rft.isbn=978-0-8147-5800-7&rft.aulast=Newkirk&rft.aufirst=Pamela&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPqBrinKtzWAC%26q%3DWithin%2Bthe%2BVeil%2BBlack%2BJournalists%2C%2BWhite%2BMedia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrances+Cress+Welsing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalker2001" class="citation book cs1">Walker, Clarence E. (June 14, 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=n15_tf0hoT0C"><i>We Can't Go Home Again: An Argument About Afrocentrism</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 80. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-535730-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-535730-1"><bdi>978-0-19-535730-1</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 31,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=We+Can%27t+Go+Home+Again%3A+An+Argument+About+Afrocentrism&rft.pages=80&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001-06-14&rft.isbn=978-0-19-535730-1&rft.aulast=Walker&rft.aufirst=Clarence+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dn15_tf0hoT0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrances+Cress+Welsing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-theory-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-theory_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-theory_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWelsing1974" class="citation journal cs1">Welsing, Frances Cress (May 1, 1974). "The Cress Theory of Color-Confrontation". <i>The Black Scholar</i>. <b>5</b> (8): 32–40. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00064246.1974.11431416">10.1080/00064246.1974.11431416</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0006-4246">0006-4246</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Black+Scholar&rft.atitle=The+Cress+Theory+of+Color-Confrontation&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=32-40&rft.date=1974-05-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00064246.1974.11431416&rft.issn=0006-4246&rft.aulast=Welsing&rft.aufirst=Frances+Cress&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrances+Cress+Welsing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJaynes2005" class="citation book cs1">Jaynes, Gerald D. (2005). <i>Encyclopedia of African American society, Volume 1</i>. Sage. p. 34. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7619-2764-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7619-2764-8"><bdi>978-0-7619-2764-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+African+American+society%2C+Volume+1&rft.pages=34&rft.pub=Sage&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-7619-2764-8&rft.aulast=Jaynes&rft.aufirst=Gerald+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrances+Cress+Welsing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_7-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_7-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWelsing1991" class="citation book cs1">Welsing, Frances (1991). <i>Isis Papers</i>. Washington, DC: C.W Publishing. pp. i–9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60281-959-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60281-959-7"><bdi>978-1-60281-959-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Isis+Papers&rft.place=Washington%2C+DC&rft.pages=i-9&rft.pub=C.W+Publishing&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-1-60281-959-7&rft.aulast=Welsing&rft.aufirst=Frances&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrances+Cress+Welsing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/lifestyle/1990/05/02/pe-the-pigment-envy-theory/b9512f67-1976-4ca2-9473-453c0c9a17fa/">"PE THE 'PIGMENT ENVY' THEORY - The Washington Post"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=PE+THE+%27PIGMENT+ENVY%27+THEORY+-+The+Washington+Post&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Farchive%2Flifestyle%2F1990%2F05%2F02%2Fpe-the-pigment-envy-theory%2Fb9512f67-1976-4ca2-9473-453c0c9a17fa%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrances+Cress+Welsing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-map-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-map_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-map_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOrtiz_de_Montellano1993" class="citation journal cs1">Ortiz de Montellano, Bernard R. (1993). "Melanin, afrocentricity, and pseudoscience". <i>American Journal of Physical Anthropology</i>. <b>36</b> (S17): 33–58. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fajpa.1330360604">10.1002/ajpa.1330360604</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Physical+Anthropology&rft.atitle=Melanin%2C+afrocentricity%2C+and+pseudoscience&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=S17&rft.pages=33-58&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fajpa.1330360604&rft.aulast=Ortiz+de+Montellano&rft.aufirst=Bernard+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrances+Cress+Welsing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.spunk.org/texts/pubs/lr/sp001715/isispap.html">"Afrocentricity vs Homosexuality: The Isis Papers"</a>. <i>www.spunk.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 4,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.spunk.org&rft.atitle=Afrocentricity+vs+Homosexuality%3A+The+Isis+Papers&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.spunk.org%2Ftexts%2Fpubs%2Flr%2Fsp001715%2Fisispap.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrances+Cress+Welsing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFkreidler1992" class="citation journal cs1">kreidler, Marc (January 1, 1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://skepticalinquirer.org/1992/01/magic-melanin-spreading-scientific-illiteracy-among-minorities-part-ii/">"Magic Melanin: Spreading Scientific Illiteracy Among Minorities: Part II"</a>. <i>Skeptical Inquirer</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Skeptical+Inquirer&rft.atitle=Magic+Melanin%3A+Spreading+Scientific+Illiteracy+Among+Minorities%3A+Part+II&rft.date=1992-01-01&rft.aulast=kreidler&rft.aufirst=Marc&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fskepticalinquirer.org%2F1992%2F01%2Fmagic-melanin-spreading-scientific-illiteracy-among-minorities-part-ii%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrances+Cress+Welsing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-homosexuality-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-homosexuality_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLehr1999" class="citation book cs1">Lehr, Valerie (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1eKacWgOh8MC&q=%22Cress+Welsing%22+black+male+homosexuality+%22imposed%22+by+white&pg=PA108"><i>Queer Family Values: Debunking the Myth of the Nuclear Family</i></a>. Temple University Press. p. 108. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56639-684-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56639-684-4"><bdi>978-1-56639-684-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Queer+Family+Values%3A+Debunking+the+Myth+of+the+Nuclear+Family&rft.pages=108&rft.pub=Temple+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-1-56639-684-4&rft.aulast=Lehr&rft.aufirst=Valerie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1eKacWgOh8MC%26q%3D%2522Cress%2BWelsing%2522%2Bblack%2Bmale%2Bhomosexuality%2B%2522imposed%2522%2Bby%2Bwhite%26pg%3DPA108&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrances+Cress+Welsing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-death-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-death_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-death_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rollingout.com/2016/01/02/noted-author-dr-frances-cress-welsing-dies-at-80/">"Educator Frances Cress Welsing Dies at 80"</a>. Rolling Out.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 1,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Educator+Frances+Cress+Welsing+Dies+at+80&rft.pub=Rolling+Out.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frollingout.com%2F2016%2F01%2F02%2Fnoted-author-dr-frances-cress-welsing-dies-at-80%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrances+Cress+Welsing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160104181454/http://www.theroot.com/articles/news/2016/01/dr_frances_cress_welsing_dead_at_80.html">"Dr. Frances Cress Welsing Dead at 80"</a>. The Root.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theroot.com/articles/news/2016/01/dr_frances_cress_welsing_dead_at_80.html">the original</a> on January 4, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 2,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Dr.+Frances+Cress+Welsing+Dead+at+80&rft.pub=The+Root.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theroot.com%2Farticles%2Fnews%2F2016%2F01%2Fdr_frances_cress_welsing_dead_at_80.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrances+Cress+Welsing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown2016" class="citation news cs1">Brown, Stacy M. (January 4, 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.stlamerican.com/entertainment/famed-author-and-doctor-frances-cress-welsing-dies-at-80/">"Famed author and doctor Frances Cress Welsing dies at 80"</a>. <i>St. Louis American</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=St.+Louis+American&rft.atitle=Famed+author+and+doctor+Frances+Cress+Welsing+dies+at+80&rft.date=2016-01-04&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Stacy+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.stlamerican.com%2Fentertainment%2Ffamed-author-and-doctor-frances-cress-welsing-dies-at-80%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrances+Cress+Welsing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarris" class="citation news cs1">Harris, Hamil. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/social-issues/memorial-service-to-be-held-for-celebrated-controversial-frances-cress-welsing/2016/03/17/c6e35244-e619-11e5-a6f3-21ccdbc5f74e_story.html">"Memorial service to be held for celebrated, controversial Frances Cress Welsing"</a>. No. 18 March 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 26,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Memorial+service+to+be+held+for+celebrated%2C+controversial+Frances+Cress+Welsing&rft.issue=18+March+2016&rft.aulast=Harris&rft.aufirst=Hamil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Flocal%2Fsocial-issues%2Fmemorial-service-to-be-held-for-celebrated-controversial-frances-cress-welsing%2F2016%2F03%2F17%2Fc6e35244-e619-11e5-a6f3-21ccdbc5f74e_story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrances+Cress+Welsing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChappell" class="citation news cs1">Chappell, Bill. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2016/01/02/461765446/activists-mourn-race-theorist-dr-frances-cress-welsing">"Activists Mourn Race Theorist Dr. Frances Cress Welsing"</a>. No. 2 January 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 26,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Activists+Mourn+Race+Theorist+Dr.+Frances+Cress+Welsing&rft.issue=2+January+2016&rft.aulast=Chappell&rft.aufirst=Bill&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2Fsections%2Fthetwo-way%2F2016%2F01%2F02%2F461765446%2Factivists-mourn-race-theorist-dr-frances-cress-welsing&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrances+Cress+Welsing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304073044/http://www.africanholocaust.net/500/review.pdf">"500 Years Later"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. African Holocaust.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.africanholocaust.net/500/review.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on March 4, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 2,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=500+Years+Later&rft.pub=African+Holocaust.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.africanholocaust.net%2F500%2Freview.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrances+Cress+Welsing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/07/30/hidden-colors-tariq-nasheed-eric-garner-lynch_n_5632601.html">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Hidden Colors' Filmmaker Tariq Nasheed: 'Eric Garner Was Lynched'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. Huffington Post.com. July 30, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 2,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%27Hidden+Colors%27+Filmmaker+Tariq+Nasheed%3A+%27Eric+Garner+Was+Lynched%27&rft.pub=Huffington+Post.com&rft.date=2014-07-30&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.huffingtonpost.com%2F2014%2F07%2F30%2Fhidden-colors-tariq-nasheed-eric-garner-lynch_n_5632601.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrances+Cress+Welsing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Frances_Cress_Welsing&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Ortiz de Montellano, B. (2001) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.csicop.org/si/show/magic_melanin_spreading_scientific_illiteracy_among_minorities"><i>Magic Melanin: Spreading Scientific Illiteracy to Minorities</i></a>, csicop.org; accessed June 29, 2017.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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href="https://viaf.org/viaf/239878710">VIAF</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/291281/">FAST</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJwRVXcqWChRHJGG77FFrq">WorldCat</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n91088973">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007446045405171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w6rn3fg0">SNAC</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Pan-Africanism" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output 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class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;font-weight:normal;">Variants</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_nationalism" title="African nationalism">African nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_socialism" title="African socialism">African socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrocentrism" title="Afrocentrism">Afrocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-imperialism" title="Anti-imperialism">Anti-imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Western_sentiment" title="Anti-Western sentiment">Anti-Western sentiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_nationalism" title="Black nationalism">Black nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garveyism" title="Garveyism">Garveyism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nkrumaism" title="Nkrumaism">Nkrumaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sankarism" title="Sankarism">Sankarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uhuru_Movement" title="Uhuru Movement">Uhuru Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zikism" title="Zikism">Zikism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;font-weight:normal;">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_century" title="African century">African century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_power" title="Black power">Black power</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/N%C3%A9gritude" title="Négritude">Négritude</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ubuntu_philosophy" title="Ubuntu philosophy">Ubuntu</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ujamaa" title="Ujamaa">Ujamaa</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_of_Africa" title="United States of Africa">United States of Africa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Pan-Africanists" title="Category:Pan-Africanists">Proponents</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;font-weight:normal;">Politicians</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dennis_Akumu" title="Dennis Akumu">Dennis Akumu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idi_Amin" title="Idi Amin">Idi Amin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nnamdi_Azikiwe" title="Nnamdi Azikiwe">Nnamdi Azikiwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Am%C3%ADlcar_Cabral" title="Amílcar Cabral">Amílcar Cabral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Comissiong" title="David Comissiong">David Comissiong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Dessalines" title="Jean-Jacques Dessalines">Jean-Jacques Dessalines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%A9nor_Firmin" title="Anténor Firmin">Anténor Firmin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muammar_Gaddafi" title="Muammar Gaddafi">Muammar Gaddafi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Garvey" title="Marcus Garvey">Marcus Garvey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alieu_Ebrima_Cham_Joof" title="Alieu Ebrima Cham Joof">Alieu Ebrima Cham Joof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Kaunda" title="Kenneth Kaunda">Kenneth Kaunda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modibo_Ke%C3%AFta" title="Modibo Keïta">Modibo Keïta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jomo_Kenyatta" title="Jomo Kenyatta">Jomo Kenyatta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toussaint_Louverture" title="Toussaint Louverture">Toussaint Louverture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrice_Lumumba" title="Patrice Lumumba">Patrice Lumumba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samora_Machel" title="Samora Machel">Samora Machel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ochola_Ogaye_Mak%27Anyengo" title="Ochola Ogaye Mak'Anyengo">Ochola Ogaye Mak'Anyengo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thabo_Mbeki" title="Thabo Mbeki">Thabo Mbeki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Mboya" title="Tom Mboya">Tom Mboya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe">Robert Mugabe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdias_do_Nascimento" title="Abdias do Nascimento">Abdias do Nascimento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser" title="Gamal Abdel Nasser">Gamal Abdel Nasser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwame_Nkrumah" title="Kwame Nkrumah">Kwame Nkrumah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Nyerere" title="Julius Nyerere">Julius Nyerere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Nyathi_Pokela" title="John Nyathi Pokela">John Nyathi Pokela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sankara" title="Thomas Sankara">Thomas Sankara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_S%C3%A9kou_Tour%C3%A9" title="Ahmed Sékou Touré">Ahmed Sékou Touré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haile_Selassie" title="Haile Selassie">Haile Selassie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Sobukwe" title="Robert Sobukwe">Robert Sobukwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I._T._A._Wallace-Johnson" title="I. T. A. Wallace-Johnson">I. T. A. Wallace-Johnson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;font-weight:normal;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marimba_Ani" title="Marimba Ani">Marimba Ani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molefi_Kete_Asante" title="Molefi Kete Asante">Molefi Kete Asante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steve_Biko" title="Steve Biko">Steve Biko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Wilmot_Blyden" title="Edward Wilmot Blyden">Edward Wilmot Blyden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokely_Carmichael" title="Stokely Carmichael">Stokely Carmichael</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aim%C3%A9_C%C3%A9saire" title="Aimé Césaire">Aimé Césaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Henrik_Clarke" title="John Henrik Clarke">John Henrik Clarke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Delany" title="Martin Delany">Martin R. Delany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheikh_Anta_Diop" title="Cheikh Anta Diop">Cheikh Anta Diop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frantz_Fanon" title="Frantz Fanon">Frantz Fanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amy_Ashwood_Garvey" title="Amy Ashwood Garvey">Amy Ashwood Garvey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_G._Jackson_(writer)" title="John G. Jackson (writer)">John G. Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Jeffries" title="Leonard Jeffries">Leonard Jeffries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yosef_Ben-Jochannan" title="Yosef Ben-Jochannan">Yosef Ben-Jochannan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maulana_Karenga" title="Maulana Karenga">Maulana Karenga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alice_Kinloch" title="Alice Kinloch">Alice Kinloch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fela_Kuti" title="Fela Kuti">Fela Kuti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archie_Mafeje" title="Archie Mafeje">Archie Mafeje</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Mazrui" title="Ali Mazrui">Ali Mazrui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zephania_Mothopeng" title="Zephania Mothopeng">Zephania Mothopeng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Padmore" title="George Padmore">George Padmore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motsoko_Pheko" title="Motsoko Pheko">Motsoko Pheko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runoko_Rashidi" title="Runoko Rashidi">Runoko Rashidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Robeson" title="Paul Robeson">Paul Robeson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randall_Robinson" title="Randall Robinson">Randall Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Rodney" title="Walter Rodney">Walter Rodney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burning_Spear" title="Burning Spear">Burning Spear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Issa_Laye_Thiaw" title="Issa Laye Thiaw">Issa Laye Thiaw</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Frances Cress Welsing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Sylvester_Williams" title="Henry Sylvester Williams">Henry Sylvester Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amos_N._Wilson" title="Amos N. Wilson">Amos N. Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omali_Yeshitela" title="Omali Yeshitela">Omali Yeshitela</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Pan-Africanist_organizations" title="Category:Pan-Africanist organizations">Organizations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;font-weight:normal;">Educational</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Leadership_Academy" title="African Leadership Academy">African Leadership Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Leadership_University" title="African Leadership University">African Leadership University</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;font-weight:normal;">Political</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Unification_Front" title="African Unification Front">African Unification Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Union" title="African Union">African Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/All-African_People%27s_Revolutionary_Party" title="All-African People's Revolutionary Party">All-African People's Revolutionary Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/All-African_Trade_Union_Federation" title="All-African Trade Union Federation">All-African Trade Union Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conseil_de_l%27Entente" title="Conseil de l'Entente">Conseil de l'Entente</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_People%27s_Party" title="Convention People's Party">Convention People's Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_African_Community" title="East African Community">East African Community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_Freedom_Fighters" title="Economic Freedom Fighters">Economic Freedom Fighters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Pan-African_Conference" title="First Pan-African Conference">First Pan-African Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_African_Service_Bureau" title="International African Service Bureau">International African Service Bureau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organisation_of_African_Trade_Union_Unity" title="Organisation of African Trade Union Unity">Organisation of African Trade Union Unity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organisation_of_African_Unity" title="Organisation of African Unity">Organisation of African Unity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan_African_Association" title="Pan African Association">Pan African Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-African_Freedom_Movement_for_East_and_Central_Africa" title="Pan-African Freedom Movement for East and Central Africa">Pan-African Freedom Movement for East and Central Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-African_Congress" title="Pan-African Congress">Pan-African Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan_Africanist_Congress_of_Azania" title="Pan Africanist Congress of Azania">Pan Africanist Congress of Azania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_and_Social_League_of_the_Great_Sahara_Tribes" title="Popular and Social League of the Great Sahara Tribes">Popular and Social League of the Great Sahara Tribes</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rassemblement_D%C3%A9mocratique_Africain" title="Rassemblement Démocratique Africain">Rassemblement Démocratique Africain</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Negro_Improvement_Association_and_African_Communities_League" title="Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League">Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ZANU%E2%80%93PF" title="ZANU–PF">ZANU–PF</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Symbols</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Star_of_Africa" title="Black Star of Africa">Black Star of Africa</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Le_Marron_Inconnu" title="Le Marron Inconnu">Le Marron Inconnu</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lion_of_Judah" title="Lion of Judah">Lion of Judah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-African_colours" title="Pan-African colours">Pan-African colours</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-African_flag" title="Pan-African flag">Pan-African flag</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dynamics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethnic_groups_of_Africa" title="List of ethnic groups of Africa">Ethnic groups of Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Africa" title="Languages of Africa">Languages of Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Africa" title="Religion in Africa">Religion in Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_conflicts_in_Africa" title="List of conflicts in Africa">Conflicts in Africa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_leftism" title="African-American leftism">African-American leftism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africanization" title="Africanization">Africanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/All-African_Peoples%27_Conference" title="All-African Peoples' Conference">All-African Peoples' Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_African_Federation" title="East African Federation">East African Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwanzaa" title="Kwanzaa">Kwanzaa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_of_African_States" title="Union of African States">Union of African States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_of_Africa" title="United States of Africa">United States of Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_of_Latin_Africa" title="United States of Latin Africa">United States of Latin Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Year_of_Africa" title="Year of Africa">Year of Africa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" 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