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class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Behaviour in consonant clusters</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Behaviour_in_consonant_clusters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Correspondences_to_PIE" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Correspondences_to_PIE"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Correspondences to PIE</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Correspondences_to_PIE-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Grimm's law</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" 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Available in 45 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-45" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">45 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eerste_Germaanse_klankverskuiwing" title="Eerste Germaanse klankverskuiwing – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Eerste Germaanse klankverskuiwing" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lei_de_Grimm" title="Lei de Grimm – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Lei de Grimm" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Llei_de_Grimm" title="Llei de Grimm – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Llei de Grimm" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BC" title="Закон на Грим – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Закон на Грим" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Llei_de_Grimm" title="Llei de Grimm – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Llei de Grimm" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grimm%C5%AFv_z%C3%A1kon" title="Grimmův zákon – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Grimmův zákon" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanske_lydforskydning" title="Germanske lydforskydning – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Germanske lydforskydning" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erste_Lautverschiebung" title="Erste Lautverschiebung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Erste Lautverschiebung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ley_de_Grimm" title="Ley de Grimm – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Ley de Grimm" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le%C4%9Do_de_Grimm" title="Leĝo de Grimm – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Leĝo de Grimm" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lei_de_Grimm" title="Lei de Grimm – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Lei de Grimm" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Estremeñu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D9%86_%DA%AF%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%85" title="قانون گریم – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="قانون گریم" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loi_de_Grimm" title="Loi de Grimm – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Loi de Grimm" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germaanske_l%C3%BBdferskowing" title="Germaanske lûdferskowing – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Germaanske lûdferskowing" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lei_de_Grimm" title="Lei de Grimm – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Lei de Grimm" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B7%B8%EB%A6%BC%EC%9D%98_%EB%B2%95%EC%B9%99" title="그림의 법칙 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="그림의 법칙" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hukum_Grimm" title="Hukum Grimm – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Hukum Grimm" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legge_di_Grimm" title="Legge di Grimm – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Legge di Grimm" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%97%D7%95%D7%A7_%D7%92%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%9D" title="חוק גרים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="חוק גרים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BC_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D2%A3%D1%8B" title="Гримм заңы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Гримм заңы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consonantium_mutatio_Germanica" title="Consonantium mutatio Germanica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Consonantium mutatio Germanica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grimo_d%C4%97snis" title="Grimo dėsnis – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Grimo dėsnis" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lege_de_Grimm" title="Lege de Grimm – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Lege de Grimm" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leg_de_Grimm" title="Leg de Grimm – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Leg de Grimm" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Els%C5%91_germ%C3%A1n_hangeltol%C3%B3d%C3%A1s" title="Első germán hangeltolódás – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Első germán hangeltolódás" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eerste_Germaanse_klankverschuiving" title="Eerste Germaanse klankverschuiving – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Eerste Germaanse klankverschuiving" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eerste_Germaanse_klaankverskoeving" title="Eerste Germaanse klaankverskoeving – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Eerste Germaanse klaankverskoeving" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nedersaksies</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B0%E3%83%AA%E3%83%A0%E3%81%AE%E6%B3%95%E5%89%87" title="グリムの法則 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="グリムの法則" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grimms_lov" title="Grimms lov – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Grimms lov" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grimms_lov" title="Grimms lov – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Grimms lov" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%97%E0%A9%8D%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%AE_%E0%A8%A6%E0%A9%87_%E0%A8%A8%E0%A9%87%E0%A8%AE" title="ਗ੍ਰਿਮ ਦੇ ਨੇਮ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਗ੍ਰਿਮ ਦੇ ਨੇਮ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prawo_Grimma" title="Prawo Grimma – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Prawo Grimma" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lei_de_Grimm" title="Lei de Grimm – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Lei de Grimm" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legea_lui_Grimm" title="Legea lui Grimm – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Legea lui Grimm" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Закон Гримма – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Закон Гримма" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grimm%27s_law" title="Grimm's law – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Grimm's law" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grimmov_zakon" title="Grimmov zakon – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Grimmov zakon" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grimmin_laki" title="Grimmin laki – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Grimmin laki" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grimms_lag" title="Grimms lag – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Grimms lag" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%8E%E0%B8%82%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%A1%E0%B9%8C" title="กฎของกริมม์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="กฎของกริมม์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%90%D1%80%D1%96%D0%BC%D0%BC%D1%96%D0%B2_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Ґріммів закон – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Ґріммів закон" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lu%E1%BA%ADt_Grimm" title="Luật Grimm – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Luật Grimm" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A0%BC%E6%9E%97%E5%AE%9A%E5%BE%8B" title="格林定律 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="格林定律" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls mw-list-item"><a href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Aeste_Germ%C3%B4ansche_Klankverschuvienge" title="Êeste Germôansche Klankverschuvienge – West Flemish" lang="vls" hreflang="vls" data-title="Êeste Germôansche Klankverschuvienge" data-language-autonym="West-Vlams" data-language-local-name="West Flemish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>West-Vlams</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A0%BC%E6%9E%97%E5%AE%9A%E5%BE%8B" title="格林定律 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="格林定律" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q193329#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div 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#aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1092331828">@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .contains-special-characters{width:22em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right contains-special-characters noprint selfref"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/PIE_%C7%B5h.svg/40px-PIE_%C7%B5h.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/PIE_%C7%B5h.svg/60px-PIE_%C7%B5h.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/PIE_%C7%B5h.svg/80px-PIE_%C7%B5h.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="256" data-file-height="256" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><b>This article contains characters used to write reconstructed <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European</a> words (for an explanation of the notation, see <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_phonology" title="Proto-Indo-European phonology">Proto-Indo-European phonology</a>).</b> Without proper <a href="/wiki/Help:Special_characters" title="Help:Special characters">rendering support</a>, you may see <a href="/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character" title="Specials (Unicode block)">question marks, boxes, or other symbols</a> instead of <a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a> combining characters and <a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin</a> characters.</div></div> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output 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0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Grimm%27s_law" title="Special:EditPage/Grimm's law">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Grimm%27s+law%22">"Grimm's law"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Grimm%27s+law%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Grimm%27s+law%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Grimm%27s+law%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Grimm%27s+law%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Grimm%27s+law%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">February 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Grimm's law</b>, also known as the <b>First Germanic Sound Shift</b> or <b>Rask's rule</b>, is a set of <a href="/wiki/Sound_laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Sound laws">sound laws</a> describing the <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European</a> (PIE) stop consonants as they developed in <a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Germanic">Proto-Germanic</a> in the first millennium BC, first discovered by <a href="/wiki/Rasmus_Rask" title="Rasmus Rask">Rasmus Rask</a> but systematically put forward by <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Grimm" title="Jacob Grimm">Jacob Grimm</a>. It establishes a set of regular correspondences between early Germanic stops and <a href="/wiki/Fricative_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricative consonant">fricatives</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">stop consonants</a> of certain other <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European languages</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Grimm%27s_law&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Grimm's law was the first discovered systematic sound change, creating historical phonology as a <a href="/wiki/Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">historical linguistics</a> discipline. <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_von_Schlegel" class="mw-redirect" title="Friedrich von Schlegel">Friedrich von Schlegel</a> first noted the correspondence between Latin <i>p</i> and Germanic <i>f</i> in 1806. In 1818, Rasmus Rask extended the correspondences to other Indo-European languages, such as <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> and Greek, and to the full range of consonants involved. In 1822, Jacob Grimm put forth the rule in his book <i>Deutsche Grammatik</i> and extended it to include standard German. He noticed that many words had consonants different from what his law predicted. These exceptions defied linguists for several decades, until Danish linguist <a href="/wiki/Karl_Verner" title="Karl Verner">Karl Verner</a> explained them in <a href="/wiki/Verner%27s_law" title="Verner's law">Verner's law</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Grimm%27s_law&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Grimm's law consists of three parts, forming consecutive phases in the sense of a <a href="/wiki/Chain_shift" title="Chain shift">chain shift</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The phases are usually constructed as follows: </p> <ol><li>Proto-Indo-European voiceless <a href="/wiki/Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">stops</a> change into Proto-Germanic <a href="/wiki/Voicelessness" title="Voicelessness">voiceless</a> <a href="/wiki/Fricatives" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricatives">fricatives</a>.</li> <li>Proto-Indo-European voiced stops become Proto-Germanic <a href="/wiki/Voicelessness#Lack_of_voicing_contrast_in_obstruents" title="Voicelessness">voiceless stops</a>.</li> <li>Proto-Indo-European voiced aspirated stops become Proto-Germanic voiced stops or fricatives (as <a href="/wiki/Allophone" title="Allophone">allophones</a>).</li></ol> <p>This chain shift (in the order 3, 2, 1) can be abstractly represented as: </p> <ul><li><span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">bʰ</span></span> → <span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">b</span></span> → <span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">p</span></span> → ɸ</li> <li><span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">dʰ</span></span> → <span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">d</span></span> → <span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">t</span></span> → <span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">θ</span></span></li> <li><span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">gʰ</span></span> → <span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">g</span></span> → <span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">k</span></span> → <span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">x</span></span></li> <li><span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">gʷʰ</span></span> → <span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">gʷ</span></span> → <span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">kʷ</span></span> → <span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">xʷ</span></span></li></ul> <p>Here each sound moves one position to the right to take on its new sound value. Within Proto-Germanic, the sounds denoted by <span class="nowrap">⟨b⟩</span>, <span class="nowrap">⟨d⟩</span>, <span class="nowrap">⟨g⟩</span> and <span class="nowrap">⟨gw⟩</span> were stops in some environments and fricatives in others, so <span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">bʰ</span></span> → <span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">b</span></span> indicates <span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">bʰ</span></span> → <span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">b/β</span></span>, and likewise for the others. The voiceless fricatives are customarily spelled <span class="nowrap">⟨f⟩</span>, <span class="nowrap">⟨þ⟩</span>, <span class="nowrap">⟨h⟩</span> and <span class="nowrap">⟨hw⟩</span> in the context of Germanic. </p><p>The exact details of the shift are unknown, and it may have progressed in a variety of ways before arriving at the final situation. The three stages listed above show the progression of a "pull chain", in which each change leaves a "gap" in the phonological system that "pulls" other phonemes into it to fill the gap. Alternatively, the shift may have occurred as a “push chain”, where the sounds changed in reverse order, with each change "pushing" the next forward to avoid merging the phonemes. </p><p>The steps could also have occurred somewhat differently. Another possible sequence of events could have been: </p> <ol><li>Voiceless stops are allophonically aspirated under most conditions.</li> <li>Voiced stops become unaspirated voiceless stops.</li> <li>All aspirated stops become fricatives.</li></ol> <p>This sequence would lead to the same result. This variety of Grimm's law is often suggested in the context of Proto-Indo-European <a href="/wiki/Glottalic_theory" title="Glottalic theory">glottalic theory</a>, which is followed by a minority of linguists. This theoretical framework assumes that PIE "voiced stops" were actually voiceless to begin with, so that the second phase did not actually exist as such, or was not actually devoicing but was losing some other articulatory feature like <a href="/wiki/Glottalization" title="Glottalization">glottalization</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ejective" class="mw-redirect" title="Ejective">ejectiveness</a>. This alternative sequence also accounts for <a href="/wiki/Verner%27s_law" title="Verner's law">Verner's law</a> phonetics (see below), which are easier to explain within the glottalic theory framework when Grimm's law is formulated in this manner. Additionally, aspirated stops are known to have changed to fricatives when transiting between Proto-Indo-European and <a href="/wiki/Proto-Italic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Italic">Proto-Italic</a>, so representing a plausible potential change from Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_changes">Further changes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Grimm%27s_law&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Further changes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Once the sounds described by Grimm's law had changed, only one type of voiced consonant was left, with no distinction between voiced stops and voiced fricatives. They eventually became stops at the start of a word (for the most part), as well as after a nasal consonant, but fricatives elsewhere. Whether they were plosives or fricatives at first is therefore not clear. The voiced aspirated stops may have first become voiced fricatives, before becoming stops under certain conditions. But they may also have become stops at first, then become fricatives in most positions later. </p><p>Around the same time as the Grimm's law sounds shifted, another change occurred known as <a href="/wiki/Verner%27s_law" title="Verner's law">Verner's law</a>. Verner's law caused the voiceless fricatives that resulted from the Grimm's law changes to become voiced under certain conditions, creating apparent exceptions to the rule. For example: </p> <ul><li>Proto-Indo-European <i>*bʰréh₂tēr</i> ("brother") > Proto-Germanic <i>*brōþēr</i> (Old English <i>broþor</i>, Old High German <i>bruothar</i>/<i>bruodar</i>)</li> <li>Proto-Indo-European <i>*ph₂tḗr</i> ("father") > Proto-Germanic <i>*faðēr</i> (Old English <i>fæder</i>, Old High German <i>fatar</i>)</li></ul> <p>Here, the same sound <i>*t</i> appears as <i>*þ</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/θ/</span> in one word (following Grimm's law), but as <i>*d</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ð/</span> in another (apparently violating Grimm's law). See the <a href="/wiki/Verner%27s_law" title="Verner's law">Verner's law</a> article for a more detailed explanation of this discrepancy. </p><p>The early Germanic <i>*gw</i> that had arisen from Proto-Indo-European <span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine"><i>*gʷʰ</i></span></span> (and from <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><i>*kʷ</i></span> through Verner's law) further changed with various sorts: </p> <ul><li>After <i>*n</i> it was preserved as a labiovelar stop <i>*gw</i>, but later changed to a plain velar <i>*g</i> in <a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_languages" title="West Germanic languages">West Germanic</a>.</li> <li>Following vowels, it seems to have become <i>*w</i>, presumably through a fricative stage <i>*ɣʷ</i>.</li> <li>Word-initially, the most plausible reflex is labiovelar stop <i>*gʷ</i> at first, but the further development is unclear. In that position, it became either <i>*w</i>, <i>*g</i> or <i>*b</i> during late Proto-Germanic.</li> <li>The regular reflex next to <i>*u</i> would likely have been <i>*g</i>, due to the labial element before a labial vowel being lost in Proto-Indo-European, which continued to act as a <a href="/wiki/Surface_filter" title="Surface filter">surface filter</a>. (See <a href="/wiki/Bouk%C3%B3los_rule" title="Boukólos rule">boukólos rule</a>)</li></ul> <p>Perhaps the usual reflex was <i>*b</i> (as suggested by the connection of <i>bid</i> < <i>*bidjaną</i> and Old Irish <i>guidid</i>), but <i>*w</i> appears in certain cases (possibly through dissimilation when another labial consonant followed?) like <i>warm</i> and <i>wife</i> (provided that the proposed explanations are correct). Proto-Germanic <i>*hw</i> voiced by Verner's law fell together with this sound and developed identically, compare the words for 'she-wolf': from Middle High German <i>wülbe</i><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> and Old Norse <i>ylgr</i>, one can reconstruct Proto-Germanic nominative singular <i>*wulbī</i>, genitive singular <i>*wulgijōz</i>, from earlier <i>*wulgwī</i>, <i>*wulgwijōz</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="The material near this tag failed verification of its source citation(s). (October 2014)">failed verification</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Examples">Examples</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Grimm%27s_law&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Examples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Further changes following Grimm's law, as well as sound changes in other Indo-European languages, can occasionally obscure the law's effects. The most illustrative examples are used here. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Proto-Indo-European </th> <th>Meaning </th> <th>Non-Germanic (unshifted) cognates </th> <th>Change </th> <th>Proto-Germanic </th> <th>Germanic (shifted) examples </th></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/p%E1%B9%93ds" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/pṓds">*pṓds</a></span></span> </td> <td>"foot" </td> <td>Ancient Greek: πούς, ποδός (<i>poús, podós</i>), Latin: <i>pēs, pedis,</i> Sanskrit: <i>pāda</i>, Russian: под (<i>pod</i>) "under", Lithuanian: <i>pėda</i>, Latvian: <i>pēda</i>, Persian: <span title="Persian-language text"><span lang="fa" dir="rtl">پا</span></span> (pa), Serbo-Croatian: "pod" ("under; floor") and "peta" as in "heel" </td> <th>*p > f <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɸ]</span> </th> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/f%C5%8Dts" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/fōts">*fōts</a> </td> <td>English: <i>foot</i>, West Frisian: <i>foet</i>, German: <i>Fuß</i>, Gothic: <i>fōtus</i>, Icelandic, Faroese: <i>fótur</i>, Danish: <i>fod</i>, Norwegian, Swedish: <i>fot</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/tr%C3%A9yes" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/tréyes">*tréyes</a></span></span> </td> <td>"three" </td> <td>Ancient Greek: τρεῖς (<i>treîs</i>), Latin: <i>trēs</i>, Welsh: <i>tri</i>, Sanskrit: <i>tri</i>, Russian: три (<i>tri</i>), Serbo-Croatian: три̑ (<i>trȋ</i>), Lithuanian: <i>trỹs</i>, Polish: <i>trzy</i>, Albanian: <i>tre</i> </td> <th>*t > þ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[θ]</span> </th> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/%C3%BEr%C4%ABz" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/þrīz">*þrīz</a> </td> <td>English: <i>three</i>, Old Frisian: <i>thrē</i>, Old Saxon: <i>thrīe</i>, Gothic: <i>þreis</i>, Icelandic: <i>þrír</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/%E1%B8%B1w%E1%B9%93" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/ḱwṓ">*ḱwón- ~ *ḱun-</a></span></span> </td> <td>"dog" </td> <td>Ancient Greek: κύων (<i>kýōn</i>), Latin: <i>canis</i>, Sanskrit: <i>śván</i>, Welsh: <i>ci</i> (pl. <i>cŵn</i>), Serbo-Croatian: kuče, Persian: <span title="Persian-language text"><span lang="fa" dir="rtl">سگ</span></span> (sag), Russian: собака (<i>sobaka</i>) </td> <th>*k > h <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[x]</span> </th> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/hundaz" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/hundaz">*hundaz</a> </td> <td>English: <i>hound</i>, Dutch: <i>hond</i>, German: <i>Hund</i>, Gothic: <i>hunds</i>, Icelandic, Faroese: <i>hundur</i>, Danish, Norwegian, Swedish: <i>hund</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/k%CA%B7is" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/kʷis">*kʷód</a></span></span> </td> <td>"what" </td> <td>Latin: <i>quod</i>, Irish: <i>cad</i>, Sanskrit: <i>kád</i>, Russian: что (č<i>to</i>), Lithuanian: <i>kas</i>, Serbo-Croatian (Torlakian dialect): кvo (<i>kvo</i>), Serbo-Croatian (Kajkavian dialect): кај (<i>kaj</i>) </td> <th>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">kʷ</span></span> > hw <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[xʷ]</span> </th> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/hwat" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/hwat">*hwat</a> </td> <td>English: <i>what</i>, Gothic: <span title="Gothic-language romanization"><i lang="got-Latn">ƕa</i></span> ("<i>hwa</i>"), Icelandic: <i>hvað</i>, Faroese: <i>hvat</i>, Danish: <i>hvad</i>, Norwegian: <i>hva</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/h%E2%82%82%C3%A9b%C5%8Dl" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/h₂ébōl">*h₂ébōl</a></span></span> </td> <td>"apple" </td> <td>Russian: яблоко (<i>jabloko</i>), Lithuanian: <i>obuolỹs</i>, Gaulish <i>abalom</i>, Serbo-Croatian: ја̏бука (<i>jȁbuka</i>) </td> <th>*b > p <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[p]</span> </th> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/aplaz" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/aplaz">*aplaz</a> </td> <td>English: <i>apple</i>, West Frisian: <i>apel</i>, Dutch: <i>appel</i>, Icelandic: <i>epli</i>, Swedish: <i>äpple</i>, Crimean Gothic <i>apel</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/d%C3%A9%E1%B8%B1m%CC%A5t" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/déḱm̥t">*déḱm̥t</a></span></span> </td> <td>"ten" </td> <td>Latin: <i>decem</i>, Greek: δέκα (<i>déka</i>), Irish: <i>deich</i>, Sanskrit: <i>daśan</i>, Russian: десять (<i>desjat'</i>), Welsh: <i>deg</i>, Lithuanian: <i>dešimt</i>, Polish: <i>dziesięć</i> </td> <th>*d > t <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t]</span> </th> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/tehun" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/tehun">*tehun</a> </td> <td>English: <i>ten</i>, Dutch: <i>tien</i>, Gothic: <i>taíhun</i>, Icelandic: <i>tíu</i>, Faroese: <i>tíggju</i>, Danish, Norwegian: <i>ti</i>, Swedish: <i>tio</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/gel-" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/gel-">*gel-</a></span></span> </td> <td>"cold" </td> <td>Latin: <i>gelū</i>, Greek: γελανδρός (<i>gelandrós</i>), Lithuanian: <i>gelmenis, gelumà</i> </td> <th>*g > k <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[k]</span> </th> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/kaldaz" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/kaldaz">*kaldaz</a> </td> <td>English: <i>cold</i>, West Frisian: <i>kâld</i>, Dutch: <i>koud</i>, German: <i>kalt</i>, Icelandic, Faroese: <i>kaldur</i>, Danish: <i>kold</i>, Norwegian: <i>kald</i>, Swedish: <i>kall</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/g%CA%B7ih%E2%82%83w%C3%B3s" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/gʷih₃wós">*gʷih₃wós</a></span></span> </td> <td>"alive" </td> <td>Lithuanian: <i>gyvas</i>, Russian: живой (<i>živoj</i>), Sanskrit: <i>jīvá-</i>, Serbo-Croatian: жив (<i>živ</i>), Polish: <i>żywy</i> </td> <th>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">gʷ</span></span> > kw <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[kʷ]</span> </th> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/kwikwaz" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/kwikwaz">*kwi(k)waz</a> </td> <td>English: <i>quick</i>, West Frisian: <i>kwik, kwyk</i>, Dutch: <i>kwiek</i>, German: <i>keck</i>, Gothic: <i>qius</i>, Icelandic, Faroese: <i>kvikur</i>, Danish: <i>kvik</i>, Swedish: <i>kvick</i>, Norwegian <i>kvikk</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/b%CA%B0r%C3%A9h%E2%82%82t%C4%93r" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/bʰréh₂tēr">*bʰréh₂tēr</a></span></span> </td> <td>"brother" </td> <td>Sanskrit: <i>bhrātṛ</i>, Ancient Greek: φρατήρ (<i>phrātēr</i>) ("member of a brotherhood"), Latin: <i>frāter</i>, Russian, Serbo-Croatian: брат (<i>brat</i>), Lithuanian: <i>brolis</i>, Polish: <i>brat</i>, Old Church Slavonic: братръ (<i>bratr'</i>), Old Welsh: <i>braut</i>, Latvian: <i>brālis</i>, Persian: <span title="Persian-language text"><span lang="fa" dir="rtl">برادر</span></span> (barádar) </td> <th>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">bʰ</span></span> > b <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[b<span class="wrap"> </span>~<span class="wrap"> </span>β]</span> </th> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/br%C5%8D%C3%BE%C4%93r" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/brōþēr">*brōþēr</a> </td> <td>English: <i>brother</i>, West Frisian, Dutch: <i>broeder</i>, German: <i>Bruder</i>, Gothic: <i>broþar</i>, Icelandic, Faroese: <i>bróðir</i>, Danish, Norwegian, Swedish: <i>broder</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/m%C3%A9d%CA%B0u" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/médʰu">*médʰu</a></span></span> </td> <td>"honey" </td> <td>Sanskrit: <i>mádhu</i>, Homeric Greek: μέθυ (<i>methu</i>), Lithuanian: <i>medus</i>, Russian: мёд (mjod), Serbo-Croatian: мед (<i>med</i>), Polish: <i>miód</i> </td> <th>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">dʰ</span></span> > d <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[d<span class="wrap"> </span>~<span class="wrap"> </span>ð]</span> </th> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/meduz" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/meduz">*meduz</a> </td> <td>English: <i>mead</i>, East Frisian: <i>meede</i>, Dutch: <i>mede</i>, German: <i>Met</i>, Danish, Norwegian: <i>mjød</i>, Icelandic: <i>mjöður</i> , Swedish: <i>mjöd</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/steyg%CA%B0-" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/steygʰ-">*steygʰ-</a></span></span> </td> <td>"walk, step" </td> <td>Sanskrit: <i>stighnoti</i>, Ancient Greek: στείχειν (<i>steíkhein),</i> Russian: ступать/ступить (<i>stupat'/stupit'</i>) "walk/step" </td> <th>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">gʰ</span></span> > g <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɡ<span class="wrap"> </span>~<span class="wrap"> </span>ɣ]</span> </th> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/st%C4%ABgan%C4%85" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/stīganą">*stīganą</a> </td> <td>Old English: <i>stīgan</i>, Dutch: <i>stijgen</i>, German: <i>steigen</i>, Icelandic, Faroese: <i>stíga</i>, Danish, Norwegian: <i>stige</i>, Gothic <i>steigan</i> (all meaning "ascend, climb") </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/%C7%B5%CA%B0ans-" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/ǵʰans-">*ǵʰans-</a></span></span> </td> <td>"goose" </td> <td>Latin: <i>anser</i> < <i>*hanser</i>, Ancient Greek: χήν (<i>chēn</i>), Sanskrit: <i>hamsa</i> ("swan"), Lithuanian: <i>žąsis</i> (older <i>žansis</i>), Russian: гусь (<i>gus'</i>), Persian: <span title="Persian-language text"><span lang="fa" dir="rtl">غاز</span></span> (ğaz), Serbo-Croatian: гуска (<i>guska</i>), Polish: <i>gęś</i> </td> <th>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">gʰ</span></span> > g <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɡ<span class="wrap"> </span>~<span class="wrap"> </span>ɣ]</span> </th> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/gans" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/gans">*gans-</a> </td> <td>English: <i>goose</i>, West Frisian: <i>goes</i>, <i>guos</i>, Dutch: <i>gans</i>, German: <i>Gans</i>, Icelandic: <i>gæs</i>, Faroese: <i>gás</i>, Danish, Norwegian, Swedish: <i>gås</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/seng%CA%B7%CA%B0-" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/sengʷʰ-">*sengʷʰ-</a></span></span> </td> <td>"sing" </td> <td>Homeric Greek: <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ὀμφή</span></span> (<i>omphē</i>) "voice" </td> <th>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">gʷʰ</span></span> > gw <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɡʷ]</span><br />(After <i>n</i>) </th> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/singwan%C4%85" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/singwaną">*singwaną</a> </td> <td>English: <i>sing</i>, West Frisian: <i>sjonge</i>, Dutch: <i>zingen</i>, German: <i>singen</i>, Gothic: <i>siggwan</i>, Old Icelandic: <i>syngva</i>, <i>syngja</i>, Icelandic, Faroese: <i>syngja</i>, Swedish: <i>sjunga</i>, Danish: <i>synge</i>, <i>sjunge</i> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>This process appears strikingly regular. Each phase involves one single change which applies equally to the labials (<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">p, b, bʰ, f</span></span>) and their equivalent dentals (<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">t, d, dʰ, þ</span></span>), velars (<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">k, g, gʰ, h</span></span>) and rounded velars (<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">kʷ, gʷ, gʷʰ, hʷ</span></span>). The first phase left the phoneme repertoire of the language without voiceless stops, the second phase filled this gap, but created a new one, and so on until the chain had run its course. </p><p><br /> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Behaviour_in_consonant_clusters">Behaviour in consonant clusters</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Grimm%27s_law&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Behaviour in consonant clusters"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When two obstruents occurred in a pair, the first was changed according to Grimm's law, if possible, while the second was not. If either of the two was voiceless, the whole cluster was devoiced, and the first obstruent also lost its labialisation, if it was present. </p><p>Most examples of this occurred with obstruents preceded by *s (resulting in *sp, *st, *sk, *skʷ), or obstruents followed by *t (giving *ft, *ss, *ht, *ht) or *s (giving *fs, *ss, *hs, *hs). The latter change was frequent in suffixes, and became a phonotactic restriction known as the <a href="/wiki/Germanic_spirant_law" title="Germanic spirant law">Germanic spirant law</a>. This rule remained productive throughout the Proto-Germanic period. The cluster *tt became *ss (as in many Indo-European daughter languages), but this was often restored analogically to *st later on. </p><p>Examples with preceding *s: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Non-Germanic examples </th> <th>Change </th> <th>Germanic examples </th></tr> <tr> <td>Latin: <i>spuere,</i> Lithuanian: <i>spjáuti</i> </td> <th>*sp </th> <td>English: <i>spew,</i> West Frisian: <i>spije</i>, Dutch: <i>spuwen</i>, German: <i>speien,</i> Danish, Norwegian, Swedish: <i>spy,</i> Icelandic: <i>spýja</i>, Faroese: <i>spýggja</i>, Gothic: <i>speiwan</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Latin: <i>stāre</i>, Irish: <i>stad</i>, Sanskrit: <i>sta</i>, Russian: стать (<i>stat'</i>), Lithuanian: <i>stoti</i>, Persian: <span title="Persian-language text"><span lang="fa" dir="rtl">ايستادن</span></span> (<i>istâdan</i>) </td> <th>*st </th> <td>English: <i>stand</i>, Icelandic, Faroese, Norwegian: <i>standa</i>, Gothic: <i>standan</i>; West Frisian: <i>stean</i>, Dutch: <i>staan</i>, German: <i>stehen</i>, Danish, Swedish: <i>stå</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Lithuanian: <i>skurdus</i> </td> <th>*sk </th> <td>English: <i>short</i>, Old High German: <i>scurz</i>, Icelandic: <i>skorta</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Irish: <i>scéal</i> </td> <th>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">skʷ</span></span> </th> <td>English: <i>scold,</i> Icelandic: <i>skáld,</i> Norwegian: <i>skald</i>; West Frisian: <i>skelle</i>, Dutch: <i>schelden</i>, German: <i>schelten</i> </td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li>Some linguists dispute the origin of the word "scold", but <a href="/wiki/Julius_Pokorny" title="Julius Pokorny">Julius Pokorny</a>, among others, proposed *skʷetlo as the assumed root.</li> <li>Several languages, including <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a>, later have an unrelated change <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/sk/</span> > <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʃ/</span> (or > <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/sx/</span> in the case of <a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a>).</li></ul> <p>Examples with following *t: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Non-Germanic examples </th> <th>Change </th> <th>Germanic examples </th></tr> <tr> <td>Ancient Greek: κλέπτης (<i>kleptēs</i>), Old Prussian: <i>au-klipts</i> "hidden" </td> <th>*pt→ft </th> <td>Gothic: <i>hliftus</i> "thief" </td></tr> <tr> <td>Latin: <i>atta</i>, Greek: ἄττα (<i>átta</i>) </td> <th>*tt→tt </th> <td>Old High German: <i>atto</i>, Gothic: <i>atta</i> "father" </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ancient Greek: ὀκτώ (<i>oktō</i>), Irish: <i>ocht</i>, Latin: <i>octō</i> </td> <th>*kt→ht </th> <td>English: <i>eight</i>, West Frisian, Dutch, German: <i>acht</i>, Gothic: <i>ahtáu</i>, Icelandic: <i>átta</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Irish: <i>anocht</i>, Latin: <i>nox, noct-</i>, Greek: νύξ, νυκτ- (<i>núks, nukt-),</i> Sanskrit: नक्तम् (<i>naktam</i>), Lithuanian: <i>naktis,</i> Hittite (genitive): <i>nekuz</i> (pronounced <i><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/nekʷts/</span></i>) </td> <th>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">kʷt</span></span>→ht </th> <td>English: <i>night</i>, West Frisian, Dutch, German: <i>Nacht</i>, Gothic: <i>nahts</i>, Icelandic: <i>nótt</i> </td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li>Icelandic <i>nótt</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="is-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Icelandic" title="Help:IPA/Icelandic">[nouht]</a></span> comes from Old Norse <i>nǫ́tt</i>, <i>nátt</i>, from Proto-Germanic <i>*naht-</i>. The Germanic <i>*ht</i> regularly becomes Old Norse <i>tt</i>, and this then becomes preaspirated in Icelandic. Thus, the <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[h]</span> of the modern Icelandic form is not Germanic <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/h/</span>'s direct descendant.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The same ancestry holds for Icelandic <i>átta'</i>s <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tt/</span> as well.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Correspondences_to_PIE">Correspondences to PIE</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Grimm%27s_law&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Correspondences to PIE"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Germanic "sound laws", combined with regular changes reconstructed for other Indo-European languages, allow one to define the expected sound correspondences between different branches of the family. For example, Germanic (word-initial) *b- corresponds regularly to Latin <i>*f-</i>, Greek <i><span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">pʰ-</span></span></i>, <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> <i><span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">bʰ-</span></span></i>, <a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Baltic_languages" title="Baltic languages">Baltic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Celtic_languages" title="Celtic languages">Celtic</a> <i>b-</i>, etc., while Germanic <i>*f-</i> corresponds to Latin, Greek, Sanskrit, Slavic and Baltic <i>p-</i> and to zero (no initial consonant) in Celtic. The former set goes back to PIE *<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">bʰ-</span></span> (faithfully reflected in Sanskrit and modified in various ways elsewhere), and the latter set to PIE *p- (shifted in Germanic, lost in Celtic, but preserved in the other groups mentioned here). </p><p>One of the more conspicuous present surface correspondences is the English <a href="/wiki/Digraph_(orthography)" title="Digraph (orthography)">digraph</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Wh_(digraph)" class="mw-redirect" title="Wh (digraph)">wh</a></i> and the corresponding Latin and Romance digraph <i><a href="/wiki/Qu_(digraph)" class="mw-redirect" title="Qu (digraph)">qu</a></i>, notably found in <a href="/wiki/Interrogative_word" title="Interrogative word">interrogative words</a> (<a href="/wiki/Wh-word" class="mw-redirect" title="Wh-word"><i>wh</i>-words</a>) such as the <a href="/wiki/Five_Ws" title="Five Ws">five Ws</a>. These both come from <span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">kʷ</span></span>. The present pronunciations have further changed, like many English varieties <a href="/wiki/Wh-cluster_reductions" class="mw-redirect" title="Wh-cluster reductions">reducing the <i>wh</i>-cluster</a>, though the spellings reflect the history more; see <a href="/wiki/English_interrogative_words#Etymology" title="English interrogative words">English interrogative words: Etymology</a> for details. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Grimm%27s_law&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/High_German_consonant_shift" title="High German consonant shift">High German consonant shift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glottalic_theory" title="Glottalic theory">Glottalic theory</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Tuscan_gorgia" title="Tuscan gorgia">Tuscan gorgia</a>, a similar evolution differentiating the <a href="/wiki/Tuscan_dialect" title="Tuscan dialect">Tuscan dialects</a> from <a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Standard Italian</a>.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Uralic_languages" title="Uralic languages">Uralic</a> <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_language" title="Hungarian language">Hungarian language</a> was also affected by a similar process, leading to a high frequency of <i>f</i> and <i>h</i>, and can be compared to <a href="/wiki/Finnish_language" title="Finnish language">Finnish</a>, which did not change this way.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_language" title="Armenian language">Armenian</a>, another Indo-European language, has experienced a similar evolution.</li> <li>A rare <a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a> language following something similar is <a href="/wiki/Chamorro_language" title="Chamorro language">Chamorro</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stigler%27s_law_of_eponymy" title="Stigler's law of eponymy">Stigler's law of eponymy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grassmann%27s_law" title="Grassmann's law">Grassmann's law</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Grimm%27s_law&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFCampbell2004" class="citation book cs1">Campbell, Lyle (2004). <i>Historical linguistics</i> (2nd ed.). Cambridge: MIT Press. p. 49. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-262-53267-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-262-53267-0"><bdi>0-262-53267-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+linguistics&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=49&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-262-53267-0&rft.aulast=Campbell&rft.aufirst=Lyle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGrimm%27s+law" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuiper1995" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/F._B._J._Kuiper" title="F. B. J. Kuiper">Kuiper, F. B. J.</a> (1995). "Gothic 'bagms' and Old Icelandic 'ylgr'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>". <i>NOWELE</i>. <b>25</b> (1): 63–88. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1075%2Fnowele.25.04kui">10.1075/nowele.25.04kui</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NOWELE&rft.atitle=Gothic+%27bagms%27+and+Old+Icelandic+%27ylgr%27&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=63-88&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1075%2Fnowele.25.04kui&rft.aulast=Kuiper&rft.aufirst=F.+B.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGrimm%27s+law" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.etymonline.com/search?q=night">"night"</a>. <i>Online Etymology Dictionary</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Online+Etymology+Dictionary&rft.atitle=night&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2Fsearch%3Fq%3Dnight&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGrimm%27s+law" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.etymonline.com/search?q=eight">"eight"</a>. <i>Online Etymology Dictionary</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Online+Etymology+Dictionary&rft.atitle=eight&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2Fsearch%3Fq%3Deight&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGrimm%27s+law" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Grimm%27s_law&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Grimms-law">Grimm's law</a> at <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Germanic_languages" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output 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.navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Germanic_languages" title="Template:Germanic languages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Germanic_languages" title="Template talk:Germanic languages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Germanic_languages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Germanic languages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Germanic_languages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>According to contemporary <a href="/wiki/Germanic_philology" title="Germanic philology">philology</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="West" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_languages" title="West Germanic languages">West</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Frisian_languages" title="Anglo-Frisian languages">Anglo-Frisian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anglic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglic languages">Anglic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dialects_of_English" class="mw-redirect" title="Dialects of English">dialects</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_English" title="Middle English">Middle English</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Modern_English" title="Modern English">Modern English</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_English" title="Early Modern English">Early Modern English</a></i></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><i>Irish Middle English</i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Fingallian" title="Fingallian">Fingallian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kildare_Poems#Linguistic_features" title="Kildare Poems">Kildare</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yola_dialect" title="Yola dialect">Yola</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scots_language" title="Scots language">Scots</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Early_Scots" title="Early Scots">Early Scots</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_Scots" title="Middle Scots">Middle Scots</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Frisian_languages" title="Frisian languages">Frisian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Frisian" title="Old Frisian">Old Frisian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_Frisian" title="Middle Frisian">Middle Frisian</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/East_Frisian_language" title="East Frisian language">East Frisian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Ems <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saterland_Frisian_language" title="Saterland Frisian language">Saterland Frisian</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>Weser</i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Wangerooge_Frisian" title="Wangerooge Frisian">Wangerooge Frisian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wursten_Frisian" title="Wursten Frisian">Wursten Frisian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Harlingerland_Frisian" title="Harlingerland Frisian">Harlingerland Frisian</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/North_Frisian_language" title="North Frisian language">North Frisian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Insular <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Eiderstedt_Frisian" title="Eiderstedt Frisian">Eiderstedt</a></i></li> <li>Föhr–Amrum <ul><li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%B6hr_North_Frisian" title="Föhr North Frisian">Föhr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amrum_North_Frisian" title="Amrum North Frisian">Amrum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heligoland_Frisian" title="Heligoland Frisian">Heligolandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylt_North_Frisian" title="Sylt North Frisian">Sylt</a></li></ul></li> <li>Mainland <ul><li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%B6kingharde_North_Frisian" title="Bökingharde North Frisian">Bökingharde</a> <ul><li>Mooring</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halligen_Frisian" title="Halligen Frisian">Halligen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goesharde_Frisian" title="Goesharde Frisian">Goesharde</a> <ul><li>Northern</li> <li>Central</li> <li><i>Southern</i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karrharde_Frisian" title="Karrharde Frisian">Karrharde</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Strand_Frisian" title="Strand Frisian">Strand</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wiedingharde_Frisian" title="Wiedingharde Frisian">Wiedingharde</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/West_Frisian_languages" title="West Frisian languages">West Frisian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindeloopen_Frisian" title="Hindeloopen Frisian">Hindeloopen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schiermonnikoog_Frisian" title="Schiermonnikoog Frisian">Schiermonnikoog</a></li> <li>Westlauwers–Terschellings <ul><li><a href="/wiki/West_Frisian_language" title="West Frisian language">Mainland West Frisian</a> <ul><li>Clay Frisian</li> <li>Wood Frisian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Westereendersk" title="Westereendersk">Westereendersk</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terschelling_Frisian" title="Terschelling Frisian">Terschelling</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Low_German" title="Low German">Low German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Saxon" title="Old Saxon">Old Saxon</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_Low_German" title="Middle Low German">Middle Low German</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/West_Low_German" class="mw-redirect" title="West Low German">West Low German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Low_Saxon" title="Dutch Low Saxon">Dutch Low Saxon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stellingwarfs_dialect" title="Stellingwarfs dialect">Stellingwarfs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tweants_dialect" title="Tweants dialect">Tweants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gronings_dialect" title="Gronings dialect">Gronings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dr%C3%A8ents_dialects" title="Drèents dialects">Drèents</a></li> <li>Gelders-Overijssels <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achterhooks" title="Achterhooks">Achterhooks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sallaans_dialect" title="Sallaans dialect">Sallaans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urkers_dialect" title="Urkers dialect">Urkers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veluws_dialect" title="Veluws dialect">Veluws</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Low_Saxon" title="Northern Low Saxon">Northern Low Saxon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Frisian_Low_Saxon" title="East Frisian Low Saxon">East Frisian Low Saxon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastphalian_language" title="Eastphalian language">Eastphalian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westphalian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Westphalian language">Westphalian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/East_Low_German" title="East Low German">East Low German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch_dialect" title="Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch dialect">Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brandenburgisch_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Brandenburgisch dialect">Brandenburgisch</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Central_Pomeranian&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Central Pomeranian (page does not exist)">Central Pomeranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Pomeranian" class="mw-redirect" title="East Pomeranian">East Pomeranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low_Prussian_dialect" title="Low Prussian dialect">Low Prussian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plautdietsch" title="Plautdietsch">Plautdietsch / Mennonite Low German</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Low_Franconian" title="Low Franconian">Low Franconian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frankish_language" title="Frankish language">Frankish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Dutch" title="Old Dutch">Old Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Dutch" title="Middle Dutch">Middle Dutch</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Standard_language" title="Standard language">Standard variants</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrikaans" title="Afrikaans">Afrikaans</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kaaps" title="Kaaps">Kaaps</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">West Low Franconian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Dutch_dialects" title="Central Dutch dialects">Central Dutch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hollandic_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Hollandic dialect">Hollandic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Flemish" title="West Flemish">West Flemish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_Flemish" title="French Flemish">French Flemish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeelandic" title="Zeelandic">Zeelandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Flemish" title="East Flemish">East Flemish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brabantian_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Brabantian dialect">Brabantian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleverlandish" title="Kleverlandish">Kleverlandish</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Surinamese_Dutch" title="Surinamese Dutch">Surinamese Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jersey_Dutch_language" title="Jersey Dutch language">Jersey Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohawk_Dutch" title="Mohawk Dutch">Mohawk Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stadsfries_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Stadsfries dialects">Stadsfries</a>/<a href="/wiki/Bildts" title="Bildts">Bildts</a>/<a href="/wiki/Amelands" title="Amelands">Amelands</a>/<a href="/w/index.php?title=Midslands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Midslands (page does not exist)">Midslands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/South_Low_Franconian" title="South Low Franconian">East Low Franconian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Limburgish" title="Limburgish">Limburgish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cover groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bergish_dialects" title="Bergish dialects">Bergish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meuse-Rhenish" title="Meuse-Rhenish">Meuse-Rhenish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/High_German_languages" title="High German languages">High German</a> <br /> (<a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_High_German" title="Old High German">Old High German</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_High_German" title="Middle High German">Middle High German</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/New_High_German" title="New High German">New High German</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Early_New_High_German" title="Early New High German">Early New High German</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Standard_German" title="Standard German">Standard German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_Standard_German" title="German Standard German">German Standard German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_German" title="Austrian German">Austrian Standard German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_Standard_German" title="Swiss Standard German">Swiss Standard German</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-<a href="/wiki/Standard_language" title="Standard language">standard variants</a><br /> and <a href="/wiki/Creole_language" title="Creole language">creoles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Namibian_German" class="mw-redirect" title="Namibian German">Namibian German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Namibian_Black_German" title="Namibian Black German">Namibian Black German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_German" title="Berlin German">Berlinerisch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unserdeutsch" title="Unserdeutsch">Unserdeutsch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barossa_German" title="Barossa German">Barossa German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotwelsch" title="Rotwelsch">Rotwelsch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lotegorisch" title="Lotegorisch">Lotegorisch</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yenish_language" title="Yenish language">Yenish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_dialects#Eastern_Yiddish" title="Yiddish dialects">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_dialects#Western_Yiddish" title="Yiddish dialects">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Scotland#"Scots-Yiddish"" title="History of the Jews in Scotland">Scots Yiddish</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Klezmer-loshn" title="Klezmer-loshn">Klezmer-loshn</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lachoudisch" title="Lachoudisch">Lachoudisch</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Central_German" title="Central German">Central German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/West_Central_German" title="West Central German">West Central German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Franconian_languages" title="Central Franconian languages">Central Franconian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ripuarian_language" title="Ripuarian language">Ripuarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colognian_dialect" title="Colognian dialect">Colognian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Limburgish_dialect" title="Southeast Limburgish dialect">Southeast Limburgish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moselle_Franconian_language" title="Moselle Franconian language">Moselle Franconian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Luxembourgish" title="Luxembourgish">Luxembourgish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transylvanian_Saxon_dialect" title="Transylvanian Saxon dialect">Transylvanian Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunsr%C3%BCckisch_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Hunsrückisch dialect">Hunsrückisch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hunsrik" title="Hunsrik">Hunsrik</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhenish_Franconian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhenish Franconian languages">Rhine Franconian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lorraine_Franconian" title="Lorraine Franconian">Lorraine Franconian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palatine_German_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Palatine German language">Palatine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Volga_Germans#Language" title="Volga Germans">Volga German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Dutch_language" title="Pennsylvania Dutch language">Pennsylvania Dutch</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hessian_dialects" title="Hessian dialects">Hessian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Hessian" title="Central Hessian">Central Hessian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amana_German" title="Amana German">Amana German</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/East_Central_German" title="East Central German">East Central German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thuringian_dialect" title="Thuringian dialect">Thuringian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Saxon_German" title="Upper Saxon German">Upper Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erzgebirgisch" title="Erzgebirgisch">Erzgebirgisch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lusatian_dialects" title="Lusatian dialects">Lusatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silesian_German" title="Silesian German">Silesian German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Prussian_dialect" title="High Prussian dialect">High Prussian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wymysorys_language" title="Wymysorys language">Wymysorys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alzenau_dialect" title="Alzenau dialect">Halcnovian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Upper_German" title="Upper German">Upper German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alemannic_German" title="Alemannic German">Alemannic</a> in the broad sense <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Low_Alemannic_German" title="Low Alemannic German">Low Alemannic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alsatian_dialect" title="Alsatian dialect">Alsatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonia_Tovar_dialect" title="Colonia Tovar dialect">Coloniero</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Alemannic_German" title="High Alemannic German">High Alemannic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_German" title="Swiss German">Swiss German</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highest_Alemannic_German" title="Highest Alemannic German">Highest Alemannic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Walser_German" title="Walser German">Walser German</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swabian_German" title="Swabian German">Swabian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bavarian_language" title="Bavarian language">Bavarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Bavarian" title="Northern Bavarian">Northern Bavarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Bavarian" title="Central Bavarian">Central Bavarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viennese_German" title="Viennese German">Viennese German</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Bavarian" title="Southern Bavarian">Southern Bavarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_Tyrolean_dialect" title="South Tyrolean dialect">South Tyrolean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cimbrian_language" title="Cimbrian language">Cimbrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C3%B2cheno_language" title="Mòcheno language">Mòcheno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hutterite_German" title="Hutterite German">Hutterite German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottscheerish" title="Gottscheerish">Gottscheerish</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Franconian_German" title="South Franconian German">South Franconian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Franconian_German" title="East Franconian German">East Franconian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vogtlandian" title="Vogtlandian">Vogtlandian</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lombardic_language" title="Lombardic language">Langobardic</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="North_and_East" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North</a> and <a href="/wiki/East_Germanic_languages" title="East Germanic languages">East</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Proto-Norse_language" title="Proto-Norse language">Proto-Norse</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse" title="Old Norse">Old Norse</a></i> <ul><li><i>Old West Norse</i></li> <li><i>Old East Norse</i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Gutnish" title="Old Gutnish">Old Gutnish</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">West</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_language" title="Norwegian language">Norwegian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bergensk" title="Bergensk">Bergensk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kebabnorsk" title="Kebabnorsk">Kebabnorsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sognam%C3%A5l_dialect" title="Sognamål dialect">Sognamål</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tr%C3%B8ndersk" title="Trøndersk">Trøndersk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hallingm%C3%A5l-Valdris" title="Hallingmål-Valdris">Valdris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vestlandsk" title="Vestlandsk">Vestlandsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vikv%C3%A6rsk" class="mw-redirect" title="Vikværsk">Vikværsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bokm%C3%A5l" title="Bokmål">Bokmål</a> (written)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nynorsk" title="Nynorsk">Nynorsk</a> (written)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Norwegian" title="Old Norwegian">Old Norwegian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_Norwegian" title="Middle Norwegian">Middle Norwegian</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faroese_language" title="Faroese language">Faroese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icelandic_language" title="Icelandic language">Icelandic</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse#Old_Icelandic" title="Old Norse">Old Icelandic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Icelandic#Middle_Icelandic_(1350–1550)" title="History of Icelandic">Middle Icelandic</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Greenlandic_Norse" title="Greenlandic Norse">Greenlandic Norse</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Norn_language" title="Norn language">Norn</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">East</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_language" title="Swedish language">Swedish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_dialects" title="Swedish dialects">Swedish dialects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rinkeby_Swedish" title="Rinkeby Swedish">Rinkebysvenska</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_language" title="Danish language">Danish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Danish_dialects" title="Danish dialects">Danish dialects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insular_Danish" title="Insular Danish">Insular Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jutlandic_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Jutlandic dialect">Jutlandic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_Jutlandic" title="South Jutlandic">South Jutlandic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Danish" title="East Danish">East Danish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bornholm_dialect" title="Bornholm dialect">Bornholmsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scanian_dialect" title="Scanian dialect">Scanian</a> (historically)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Schleswig_Danish" title="Southern Schleswig Danish">Southern Schleswig Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B8tudanskt_accent" title="Gøtudanskt accent">Gøtudanskt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perkerdansk" title="Perkerdansk">Perkerdansk</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Danish" title="History of Danish">Old Danish</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Danish" title="History of Danish">Middle Danish</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalecarlian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Dalecarlian language">Dalecarlian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elfdalian" title="Elfdalian">Elfdalian</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Gutnish <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gutnish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Gutnish language">Mainland Gutnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A5r%C3%B6m%C3%A5l_dialect" title="Fårömål dialect">Fårö Gutnish</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/East_Germanic_languages" title="East Germanic languages">East</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Gothic_language" title="Gothic language">Gothic</a></i> (<i><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Gothic" title="Crimean Gothic">Crimean Gothic</a></i>)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Burgundians#Language" title="Burgundians">Burgundian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vandalic_language" title="Vandalic language">Vandalic</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Philology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Germanic_philology" title="Germanic philology">Philology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Maurer_(linguist)" title="Friedrich Maurer (linguist)">Language subgroups</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Germanic_languages" title="East Germanic languages">East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_languages" title="West Germanic languages">West</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elbe_Germanic" title="Elbe Germanic">Elbe (Irminonic)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weser-Rhine_Germanic" class="mw-redirect" title="Weser-Rhine Germanic">Weser-Rhine (Istvaeonic)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Sea_Germanic" title="North Sea Germanic">North Sea (Ingvaeonic)</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Germanic" title="Northwest Germanic">Northwest</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gotho-Nordic" class="mw-redirect" title="Gotho-Nordic">Gotho-Nordic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/South_Germanic" title="South Germanic">South</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reconstructed</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_language" title="Proto-Germanic language">Proto-Germanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_grammar" title="Proto-Germanic grammar">Proto-Germanic grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_parent_language" title="Germanic parent language">Germanic parent language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Belgian_language" title="Ancient Belgian language">Ancient Belgian language</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Diachronic features</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Grimm's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verner%27s_law" title="Verner's law">Verner's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holtzmann%27s_law" title="Holtzmann's law">Holtzmann's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sievers%27s_law" title="Sievers's law">Sievers's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kluge%27s_law" title="Kluge's law">Kluge's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_substrate_hypothesis" title="Germanic substrate hypothesis">Germanic substrate hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_gemination" title="West Germanic gemination">West Germanic gemination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_German_consonant_shift" title="High German consonant shift">High German consonant shift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_a-mutation" title="Germanic a-mutation">Germanic a-mutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_umlaut" title="Germanic umlaut">Germanic umlaut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_spirant_law" title="Germanic spirant law">Germanic spirant law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ingvaeonic_nasal_spirant_law" title="Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law">Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Vowel_Shift" title="Great Vowel Shift">Great Vowel Shift</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Synchronic features</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic verb">Germanic verb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb" title="Germanic strong verb">Germanic strong verb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_weak_verb" title="Germanic weak verb">Germanic weak verb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_verb#Preterite-presents" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic verb">Preterite-present verb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grammatischer_Wechsel" title="Grammatischer Wechsel">Grammatischer Wechsel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_ablaut" title="Indo-European ablaut">Indo-European ablaut</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><i>Italics</i> indicate <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">extinct languages</a></li> <li>Languages between parentheses are <a href="/wiki/Variety_(linguistics)" title="Variety (linguistics)">varieties</a> of the language on their left.</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="The_Brothers_Grimm" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Brothers_Grimm" title="Template:Brothers Grimm"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Brothers_Grimm" title="Template talk:Brothers Grimm"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Brothers_Grimm" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Brothers Grimm"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="The_Brothers_Grimm" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Brothers_Grimm" title="Brothers Grimm">The Brothers Grimm</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><b><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Grimm" title="Jacob Grimm">Jacob Grimm</a></b> · <b><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Grimm" title="Wilhelm Grimm">Wilhelm Grimm</a></b></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Grimms%27_Fairy_Tales" title="Grimms' Fairy Tales">Grimms' Fairy Tales</a></i></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Deutsche_Sagen" title="Deutsche Sagen">Deutsche Sagen</a></i></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Deutsche_Mythologie" title="Deutsche Mythologie">Deutsche Mythologie</a></i></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Deutsches_W%C3%B6rterbuch" title="Deutsches Wörterbuch">Deutsches Wörterbuch</a></i></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Notable<br /> tales</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/Bearskin_(German_fairy_tale)" title="Bearskin (German fairy tale)">Bearskin</a>"</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/The_Brave_Little_Tailor" title="The Brave Little Tailor">The Brave Little Tailor</a>"</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/Brother_and_Sister" title="Brother and Sister">Brother and Sister</a>"</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/Cat_and_Mouse_in_Partnership" title="Cat and Mouse in Partnership">Cat and Mouse in Partnership</a>"</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/Cinderella" title="Cinderella">Cinderella</a>"</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/The_Devil_with_the_Three_Golden_Hairs" title="The Devil with the Three Golden Hairs">The Devil with the Three Golden Hairs</a>"</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/Doctor_Know-all" title="Doctor Know-all">Doctor Know-all</a>"</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/The_Dog_and_the_Sparrow" title="The Dog and the Sparrow">The Dog and the Sparrow</a>"</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/The_Elves_and_the_Shoemaker" title="The Elves and the Shoemaker">The Elves and the Shoemaker</a>"</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/The_Fisherman_and_His_Wife" title="The Fisherman and His Wife">The Fisherman and His Wife</a>"</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/The_Four_Skillful_Brothers" title="The Four Skillful Brothers">The Four Skillful Brothers</a>"</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/The_Frog_Prince" title="The Frog Prince">The Frog Prince</a>"</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/The_Gnome_(fairy_tale)" title="The Gnome (fairy tale)">The Gnome</a>"</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/Godfather_Death" title="Godfather Death">Godfather Death</a>"</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/The_Golden_Bird" title="The Golden Bird">The Golden Bird</a>"</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/The_Golden_Goose" title="The Golden Goose">The Golden Goose</a>"</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/The_Goose_Girl" title="The Goose Girl">The Goose Girl</a>"</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/The_Goose-Girl_at_the_Well" title="The Goose-Girl at the Well">The Goose-Girl at the Well</a>"</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/The_Grave_Mound" title="The Grave Mound">The Grave Mound</a>"</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/Hans_My_Hedgehog" title="Hans My Hedgehog">Hans My Hedgehog</a>"</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/Hansel_and_Gretel" title="Hansel and Gretel">Hansel and Gretel</a>"</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/The_Hut_in_the_Forest" title="The Hut in the Forest">The Hut in the Forest</a>"</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/The_Jew_Among_Thorns" title="The Jew Among Thorns">The Jew Among Thorns</a>"</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/Jorinde_and_Joringel" title="Jorinde and Joringel">Jorinde and Joringel</a>"</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/The_Juniper_Tree_(fairy_tale)" title="The Juniper Tree (fairy tale)">The Juniper Tree</a>"</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/The_King_of_the_Golden_Mountain" title="The King of the Golden Mountain">The King of the Golden Mountain</a>"</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/King_Thrushbeard" title="King Thrushbeard">King Thrushbeard</a>"</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/Little_Red_Riding_Hood" title="Little Red Riding Hood">Little Red Riding Hood</a>"</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/Mary%27s_Child" title="Mary's Child">Mary's Child</a>"</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/Frau_Holle" title="Frau Holle">Mother Holle</a>"</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/Old_Hildebrand" title="Old Hildebrand">Old Hildebrand</a>"</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/Old_Sultan" title="Old Sultan">Old Sultan</a>"</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/Pied_Piper_of_Hamelin" title="Pied Piper of Hamelin">Pied Piper of Hamelin</a>"</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/The_Queen_Bee" title="The Queen Bee">The Queen Bee</a>"</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/Rapunzel" title="Rapunzel">Rapunzel</a>"</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/The_Riddle_(fairy_tale)" title="The Riddle (fairy tale)">The Riddle</a>"</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/The_Robber_Bridegroom_(fairy_tale)" title="The Robber Bridegroom (fairy tale)">The Robber Bridegroom</a>"</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/Rumpelstiltskin" title="Rumpelstiltskin">Rumpelstiltskin</a>"</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/The_Seven_Ravens" title="The Seven Ravens">The Seven Ravens</a>"</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/The_Singing,_Springing_Lark" title="The Singing, Springing Lark">The Singing, Springing Lark</a>"</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/The_Six_Servants" title="The Six Servants">The Six Servants</a>"</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/The_Six_Swans" title="The Six Swans">The Six Swans</a>"</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/Sleeping_Beauty" title="Sleeping Beauty">Sleeping Beauty</a>"</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/Snow_White" title="Snow White">Snow White</a>"</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/Snow-White_and_Rose-Red" title="Snow-White and Rose-Red">Snow-White and Rose-Red</a>"</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/The_Story_of_the_Youth_Who_Went_Forth_to_Learn_What_Fear_Was" title="The Story of the Youth Who Went Forth to Learn What Fear Was">The Story of the Youth Who Went Forth to Learn What Fear Was</a>"</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/The_Three_Little_Men_in_the_Wood" title="The Three Little Men in the Wood">The Three Little Men in the Wood</a>"</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/The_Three_Spinners" title="The Three Spinners">The Three Spinners</a>"</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/Thumbling" title="Thumbling">Thumbling</a>"</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/Town_Musicians_of_Bremen" title="Town Musicians of Bremen">Town Musicians of Bremen</a>"</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/Trusty_John" title="Trusty John">Trusty John</a>"</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/The_Turnip" title="The Turnip">The Turnip</a>"</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/The_Twelve_Brothers" title="The Twelve Brothers">The Twelve Brothers</a>"</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/The_Twelve_Dancing_Princesses" title="The Twelve Dancing Princesses">The Twelve Dancing Princesses</a>"</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/The_Water_of_Life_(German_fairy_tale)" title="The Water of Life (German fairy tale)">The Water of Life</a>"</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/The_White_Snake" title="The White Snake">The White Snake</a>"</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/The_Wolf_and_the_Seven_Young_Goats" title="The Wolf and the Seven Young Goats">The Wolf and the Seven Young Goats</a>"</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/The_Wonderful_Musician" title="The Wonderful Musician">The Wonderful Musician</a>"</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Grimm's law</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6ttingen_Seven" title="Göttingen Seven">Göttingen Seven</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Grim_Tales" title="Grim Tales">Grim Tales</a></i></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/The_Wonderful_World_of_the_Brothers_Grimm" title="The Wonderful World of the Brothers Grimm">The Wonderful World of the Brothers Grimm</a></i></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Once_Upon_a_Brothers_Grimm" title="Once Upon a Brothers Grimm">Once Upon a Brothers Grimm</a></i></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Grimm%27s_Fairy_Tale_Classics" title="Grimm's Fairy Tale Classics">Grimm's Fairy Tale Classics</a></i></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Simsala_Grimm" title="Simsala Grimm">Simsala Grimm</a></i></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/The_Brothers_Grimm_(film)" title="The Brothers Grimm (film)">The Brothers Grimm</a></i></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Grimm_Tales_(play)" title="Grimm Tales (play)">Grimm Tales</a></i></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/The_Sisters_Grimm" title="The Sisters Grimm">The Sisters Grimm</a></i></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Fairy_tale" title="Fairy tale">Fairy tale</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/American_McGee%27s_Grimm" title="American McGee's Grimm">American McGee's Grimm</a></i></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/German_Fairy_Tale_Route" title="German Fairy Tale Route">German Fairy Tale Route</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Grimm_(TV_series)" title="Grimm (TV series)">Grimm</a></i></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Once_Upon_a_Time_(TV_series)" title="Once Upon a Time (TV series)">Once Upon a Time</a></i></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/The_10th_Kingdom" title="The 10th Kingdom">The 10th Kingdom</a></i></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/The_Grimm_Variations" title="The Grimm Variations">The Grimm Variations</a></i></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, 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