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id="toc-Quality_of_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Quality_of_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.2 Quality of life </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Quality_of_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Research_topics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research_topics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Research topics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Research_topics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theoretical_frameworks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theoretical_frameworks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Theoretical frameworks </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Theoretical_frameworks-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Theoretical frameworks subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Theoretical_frameworks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Initial_theory:_three_paths_to_happiness" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Initial_theory:_three_paths_to_happiness"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Initial theory: three paths to happiness </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Initial_theory:_three_paths_to_happiness-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-PERMA" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#PERMA"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 PERMA </div> </a> <ul id="toc-PERMA-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Character_Strengths_and_Virtues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Character_Strengths_and_Virtues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Character Strengths and Virtues </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Character_Strengths_and_Virtues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Flow" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Flow"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Flow </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Flow-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Benefits" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Benefits"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4.1 Benefits </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Benefits-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Negatives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Negatives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4.2 Negatives </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Negatives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second-wave_positive_psychology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second-wave_positive_psychology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Second-wave positive psychology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second-wave_positive_psychology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Third-wave_positive_psychology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Third-wave_positive_psychology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 Third-wave positive psychology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Third-wave_positive_psychology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Research_and_evidence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research_and_evidence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Research and evidence </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Research_and_evidence-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Research and evidence subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Research_and_evidence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Research_findings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research_findings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Research findings </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Research_findings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Academic_methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Academic_methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Academic methods </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Academic_methods-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Academic methods subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Academic_methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Quantitative" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Quantitative"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Quantitative </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Quantitative-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Qualitative" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Qualitative"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Qualitative </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Qualitative-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Behavioral_interventions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Behavioral_interventions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Behavioral interventions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Behavioral_interventions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-National_indices_of_happiness" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#National_indices_of_happiness"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 National indices of happiness </div> </a> <ul id="toc-National_indices_of_happiness-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Applications </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Applications-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Applications subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Positive_organizational_scholarship" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Positive_organizational_scholarship"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Positive organizational scholarship </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Positive_organizational_scholarship-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Psychiatry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Psychiatry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Psychiatry </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Psychiatry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Media_and_industry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Media_and_industry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Media and industry </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Media_and_industry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Books" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Books"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3.1 Books </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Books-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Films" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Films"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3.2 Films </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Films-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wellness_industry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wellness_industry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3.3 Wellness industry </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wellness_industry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticism_and_limitations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism_and_limitations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Criticism and limitations </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Criticism_and_limitations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Criticism and limitations subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Criticism_and_limitations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Reality_distortion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reality_distortion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Reality distortion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reality_distortion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Positive_illusions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Positive_illusions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1.1 Positive illusions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Positive_illusions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Role_of_negativity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Role_of_negativity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1.2 Role of negativity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Role_of_negativity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Toxic_positivity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Toxic_positivity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1.3 Toxic positivity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Toxic_positivity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Methodological_and_philosophical_critiques" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Methodological_and_philosophical_critiques"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Methodological and philosophical critiques </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Methodological_and_philosophical_critiques-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Narrow_focus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Narrow_focus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Narrow focus </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Narrow_focus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Applications_and_misapplications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Applications_and_misapplications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Applications and misapplications </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Applications_and_misapplications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_US_Army's_Comprehensive_Soldier_Fitness_program" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_US_Army's_Comprehensive_Soldier_Fitness_program"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4.1 The US Army's Comprehensive Soldier Fitness program </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_US_Army's_Comprehensive_Soldier_Fitness_program-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Equality_gaps_and_underrepresentation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Equality_gaps_and_underrepresentation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.5 Equality gaps and underrepresentation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Equality_gaps_and_underrepresentation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Demographic_diversity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Demographic_diversity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.5.1 Demographic diversity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Demographic_diversity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cultural_sensitivity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cultural_sensitivity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.5.2 Cultural sensitivity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cultural_sensitivity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Accessibility" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Accessibility"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.5.3 Accessibility </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Accessibility-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Future_directions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Future_directions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Future directions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Future_directions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Positive psychology</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 41 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-41" aria-hidden="true" > 41 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D9%81%D8%B3_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D9%8A%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%8A" title="علم النفس الإيجابي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="علم النفس الإيجابي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%B7%D1%96%D1%82%D1%8B%D1%9E%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BF%D1%81%D1%96%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Пазітыўная псіхалогія – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Пазітыўная псіхалогія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Позитивна психология – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Позитивна психология" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psicologia_positiva" title="Psicologia positiva – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Psicologia positiva" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pozitivn%C3%AD_psychologie" title="Pozitivní psychologie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Pozitivní psychologie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positiv_psykologi" title="Positiv psykologi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Positiv psykologi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_Psychologie" title="Positive Psychologie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Positive Psychologie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positiivne_ps%C3%BChholoogia" title="Positiivne psühholoogia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Positiivne psühholoogia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psicolog%C3%ADa_positiva" title="Psicología positiva – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Psicología positiva" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pozitiva_psikologio" title="Pozitiva psikologio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Pozitiva psikologio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C_%D9%85%D8%AB%D8%A8%D8%AA%E2%80%8C%DA%AF%D8%B1%D8%A7" title="روان‌شناسی مثبت‌گرا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="روان‌شناسی مثبت‌گرا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologie_positive" title="Psychologie positive – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Psychologie positive" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B8%8D%EC%A0%95%EC%8B%AC%EB%A6%AC%ED%95%99" title="긍정심리학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="긍정심리학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8A%D5%B8%D5%A6%D5%AB%D5%BF%D5%AB%D5%BE_%D5%B0%D5%B8%D5%A3%D5%A5%D5%A2%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Պոզիտիվ հոգեբանություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Պոզիտիվ հոգեբանություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psikologi_positif" title="Psikologi positif – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Psikologi positif" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%A1kv%C3%A6%C3%B0_s%C3%A1lfr%C3%A6%C3%B0i" title="Jákvæð sálfræði – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Jákvæð sálfræði" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psicologia_positiva" title="Psicologia positiva – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Psicologia positiva" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%9B%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%92%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%97%D7%99%D7%95%D7%91%D7%99%D7%AA" title="פסיכולוגיה חיובית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" 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.mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about psychology. 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="padding-top:0.2em;background:#ccccff;"><a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">Psychology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding-bottom:0;padding:0.8em;"><a href="/wiki/File:Greek_uc_psi_icon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Greek_uc_psi_icon.svg/100px-Greek_uc_psi_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="94" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Greek_uc_psi_icon.svg/150px-Greek_uc_psi_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Greek_uc_psi_icon.svg/200px-Greek_uc_psi_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="94" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="display:block; margin-bottom:0.35em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_psychology" title="Outline of psychology">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_psychology" title="History of psychology">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subfields_of_psychology" title="Subfields of psychology">Subfields</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Basic_science_(psychology)" title="Basic science (psychology)">Basic psychology</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abnormal_psychology" title="Abnormal psychology">Abnormal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affective_neuroscience" title="Affective neuroscience">Affective neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affective_science" title="Affective science">Affective science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">Behavioral genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_neuroscience" title="Behavioral neuroscience">Behavioral neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">Cognitive</a>/<a href="/wiki/Cognitivism_(psychology)" title="Cognitivism (psychology)">Cognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_neuroscience" title="Cognitive neuroscience">Cognitive neuroscience</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_cognitive_neuroscience" title="Social cognitive neuroscience">Social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_psychology" title="Comparative psychology">Comparative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_psychology" title="Cross-cultural psychology">Cross-cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_psychology" title="Cultural psychology">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_psychology" title="Developmental psychology">Developmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Differential_psychology" title="Differential psychology">Differential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_psychology" title="Ecological psychology">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">Evolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_psychology" title="Experimental psychology">Experimental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gestalt_psychology" title="Gestalt psychology">Gestalt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_psychology" title="Mathematical psychology">Mathematical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_psychology" title="Moral psychology">Moral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropsychology" title="Neuropsychology">Neuropsychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personality_psychology" title="Personality psychology">Personality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psycholinguistics" title="Psycholinguistics">Psycholinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychophysiology" title="Psychophysiology">Psychophysiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_psychology" title="Quantitative psychology">Quantitative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_psychology" title="Theoretical psychology">Theoretical</a></li></ul></div></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Applied_psychology" title="Applied psychology">Applied psychology</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anomalistic_psychology" title="Anomalistic psychology">Anomalistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_behavior_analysis" title="Applied behavior analysis">Applied behavior analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_testing" title="Psychological testing">Assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_psychology" title="Clinical psychology">Clinical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coaching_psychology" title="Coaching psychology">Coaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_psychology" title="Community psychology">Community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_behaviour" title="Consumer behaviour">Consumer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counseling_psychology" title="Counseling psychology">Counseling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_psychology" title="Critical psychology">Critical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_psychology" title="Educational psychology">Educational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ergonomics" title="Ergonomics">Ergonomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_psychology" title="Feminist psychology">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_psychology" title="Forensic psychology">Forensic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_psychology" title="Health psychology">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_psychology" title="Humanistic psychology">Humanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_and_organizational_psychology" title="Industrial and organizational psychology">Industrial and organizational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_psychology" title="Legal psychology">Legal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_psychology" title="Media psychology">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_psychology" title="Medical psychology">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_psychology" title="Military psychology">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_psychology" title="Music psychology">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_health_psychology" title="Occupational health psychology">Occupational health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pastoral_psychology" class="mw-redirect" title="Pastoral psychology">Pastoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_psychology" title="Political psychology">Political</a></li> <li>Positive</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychometrics" title="Psychometrics">Psychometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychotherapy" title="Psychotherapy">Psychotherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_of_religion" title="Psychology of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_psychology" title="School psychology">School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_psychology" title="Sport psychology">Sport and exercise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suicidology" title="Suicidology">Suicidology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_psychology" title="Systems psychology">Systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traffic_psychology" title="Traffic psychology">Traffic</a></li></ul></div></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavior" title="Behavior">Behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_behavior_analysis" title="Applied behavior analysis">Behavioral engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">Behavioral genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_neuroscience" title="Behavioral neuroscience">Behavioral neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">Cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competence_(polyseme)" title="Competence (polyseme)">Competence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">Consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_behaviour" title="Consumer behaviour">Consumer behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotion" title="Emotion">Emotions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feeling" title="Feeling">Feelings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ergonomics" title="Ergonomics">Human factors and ergonomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">Mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_of_religion" title="Psychology of religion">Psychology of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychometrics" title="Psychometrics">Psychometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terror_management_theory" title="Terror management theory">Terror management theory</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Category:Psychology_lists" title="Category:Psychology lists">Lists</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_counseling" title="Outline of counseling">Counseling topics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_branches_of_psychology" title="List of branches of psychology">Disciplines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_psychology_organizations" title="List of psychology organizations">Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_psychology" title="Outline of psychology">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_psychologists" title="List of psychologists">Psychologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_psychotherapies" title="List of psychotherapies">Psychotherapies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_psychological_research_methods" title="List of psychological research methods">Research methods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_psychological_schools" title="List of psychological schools">Schools of thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_psychology" title="Timeline of psychology">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_psychology_articles" title="Index of psychology articles">Topics</a></li></ul></div></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/16px-Psi2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/24px-Psi2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/32px-Psi2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Psychology" title="Portal:Psychology">Psychology portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Psychology_sidebar" title="Template:Psychology sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Psychology_sidebar" title="Template talk:Psychology sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Psychology_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Psychology sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Positive psychology is a field of psychological theory and research of optimal human functioning of people, groups, and institutions.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-GableHaidt2005-2">[2]</a> It studies "positive subjective experience, positive individual traits, and positive institutions... it aims to improve <a href="/wiki/Quality_of_life" title="Quality of life">quality of life</a>."<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> Positive psychology began as a new domain of <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a> in 1998 when <a href="/wiki/Martin_Seligman" title="Martin Seligman">Martin Seligman</a> chose it as the theme for his term as president of the <a href="/wiki/American_Psychological_Association" title="American Psychological Association">American Psychological Association</a>.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-AlTaher2015-5">[5]</a> It is a reaction against past practices that tended to focus on mental illness and emphasized <a href="/wiki/Maladaptive_behavior" class="mw-redirect" title="Maladaptive behavior">maladaptive behavior</a> and negative thinking. It builds on the <a href="/wiki/Humanistic_psychology" title="Humanistic psychology">humanistic</a> movement of <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Maslow" title="Abraham Maslow">Abraham Maslow</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carl_Rogers" title="Carl Rogers">Carl Rogers</a>, which encourages an emphasis on <a href="/wiki/Happiness" title="Happiness">happiness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Well-being" title="Well-being">well-being</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Meaningful_life" title="Meaningful life">purpose</a>.<a href="#cite_note-AlTaher2015-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> Positive psychology largely relies on concepts from the <a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophical tradition</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotelian</a> concept of <a href="/wiki/Eudaimonia" title="Eudaimonia">eudaimonia</a>,<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> which is typically rendered in English with the terms "flourishing", "the good life," or "happiness".<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> Positive psychologists study empirically the conditions and processes that contribute to <a href="/wiki/Flourishing" title="Flourishing">flourishing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Subjective_well-being" title="Subjective well-being">subjective well-being</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Happiness" title="Happiness">happiness</a>,<a href="#cite_note-GableHaidt2005-2">[2]</a> often using these terms interchangeably. Positive psychologists suggest a number of factors that may contribute to happiness and subjective well-being, for example, social ties with a spouse, family, friends, colleagues, and wider <a href="/wiki/Social_network" title="Social network">networks</a>; membership in clubs or social organizations; physical exercise; and the practice of <a href="/wiki/Meditation" title="Meditation">meditation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> Spiritual practice and religious commitment is another possible source for increased well-being.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> Happiness may rise with increasing income, though it may plateau or even fall when no further gains are made or after a certain cut-off amount.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> Positive psychology has practical applications in various fields related to education, workplace, community development, and mental healthcare. This domain of psychology aims to enrich individuals' lives by promoting well-being and fostering positive experiences and characteristics, thus contributing to a more fulfilling and meaningful life. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Positive_psychology&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Influences_from_ancient_history">Influences from ancient history</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Positive_psychology&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Influences from ancient history">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg/170px-Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="228" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg/255px-Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg/340px-Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1700" data-file-height="2275" /></a><figcaption>The works of Aristotle include elements of what is now called positive psychology</figcaption></figure> Before the first use of the term "positive psychology," researchers focused on topics that would now be included under the umbrella of positive psychology.<a href="#cite_note-:12-12">[12]</a> Some view positive psychology as a meeting of <a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern thought</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>, and Western <a href="/wiki/Psychodynamics" title="Psychodynamics">psychodynamic</a> approaches.<a href="#cite_note-:2-13">[13]</a> The historical roots of positive psychology are found in the teachings of <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, whose <a href="/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics" title="Nicomachean Ethics">Nicomachean Ethics</a> is a description of the theory and practice of human flourishing—which he referred to as <a href="/wiki/Eudaimonia#:~:text=Eudaimonia_(/juːdɪ,translated_as_happiness_or_welfare." title="Eudaimonia">eudaimonia</a> (a Greek word literally translating to the state or condition of good spirit, and which is commonly translated as <a href="/wiki/Happiness" title="Happiness">happiness</a> or <a href="/wiki/Well-being" title="Well-being">welfare</a>)—of the tutelage necessary to achieve it, and of the psychological obstacles to its practice.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> It teaches the cultivation of <a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">virtues</a> as the means of attaining happiness and well-being.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Influences_from_psychological_domains_and_theoretical_foundations">Influences from psychological domains and theoretical foundations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Positive_psychology&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Influences from psychological domains and theoretical foundations">edit</a>]</div> Scientific research on well-being dates back to the 1950s.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> Several <a href="/wiki/Humanistic_psychology" title="Humanistic psychology">humanistic psychologists</a>, most notably Maslow, <a href="/wiki/Carl_Rogers" title="Carl Rogers">Carl Rogers</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Erich Fromm</a>, developed theories and practices pertaining to human <a href="/wiki/Happiness" title="Happiness">happiness</a> and flourishing. More recently, positive psychologists have found <a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">empirical</a> support for the humanistic theories of flourishing.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In 1984, psychologist <a href="/wiki/Ed_Diener" title="Ed Diener">Ed Diener</a> published his <a href="/wiki/Tripartite_model_of_subjective_well-being" class="mw-redirect" title="Tripartite model of subjective well-being">tripartite model of subjective well-being</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Diener1984-17">[17]</a> which posited "three distinct but often related components of wellbeing: frequent positive affect, infrequent negative affect, and cognitive evaluations such as <a href="/wiki/Life_satisfaction" title="Life satisfaction">life satisfaction</a>."<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> In this model, <a href="/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">cognitive</a>, <a href="/wiki/Affect_(psychology)" title="Affect (psychology)">affective</a>, and contextual factors contribute to subjective well-being.<a href="#cite_note-Galinha_Pais-Ribeiro_2011-19">[19]</a> According to Diener and Suh, subjective well-being is "based on the idea that how each person thinks and feels about his or her life is important."<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> <a href="/wiki/Carol_Ryff" title="Carol Ryff">Carol Ryff</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Six-factor_model_of_psychological_well-being" title="Six-factor model of psychological well-being">six-factor model of psychological well-being</a> was first published in 1989. It postulates that <a href="/wiki/Self-acceptance" title="Self-acceptance">self-acceptance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Personal_growth" class="mw-redirect" title="Personal growth">personal growth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Purpose_in_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Purpose in life">purpose in life</a>, environmental mastery, <a href="/wiki/Autonomy" title="Autonomy">autonomy</a>, and positive relations with others are crucial to well-being.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Corey_Keyes" title="Corey Keyes">Corey Keyes</a>, who collaborated with <a href="/wiki/Carol_Ryff" title="Carol Ryff">Carol Ryff</a> and used the term <a href="/wiki/Flourishing" title="Flourishing">flourishing</a> as a central concept, mental well-being has three components: <a href="/wiki/Hedonism" title="Hedonism">hedonic</a> (i.e. subjective or emotional<a href="#cite_note-Robitschek-22">[22]</a>), psychological, and social well-being.<a href="#cite_note-Keyes2002-23">[23]</a> <a href="/wiki/Hedonic_treadmill" title="Hedonic treadmill">Hedonic well-being</a> concerns emotional aspects of well-being, whereas psychological and social well-being, e.g. eudaimonic well-being, concerns skills, abilities, and optimal functioning.<a href="#cite_note-:0-24">[24]</a> This tripartite model of mental well-being has received cross-cultural empirical support.<a href="#cite_note-Robitschek-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-:0-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Key_figures">Key figures</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Positive_psychology&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Key figures">edit</a>]</div> The positive psychology movement was first founded in 1998 by Martin Seligman. He was concerned about the fact that mainstream psychology was too focused on disease, disorders, and disabilities rather than well-being, resilience, and recovery. He aimed to apply mainstream psychology's methodological, scientific, scholarly, and organizational strengths to facilitate well-being rather than illness and disease.<a href="#cite_note-:4-26">[26]</a> The field has been influenced by humanistic and <a href="/wiki/Psychodynamics" title="Psychodynamics">psychodynamic</a> approaches to treatment. Predating the use of the term "positive psychology", researchers within the field of psychology had focused on topics that would now be included under this new denomination.<a href="#cite_note-:12-12">[12]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flickr_-_The_U.S._Army_-_Comprehensive_Soldiers_Fitness_(1)cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Flickr_-_The_U.S._Army_-_Comprehensive_Soldiers_Fitness_%281%29cropped.jpg/220px-Flickr_-_The_U.S._Army_-_Comprehensive_Soldiers_Fitness_%281%29cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="214" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Flickr_-_The_U.S._Army_-_Comprehensive_Soldiers_Fitness_%281%29cropped.jpg/330px-Flickr_-_The_U.S._Army_-_Comprehensive_Soldiers_Fitness_%281%29cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Flickr_-_The_U.S._Army_-_Comprehensive_Soldiers_Fitness_%281%29cropped.jpg/440px-Flickr_-_The_U.S._Army_-_Comprehensive_Soldiers_Fitness_%281%29cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="781" data-file-height="759" /></a><figcaption>To <a href="/wiki/Martin_Seligman" title="Martin Seligman">Seligman</a>, psychology (particularly its positive branch) can investigate and promote realistic ways of fostering more well-being in people and communities.</figcaption></figure> The term "positive psychology" dates at least to 1954, when <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Maslow" title="Abraham Maslow">Abraham Maslow</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Motivation_and_Personality_(book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Motivation and Personality (book)">Motivation and Personality</a> was published with a final chapter titled "Toward a Positive Psychology."<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> In the second edition published in 1970, he removed that chapter, saying in the preface that "a positive psychology is at least available today though not very widely."<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> There have been indications that psychologists since the 1950s have increasingly focused on promoting mental health rather than merely treating mental illness.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> From the beginning of psychology, the field addressed the human experience using the "Disease model," studying and identifying the <a href="/wiki/Abnormality_(behavior)" title="Abnormality (behavior)">dysfunction</a> of a person. In the opening sentence of his book Authentic Happiness, Seligman claimed: "For the last half century psychology has been consumed with a single topic only—mental illness,"<a href="#cite_note-Seligman2002-30">[30]</a>: xi  expanding on Maslow's comments.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> He urged psychologists to continue the earlier missions of psychology of nurturing talent and improving everyday life.<a href="#cite_note-Compton2005-32">[32]</a>: 1–22  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Development">Development</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Positive_psychology&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Development">edit</a>]</div> The first positive psychology summit took place in 1999. The First International Conference on Positive Psychology took place in 2002.<a href="#cite_note-Compton2005-32">[32]</a>: 1–22  In September 2005, the first master's program in applied positive psychology (MAPP) was launched at the University of Pennsylvania.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> In 2006, a course on positive psychology at <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a> was one of the most popular courses on offer.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> In June 2009, the First World Congress on Positive Psychology took place in <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> The field of positive psychology today is most advanced in the United States, Canada, Western Europe, and Australia.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Core_concepts">Core concepts</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Positive_psychology&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Core concepts">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Core_principles">Core principles</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Positive_psychology&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Core principles">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Contentment" title="Contentment">Contentment</a> and <a href="/wiki/Meaningful_life" title="Meaningful life">Meaningful life</a></div> Positive psychology, as defined by <a href="/wiki/Martin_Seligman" title="Martin Seligman">Martin Seligman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mihaly_Csikszentmihalyi" title="Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi">Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi</a> is "the scientific study of positive human functioning and flourishing on multiple levels that include the biological, personal, relational, institutional, cultural, and global dimensions of life."<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> Positive psychology aims to complement and extend traditional problem-focused psychology. It concerns positive states (e.g. happiness), positive traits (e.g. talents, interests, strengths of character), positive relationships, and positive institutions and how these apply to physical health.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> Seligman proposes that a person can best promote their well-being by nurturing their <a href="/wiki/Values_in_Action_Inventory_of_Strengths" title="Values in Action Inventory of Strengths">character strengths</a>.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> Seligman identifies other possible goals of positive psychology: families and schools that allow children to grow, workplaces that aim for satisfaction and high productivity, and teaching others about positive psychology.<a href="#cite_note-SeligmanMartin-40">[40]</a> A basic premise of positive psychology is that human actions arise from our anticipations about the future; these anticipations are informed by our past experiences.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> Those who practice positive psychology attempt <a href="/wiki/Psychological_intervention" title="Psychological intervention">psychological interventions</a> that foster positive attitudes toward one's subjective experiences, individual traits, and life events.<a href="#cite_note-SeligmanCsikszentmihalyi2000-42">[42]</a> The goal is to minimize <a href="/wiki/Pathology" title="Pathology">pathological</a> thoughts that may arise in a hopeless mindset and to develop a sense of optimism toward life.<a href="#cite_note-SeligmanCsikszentmihalyi2000-42">[42]</a> Positive psychologists seek to encourage acceptance of one's past, excitement and optimism about one's future, and a sense of contentment and well-being in the present.<a href="#cite_note-14_March_2016-43">[43]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Happiness">Happiness</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Positive_psychology&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Happiness">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Happiness" title="Happiness">Happiness</a></div> Two definitions: Happiness can be understood both as an enjoyable state of mind and the living of an enjoyable, fulfilling life.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Quality_of_life">Quality of life</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Positive_psychology&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Quality of life">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Quality_of_life" title="Quality of life">Quality of life</a></div> Quality of life refers to overall well-being, encompassing not just physical and mental health but also socioeconomic factors. This concept is subjective and may vary across different cultures and regions.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Research_topics">Research topics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Positive_psychology&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Research topics">edit</a>]</div> Positive psychology according to Seligman and <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Peterson_(psychologist)" title="Christopher Peterson (psychologist)">Christopher Peterson</a>, addresses three issues: <ol><li>Positive emotions: These include contentment with the past, happiness with the present, and hope for the future. <a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> <a href="#cite_note-:3-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-:6-48">[48]</a></li> <li>Positive individual traits: These are strengths and <a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">virtues</a> that define individuals.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a></li> <li>Positive institutions: Institutions that promote well-beingand foster sense of community.<a href="#cite_note-:3-47">[47]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>]<a href="#cite_note-SeligmanMartin-40">[40]</a></li></ol> According to Peterson, positive psychologists are concerned with four topics: positive experiences, enduring psychological traits, positive relationships, and positive institutions.<a href="#cite_note-Peterson2009-50">[50]</a> He also states that topics of interest to <a href="/wiki/List_of_positive_psychologists" title="List of positive psychologists">researchers in the field</a> are states of <a href="/wiki/Pleasure" title="Pleasure">pleasure</a> or <a href="/wiki/Flow_(psychology)" title="Flow (psychology)">flow</a>, <a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics)" title="Value (ethics)">values</a>, strengths, virtues, talents, as well as the ways that these can be promoted by <a href="/wiki/Social_system" title="Social system">social systems</a> and institutions.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theoretical_frameworks">Theoretical frameworks</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Positive_psychology&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Theoretical frameworks">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Well-being" title="Well-being">Well-being</a></div> There is no accepted "gold standard" theory in positive psychology. The work of Seligman is regularly quoted,<a href="#cite_note-:1-52">[52]</a> as is the work of Csikszentmihalyi, and older models of well-being, such as Ryff's <a href="/wiki/Six-factor_model_of_psychological_well-being" title="Six-factor model of psychological well-being">six-factor model of psychological well-being</a> and Diener's tripartite model of subjective well-being. Later, Paul Wong introduced the concept of <a href="/wiki/Second-wave_positive_psychology" title="Second-wave positive psychology">second-wave positive psychology</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Initial_theory:_three_paths_to_happiness">Initial theory: three paths to happiness</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Positive_psychology&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Initial theory: three paths to happiness">edit</a>]</div> In Authentic Happiness (2002) Seligman proposed three kinds of a happy life that can be investigated:<a href="#cite_note-Seligman2002-30">[30]</a>: 275 <a href="#cite_note-:1-52">[52]</a> <ol><li>Pleasant life: research into the <a href="/wiki/Pleasure" title="Pleasure">pleasant</a> life, or the "life of enjoyment", examines how people optimally experience, <a href="/wiki/Affective_forecasting" title="Affective forecasting">forecast</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Savoring" title="Savoring">savor</a> the positive feelings and emotions that are part of normal and healthy living (e.g., relationships, hobbies, interests, entertainment, etc.). Seligman says this most transient element of happiness may be the least important.<a href="#cite_note-NYSciHap-53">[53]</a></li> <li>Good Life: investigation of the beneficial effects of immersion, absorption, and flow felt by people when optimally engaged with their primary activities, is the study of the Good Life, or the "life of engagement". Flow is experienced when there is a match between a person's strengths and their current task, i.e., when one feels confident of accomplishing a chosen or assigned task. Related concepts include <a href="/wiki/Self-efficacy" title="Self-efficacy">self-efficacy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Play_(activity)" title="Play (activity)">play</a>.</li> <li>Meaningful Life: inquiry into the <a href="/wiki/Meaningful_life" title="Meaningful life">meaningful life</a>, or "life of affiliation", questions how people derive a positive sense of well-being, belonging, meaning, and purpose from being part of and contributing back to something larger and more enduring than themselves (e.g., nature, social groups, organizations, movements, traditions, belief systems).<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a></li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="PERMA">PERMA</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Positive_psychology&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: PERMA">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Perma.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="PERMA: Positive Emotions, Engagement, Relationships, Meaning and purpose, and Accomplishments." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Perma.svg/220px-Perma.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="114" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Perma.svg/330px-Perma.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Perma.svg/440px-Perma.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="266" /></a><figcaption>PERMA model</figcaption></figure> In Flourish (2011), Seligman argued that the last category of his proposed three kinds of a happy life, "meaningful life", can be considered as three different categories. The resulting summary for this theory is the <a href="/wiki/Mnemonic" title="Mnemonic">mnemonic</a> acronym <a href="/wiki/Martin_Seligman#Well-being" title="Martin Seligman">PERMA</a>: Positive Emotions, Engagement, Relationships, Meaning and purpose, and Accomplishments.<a href="#cite_note-:1-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> <dl><dt>Positive emotions</dt> <dd>include a wide range of feelings, not just happiness and joy,<a href="#cite_note-Seligman2011-56">[56]</a>: ch. 1  but excitement, satisfaction, pride, and <a href="/wiki/Awe" title="Awe">awe</a>, amongst others. These are connected to positive outcomes, such as longer life and healthier social relationships.<a href="#cite_note-:6-48">[48]</a></dd> <dt>Engagement</dt> <dd>refers to involvement in activities that draw and build upon one's interests. Csikszentmihalyi explains true engagement as flow, a state of deep effortless involvement,<a href="#cite_note-:1-52">[52]</a> a feeling of intensity that leads to a sense of <a href="/wiki/Ecstasy_(emotion)" title="Ecstasy (emotion)">ecstasy</a> and clarity.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> The task being done must call upon a particular skill and it should be possible while being a little bit challenging. Engagement involves <a href="/wiki/Passion_(emotion)" title="Passion (emotion)">passion</a> for and concentration on the task at hand—complete absorption and loss of self-consciousness.<a href="#cite_note-Seligman2011-56">[56]</a>: ch. 1 </dd> <dt>Relationships</dt> <dd>are essential in fueling positive emotions,<a href="#cite_note-:4-26">[26]</a> whether they are work-related, familial, romantic, or platonic. As Peterson puts it, "other people matter."<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> Humans receive, share, and spread positivity to others through relationships. Relationships are important in bad times and good times. Relationships can be strengthened by reacting to one another positively. Typically positive things take place in the presence of other people.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a></dd> <dt>Meaning</dt> <dd>is also known as purpose, and answers the question of "why?" Discovering a clear "why" puts everything into context from work to relationships to other parts of life.<a href="#cite_note-:4-26">[26]</a> Finding meaning is learning that there is something greater than oneself. Working with meaning drives people to continue striving for a desirable goal.</dd> <dt>Accomplishments</dt> <dd>are the pursuit of success and mastery.<a href="#cite_note-Seligman2011-56">[56]</a>: ch. 1  Unlike the other parts of PERMA, they are sometimes pursued even when accomplishments do not result in positive emotions, meaning, or relationships. Accomplishments can activate other elements of PERMA, such as pride, under positive emotion.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> Accomplishments can be individual or community-based, fun-based, or work-based.</dd></dl> Each of the five PERMA elements was selected according to three criteria: <ol><li>It contributes to well-being.</li> <li>It is pursued for its own sake.</li> <li>It is defined and measured independently of the other elements.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Character_Strengths_and_Virtues">Character Strengths and Virtues</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Positive_psychology&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Character Strengths and Virtues">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Values_in_Action_Inventory_of_Strengths" title="Values in Action Inventory of Strengths">Values in Action Inventory of Strengths</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Character_education" title="Character education">Character education</a> and <a href="/wiki/Values_education" title="Values education">Values education</a></div> The Character Strengths and Virtues (CSV) handbook (2004) was the first attempt by Seligman and Peterson to identify and classify positive psychological traits of human beings. Much like the <a href="/wiki/Diagnostic_and_Statistical_Manual_of_Mental_Disorders" title="Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders">Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders</a> (DSM) of general psychology, the CSV provided a theoretical framework to assist in understanding strengths and virtues and for developing practical applications for positive psychology. It identified six classes of virtues (i.e., "core virtues"), underlying 24 measurable character strengths.<a href="#cite_note-PetersonSeligman2004-61">[61]</a> The CSV suggested these six virtues have a historical basis in the vast majority of cultures and that they can lead to increased happiness when built upon. Notwithstanding numerous cautions and caveats, this suggestion of universality leads to three theories:<a href="#cite_note-PetersonSeligman2004-61">[61]</a>: 51  <ol><li>The study of positive human qualities broadens the scope of psychological research to include mental wellness.</li> <li>The leaders of the positive psychology movement challenge <a href="/wiki/Moral_relativism" title="Moral relativism">moral relativism</a> by suggesting people are "evolutionarily predisposed" toward certain virtues.</li> <li>Virtue has a biological basis.</li></ol> The organization of the six virtues and 24 strengths is as follows: <ol><li><a href="/wiki/Wisdom" title="Wisdom">Wisdom</a> and knowledge: <a href="/wiki/Creativity" title="Creativity">creativity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Curiosity" title="Curiosity">curiosity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Toleration" title="Toleration">open-mindedness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Love_of_learning" class="mw-redirect" title="Love of learning">love of learning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wisdom" title="Wisdom">perspective</a>, <a href="/wiki/Innovation" title="Innovation">innovation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prudence" title="Prudence">prudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Courage" title="Courage">Courage</a>: <a href="/wiki/Bravery" class="mw-redirect" title="Bravery">bravery</a>, <a href="/wiki/Persistence_(psychology)" title="Persistence (psychology)">persistence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vitality" title="Vitality">vitality</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zest_(positive_psychology)" title="Zest (positive psychology)">zest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanity_(virtue)" title="Humanity (virtue)">Humanity</a>: <a href="/wiki/Love" title="Love">love</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kindness" title="Kindness">kindness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_intelligence" title="Social intelligence">social intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice_(virtue)" title="Justice (virtue)">Justice</a>: <a href="/wiki/Active_citizenship" title="Active citizenship">citizenship</a>, <a href="/wiki/Impartiality" title="Impartiality">fairness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leadership" title="Leadership">leadership</a>, <a href="/wiki/Integrity" title="Integrity">integrity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arete" title="Arete">excellence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperance_(virtue)" title="Temperance (virtue)">Temperance</a>: <a href="/wiki/Forgiveness" title="Forgiveness">forgiveness</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mercy" title="Mercy">mercy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Humility" title="Humility">humility</a>, <a href="/wiki/Self-control" title="Self-control">self-control</a></li> <li>Transcendence: <a href="/wiki/Appreciation_of_beauty" class="mw-redirect" title="Appreciation of beauty">appreciation of beauty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gratitude" title="Gratitude">gratitude</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hope" title="Hope">hope</a>, <a href="/wiki/Humor" class="mw-redirect" title="Humor">humor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spirituality" title="Spirituality">spirituality</a></li></ol> Subsequent research challenged the need for six virtues. Instead, researchers suggested the 24 strengths are more accurately grouped into just three or four categories: Intellectual Strengths, Interpersonal Strengths, and Temperance Strengths,<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> or alternatively, Interpersonal Strengths, Fortitude, Vitality, and Cautiousness.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> These strengths, and their classifications, have emerged independently elsewhere in literature on values. <a href="/wiki/Paul_Thagard" title="Paul Thagard">Paul Thagard</a> described some examples.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Flow">Flow</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Positive_psychology&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Flow">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Flow_(psychology)" title="Flow (psychology)">Flow (psychology)</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Peak_experience" title="Peak experience">Peak experience</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Challenge_vs_skill.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A graph shows mental state in terms of challenge level and skill level, according to Csikszentmihalyi's flow model." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Challenge_vs_skill.svg/220px-Challenge_vs_skill.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Challenge_vs_skill.svg/330px-Challenge_vs_skill.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Challenge_vs_skill.svg/440px-Challenge_vs_skill.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Mental state in terms of challenge level and skill level, according to <a href="/wiki/Mihaly_Csikszentmihalyi" title="Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi">Csikszentmihalyi</a>'s flow model.</figcaption></figure> In the 1970s, Csikszentmihalyi began studying flow, a state of absorption in which one's abilities are well-matched to the demands at-hand. He often refers to it as "optimal experience".<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> Flow is characterized by intense <a href="/wiki/Attention" title="Attention">concentration</a>, loss of self-awareness, a feeling of being perfectly challenged (neither bored nor overwhelmed), and a sense that "time is flying." Flow is intrinsically rewarding; it can also assist in the achievement of <a href="/wiki/Goal" title="Goal">goals</a> (e.g., winning a game) or improving skills (e.g., becoming a better chess player).<a href="#cite_note-Csikszentmihalyi1990-66">[66]</a> Anyone can experience flow and it can be felt in different domains, such as play, <a href="/wiki/Creativity" title="Creativity">creativity</a>, and work. Flow is achieved when the challenge of the situation meets one's personal abilities. A mismatch of challenge for someone of low skills results in a state of anxiety and feeling overwhelmed; insufficient challenge for someone highly skilled results in <a href="/wiki/Boredom" title="Boredom">boredom</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Csikszentmihalyi1990-66">[66]</a> A good example of this would be an adult reading a children's book. They would not feel challenged enough to be engaged or motivated in the reading. Csikszentmihalyi explained this using various combinations of challenge and skills to predict psychological states. These four states included the following:<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> <dl><dt>Apathy</dt> <dd>low challenge and low skill(s)</dd> <dt>Relaxation</dt> <dd>low challenge and high skill(s)</dd> <dt>Anxiety</dt> <dd>high challenge and low skill(s)</dd> <dt>Flow</dt> <dd>high challenge and high skill(s)</dd></dl> Accordingly, an adult reading a children's book would most likely be in the relaxation state. The adult has no need to worry that the task will be more than they can handle. Challenge is a well-founded explanation for how one enters the flow state and employs intense concentration. However, other factors contribute. For example, one must be intrinsically motivated to participate in the activity/challenge. If the person is not interested in the task, then there is no possibility of their being absorbed into the flow state.<a href="#cite_note-Cambridge_University_Press-68">[68]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Benefits">Benefits</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Positive_psychology&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Benefits">edit</a>]</div> Flow can help in parenting children. When flow is enhanced between[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] parents and children, the parents can better thrive in their roles as a parents. A parenting style that is positively oriented[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">definition needed</a>] results in children who experience lower levels of stress and improved well-being.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> Flow also has benefits in a school setting. When students are in a state of flow they are fully engaged, leading to better retention of information.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> Students who experience flow have a more enjoyable and rewarding experience.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> This state can also reduce stress, which helps with students' mental health and well-being.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> This increases resilience and helps students to overcome challenges or setbacks by teaching them a <a href="/wiki/Growth_mindset" class="mw-redirect" title="Growth mindset">growth mindset</a>.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> Most teachers and parents want students become more engaged and interested in the classroom. The design of the education system was not able to account for such needs.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> One school implemented a program called PASS. They acknowledged that students needed more challenge and individual advancement; they referred to this as sport culture. This PASS program integrated an elective class into which students could immerse themselves. Such activities included self-paced learning, mastery-based learning, performance learning, and so on.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> Flow benefits general well-being. It is a positive and intrinsically motivating experience. It is known to "produce intense feelings of enjoyment".<a href="#cite_note-Cambridge_University_Press-68">[68]</a> It can improve our lives by making them happier and more meaningful. Csikszentmihalyi discovered that our personal growth and development generates happiness. Flow is positive experience because it promotes that opportunity for personal development.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Negatives">Negatives</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Positive_psychology&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Negatives">edit</a>]</div> While flow can be beneficial to students, students who experience flow can become overly focused on a particular task. This can lead to students neglecting other important aspects of their learning.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> In positive psychology there can be misunderstandings on what clinicians and people define as positive. In certain instances, positive qualities, such as optimism, can be detrimental to health, and therefore appear as a negative quality.<a href="#cite_note-LomasIvtzan2016-78">[78]</a> Alternatively, negative processes, such as anxiety, can be conducive to health and stability and thus would appear as positive qualities.<a href="#cite_note-LomasIvtzan2016-78">[78]</a> A second wave of positive psychology has further identified and characterized "positive" and "negative" complexes through the use of critical and dialectical thinking.<a href="#cite_note-LomasIvtzan2016-78">[78]</a> Researchers in 2016 chose to identify these characteristics via two complexes: post-traumatic growth and love as well as optimism vs. pessimism.<a href="#cite_note-LomasIvtzan2016-78">[78]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Second-wave_positive_psychology">Second-wave positive psychology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Positive_psychology&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Second-wave positive psychology">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Second-wave_positive_psychology" title="Second-wave positive psychology">Second-wave positive psychology</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Paul_T._P._Wong" title="Paul T. P. Wong">Paul Wong</a> introduced the idea of a second wave of positive psychology, focused on the pursuit of meaning in life, which he contrasted with the pursuit of happiness in life.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> Ivtzan, Lomas, Hefferon, and Worth have recast positive psychology as being about positive outcome or positive mental health, and have explored the positive outcomes of embracing negative emotions and pessimism.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> Second-wave positive psychology proposes that it is better to accept and transform the meaning of suffering than it is to avoid suffering.<a href="#cite_note-APA_PsycNet-81">[81]</a> In 2016, Lomas and Itzvan proposed that human flourishing (their goal for positive psychology) is about embracing dialectic interplay of positive and negative.<a href="#cite_note-LomasIvtzan2016-78">[78]</a> Phenomena cannot be determined to be positive or negative independent of context. Some of their examples included: <dl><dt>the dialectic of optimism and pessimism</dt> <dd>Optimism is associated with longevity, but strategic pessimism can lead to more effective planning and decision making.</dd> <dt>the dialectic of self-esteem and humility</dt> <dd>Self-esteem is related to well-being, but pursuit of self-esteem can increase depression. Humility can be either low self-opinion or it can lead to prosocial action.</dd> <dt>the dialectic of forgiveness and anger</dt> <dd>Forgiveness has been associated with well-being, but people who are more forgiving of abuse may suffer prolonged abuse. While anger has been presented as a destructive emotion, it can also be a moral emotion and drawn upon to confront injustices.</dd></dl> In 2019, Wong proposed four principles of second-wave positive psychology:<a href="#cite_note-APA_PsycNet-81">[81]</a> <ol><li>accepting and confronting with courage the reality that life is full of evil and suffering</li> <li>sustainable wellbeing can only be achieved through overcoming suffering and the dark side of life</li> <li>recognizing that everything in life comes in polarities and the importance of achieving an adaptive balance through dialectics</li> <li>learning from indigenous psychology, such as the ancient wisdom of finding deep joy in bad situations</li></ol> Second-wave positive psychology is sometimes abbreviated as PP 2.0. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Third-wave_positive_psychology">Third-wave positive psychology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Positive_psychology&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Third-wave positive psychology">edit</a>]</div> The third wave of positive psychology emphasizes going beyond the individual to take a deeper look at the groups and systems in which we live. It also promotes becoming more interdisciplinary and multicultural and incorporates more methodologies.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> In broadening the scope and exploring the systemic and socio-cultural dimensions of people's lived realities, there are four specific things to focus on:<a href="#cite_note-LomasIvtzan2016-78">[78]</a> <ol><li>The focus of enquiry: becoming more interested in emergent paradigms like "systems-informed positive psychology" which incorporates principles and concepts from the systems sciences to optimize human social systems and the individuals within them.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a></li> <li>Disciplines: becoming more multi- and interdisciplinary, as reflected in hybrid formulations like <a href="/wiki/Positive_education" title="Positive education">positive education</a>, which combines traditional education and research based ways of increasing happiness and overall well-being.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a></li> <li>Cultural contexts: becoming more multicultural and global</li> <li>Methodologies: embracing other paradigms and ways of knowing, such as qualitative and mixed methods approaches rather than relying solely on quantitative research.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research_and_evidence">Research and evidence</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Positive_psychology&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Research and evidence">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Well-being_contributing_factors" title="Well-being contributing factors">Well-being contributing factors</a></div> Subject-matter and <a href="/wiki/Methodology" title="Methodology">methodology</a> development expanded the field of positive psychology beyond its core theories and methods. Positive psychology is now a global area of study, with various national indices tracking citizens' happiness ratings. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Research_findings">Research findings</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Positive_psychology&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Research findings">edit</a>]</div> Research in positive psychology, well-being, eudaimonia and happiness, and the theories of Diener, Ryff, Keyes, and Seligman cover a broad range of topics including "the biological, personal, relational, institutional, cultural, and global dimensions of life."<a href="#cite_note-SeligmanCsikszentmihalyi2000-42">[42]</a> A <a href="/wiki/Meta-analysis" title="Meta-analysis">meta-analysis</a> of 49 studies showed that Positive Psychology Interventions (PPI) produced improvements in well-being and lower <a href="/wiki/Depression_(mood)" title="Depression (mood)">depression</a> levels; the PPIs studied included writing gratitude letters, learning optimistic thinking, replaying positive life experiences, and socializing with others.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> In a later meta-analysis of 39 studies with 6,139 participants, the outcomes were positive.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> Three to six months after a PPI the effects on subjective well-being and psychological well-being were still significant. However the positive effect was weaker than in the earlier meta-analysis; the authors concluded that this was because they only used higher-quality studies. The PPIs they considered included counting blessings, <a href="/wiki/Kindness" title="Kindness">kindness</a> practices, making personal goals, showing gratitude, and focusing on personal strengths. Another review of PPIs found that over 78% of intervention studies were conducted in Western countries.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> In the textbook Positive Psychology: The Science of Happiness, authors Compton and Hoffman give the "Top Down Predictors" of well-being as high <a href="/wiki/Self_esteem" class="mw-redirect" title="Self esteem">self esteem</a>, <a href="/wiki/Optimism" title="Optimism">optimism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Self_efficacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Self efficacy">self efficacy</a>, a sense of meaning in life, and positive relationships with others.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> The personality traits most associated with well-being are <a href="/wiki/Extraversion" class="mw-redirect" title="Extraversion">extraversion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Agreeability" class="mw-redirect" title="Agreeability">agreeability</a>, and low levels of <a href="/wiki/Neuroticism" title="Neuroticism">neuroticism</a>. In a study published in 2020, students were enrolled in a positive psychology course that focused on improving happiness and well-being through teaching about positive psychology.<a href="#cite_note-SmithFordEricksonGuzman2020-89">[89]</a> The participants answered questions pertaining to the five PERMA categories. At the end of the semester those same students reported significantly higher scores in all categories (p<.001) except for engagement which was significant at p<.05. The authors stated, “Not only do students learn and get credit, there is also a good chance that many will reap the benefits in what is most important to them—their health, happiness, and well-being.”<a href="#cite_note-SmithFordEricksonGuzman2020-89">[89]</a> A systematic review was conducted to explore the impact of positive psychology interventions on breast cancer patients' mental and physical well-being. The review analyzed multiple studies that examined interventions such as mindfulness, gratitude practices, and strengths-based approaches in improving quality of life for those diagnosed with breast cancer. Results consistently demonstrated that these interventions significantly reduced symptoms of anxiety, depression, and stress, while fostering resilience, optimism, and emotional well-being. Furthermore, positive psychology approaches were found to enhance patients' adherence to treatment and improve their ability to cope with the challenges of illness and recovery. This review highlights the growing evidence for incorporating positive psychology into breast cancer care, underscoring its potential to support both mental health and holistic recovery in patients.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> A systematic review and meta-analysis was conducted using various positive psychology techniques to enhance the well-being of individuals with psychiatric and somatic disorders, including breast cancer patients. Key methods included mindfulness-based interventions, gratitude exercises, and strength identification, which aimed to build emotional resilience. Additionally, practices like savoring, cognitive reappraisal, and self-compassion were employed to foster positive emotions and coping strategies. These interventions significantly contributed to reducing distress and promoting overall psychological health by encouraging patients to focus on positive aspects of life despite their challenges.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Academic_methods">Academic methods</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Positive_psychology&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Academic methods">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Quantitative">Quantitative</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Positive_psychology&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Quantitative">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:QUANTITATIVE_VS_QUALITATIVE-43.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/QUANTITATIVE_VS_QUALITATIVE-43.jpg/220px-QUANTITATIVE_VS_QUALITATIVE-43.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/QUANTITATIVE_VS_QUALITATIVE-43.jpg/330px-QUANTITATIVE_VS_QUALITATIVE-43.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/QUANTITATIVE_VS_QUALITATIVE-43.jpg/440px-QUANTITATIVE_VS_QUALITATIVE-43.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1093" /></a><figcaption>Quantitative data is numbers-based, countable, or measurable. Qualitative data is interpretation-based, descriptive, and relating to language.</figcaption></figure> Quantitative methods in positive psychology include p-technique <a href="/wiki/Factor_analysis" title="Factor analysis">factor analysis</a>, dynamic factor analysis, interindividual differences and <a href="/wiki/Structural_equation_modeling" title="Structural equation modeling">structural equation modeling</a>, spectral analysis and item response models, dynamic systems analysis, latent growth analysis, <a href="/wiki/Latent_class_model" title="Latent class model">latent-class models</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hierarchical_linear_modeling" class="mw-redirect" title="Hierarchical linear modeling">hierarchical linear modeling</a>, <a href="/wiki/Measurement_invariance" title="Measurement invariance">measurement invariance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Experimental_method" class="mw-redirect" title="Experimental method">experimental methods</a>, <a href="/wiki/Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">behavior genetics</a>, and integration of quantitative and <a href="/wiki/Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">qualitative</a> approaches.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Qualitative">Qualitative</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Positive_psychology&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Qualitative">edit</a>]</div> Grant J. Rich explored the use of <a href="/wiki/Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">qualitative methodology</a> to study positive psychology.<a href="#cite_note-Rich2017-93">[93]</a> Rich addresses the popularity of quantitative methods in studying the <a href="/wiki/Empirical_research" title="Empirical research">empirical</a> questions that positive psychology presents. He argues that there is an "overemphasis" on quantitative methods and suggests implementing qualitative methods, such as <a href="/wiki/Semi-structured_interview" title="Semi-structured interview">semi-structured interviews</a>, <a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">observations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Field_research" title="Field research">fieldwork</a>, <a href="/wiki/Creative_work" title="Creative work">creative artwork</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Focus_group" title="Focus group">focus groups</a>. Rich states that qualitative approaches will further promote the "flourishing of positive psychology" and encourages such practice.<a href="#cite_note-Rich2017-93">[93]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Behavioral_interventions">Behavioral interventions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Positive_psychology&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Behavioral interventions">edit</a>]</div> Changing happiness levels through <a href="/wiki/Psychological_intervention" title="Psychological intervention">interventions</a> is a further methodological advancement in the study of positive psychology, and has been the focus of various <a href="/wiki/Academic_journal" title="Academic journal">academic and scientific psychological publications</a>. Happiness-enhancing interventions include expressing <a href="/wiki/Kindness" title="Kindness">kindness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gratitude" title="Gratitude">gratitude</a>, <a href="/wiki/Optimism" title="Optimism">optimism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Humility" title="Humility">humility</a>, <a href="/wiki/Awe" title="Awe">awe</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mindfulness" title="Mindfulness">mindfulness</a>. One <a href="/wiki/Experimental_psychology#Experiments" title="Experimental psychology">behavioral experiment</a> used two six-week interventions:<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> one involving the performance of acts of kindness, and one focused on gratitude which emphasized the counting of one's blessings. The study participants who went through the behavioral interventions reported higher levels of happiness and well-being than those who did not participate in either intervention. Another study found that the interventions of expressing optimism and expressing gratitude enhanced subjective well-being in participants who took part in the intervention for eight months.<a href="#cite_note-LyubomirskyDickerhoofBoehmSheldon2011-95">[95]</a> The researchers concluded that interventions are "most successful when participants know about, endorse, and commit to the intervention."<a href="#cite_note-LyubomirskyDickerhoofBoehmSheldon2011-95">[95]</a> The article provides support that when people enthusiastically take part in behavioral interventions, such as expression of optimism and gratitude, they may increase happiness and subjective well-being. Another study examined the interaction effects between gratitude and humility through behavior interventions.<a href="#cite_note-KruseChancellorRubertonLyubomirsky2014-96">[96]</a> The interventions were writing a gratitude letter and writing a 14-day diary. In both interventions, the researchers found that gratitude and humility are connected and are "mutually reinforcing."<a href="#cite_note-KruseChancellorRubertonLyubomirsky2014-96">[96]</a> The study also discusses how gratitude, and its associated humility, may lead to more positive emotional states and subjective well-being. A series of experiments showed a positive effect of awe on subjective well-being.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> People who felt awe also reported feeling they had more time, more preference for experiential expenditures than material expenditures, and greater life satisfaction. Experiences that heighten awe may lead to higher levels of life satisfaction and, in turn, higher levels of happiness and subjective well-being. Mindfulness interventions may also increase subjective well-being in people who mindfully meditate.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> Being mindful in meditation includes awareness and observation of one's meditation practice, with non-reactive and non-judgmental sentiments during meditation. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="National_indices_of_happiness">National indices of happiness</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Positive_psychology&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: National indices of happiness">edit</a>]</div> The creation of various national <a href="/wiki/Index_(statistics)" title="Index (statistics)">indices</a> of happiness have expanded the field of positive psychology to a global scale. In a January 2000 article in American Psychologist, psychologist Ed Diener argued for the creation of a national happiness index in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-Diener2000-99">[99]</a> Such an index could provide measurements of happiness, or subjective well-being, within the United States and across many other countries in the world. Diener argued that national indices would be helpful markers or indicators of population happiness, providing a sense of current ratings and a tracker of happiness across time. Diener proposed that the national index include various sub-measurements of subjective well-being, including "pleasant affect, unpleasant affect, life satisfaction, fulfillment, and more specific states such as stress, affection, trust, and joy."<a href="#cite_note-Diener2000-99">[99]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:United_Nations_General_Assembly_Hall_(3).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/United_Nations_General_Assembly_Hall_%283%29.jpg/220px-United_Nations_General_Assembly_Hall_%283%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/United_Nations_General_Assembly_Hall_%283%29.jpg/330px-United_Nations_General_Assembly_Hall_%283%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/United_Nations_General_Assembly_Hall_%283%29.jpg/440px-United_Nations_General_Assembly_Hall_%283%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption>The first World Happiness Report was initiated by the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly" title="United Nations General Assembly">UN General Assembly</a> in June 2011. </figcaption></figure> In 2012, the first <a href="/wiki/World_Happiness_Report" title="World Happiness Report">World Happiness Report</a> was published. The World Happiness Report was initiated by the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly" title="United Nations General Assembly">UN General Assembly</a> in June 2011, when it passed the Bhutanese Resolution.<a href="#cite_note-WorldHappinessReport-100">[100]</a> The Bhutanese Resolution called for nations across the world to "give more importance to happiness and well-being in determining how to achieve and measure social and economic development."<a href="#cite_note-WorldHappinessReport-100">[100]</a> The data for the World Happiness Reports is collected in partnership with the <a href="/wiki/Gallup_(company)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gallup (company)">Gallup</a> World Poll's life evaluations and annual happiness rankings. The World Happiness Report bases its national rankings on how happy constituents believe themselves to be. The first World Happiness Report, published in 2012, detailed the state of world happiness, the causes of happiness and misery, policy implications from happiness reports, and three case studies of subjective well-being for 1) Bhutan and its <a href="/wiki/Gross_National_Happiness" title="Gross National Happiness">Gross National Happiness</a> index, 2) the U.K. <a href="/wiki/Office_for_National_Statistics" title="Office for National Statistics">Office for National Statistics</a> Experience, and 3) happiness in the member countries within the <a href="/wiki/OECD" title="OECD">OECD</a>.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> The 2020 World Happiness Report, the eighth in the series of reports, was the first to include happiness rankings of cities across the world, in addition to rankings of 156 countries. The city of <a href="/wiki/Helsinki" title="Helsinki">Helsinki, Finland</a> was reported as the city with the highest subjective well-being ranking,<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> and the country of Finland was reported as the country with the highest subjective well-being ranking.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> The 2020 report provided insights on happiness based on environmental conditions, social conditions, urban-rural happiness differentials, and sustainable development.<a href="#cite_note-WorldHappinessReport-100">[100]</a> It also provided possible explanations for why <a href="/wiki/Nordic_countries" title="Nordic countries">Nordic countries</a> have consistently ranked in the top ten happiest countries in the World Happiness Report, such as Nordic countries' high-quality government benefits and protections to its citizens, including <a href="/wiki/Welfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Welfare">welfare benefits</a> and well-operated democratic institutions, as well as social connections, bonding, and trust.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> Additional national well-being indices and reported statistics include the Gallup Global Emotions Report,<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> Sharecare Community Well-Being Index,<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> Global Happiness Council's Global Happiness and Well-being Policy Report,<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> <a href="/wiki/Happy_Planet_Index" title="Happy Planet Index">Happy Planet Index</a>,<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> <a href="/wiki/OECD_Better_Life_Index" title="OECD Better Life Index">OECD Better Life Index</a>,<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> and UN <a href="/wiki/Human_Development_Report" title="Human Development Report">Human Development Reports</a>.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Positive_psychology&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Applications">edit</a>]</div> Positive psychology influenced other academic fields of study and scholarship, notably <a href="/wiki/Organizational_behavior" title="Organizational behavior">organizational behavior</a>, <a href="/wiki/Positive_education" title="Positive education">education</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Psychiatry" title="Psychiatry">psychiatry</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Positive_organizational_scholarship">Positive organizational scholarship</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Positive_psychology&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Positive organizational scholarship">edit</a>]</div> Positive organizational scholarship (POS), also referred to as <a href="/wiki/Positive_organizational_behavior" title="Positive organizational behavior">positive organizational behavior</a> (POB), began as an application of positive psychology to the field of <a href="/wiki/Organizational_behavior" title="Organizational behavior">organizational behavior</a>. An early use of the term was in Positive Organizational Scholarship: Foundations of a New Discipline (2003), edited by <a href="/wiki/Ross_School_of_Business" title="Ross School of Business">Ross School of Business</a> professors <a href="/wiki/Kim_S._Cameron" title="Kim S. Cameron">Kim S. Cameron</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jane_Dutton" title="Jane Dutton">Jane E. Dutton</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Quinn" title="Robert E. Quinn">Robert E. Quinn</a>.<a href="#cite_note-CameronDuttonQuinn2003-111">[111]</a> The editors promote "the best of the human condition", such as goodness, compassion, resilience, and positive human potential, as an organizational goal as important as financial success.<a href="#cite_note-CameronDuttonQuinn2003-111">[111]</a> The goal of POS is to study the factors that create positive work experiences and successful, people-oriented outcomes. The 2011 volume The Oxford Handbook of Positive Organizational Scholarship, covers such topics as positive human resource practices, positive organizational practices, and positive leadership and change. It applies positive psychology to the workplace context, covering areas such as positive individual attributes, positive emotions, strengths and virtues, and positive relationships.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> The editors of that volume define POS this way:<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">Positive organizational scholarship rigorously seeks to understand what represents the best of the human condition based on scholarly research and theory. Just as positive psychology focuses on exploring optimal individual psychological states rather than pathological ones, organizational scholarship focuses attention on the generative dynamics in organizations that lead to the development of human strength, foster resiliency in employees, enable healing and restoration, and cultivate extraordinary individual and organizational performance. POS emphasizes what elevates individuals and organizations (in addition to what challenges them), what goes right in organizations (in addition to what goes wrong), what is life-giving (in addition to what is problematic or life-depleting), what is experienced as good (in addition to what is objectionable), and what is inspiring (in addition to what is difficult or arduous).<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Psychiatry">Psychiatry</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Positive_psychology&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Psychiatry">edit</a>]</div> Positive psychology influenced psychiatry and led to more widespread promotion of practices including well-being therapy, positive <a href="/wiki/Psychotherapy" title="Psychotherapy">psychotherapy</a>, and an integration of positive psychology in <a href="/wiki/Therapy" title="Therapy">therapeutic practice</a>.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> Benefits of positive influences can be seen in practices like <a href="/wiki/Psychological_intervention" title="Psychological intervention">positive psychological interventions (PPIs)</a>. It is an intervention designed to promote positive outcomes by implying positive activities such as imposing adaptive personality traits to be praised and encouraged. Research has found that PPIs has the potential to improve medical and psychiatric disorders of individuals with depression<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> and suicidal levels.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> Department of Developmental Services (DDS) did a research on a 52-year-old single gay man with <a href="/wiki/Bipolar_II_disorder" title="Bipolar II disorder">bipolar II disorder</a> and <a href="/wiki/Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder" title="Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder">attention deficit hyperactive disorder (ADHD)</a> with <a href="/wiki/Low_self_esteem" class="mw-redirect" title="Low self esteem">low self-esteem</a>. In addition, there were other focuses of this research: promoting kindness behavior, identifying, and encouraging internal strengths to reach a fulfilling life.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> PPIs increases the individuality's purpose with constant strengthen on personality traits and behavior positivity. <a href="/wiki/Psychoanalysis" title="Psychoanalysis">Psychoanalysis</a> can be used to treat mental illnesses such as <a href="/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder" title="Major depressive disorder">depression</a> as it focuses on identifying the conscious and unconscious motivations and behaviors affecting one's life. Treatment using psychoanalysis runs in a longer duration by practicing <a href="/wiki/Free_association_(psychology)" title="Free association (psychology)">free association</a> to promote personal growth.<a href="#cite_note-:02-119">[119]</a> <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_behavioral_therapy" title="Cognitive behavioral therapy">Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT)</a>, a common type of psychotherapy in America, focuses on both psychoanalysis and <a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">behavioral analysis</a>: psychoanalysts focusing on conscious and unconscious motivations, behaviorists focusing on objectively measured behaviors. Therapy such as exposure therapy helps people with specific aspects of depression, or more specific cases like <a href="/wiki/Social_anxiety_disorder" title="Social anxiety disorder">social phobia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:02-119">[119]</a> Positive psychology may assist those recovering from <a href="/wiki/Traumatic_brain_injury" title="Traumatic brain injury">traumatic brain injury</a> (TBI).<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> TBI rehabilitation practices rely on bettering the patient's life by getting them to engage (or re-engage) in normal everyday practices, an idea which is related to tenets of positive psychology. While the empirical evidence for positive psychology is limited, positive psychology's focus on small successes, optimism, and <a href="/wiki/Prosocial_behavior" title="Prosocial behavior">prosocial behavior</a> promises to improve the social and emotional well-being of TBI patients. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Media_and_industry">Media and industry</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Positive_psychology&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Media and industry">edit</a>]</div> Positive psychology is a subject of popular books and films, and influences the <a href="/wiki/Wellness_(alternative_medicine)" title="Wellness (alternative medicine)">wellness</a> industry. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Books">Books</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Positive_psychology&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Books">edit</a>]</div> Several <a href="/wiki/Popular_psychology" title="Popular psychology">popular psychology</a> books have been written for a general audience. Ilona Boniwell's Positive Psychology in a Nutshell provided a summary of the research. According to Boniwell, well-being is related to optimism, <a href="/wiki/Extraversion_and_introversion" title="Extraversion and introversion">extraversion</a>, social connections (i.e., close friendships), being married, having engaging work, religion or spirituality, leisure, good sleep and exercise, social class (through lifestyle differences and better coping methods), and subjective health (what you think about your health).<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> Boniwell writes that well-being is not related to age, physical attractiveness, money (once basic needs are met), gender (women are more often depressed but also more often joyful), educational level, having children, moving to a sunnier climate, crime prevention, housing, and objective health (what doctors say). <a href="/wiki/Sonja_Lyubomirsky#The_How_of_Happiness" title="Sonja Lyubomirsky">Sonja Lyubomirsky</a>'s The How of Happiness provides advice on how to improve happiness. According to this book, people should create new habits, seek out new emotions, use variety and timing to prevent <a href="/wiki/Hedonic_treadmill" title="Hedonic treadmill">hedonic adaptation</a>, and enlist others to support the creation of those new habits.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> Lyubomirsky recommends twelve happiness activities, including savoring life, learning to forgive, and living in the present. <a href="/wiki/Stumbling_on_Happiness" title="Stumbling on Happiness">Stumbling on Happiness</a> by <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Gilbert_(psychologist)" title="Daniel Gilbert (psychologist)">Daniel Gilbert</a> shares positive psychology research suggesting that people are often poor at predicting what will make them happy and that people are prone to misevaluating the causes of their happiness.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> He notes that the subjectivity of well-being and happiness often is the most difficult challenge to overcome in predicting future happiness, as our future selves may have different perspectives on life than our current selves. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Films">Films</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Positive_psychology&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Films">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Film_industry" title="Film industry">film industry</a> noticed positive psychology, and films have spurred new research within positive psychology. <a href="/wiki/Happy_(2011_film)" title="Happy (2011 film)">Happy</a> is a full-length documentary film covering positive psychology and <a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">neuroscience</a>. It highlights case studies on happiness across diverse cultures and geographies. The film features interviews with notable positive psychologists and scholars, including <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Gilbert_(psychologist)" title="Daniel Gilbert (psychologist)">Gilbert</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ed_Diener" title="Ed Diener">Diener</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sonja_Lyubomirsky" title="Sonja Lyubomirsky">Lyubomirsky</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mihaly_Csikszentmihalyi" title="Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi">Csikszentmihalyi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> For several years, the Positive Psychology News website included a section on Positive Psychology Movie Awards that highlighted feature films that featured messages of positive psychology.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> The VIA Institute has researched positive psychology as represented in feature films. Contemporary and popular films that promote or represent character strengths are the basis for various academic articles.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Wellness_industry">Wellness industry</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Positive_psychology&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Wellness industry">edit</a>]</div> The growing popularity and attention given to positive psychology research has influenced industry growth, development, and consumption of products and services meant to cater to wellness and well-being. According to the Global Wellness Institute, as of 2020, the global wellness economy is valued at US$4.4 trillion;<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> the key sectors of the industry included Nutrition, Personal Care and Beauty, and Physical activity, while the Mental wellness and Public health sectors made up over US$0.5 billion. Companies highlight happiness and well-being in their marketing strategies. Food and beverage companies such as <a href="/wiki/Coca-Cola" title="Coca-Cola">Coca-Cola</a><a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pocky" title="Pocky">Pocky</a>—whose motto is "Share happiness!"<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a>—emphasize happiness in their commercials, branding, and descriptions. CEOs at retail companies such as Zappos have profited by publishing books detailing how they deliver happiness,<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> while Amazon's logo features a dimpled smile.<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism_and_limitations">Criticism and limitations</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Positive_psychology&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Criticism and limitations">edit</a>]</div> Many aspects of positive psychology have been criticized. It has been suggested that positive psychology lacks proper theorizing and conceptual thinking, problematic as far as measurements and methodologies were concerned, seen as a pseudoscience that lacks evidence and had poor replication, lacks novelty and self-isolated itself for mainstream psychology, was a decontextualized neoliberalist ideology that caused harm and was a capitalistic venture. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reality_distortion">Reality distortion</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Positive_psychology&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Reality distortion">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Positive_illusions">Positive illusions</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Positive_psychology&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Positive illusions">edit</a>]</div> In 1988, psychologists <a href="/wiki/Shelley_E._Taylor" title="Shelley E. Taylor">Shelley E. Taylor</a> and Jonathan D. Brown co-authored a <a href="/wiki/Psychological_Bulletin" title="Psychological Bulletin">Psychological Bulletin</a> article that coined the phrase <a href="/wiki/Positive_illusions" title="Positive illusions">positive illusions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> Positive illusions are the <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_processes" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive processes">cognitive processes</a> people engage in when they <a href="/wiki/Self_aggrandizing" class="mw-redirect" title="Self aggrandizing">self-aggrandize</a> or <a href="/wiki/Self-enhancement" title="Self-enhancement">self-enhance</a>. They are unrealistically positive or self-affirming attitudes that individuals hold about themselves, their position, or their environment. They are attitudes of extreme optimism that endure in the face of facts and real conditions. Taylor and Brown suggest that positive illusions protect people from negative feedback that they might receive, and this, in turn, preserves their <a href="/wiki/Psychological_adaptation" title="Psychological adaptation">psychological adaptation</a> and subjective well-being. However, later research found that positive illusions and related attitudes lead to psychological <a href="/wiki/Maladaptation" title="Maladaptation">maladaptive</a> conditions such as poorer social relationships, expressions of <a href="/wiki/Narcissism" title="Narcissism">narcissism</a>, and negative workplace outcomes,<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> thus reducing the positive effects that positive illusions have on subjective well-being, overall happiness, and life satisfaction. <a href="/wiki/Kirk_J._Schneider" title="Kirk J. Schneider">Kirk Schneider</a>, editor of the <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Humanistic_Psychology" title="Journal of Humanistic Psychology">Journal of Humanistic Psychology</a>, pointed to research showing high positivity correlates with positive illusion, which distorts reality. High positivity or <a href="/wiki/Flourishing" title="Flourishing">flourishing</a> could make one incapable of psychological growth, unable to self-reflect, and prone to holding racial biases. By contrast, negativity, sometimes evidenced in mild to moderate depression, is correlated with less distortion of reality. Therefore, Schneider argues, negativity might play an important role: engaging in conflict and acknowledging appropriate negativity, including certain negative emotions like guilt, might better promote flourishing. Schneider wrote: "perhaps genuine happiness is not something you aim at, but is... a by-product of a life well lived—and a life well lived does not settle on the programmed or neatly calibrated."<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Role_of_negativity">Role of negativity</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Positive_psychology&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Role of negativity">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Barbara_S._Held" title="Barbara S. Held">Barbara S. Held</a>, a professor at <a href="/wiki/Bowdoin_College" title="Bowdoin College">Bowdoin College</a>, argues that positive psychology has faults: negative side effects, negativity within the positive psychology movement, and the division in the field of psychology caused by differing opinions of psychologists on positive psychology. She notes the movement's lack of consistency regarding the role of negativity. She also raises issues with the simplistic approach taken by some psychologists in the application of positive psychology. A "one size fits all" approach is arguably not beneficial; she suggests a need for individual differences to be incorporated into its application.<a href="#cite_note-Held2004-135">[135]</a> By teaching young people that being confident and optimistic leads to success, when they are unsuccessful they may believe this is because they are insecure or pessimistic. This could lead them to believe that any negative internal thought or feeling they may experience is damaging to their happiness and should be steered clear of completely.<a href="#cite_note-Ciarrochi_2016-136">[136]</a> Held prefers the Second Wave Positive Psychology message of embracing the dialectic nature of positive and negative, and questions the need to call it "positive" psychology.<a href="#cite_note-Held2004-135">[135]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Toxic_positivity">Toxic positivity</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Positive_psychology&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Toxic positivity">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Toxic_positivity" title="Toxic positivity">Toxic positivity</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:20230516_Toxic_positivity_-_Google_Trends_search_term_history.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/20230516_Toxic_positivity_-_Google_Trends_search_term_history.svg/280px-20230516_Toxic_positivity_-_Google_Trends_search_term_history.svg.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/20230516_Toxic_positivity_-_Google_Trends_search_term_history.svg/420px-20230516_Toxic_positivity_-_Google_Trends_search_term_history.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/20230516_Toxic_positivity_-_Google_Trends_search_term_history.svg/560px-20230516_Toxic_positivity_-_Google_Trends_search_term_history.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="675" /></a><figcaption> Though the concept of unrealistic optimism had already been explored by psychologists at least as early as 1980, the term toxic positivity appeared in J. Halberstam's 2011 <a href="/wiki/The_Queer_Art_of_Failure" title="The Queer Art of Failure">The Queer Art of Failure</a><a href="#cite_note-AppliedCorpusLinquistics_20220125-137">[137]</a> ("...to poke holes in the toxic positivity of contemporary life"). Beginning in about 2019, the term toxic positivity became the subject of a greater number of Internet searches.</figcaption></figure> One critical response to positive psychology concerns "toxic positivity".<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> Toxic positivity is when people do not fully acknowledge, process, or manage the entire spectrum of human emotion, including anger and sadness.<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> This genre of criticism argues that positive psychology places too much importance on "upbeat thinking, while shunting challenging and difficult experiences to the side."<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> People who engage in a constant chase for positive experiences or states of high subjective well-being may inadvertently <a href="/wiki/Stigmatizing" class="mw-redirect" title="Stigmatizing">stigmatize</a> negative emotional conditions such as <a href="/wiki/Depression_(mood)" title="Depression (mood)">depression</a>, or may suppress natural emotional responses, such as <a href="/wiki/Sadness" title="Sadness">sadness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Regret" title="Regret">regret</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Psychological_stress" title="Psychological stress">stress</a>. Furthermore, by not allowing negative emotional states to be experienced, or by suppressing and hiding negative emotional responses, people may experience harmful physical, <a href="/wiki/Cardiovascular" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardiovascular">cardiovascular</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_system" title="Respiratory system">respiratory</a> consequences.<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> Opponents of toxic positivity advocate accepting and fully experiencing negative emotional states. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Methodological_and_philosophical_critiques">Methodological and philosophical critiques</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Positive_psychology&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Methodological and philosophical critiques">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Richard_Lazarus" title="Richard Lazarus">Richard Lazarus</a> critiqued positive psychology's methodological and philosophical components. He holds that giving more detail and insight into the positive is not bad, but not at the expense of the negative, because the two (positive and negative) are inseparable. Among his critiques: <ol><li>Positive psychology's use of correlational and cross-sectional research designs to indicate causality between the movement's ideas and healthy lives may hide other factors and time differences that account for observed differences.</li> <li>Emotions cannot be categorized <a href="/wiki/Dichotomy" title="Dichotomy">dichotomously</a> into positive and negative; emotions are subjective and rich in social/relational meaning. Emotions are fluid, meaning that the context they appear in changes over time. Lazarus states that "all emotions have the potential of being either one or the other, or both, on different occasions, and even on the same occasion when an emotion is experienced by different persons"<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a></li> <li>Individual differences are neglected in most social science research. Many research designs focus on the statistical significance of the groups while overlooking differences among people.</li> <li>Social science researchers' tend to not adequately define and measure emotions. Most assessments are quick checklists and do not provide adequate debriefing. Many researchers do not differentiate between fluid emotional states and relatively stable personality traits.</li></ol> Lazarus holds that positive psychology claims to be new and innovative but the majority of research on stress and coping theory makes many of the same claims as positive psychology. The movement attempts to uplift and reinforce the positive aspects of one's life, but everyone in life experiences stress and hardship. Coping through these events should not be regarded as adapting to failures but as successfully navigating stress, but the movement doesn't hold that perspective. Another critique of positive psychology is that it has been developed from a Eurocentric worldview. <a href="/wiki/Intersectionality" title="Intersectionality">Intersectionality</a> has become a methodological concern regarding studies within Positive Psychology.<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> A literature review conducted in 2022 noted several criticisms of the area, including lack of conceptual thinking, problematic measurements, poor replication of results, self-isolation from mainstream psychology, decontextualization, and being used for capitalism.<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Narrow_focus">Narrow focus</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Positive_psychology&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Narrow focus">edit</a>]</div> In 2003, Ian Sample noted that "Positive psychologists also stand accused of burying their heads in the sand and ignoring that depressed, even merely unhappy people, have real problems that need dealing with."<a href="#cite_note-Sample-145">[145]</a> He quoted Steven Wolin, a <a href="/wiki/Clinical_psychiatrist" class="mw-redirect" title="Clinical psychiatrist">clinical psychiatrist</a> at <a href="/wiki/George_Washington_University" title="George Washington University">George Washington University</a>, as saying that the study of positive psychology is just a reiteration of older ways of thinking, and that there is not much scientific research to support the efficacy of this method. Psychological researcher Shelly Gable retorts that positive psychology is just bringing a balance to a side of psychology that is glaringly understudied. She points to imbalances favoring research into negative psychological well-being in <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">cognitive psychology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Health_psychology" title="Health psychology">health psychology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">social psychology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Sample-145">[145]</a> Psychologist Jack Martin maintains that positive psychology is not unique in its optimistic approach to emotional well-being, stating that other forms of psychology, such as counseling and <a href="/wiki/Educational_psychology" title="Educational psychology">educational psychology</a>, are also interested in positive human fulfillment.<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a> He says while positive psychology pushes for schools to be more student-centered and able to foster positive self-images in children, a lack of focus on self-control may prevent children from making full contributions to society. If positive psychology is not implemented correctly, it can cause more harm than good. This is the case, for example, when interventions in school are coercive (in the sense of being imposed on everyone without regard for the child's reason for negativity) and fail to take each student's context into account.<a href="#cite_note-Ciarrochi_2016-136">[136]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Applications_and_misapplications">Applications and misapplications</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Positive_psychology&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Applications and misapplications">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_US_Army's_Comprehensive_Soldier_Fitness_program">The US Army's Comprehensive Soldier Fitness program</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Positive_psychology&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: The US Army's Comprehensive Soldier Fitness program">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Csf..jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Csf..jpg/220px-Csf..jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/59/Csf..jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="225" data-file-height="224" /></a><figcaption>In contract with Seligman's Positive Psychology Center at the University of Pennsylvania, the United States Army began the <a href="/wiki/Comprehensive_Soldier_Fitness" class="mw-redirect" title="Comprehensive Soldier Fitness">Comprehensive Soldier Fitness</a> program in order to address psychological issues among soldiers.</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Comprehensive_Soldier_and_Family_Fitness" title="Comprehensive Soldier and Family Fitness">Comprehensive Soldier Fitness</a> (CSF) program was established in 2008 by then-<a href="/wiki/Chief_of_Staff_of_the_United_States_Army" title="Chief of Staff of the United States Army">Chief of Staff of the United States Army</a>, <a href="/wiki/General_(United_States)" title="General (United States)">General</a> <a href="/wiki/George_W._Casey,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="George W. Casey, Jr.">George W. Casey, Jr.</a>, in an effort to address increasing rates of drug abuse, family violence, <a href="/wiki/Post-traumatic_stress_disorder" title="Post-traumatic stress disorder">PTSD</a>, and suicide among soldiers. The Army contracted with Seligman's Positive Psychology Center at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania" title="University of Pennsylvania">University of Pennsylvania</a> to supply a program based on the center's Penn Resiliency Program, which was designed for 10- to 14-year-old children.<a href="#cite_note-Singal-147">[147]</a> Although Seligman proposed starting with a small-scale pilot-test, General Casey insisted on immediately rolling out the CSF to the entire Army.<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> Interviewed for the journal Monitor on Psychology of the <a href="/wiki/American_Psychological_Association" title="American Psychological Association">American Psychological Association</a>, Seligman said that "This is the largest study—1.1 million soldiers—psychology has ever been involved in."<a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a> According to journalist Jesse Singal, "It would become one of the largest mental-health interventions geared at a single population in the history of humanity, and possibly the most expensive."<a href="#cite_note-Singal-147">[147]</a> Some psychologists criticized the CSF for various reasons. Nicholas J.L. Brown wrote: "The idea that techniques that have demonstrated, at best, marginal effects in reducing depressive symptoms in school-age children could also prevent the onset of a condition that is associated with some of the most extreme situations with which humans can be confronted is a remarkable one that does not seem to be backed up by empirical evidence."<a href="#cite_note-Brown-150">[150]</a> <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Soldz" title="Stephen Soldz">Stephen Soldz</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Boston_Graduate_School_of_Psychoanalysis" title="Boston Graduate School of Psychoanalysis">Boston Graduate School of Psychoanalysis</a> cited Seligman's acknowledgment that the CSF is a gigantic study rather than a program based on proven techniques, and questioned the ethics of requiring soldiers to participate in research without informed consent.<a href="#cite_note-Soldz-151">[151]</a> Soldz also criticized the CSF training for trying to build up-beat attitudes toward combat: "Might soldiers who have been trained to resiliently view combat as a growth opportunity be more likely to ignore or under-estimate real dangers, thereby placing themselves, their comrades, or civilians at heightened risk of harm?"<a href="#cite_note-Soldz-151">[151]</a> In 2021 the <a href="/wiki/Chronicle_of_Higher_Education" class="mw-redirect" title="Chronicle of Higher Education">Chronicle of Higher Education</a> carried a debate between Singal and Seligman about whether, with the CSF well into its second decade, there was any solid evidence of its effectiveness. Singal cited studies that, he said, failed to find any measurable benefits from such positive psychology techniques, and he criticized the Army's own reports as methodologically unsound and lacking peer review.<a href="#cite_note-Singal-147">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> Seligman said that Singal had misinterpreted the studies and ignored the Army's positive feedback from soldiers, one of whom told Seligman that "if I had had this training years ago, it would have saved my marriage."<a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Equality_gaps_and_underrepresentation">Equality gaps and underrepresentation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Positive_psychology&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Equality gaps and underrepresentation">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Demographic_diversity">Demographic diversity</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Positive_psychology&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Demographic diversity">edit</a>]</div> Positive psychology has historically been critiqued for its lack of demographic diversity, both in terms of its research populations and its theoretical frameworks. Much of the early research in positive psychology was conducted predominantly with Western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic (WEIRD) populations, leading to concerns about the generalizability of its findings across different demographic groups.<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a> Recent studies have highlighted the need for more inclusive research that encompasses a broader range of cultural and socioeconomic backgrounds to ensure that positive psychology interventions are applicable and effective for diverse populations. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cultural_sensitivity">Cultural sensitivity</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Positive_psychology&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Cultural sensitivity">edit</a>]</div> The concept of cultural sensitivity is crucial for positive psychology, yet it has faced criticism for insufficient consideration of cultural contexts. Positive psychology's principles, such as subjective well-being and character strengths, may not universally apply or be valued equally across all cultures. For instance, in collectivist cultures, individuals prioritize collective well-being over individual happiness, and thus, frameworks like the PERMA model may need adaptation to reflect these values. Additionally, there is a call for more cross-cultural research to validate the applicability of positive psychology interventions globally and to integrate culturally relevant practices and perspectives.<a href="#cite_note-Lomas_60–77-155">[155]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Accessibility">Accessibility</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Positive_psychology&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Accessibility">edit</a>]</div> Accessibility issues are a significant concern within positive psychology. Interventions and practices derived from positive psychology may not be equally accessible to all populations, particularly those from marginalized or lower socioeconomic backgrounds. There is evidence that socioeconomic factors can impact the effectiveness and availability of positive psychology interventions, potentially exacerbating existing inequalities.<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> To address these gaps, there is a growing emphasis on developing and implementing positive psychology practices that are affordable and accessible to diverse communities, including those with limited resources.<a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Future_directions">Future directions</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Positive_psychology&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Future directions">edit</a>]</div> Positive psychology continues to evolve with ongoing research and practical applications expanding its scope and impact. Future directions in positive psychology focus on integrating emerging insights, addressing criticism, and exploring new areas of application to enhance well-being and human flourishing. Cross-cultural research is essential to explore how positive psychology practices perform across different cultural settings and to refine interventions for global application.<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lomas_60–77-155">[155]</a> Some researchers have written that addressing criticisms related to methodological rigor, theoretical clarity, and practical applicability should be a priority, with a focus on enhancing the robustness of positive psychology research methodologies, improving the replicability of findings, and addressing the critiques related to the movement's focus and applicability.<a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Positive_psychology&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 18em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unconditional_positive_regard" title="Unconditional positive regard">Unconditional positive regard</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Precursors</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Thought" title="New Thought">New Thought</a> – 19th-century American spiritual movement</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maslow%27s_hierarchy_of_needs" title="Maslow's hierarchy of needs">Maslow's hierarchy of needs</a> – Theory of developmental psychology</li> <li>Needs and Motives (<a href="/wiki/Henry_Murray" title="Henry Murray">Henry Murray</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-determination_theory" title="Self-determination theory">Self-determination theory</a> – Macro theory of human motivation and personality</li></ul> <dl><dt>Various</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatomy_of_an_Epidemic" title="Anatomy of an Epidemic">Anatomy of an Epidemic</a> – Work by Robert Whitaker</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aversion_to_happiness" title="Aversion to happiness">Aversion to happiness</a> – People wanting to deliberately avoid positive emotions and / or happinessPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louise_Burfitt-Dons" title="Louise Burfitt-Dons">Louise Burfitt-Dons</a> – Activist, writer and blogger (born 1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_psychology" title="Community psychology">Community psychology</a> – Branch of psychology</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_and_positive_psychology" title="Culture and positive psychology">Culture and positive psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Happiness_economics" title="Happiness economics">Happiness economics</a> – Study of happiness and quality of life</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_of_life" title="Meaning of life">Meaning of life</a> – Philosophical and spiritual question</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollyanna_principle" title="Pollyanna principle">Pollyanna principle</a> – Tendency to remember pleasant things better</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_education" title="Positive education">Positive education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_neuroscience" title="Positive neuroscience">Positive neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_psychotherapy" title="Positive psychotherapy">Positive psychotherapy</a> – Psychotherapeutic method developed by Nossrat Peseschkian</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_youth_development" title="Positive youth development">Positive youth development</a> – type of development programmePages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posttraumatic_growth" class="mw-redirect" title="Posttraumatic growth">Posttraumatic growth</a> – Psychological termPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a> – Philosophical tradition</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_resilience" title="Psychological resilience">Psychological resilience</a> – Ability to mentally cope with a crisis</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rational_ignorance" title="Rational ignorance">Rational ignorance</a> – Practice of avoiding research whose cost exceeds its benefits</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_wave_positive_psychology" class="mw-redirect" title="Second wave positive psychology">Second wave positive psychology</a> – Psychological approachPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex-positive_movement" title="Sex-positive movement">Sex-positive movement</a> – Ideology supporting healthy sexual norms</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_humor" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of humor">Theory of humor</a> – Conjectures explaining humorPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Positive_psychology&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-lower-alpha" style="column-width: 35em;"> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Positive_psychology&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a 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New York: Harper & Brothers. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/motivationperson0000masl_o5g6/page/n26/mode/1up?q=positive">xxiii</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-044241-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-044241-5"><bdi>978-0-06-044241-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Motivation+and+Personality&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=xxiii&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Harper+%26+Brothers&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=978-0-06-044241-5&rft.aulast=Maslow&rft.aufirst=Abraham+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmotivationperson0000masl_o5g6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APositive+psychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline;"><ul style="display:inline;"><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;display:inline; margin:0;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSecker1998" class="citation journal cs1">Secker, J. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100713234428/http://her.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/13/1/57.pdf">"Current conceptualizations of mental health and mental health promotion"</a> (PDF). Health Education Research. 13 (1): 57–66. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fher%2F13.1.57">10.1093/her/13.1.57</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10184883">10184883</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.her.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/13/1/57.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2010-07-13. Retrieved 2010-05-18. <q>... Amongst psychologists... the importance of promoting health rather than simply preventing ill-health date back to the 1950s</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Health+Education+Research&rft.atitle=Current+conceptualizations+of+mental+health+and+mental+health+promotion&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=57-66&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fher%2F13.1.57&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10184883&rft.aulast=Secker&rft.aufirst=J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.her.oxfordjournals.org%2Fcgi%2Freprint%2F13%2F1%2F57.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APositive+psychology" class="Z3988"></li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;margin-top:.5em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHales,_Dianne2008" class="citation book cs1">Hales, Dianne (2008). "Psychological Well-Being". An Invitation to Health (Brief ed.). Wadsworth Cengage Learning. p. 26. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780495391920" title="Special:BookSources/9780495391920"><bdi>9780495391920</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Psychological+Well-Being&rft.btitle=An+Invitation+to+Health&rft.pages=26&rft.edition=Brief&rft.pub=Wadsworth+Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9780495391920&rft.au=Hales%2C+Dianne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APositive+psychology" class="Z3988"></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-Seligman2002-30">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Seligman2002_30-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Seligman2002_30-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeligman2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Martin_Seligman" title="Martin Seligman">Seligman, Martin E. P.</a> (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/authentichappine00seli_0">Authentic Happiness: Using the New Positive Psychology to Realize Your Potential for Lasting Fulfillment</a>. 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Motivation and Psychology. p. 354. <q>The science of psychology has been far more successful on the negative than on the positive side. It has revealed to us much about man's shortcomings, his illness, his sins, but little about his potentialities, his virtues, his achievable aspirations, or his full psychological height. It is as if psychology has voluntarily restricted itself to only half its rightful jurisdiction, the darker, meaner half.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Motivation+and+Psychology&rft.pages=354&rft.aulast=Maslow&rft.aufirst=Abraham&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APositive+psychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Compton2005-32">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Compton2005_32-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Compton2005_32-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCompton2005" class="citation book cs1">Compton, William C. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/introductiontopo0000comp">An Introduction to Positive Psychology</a>. 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Prevention Science. 22 (7): 913–922. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11121-021-01282-z">10.1007/s11121-021-01282-z</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1389-4986">1389-4986</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8501455">8501455</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34296375">34296375</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Prevention+Science&rft.atitle=A+Framework+for+the+Adaptation+of+Positive+Psychological+Interventions+to+North+American+Indigenous+Populations&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=913-922&rft.date=2021-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8501455%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=1389-4986&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F34296375&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11121-021-01282-z&rft.aulast=Schick&rft.aufirst=Melissa+R.&rft.au=Kirk-Provencher%2C+Katelyn+T.&rft.au=Goldstein%2C+Silvi+C.&rft.au=Nalven%2C+Tessa&rft.au=Spillane%2C+Nichea+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8501455&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APositive+psychology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvan_ZylGaffaneyvan_der_VaartDik2024" class="citation journal cs1">van Zyl, Llewellyn E.; Gaffaney, Jaclyn; van der Vaart, Leoni; Dik, Bryan J.; Donaldson, Stewart I (2024-03-03). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17439760.2023.2178956">"The critiques and criticisms of positive psychology: a systematic review"</a>. 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The Psychology of Happiness. London: Routledge.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Psychology+of+Happiness&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Argyle&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APositive+psychology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBenard2004" class="citation book cs1">Benard, Bonnie (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/resiliencywhatwe00bena">Resiliency: What We Have Learned</a>. San Francisco: WestEd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780914409182" title="Special:BookSources/9780914409182"><bdi>9780914409182</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Resiliency%3A+What+We+Have+Learned&rft.place=San+Francisco&rft.pub=WestEd&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9780914409182&rft.aulast=Benard&rft.aufirst=Bonnie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fresiliencywhatwe00bena&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APositive+psychology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBiswas-DienerDienerTamir2004" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Biswas-Diener" title="Robert Biswas-Diener">Biswas-Diener, Robert</a>; <a href="/wiki/Ed_Diener" title="Ed Diener">Diener, Ed</a>; Tamir, Maya (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1162%2F001152604323049352">"The Psychology of Subjective Well-Being"</a>. Daedalus. 133 (2): 18–25. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1162%2F001152604323049352">10.1162/001152604323049352</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:57564044">57564044</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Daedalus&rft.atitle=The+Psychology+of+Subjective+Well-Being&rft.volume=133&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=18-25&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1162%2F001152604323049352&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A57564044%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Biswas-Diener&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft.au=Diener%2C+Ed&rft.au=Tamir%2C+Maya&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1162%252F001152604323049352&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APositive+psychology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDalai_LamaCutler1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/14th_Dalai_Lama" title="14th Dalai Lama">Dalai Lama</a>; <a href="/wiki/Howard_C._Cutler" title="Howard C. Cutler">Cutler, Howard C.</a> (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/artofhappinessha00bsta">The Art of Happiness</a>. New York: Riverhead Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57322-111-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57322-111-5"><bdi>978-1-57322-111-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Art+of+Happiness&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Riverhead+Books&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-1-57322-111-5&rft.au=Dalai+Lama&rft.au=Cutler%2C+Howard+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fartofhappinessha00bsta&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APositive+psychology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFromm1973" class="citation book cs1">Fromm, Eric (1973). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/anatomyofhumande00from">The Anatomy of Human Destructiveness</a>. New York: New York, Holt, Rinehart and Winston. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-03-007596-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-03-007596-4"><bdi>978-0-03-007596-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Anatomy+of+Human+Destructiveness&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=New+York%2C+Holt%2C+Rinehart+and+Winston&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=978-0-03-007596-4&rft.aulast=Fromm&rft.aufirst=Eric&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fanatomyofhumande00from&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APositive+psychology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKahnemanDienerSchwarz2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Kahneman" title="Daniel Kahneman">Kahneman, Daniel</a>; <a href="/wiki/Ed_Diener" title="Ed Diener">Diener, Ed</a>; <a href="/wiki/Norbert_Schwarz" title="Norbert Schwarz">Schwarz, Norbert</a>, eds. (2003). Well-Being: The Foundations of Hedonic Psychology. New York: Russell Sage Foundation Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87154-424-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87154-424-7"><bdi>978-0-87154-424-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Well-Being%3A+The+Foundations+of+Hedonic+Psychology&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Russell+Sage+Foundation+Publications&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-87154-424-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APositive+psychology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeyesHaidt2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Corey_Keyes" title="Corey Keyes">Keyes, Corey L. M.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Haidt" title="Jonathan Haidt">Haidt, Jonathan</a>, eds. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/flourishingposit00keye_329">Flourishing: Positive Psychology and the Life Well-lived</a>. Washington: American Psychological Association. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/flourishingposit00keye_329/page/n251">275</a>–289. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55798-930-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55798-930-7"><bdi>978-1-55798-930-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Flourishing%3A+Positive+Psychology+and+the+Life+Well-lived&rft.place=Washington&rft.pages=275-289&rft.pub=American+Psychological+Association&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-55798-930-7&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fflourishingposit00keye_329&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APositive+psychology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKashdan2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Todd_Kashdan" title="Todd Kashdan">Kashdan, Todd</a> (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/curiousdiscoverm0000kash">Curious? Discover the Missing Ingredient to a Fulfilling Life</a>. New York: HarperCollins. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-166118-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-166118-1"><bdi>978-0-06-166118-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Curious%3F+Discover+the+Missing+Ingredient+to+a+Fulfilling+Life&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-06-166118-1&rft.aulast=Kashdan&rft.aufirst=Todd&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcuriousdiscoverm0000kash&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APositive+psychology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcMahon2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Darrin_McMahon" title="Darrin McMahon">McMahon, Darrin M.</a> (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/happinesshistory00mcma">Happiness: A History</a>. New York: Atlantic Monthly Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87113-886-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87113-886-6"><bdi>978-0-87113-886-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Happiness%3A+A+History&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Atlantic+Monthly+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-87113-886-6&rft.aulast=McMahon&rft.aufirst=Darrin+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhappinesshistory00mcma&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APositive+psychology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobbins2008" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Brent_Robbins" title="Brent Robbins">Robbins, Brent Dean</a> (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mythosandlogos.com/Goodlife.pdf">"What Is the Good life? Positive Psychology and the Renaissance of Humanistic Psychology"</a> (PDF). The Humanistic Psychologist. 36 (2): 96–112. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F08873260802110988">10.1080/08873260802110988</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Humanistic+Psychologist&rft.atitle=What+Is+the+Good+life%3F+Positive+Psychology+and+the+Renaissance+of+Humanistic+Psychology&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=96-112&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F08873260802110988&rft.aulast=Robbins&rft.aufirst=Brent+Dean&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmythosandlogos.com%2FGoodlife.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APositive+psychology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeligman1990" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Martin_Seligman" title="Martin Seligman">Seligman, Martin</a> (1990). Learned Optimism: How to Change Your Mind and Your Life. Free Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Learned+Optimism%3A+How+to+Change+Your+Mind+and+Your+Life&rft.pub=Free+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=Seligman&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APositive+psychology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeligman1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Martin_Seligman" title="Martin Seligman">Seligman, Martin E. P.</a> (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/optimisticchild000seli">The Optimistic Child</a>. Boston, Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780395693803" title="Special:BookSources/9780395693803"><bdi>9780395693803</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Optimistic+Child&rft.place=Boston%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin+Company&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=9780395693803&rft.aulast=Seligman&rft.aufirst=Martin+E.+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foptimisticchild000seli&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APositive+psychology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeligman2004" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Martin_Seligman" title="Martin Seligman">Seligman, Martin E. P.</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1162%2F001152604323049424">"Can Happiness Be Taught?"</a>. Daedalus. 133 (2): 80–87. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1162%2F001152604323049424">10.1162/001152604323049424</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:57570511">57570511</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Daedalus&rft.atitle=Can+Happiness+Be+Taught%3F&rft.volume=133&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=80-87&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1162%2F001152604323049424&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A57570511%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Seligman&rft.aufirst=Martin+E.+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1162%252F001152604323049424&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APositive+psychology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSnyderLopez2001" class="citation book cs1">Snyder, C. R.; Lopez, Shane J. (2001). Handbook of Positive Psychology. Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Positive+Psychology&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Snyder&rft.aufirst=C.+R.&rft.au=Lopez%2C+Shane+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APositive+psychology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStebbins2015" class="citation book cs1">Stebbins, R. A. (2015). Leisure and Positive Psychology: Linking Activities with Positiveness. Houndmills, England: Palgrave Macmillan.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Leisure+and+Positive+Psychology%3A+Linking+Activities+with+Positiveness&rft.place=Houndmills%2C+England&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Stebbins&rft.aufirst=R.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APositive+psychology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZaganoGillespie2006" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Phyllis_Zagano" title="Phyllis Zagano">Zagano, Phyllis</a>; <a href="/wiki/Kevin_Gillespie_(academic)" title="Kevin Gillespie (academic)">Gillespie, C. Kevin</a> (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theway.org.uk/back/454zagano.pdf">"Ignatian Spirituality and Positive Psychology"</a> (PDF). The Way. 45 (4): 41–58. Retrieved 11 July 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Way&rft.atitle=Ignatian+Spirituality+and+Positive+Psychology&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=41-58&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Zagano&rft.aufirst=Phyllis&rft.au=Gillespie%2C+C.+Kevin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theway.org.uk%2Fback%2F454zagano.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APositive+psychology" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Positive_psychology&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/40px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="33" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/60px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/80px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiversity has learning resources about <a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Special:Search/Positive_psychology" class="extiw" title="v:Special:Search/Positive psychology">Positive psychology</a></div></div> </div> <dl><dt>Origins</dt></dl> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeterson2008" class="citation journal cs1">Peterson, Christopher (2008-05-16). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-good-life/200805/what-is-positive-psychology-and-what-is-it-not">"What Is Positive Psychology, and What Is It Not?"</a>. Psychology Today.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychology+Today&rft.atitle=What+Is+Positive+Psychology%2C+and+What+Is+It+Not%3F&rft.date=2008-05-16&rft.aulast=Peterson&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.psychologytoday.com%2Fblog%2Fthe-good-life%2F200805%2Fwhat-is-positive-psychology-and-what-is-it-not&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APositive+psychology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNash2015" class="citation web cs1">Nash, Jo (2015-02-12). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://positivepsychologyprogram.com/founding-fathers/">"The 5 Founding Fathers and A History of Positive Psychology"</a>. PositivePsychology.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=PositivePsychology&rft.atitle=The+5+Founding+Fathers+and+A+History+of+Positive+Psychology&rft.date=2015-02-12&rft.aulast=Nash&rft.aufirst=Jo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpositivepsychologyprogram.com%2Ffounding-fathers%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APositive+psychology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSze2015" class="citation web cs1">Sze, David (2015-06-17). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.huffpost.com/entry/the-father-of-positive-ps_b_7600226">"The Father of Positive Psychology and His Two Theories of Happiness"</a>. HuffPost.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=HuffPost&rft.atitle=The+Father+of+Positive+Psychology+and+His+Two+Theories+of+Happiness&rft.date=2015-06-17&rft.aulast=Sze&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.huffpost.com%2Fentry%2Fthe-father-of-positive-ps_b_7600226&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APositive+psychology" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <dl><dt>Resources</dt></dl> <ul><li>University of Pennsylvania, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.authentichappiness.sas.upenn.edu/home">Authentic Happiness</a>, website of Martin Seligman</li></ul> <dl><dt>Various</dt></dl> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dhammatalks.org/Archive/Writings/CrossIndexed/Uncollected/MiscEssays/The%20Karma%20of%20Happiness.pdf">The Karma of Happiness: A Buddhist Monk Looks at Positive Psychology</a> by <a href="/wiki/Thanissaro_Bhikkhu" class="mw-redirect" title="Thanissaro Bhikkhu">Thanissaro Bhikkhu</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Psychology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background:#BFD7FF;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a 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title="Psychologist">Psychologist</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#CFE1FF;"><a href="/wiki/Basic_science_(psychology)" title="Basic science (psychology)">Basic psychology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abnormal_psychology" title="Abnormal psychology">Abnormal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affective_neuroscience" title="Affective neuroscience">Affective neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affective_science" title="Affective science">Affective science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">Behavioral genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_neuroscience" title="Behavioral neuroscience">Behavioral neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">Cognitive</a>/<a href="/wiki/Cognitivism_(psychology)" title="Cognitivism (psychology)">Cognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_neuroscience" title="Cognitive neuroscience">Cognitive neuroscience</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_cognitive_neuroscience" title="Social cognitive neuroscience">Social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_psychology" title="Comparative psychology">Comparative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_psychology" title="Cross-cultural psychology">Cross-cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_psychology" title="Cultural psychology">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_psychology" title="Developmental psychology">Developmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Differential_psychology" title="Differential psychology">Differential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_psychology" title="Ecological psychology">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">Evolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_psychology" title="Experimental psychology">Experimental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gestalt_psychology" title="Gestalt psychology">Gestalt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_psychology" title="Mathematical psychology">Mathematical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_psychology" title="Moral psychology">Moral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropsychology" title="Neuropsychology">Neuropsychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personality_psychology" title="Personality psychology">Personality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psycholinguistics" title="Psycholinguistics">Psycholinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychophysiology" title="Psychophysiology">Psychophysiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_psychology" title="Quantitative psychology">Quantitative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_psychology" title="Theoretical psychology">Theoretical</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Psi-stylized.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="stylized letter psi" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Psi-stylized.svg/50px-Psi-stylized.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Psi-stylized.svg/75px-Psi-stylized.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Psi-stylized.svg/100px-Psi-stylized.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="123" data-file-height="124" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#CFE1FF;"><a href="/wiki/Applied_psychology" title="Applied psychology">Applied psychology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anomalistic_psychology" title="Anomalistic psychology">Anomalistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_behavior_analysis" title="Applied behavior analysis">Applied behavior analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_testing" title="Psychological testing">Assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_psychology" title="Clinical psychology">Clinical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coaching_psychology" title="Coaching psychology">Coaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_psychology" title="Community psychology">Community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_behaviour" title="Consumer behaviour">Consumer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counseling_psychology" title="Counseling psychology">Counseling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_psychology" title="Critical psychology">Critical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_psychology" title="Educational psychology">Educational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ergonomics" title="Ergonomics">Ergonomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_psychology" title="Feminist psychology">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_psychology" title="Forensic psychology">Forensic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_psychology" title="Health psychology">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_psychology" title="Humanistic psychology">Humanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_and_organizational_psychology" title="Industrial and organizational psychology">Industrial and organizational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_psychology" title="Legal psychology">Legal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_psychology" title="Media psychology">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_psychology" title="Medical psychology">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_psychology" title="Military psychology">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_psychology" title="Music psychology">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_health_psychology" title="Occupational health psychology">Occupational health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pastoral_psychology" class="mw-redirect" title="Pastoral psychology">Pastoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_psychology" title="Political psychology">Political</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Positive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychometrics" title="Psychometrics">Psychometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychotherapy" title="Psychotherapy">Psychotherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_of_religion" title="Psychology of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_psychology" title="School psychology">School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_psychology" title="Sport psychology">Sport and exercise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suicidology" title="Suicidology">Suicidology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_psychology" title="Systems psychology">Systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traffic_psychology" title="Traffic psychology">Traffic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#CFE1FF;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_psychological_research_methods" title="List of psychological research methods">Methodologies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_testing" title="Animal testing">Animal testing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archival_research" title="Archival research">Archival research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_epigenetics" title="Behavioral epigenetics">Behavior epigenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case_study" title="Case study">Case study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Content_analysis" title="Content analysis">Content analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_psychology" title="Experimental psychology">Experiments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_subject_research" title="Human subject research">Human subject research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interview_(research)" title="Interview (research)">Interviews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroimaging" title="Neuroimaging">Neuroimaging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">Observation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychophysics" title="Psychophysics">Psychophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualitative_psychological_research" title="Qualitative psychological research">Qualitative research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_psychological_research" title="Quantitative psychological research">Quantitative research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-report_inventory" title="Self-report inventory">Self-report inventory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survey_methodology" title="Survey methodology">Statistical surveys</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#CFE1FF;">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavior" title="Behavior">Behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_behavior_analysis" title="Applied behavior analysis">Behavioral engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">Behavioral genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_neuroscience" title="Behavioral neuroscience">Behavioral neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">Cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competence_(polyseme)" title="Competence (polyseme)">Competence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">Consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_behaviour" title="Consumer behaviour">Consumer behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotion" title="Emotion">Emotions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feeling" title="Feeling">Feelings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ergonomics" title="Ergonomics">Human factors and ergonomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">Mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_of_religion" title="Psychology of religion">Psychology of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychometrics" title="Psychometrics">Psychometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terror_management_theory" title="Terror management theory">Terror management theory</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#CFE1FF;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_psychologists" title="List of psychologists">Psychologists</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Wundt" title="Wilhelm Wundt">Wilhelm Wundt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivan_Pavlov" title="Ivan Pavlov">Ivan Pavlov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Thorndike" title="Edward Thorndike">Edward Thorndike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Jung" title="Carl Jung">Carl Jung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_B._Watson" title="John B. Watson">John B. Watson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clark_L._Hull" title="Clark L. Hull">Clark L. Hull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurt_Lewin" title="Kurt Lewin">Kurt Lewin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget">Jean Piaget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gordon_Allport" title="Gordon Allport">Gordon Allport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._P._Guilford" title="J. P. Guilford">J. P. Guilford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Rogers" title="Carl Rogers">Carl Rogers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erik_Erikson" title="Erik Erikson">Erik Erikson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._F._Skinner" title="B. F. Skinner">B. F. Skinner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_O._Hebb" title="Donald O. Hebb">Donald O. Hebb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Hilgard" title="Ernest Hilgard">Ernest Hilgard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Harlow" title="Harry Harlow">Harry Harlow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Cattell" title="Raymond Cattell">Raymond Cattell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Maslow" title="Abraham Maslow">Abraham Maslow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neal_E._Miller" title="Neal E. Miller">Neal E. Miller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome_Bruner" title="Jerome Bruner">Jerome Bruner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_T._Campbell" title="Donald T. Campbell">Donald T. Campbell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Eysenck" title="Hans Eysenck">Hans Eysenck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_A._Simon" title="Herbert A. Simon">Herbert A. Simon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_McClelland" title="David McClelland">David McClelland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leon_Festinger" title="Leon Festinger">Leon Festinger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Armitage_Miller" title="George Armitage Miller">George A. Miller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Lazarus" title="Richard Lazarus">Richard Lazarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Schachter" title="Stanley Schachter">Stanley Schachter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Zajonc" title="Robert Zajonc">Robert Zajonc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Bandura" title="Albert Bandura">Albert Bandura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Brown_(psychologist)" title="Roger Brown (psychologist)">Roger Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endel_Tulving" title="Endel Tulving">Endel Tulving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Kohlberg" title="Lawrence Kohlberg">Lawrence Kohlberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Noam Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulric_Neisser" title="Ulric Neisser">Ulric Neisser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome_Kagan" title="Jerome Kagan">Jerome Kagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Mischel" title="Walter Mischel">Walter Mischel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elliot_Aronson" title="Elliot Aronson">Elliot Aronson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Kahneman" title="Daniel Kahneman">Daniel Kahneman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Ekman" title="Paul Ekman">Paul Ekman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Posner_(psychologist)" title="Michael Posner (psychologist)">Michael Posner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amos_Tversky" title="Amos Tversky">Amos Tversky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruce_McEwen" title="Bruce McEwen">Bruce McEwen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larry_Squire" title="Larry Squire">Larry Squire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_E._Nisbett" title="Richard E. Nisbett">Richard E. Nisbett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Seligman" title="Martin Seligman">Martin Seligman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ed_Diener" title="Ed Diener">Ed Diener</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shelley_E._Taylor" title="Shelley E. Taylor">Shelley E. Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Robert_Anderson_(psychologist)" title="John Robert Anderson (psychologist)">John Anderson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_C._Kessler" title="Ronald C. Kessler">Ronald C. Kessler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_E._LeDoux" title="Joseph E. LeDoux">Joseph E. LeDoux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Davidson" title="Richard Davidson">Richard Davidson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_Fiske" title="Susan Fiske">Susan Fiske</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Baumeister" title="Roy Baumeister">Roy Baumeister</a></li> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#CFE1FF;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Psychology_lists" title="Category:Psychology lists">Lists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_counseling" title="Outline of counseling">Counseling topics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_branches_of_psychology" title="List of branches of psychology">Disciplines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_psychology_organizations" title="List of psychology organizations">Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_psychology" title="Outline of psychology">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_psychologists" title="List of psychologists">Psychologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_psychotherapies" title="List of psychotherapies">Psychotherapies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_psychological_research_methods" title="List of psychological research methods">Research methods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_psychological_schools" title="List of psychological schools">Schools of thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_psychology" title="Timeline of psychology">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_psychology_articles" title="Index of psychology articles">Topics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background:#DFEBFF;"><div> <ul><li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/psychology" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:psychology">Wiktionary definition</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Category:en:Psychology" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Category:en:Psychology">Wiktionary category</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Category:Psychology" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Category:Psychology">Wikisource</a></li> <li><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/category:Psychology" class="extiw" title="commons:category:Psychology">Wikimedia Commons</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Psychology" class="extiw" title="wikiquote:Psychology">Wikiquote</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Special:Search/Psychology" class="extiw" title="wikinews:Special:Search/Psychology">Wikinews</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Psychology" class="extiw" title="wikibooks:Psychology">Wikibooks</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Virtues" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Virtues" title="Template:Virtues"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Virtues" title="Template talk:Virtues"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Virtues" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Virtues"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Virtues" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">Virtues</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">About virtues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Endowment_(philosophy)" title="Endowment (philosophy)">Endowment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_character" title="Moral character">Moral character</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics" title="Nicomachean Ethics">Nicomachean Ethics</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Positive psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trait_theory" title="Trait theory">Trait theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue ethics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Virtue families</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bodhipakkhiy%C4%81dhamm%C4%81" title="Bodhipakkhiyādhammā">Bodhipakkhiyā dhammā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmavihara" title="Brahmavihara">Brahmavihārās</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bushido" title="Bushido">Bushidō</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catalogue_of_Vices_and_Virtues" title="Catalogue of Vices and Virtues">Catalogue of Vices and Virtues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emi_Omo_Eso" title="Emi Omo Eso">Emi Omo Eso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemic_virtue" title="Epistemic virtue">Epistemic virtues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_virtues" title="Five virtues">Five virtues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Cardinal_Principles_and_Eight_Virtues" title="Four Cardinal Principles and Eight Virtues">Four Cardinal Principles and Eight Virtues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_ethics#Intellectual_virtue" title="Aristotelian ethics">Intellectual virtues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_ethics#Moral_virtue" title="Aristotelian ethics">Moral virtues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nine_Noble_Virtues" title="Nine Noble Virtues">Nine Noble Virtues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omoluwabi" title="Omoluwabi">Omoluwabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C4%81ramit%C4%81" title="Pāramitā">Pāramīs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prussian_virtues" title="Prussian virtues">Prussian virtues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scout_Law" title="Scout Law">Scout Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_virtues" title="Seven virtues">Seven virtues</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cardinal_virtues" title="Cardinal virtues">Cardinal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_virtues" title="Theological virtues">Theological</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teachings_of_the_Seven_Grandfathers" title="Teachings of the Seven Grandfathers">Teachings of the Seven Grandfathers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Treasures_(Taoism)" title="Three Treasures (Taoism)">Three Treasures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Values_in_Action_Inventory_of_Strengths" title="Values in Action Inventory of Strengths">Values in Action Inventory of Strengths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamas" title="Yamas">Yamas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Individual virtues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accountability" title="Accountability">Accountability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alertness" title="Alertness">Alertness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altruism" title="Altruism">Altruism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authenticity_(philosophy)" title="Authenticity (philosophy)">Authenticity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calmness" title="Calmness">Calmness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charisma" title="Charisma">Charisma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charity_(practice)" title="Charity (practice)">Charity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chastity" title="Chastity">Chastity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chivalry" title="Chivalry">Chivalry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleanliness" title="Cleanliness">Cleanliness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compassion" title="Compassion">Compassion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscientiousness" title="Conscientiousness">Conscientiousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Courage" title="Courage">Courage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_courage" title="Civil courage">Civil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_courage" title="Moral courage">Moral</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Courtesy" title="Courtesy">Courtesy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diligence" title="Diligence">Diligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discernment_(Christianity)" title="Discernment (Christianity)">Discernment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discipline" title="Discipline">Discipline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">Duty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empathy" title="Empathy">Empathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endurance" title="Endurance">Endurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equanimity" title="Equanimity">Equanimity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etiquette" title="Etiquette">Etiquette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith" title="Faith">Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faithfulness" title="Faithfulness">Faithfulness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fidelity" title="Fidelity">Fidelity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foresight_(psychology)" title="Foresight (psychology)">Foresight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forgiveness" title="Forgiveness">Forgiveness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frugality" title="Frugality">Frugality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generosity" title="Generosity">Generosity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glory_(honor)" title="Glory (honor)">Glory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_faith" title="Good faith">Good faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gratitude" title="Gratitude">Gratitude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heroic_virtue" title="Heroic virtue">Heroism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honesty" title="Honesty">Honesty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honour" title="Honour">Honour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hope_(virtue)" title="Hope (virtue)">Hope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hospitality" title="Hospitality">Hospitality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanity_(virtue)" title="Humanity (virtue)">Humanity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humility" title="Humility">Humility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impartiality" title="Impartiality">Impartiality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Innocence" title="Innocence">Innocence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insight" title="Insight">Insight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrity" title="Integrity">Integrity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_intelligence" title="Emotional intelligence">Emotional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_intelligence" title="Social intelligence">Social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judgement" title="Judgement">Judgement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice_(virtue)" title="Justice (virtue)">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kindness" title="Kindness">Kindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Love" title="Love">Love</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyalty" title="Loyalty">Loyalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnanimity" title="Magnanimity">Magnanimity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnificence_(history_of_ideas)" title="Magnificence (history of ideas)">Magnificence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meekness" title="Meekness">Meekness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercy" title="Mercy">Mercy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moderation" title="Moderation">Moderation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modesty" title="Modesty">Modesty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonattachment_(philosophy)" title="Nonattachment (philosophy)">Nonattachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patience" title="Patience">Patience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriotism" title="Patriotism">Patriotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perspicacity" title="Perspicacity">Perspicacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philanthropy" title="Philanthropy">Philanthropy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piety" title="Piety">Piety</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Filial_piety" title="Filial piety">Filial</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pity" title="Pity">Pity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politeness" title="Politeness">Politeness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prudence" title="Prudence">Prudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punctuality" title="Punctuality">Punctuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_(virtue)" title="Religion (virtue)">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renunciation" title="Renunciation">Renunciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_resilience" title="Psychological resilience">Resilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respect" title="Respect">Respect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverence_(emotion)" title="Reverence (emotion)">Reverence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Righteous_indignation" title="Righteous indignation">Righteous indignation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Righteousness" title="Righteousness">Righteousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-control" title="Self-control">Self-control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-cultivation" title="Self-cultivation">Self-cultivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-transcendence" title="Self-transcendence">Self-transcendence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simple_living" title="Simple living">Simplicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sincerity" title="Sincerity">Sincerity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solidarity" title="Solidarity">Solidarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sportsmanship" title="Sportsmanship">Sportsmanship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sympathy" title="Sympathy">Sympathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_taste" title="Aesthetic taste">Taste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperance_(virtue)" title="Temperance (virtue)">Temperance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tranquillity" title="Tranquillity">Tranquillity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trust_(social_science)" title="Trust (social science)">Trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wisdom" title="Wisdom">Wisdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wit" title="Wit">Wit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workmanship" title="Workmanship">Workmanship</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Chinese</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/De_(Chinese)" title="De (Chinese)">De</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jing_(philosophy)" title="Jing (philosophy)">Jing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_(Confucianism)" title="Li (Confucianism)">Li</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren_(philosophy)" title="Ren (philosophy)">Ren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yi_(philosophy)" title="Yi (philosophy)">Yi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Greek</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agape" title="Agape">Agape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arete" title="Arete">Arete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ataraxia" title="Ataraxia">Ataraxia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutrapelia" title="Eutrapelia">Eutrapelia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philotimo" title="Philotimo">Philotimo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phronesis" title="Phronesis">Phronesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophia_(wisdom)" title="Sophia (wisdom)">Sophia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophrosyne" title="Sophrosyne">Sophrosyne</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Indian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adhi%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%ADh%C4%81na" title="Adhiṭṭhāna">Adhiṭṭhāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahimsa" title="Ahimsa">Ahimsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akrodha" title="Akrodha">Akrodha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-possession" title="Non-possession">Aparigraha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arjava" title="Arjava">Ārjava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achourya" title="Achourya">Asteya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmacharya" title="Brahmacharya">Brahmacharya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C4%81na" title="Dāna">Dāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhrti" title="Dhrti">Dhṛti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hr%C4%AB_(Buddhism)" title="Hrī (Buddhism)">Hrī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karu%E1%B9%87%C4%81" title="Karuṇā">Karuṇā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kshama" title="Kshama">Kshama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kshanti" title="Kshanti">Kshanti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maitr%C4%AB" title="Maitrī">Mettā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudita" title="Mudita">Muditā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praj%C3%B1%C4%81_(Buddhism)" title="Prajñā (Buddhism)">Prajñā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satya" title="Satya">Satya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaucha" title="Shaucha">Shaucha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sev%C4%81" title="Sevā">Sevā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_in_Hinduism" title="Faith in Hinduism">Śraddhā</a>/<a href="/wiki/Faith_in_Buddhism" title="Faith in Buddhism">Saddhā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upek%E1%B9%A3%C4%81" title="Upekṣā">Upekṣā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C4%ABrya" title="Vīrya">Vīrya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Latin</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auctoritas" title="Auctoritas">Auctoritas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charity_(Christian_virtue)" title="Charity (Christian virtue)">Caritas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decorum" title="Decorum">Decorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dignitas_(Roman_concept)" title="Dignitas (Roman concept)">Dignitas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fides_(deity)" title="Fides (deity)">Fides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitas" title="Gravitas">Gravitas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanitas" title="Humanitas">Humanitas</a></li> <li><a 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