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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Under_the_Seleucids"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Under the Seleucids</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Under_the_Seleucids-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Under_the_Arsacids" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Under_the_Arsacids"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Under the Arsacids</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Under_the_Arsacids-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Under_the_Sasanians" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Under_the_Sasanians"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Under the Sasanians</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Under_the_Sasanians-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Language_and_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Language_and_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Language and literature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Language_and_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Society" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Society</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Society-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Parthian_cities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Parthian_cities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Parthian cities</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Parthian_cities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-General_and_cited_references" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_and_cited_references"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>General and cited references</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_and_cited_references-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Parthia</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 44 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-44" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">44 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%AB%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="فرثية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="فرثية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parfiya" title="Parfiya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Parfiya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Парфия – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Парфия" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%84%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Парфія – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Парфія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%A0rtia" title="Pàrtia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Pàrtia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%85%D0%B8" title="Пархи – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Пархи" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parthien" title="Parthien – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Parthien" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partia" title="Partia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Partia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%B8%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Παρθία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Παρθία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partia" title="Partia – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Partia" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partio_(lando)" title="Partio (lando) – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Partio (lando)" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partia" title="Partia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Partia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA" title="پارت – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پارت" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parthie" title="Parthie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Parthie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partia" title="Partia – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Partia" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%8C%8C%EB%A5%B4%ED%8B%B0%EC%95%84" title="파르티아 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="파르티아" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE" title="पार्थिया – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="पार्थिया" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partija_(pokrajina)" title="Partija (pokrajina) – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Partija (pokrajina)" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partia" title="Partia – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Partia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Par%C3%BE%C3%ADa" title="Parþía – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Parþía" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partia" title="Partia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Partia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9E%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%97%E1%83%98%E1%83%90_(%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98)" title="პართია (რეგიონი) – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="პართია (რეგიონი)" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Парфия – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Парфия" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Part" title="Part – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Part" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partai" title="Partai – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Partai" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partia" title="Partia – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Partia" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parthia" title="Parthia – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Parthia" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%91%E3%83%AB%E3%83%86%E3%82%A3%E3%82%A2" title="パルティア – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="パルティア" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA%DA%BE%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="پارتھیا – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="پارتھیا" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA" title="پارت – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="پارت" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partia_(kraina)" title="Partia (kraina) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Partia (kraina)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%A1rtia" title="Pártia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Pártia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Парфия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Парфия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%BF%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="پارٿيا – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="پارٿيا" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partia_(%C3%BAzemie_Partov)" title="Partia (územie Partov) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Partia (územie Partov)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_(%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82)" title="Партија (област) – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Партија (област)" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partija_(pokrajina)" title="Partija (pokrajina) – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Partija (pokrajina)" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BE" title="பார்த்தியா – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பார்த்தியா" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%82" title="Порт – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Порт" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parfi%C3%BDa" title="Parfiýa – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Parfiýa" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkmençe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%84%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Парфія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Парфія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA%DA%BE%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="پارتھیا – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="پارتھیا" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ng%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Di_Parthia" title="Người Parthia – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Người Parthia" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B8%95%E6%8F%90%E4%BA%9A" title="帕提亚 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="帕提亚" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1645483#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a 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.mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1048730501">.mw-parser-output .ib-former-subdiv{border-collapse:collapse;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .ib-former-subdiv td,.mw-parser-output .ib-former-subdiv th{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-former-subdiv .mergedtoprow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-former-subdiv .mergedtoprow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-former-subdiv .mergedtoprow .infobox-full-data{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-former-subdiv .mergedrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-former-subdiv .mergedrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-former-subdiv .mergedrow .infobox-full-data{border:0;padding:0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-former-subdiv .mergedbottomrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-former-subdiv .mergedbottomrow .infobox-data{border-top:0;border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-former-subdiv .infobox-above{font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .ib-former-subdiv-native{font-size:78%}.mw-parser-output .ib-former-subdiv .infobox-subheader{background-color:#cddeff;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .ib-former-subdiv-flagarms,.mw-parser-output .ib-former-subdiv-flagarms td{border:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .ib-former-subdiv-flagarms table{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ib-former-subdiv-flagarms tbody tr:first-child td{width:50%;vertical-align:middle}.mw-parser-output .ib-former-subdiv-fake-li{text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal}</style><table class="infobox ib-former-subdiv vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above fn org">Parthia<div class="ib-former-subdiv-native nickname">𐎱𐎼𐎰𐎺</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader category">Historical region of Iran</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Median_Empire.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Median_Empire.jpg/220px-Median_Empire.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Median_Empire.jpg/330px-Median_Empire.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Median_Empire.jpg/440px-Median_Empire.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1306" data-file-height="735" /></a></span><br />The region of Parthia within the empire of <a href="/wiki/Medes" title="Medes">Medes</a>, c. 600 BC; from a <a href="/wiki/Historical_atlas" title="Historical atlas">historical atlas</a> illustrated by <a href="/wiki/William_Robert_Shepherd" title="William Robert Shepherd">William Robert Shepherd</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Nisa,_Turkmenistan" title="Nisa, Turkmenistan">Nisa</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">History</th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">247 BC</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Fall of the Parthian Empire </div></th><td class="infobox-data">224 AD</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Today part of</th><td class="infobox-data">Iran and Turkmenistan</td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Parthia</b> (<a href="/wiki/Old_Persian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Persian language">Old Persian</a>: <span lang="peo">𐎱𐎼𐎰𐎺</span> <i>Parθava</i>; <a href="/wiki/Parthian_language" title="Parthian language">Parthian</a>: <span lang="xpr" dir="rtl">𐭐𐭓𐭕𐭅</span> <i>Parθaw</i>; <a href="/wiki/Middle_Persian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Persian language">Middle Persian</a>: <span lang="pal" dir="rtl">𐭯𐭫𐭮𐭥𐭡𐭥</span> <i>Pahlaw</i>) is a historical region located in northeastern <a href="/wiki/Greater_Iran" title="Greater Iran">Greater Iran</a>. It was conquered and subjugated by the empire of the <a href="/wiki/Medes" title="Medes">Medes</a> during the 7th century BC, was incorporated into the subsequent <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a> under <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_the_Great" title="Cyrus the Great">Cyrus the Great</a> in the 6th century BC, and formed part of the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic">Hellenistic</a> <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a> after the <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Wars of Alexander the Great">4th-century BC conquests</a> of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>. The region later served as the political and cultural base of the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Iranian_languages" title="Eastern Iranian languages">Eastern Iranian</a> <a href="/wiki/Parni" title="Parni">Parni</a> people and Arsacid dynasty, rulers of the <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a> (247 BC – 224 AD). The <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a>, the last state of <a href="/wiki/History_of_Iran" title="History of Iran">pre-Islamic Iran</a>, also held the region and maintained the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Great_Houses_of_Iran" title="Seven Great Houses of Iran">seven Parthian clans</a> as part of their feudal aristocracy. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Name">Name</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parthia&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Name"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Xerxes_I_tomb_Parthian_soldier_circa_470_BCE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Xerxes_I_tomb_Parthian_soldier_circa_470_BCE.jpg/250px-Xerxes_I_tomb_Parthian_soldier_circa_470_BCE.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="251" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Xerxes_I_tomb_Parthian_soldier_circa_470_BCE.jpg/330px-Xerxes_I_tomb_Parthian_soldier_circa_470_BCE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="455" data-file-height="760" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Xerxes_I" title="Xerxes I">Xerxes I</a> tomb, Parthian soldier circa 470 BCE</figcaption></figure> <p>The name "Parthia" is a continuation from <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a> <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Parthia</i></span></i>, from <a href="/wiki/Old_Persian" title="Old Persian">Old Persian</a> <i><span title="Parthian-language text"><i lang="xpr-Latn">Parthava</i></span></i>, which was the <a href="/wiki/Parthian_language" title="Parthian language">Parthian language</a> self-designator signifying "of the <a href="/wiki/Parthians" class="mw-redirect" title="Parthians">Parthians</a>" who were an <a href="/wiki/Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Iranian</a> people. In context to its <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a>, <i>Parthia</i> also appears as <i>Parthyaea</i>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Parthia was known as <i><a href="/wiki/Pahla" title="Pahla">Pahlaw</a></i> in the Middle Persian sources of the Sasanian period, and <i><a href="/wiki/Pahla" title="Pahla">Pahla</a></i> or <i><a href="/wiki/Fahla" class="mw-redirect" title="Fahla">Fahla</a></i> by later Islamic authors, but mainly referred to the Parthian region in the West of Iran.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geography">Geography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parthia&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Geography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The original location of Parthia roughly corresponds to a region in northeastern <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>, but part is in southern <a href="/wiki/Turkmenistan" title="Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a>. It was bordered by the <a href="/wiki/Kopet_Dag" title="Kopet Dag">Kopet Dag</a> mountain range in the north, and the <a href="/wiki/Dasht-e_Kavir" title="Dasht-e Kavir">Dasht-e Kavir</a> desert in the south. It bordered <a href="/wiki/Medes" title="Medes">Media</a> on the west, <a href="/wiki/Hyrcania" title="Hyrcania">Hyrcania</a> on the north west, <a href="/wiki/Margiana" title="Margiana">Margiana</a> on the northeast, and <a href="/wiki/Aria_(satrapy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aria (satrapy)">Aria</a> on the east.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During Arsacid times, Parthia was united with <a href="/wiki/Hyrcania" title="Hyrcania">Hyrcania</a> as one administrative unit, and that region is therefore often (subject to context) considered a part of Parthia proper.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>By the early Sasanian period, Parthia was located in the central part of the Iranian plateau, neighboring <a href="/wiki/Pars_(Sasanian_province)" title="Pars (Sasanian province)">Pars</a> to the south, <a href="/wiki/Khuzistan_(Sasanian_province)" title="Khuzistan (Sasanian province)">Khuzistan</a> to the south-west, <a href="/wiki/Media_(region)" title="Media (region)">Media</a> to the north-west, the Alborz Mountains to the north, <a href="/wiki/Abarshahr" title="Abarshahr">Abarshahr</a> to the north-east, and <a href="/wiki/Kirman_(Sasanian_province)" title="Kirman (Sasanian province)">Kirman</a> to the east. In the late Sasanian era, Parthia came to embrace central and north-central Iran but also extended to the western parts of the plateau as well.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the Islamic era, Parthia was believed to be located in central and western Iran. <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Muqaffa%27" title="Ibn al-Muqaffa'">Ibn al-Muqaffa</a> considered Parthia as encompassing the regions of <a href="/wiki/Isfahan" title="Isfahan">Isfahan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ray,_Iran" title="Ray, Iran">Ray</a>, Hamadan, Mah-i Nihawand and <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan_(Iran)" title="Azerbaijan (Iran)">Azerbaijan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The same definition is found in the works of <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Musa_al-Khwarizmi" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi">al-Khawazmi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hamza_al-Isfahani" title="Hamza al-Isfahani">Hamza al-Isfahani</a>. <a href="/wiki/Abu_Hanifa_Dinawari" title="Abu Hanifa Dinawari">Al-Dinawari</a>, while not using the word Parthia, considered <a href="/wiki/Jibal" title="Jibal">Jibal</a> to be the realm of the last Parthian king, <a href="/wiki/Artabanus_IV_of_Parthia" title="Artabanus IV of Parthia">Artabanus IV.</a><sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parthia&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Under_the_Achaemenids">Under the Achaemenids</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parthia&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Under the Achaemenids"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Darius_I_statue_Parthia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Darius_I_statue_Parthia.jpg/120px-Darius_I_statue_Parthia.jpg" decoding="async" width="110" height="347" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Darius_I_statue_Parthia.jpg/250px-Darius_I_statue_Parthia.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="946" /></a><figcaption>Parthia (<big><b>𓊪𓃭𓍘𓇋𓍯<a href="/wiki/%F0%93%88%89" class="mw-redirect" title="𓈉">𓈉</a></b></big>, <i>P-rw-t-i-<a href="/wiki/Aleph" title="Aleph">wꜣ</a></i>), as one of the 24 subjects of the Achaemenid Empire, in the Egyptian <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Statue_of_Darius_I" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Statue of Darius I">Statue of Darius I</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>As the region inhabited by Parthians, Parthia first appears as a political entity in <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid" class="mw-redirect" title="Achaemenid">Achaemenid</a> lists of governorates ("satrapies") under their dominion. Prior to this, the people of the region seem to have been subjects of the <a href="/wiki/Medes" title="Medes">Medes</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and 7th century BC Assyrian texts mention a country named Partakka or Partukka (though this "need not have coincided topographically with the later Parthia").<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A year after <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_the_Great" title="Cyrus the Great">Cyrus the Great</a>'s defeat of the Median <a href="/wiki/Astyages" title="Astyages">Astyages</a>, Parthia became one of the first provinces to acknowledge Cyrus as their ruler, "and this allegiance secured Cyrus' eastern flanks and enabled him to conduct the first of his imperial campaigns – against <a href="/wiki/Sardis" title="Sardis">Sardis</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Greek sources, following the seizure of the Achaemenid throne by <a href="/wiki/Darius_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Darius I">Darius I</a>, the Parthians united with the Median king Phraortes to revolt against him. <a href="/wiki/Hystaspes_(father_of_Darius_I)" title="Hystaspes (father of Darius I)">Hystaspes</a>, the Achaemenid governor of the province (said to be father of Darius I), managed to suppress the revolt, which seems to have occurred around 522–521 BC.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The first indigenous Iranian mention of Parthia is in the <a href="/wiki/Behistun_inscription" class="mw-redirect" title="Behistun inscription">Behistun inscription</a> of <a href="/wiki/Darius_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Darius I">Darius I</a>, where Parthia is listed (in the typical Iranian clockwise order) among the governorates in the vicinity of <a href="/wiki/Drangiana" title="Drangiana">Drangiana</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The inscription dates to c. 520 BC. The center of the administration "may have been at [what would later be known as] <a href="/wiki/Hecatompylus" class="mw-redirect" title="Hecatompylus">Hecatompylus</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Parthians also appear in Herodotus' list of peoples subject to the Achaemenids; the historiographer treats the Parthians, Chorasmians, Sogdians and Areioi as peoples of a single satrapy (the 16th), whose annual tribute to the king he states to be only 300 talents of silver. This "has rightly caused disquiet to modern scholars."<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gaugamela" title="Battle of Gaugamela">Battle of Gaugamela</a> in 331 BC between the forces of Darius III and those of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>, one such Parthian unit was commanded by <a href="/wiki/Phrataphernes" title="Phrataphernes">Phrataphernes</a>, who was at the time Achaemenid governor of Parthia. Following the defeat of Darius III, Phrataphernes surrendered his governorate to Alexander when the Macedonian arrived there in the summer of 330 BC. Phrataphernes was reappointed governor by Alexander.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Under_the_Seleucids">Under the Seleucids</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parthia&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Under the Seleucids"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Following the death of Alexander, in the <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_Babylon" title="Partition of Babylon">Partition of Babylon</a> in 323 BC, Parthia became a governorate under <a href="/wiki/Nicanor_(satrap)" title="Nicanor (satrap)">Nicanor</a>. Phrataphernes, the former governor, became governor of <a href="/wiki/Hyrcania" title="Hyrcania">Hyrcania</a>. In 320 BC, at the <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_Triparadisus" title="Partition of Triparadisus">Partition of Triparadisus</a>, Parthia was reassigned to <a href="/wiki/Philip_(satrap)" title="Philip (satrap)">Philip</a>, former governor of <a href="/wiki/Sogdiana" class="mw-redirect" title="Sogdiana">Sogdiana</a>. A few years later, the province was invaded by <a href="/wiki/Peithon" title="Peithon">Peithon</a>, governor of Media Magna, who then attempted to make his brother Eudamus governor. Peithon and Eudamus were driven back, and Parthia remained a governorate in its own right.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In 316 BC, Stasander, a vassal of <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_I_Nicator" title="Seleucus I Nicator">Seleucus I Nicator</a> and governor of <a href="/wiki/Bactria" title="Bactria">Bactria</a> (and, it seems, also of <a href="/wiki/Herat" title="Herat">Aria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Margiana" title="Margiana">Margiana</a>) was appointed governor of Parthia. For the next 60 years, various Seleucids would be appointed governors of the province.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AndragorasCoinHistoryofIran.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/AndragorasCoinHistoryofIran.jpg/200px-AndragorasCoinHistoryofIran.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="98" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/AndragorasCoinHistoryofIran.jpg/300px-AndragorasCoinHistoryofIran.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/AndragorasCoinHistoryofIran.jpg/400px-AndragorasCoinHistoryofIran.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="392" /></a><figcaption>Coin of <a href="/wiki/Andragoras_(Seleucid_satrap)" title="Andragoras (Seleucid satrap)">Andragoras</a>, the last Seleucid satrap of Parthia. He proclaimed independence around 250 BC.</figcaption></figure> <p>In 247 BC, following the death of <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Antiochus II">Antiochus II</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemy III">Ptolemy III</a> seized control of the Seleucid capital at <a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a>, and "so left the future of the Seleucid dynasty for a moment in question."<sup id="cite_ref-Bivar_2003_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bivar_2003-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Taking advantage of the uncertain political situation, <a href="/wiki/Andragoras_(3rd_century_BC)" class="mw-redirect" title="Andragoras (3rd century BC)">Andragoras</a>, the Seleucid governor of Parthia, proclaimed his independence and began minting his own coins.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Meanwhile, "a man called <a href="/wiki/Arsaces_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Arsaces I">Arsaces</a>, of <a href="/wiki/Scythian" class="mw-redirect" title="Scythian">Scythian</a> or Bactrian origin, [was] elected leader of the <a href="/wiki/Parni" title="Parni">Parni</a>",<sup id="cite_ref-Curtis_2007_7_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Curtis_2007_7-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> an eastern-Iranian peoples from the Tajen/Tajend River valley, south-east of the <a href="/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lecoq_1987_151_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lecoq_1987_151-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following the secession of Parthia from the Seleucid Empire and the resultant loss of Seleucid military support, Andragoras had difficulty in maintaining his borders, and about 238 BC – under the command of "Arsaces and his brother <a href="/wiki/Tiridates_I_of_Parthia" title="Tiridates I of Parthia">Tiridates</a>"<sup id="cite_ref-Curtis_2007_7_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Curtis_2007_7-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bivar_1983_29_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bivar_1983_29-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> – the Parni invaded<sup id="cite_ref-Bickerman_1983_19_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bickerman_1983_19-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Parthia and seized control of Astabene (Astawa), the northern region of that territory, the administrative capital of which was Kabuchan (<a href="/wiki/Kuchan" class="mw-redirect" title="Kuchan">Kuchan</a> in the vulgate).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>A short while later the Parni seized the rest of Parthia from Andragoras, killing him in the process. Although an initial <a href="/wiki/Punitive_expedition" title="Punitive expedition">punitive expedition</a> by the Seleucids under <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Seleucus II">Seleucus II</a> was not successful, the Seleucids under <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Antiochus III">Antiochus III</a> recaptured Arsacid controlled territory in 209 BC from Arsaces' (or Tiridates') successor, <a href="/wiki/Arsaces_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Arsaces II">Arsaces II</a>. Arsaces II sued for peace and accepted vassal status,<sup id="cite_ref-Bivar_1983_29_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bivar_1983_29-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and it was not until Arsaces II's grandson (or grand-nephew) <a href="/wiki/Phraates_I" title="Phraates I">Phraates I</a>, that the Arsacids/Parni would again begin to assert their independence.<sup id="cite_ref-Bivar_1983_31_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bivar_1983_31-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Under_the_Arsacids">Under the Arsacids</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parthia&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Under the Arsacids"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ParthianHorseman.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/ParthianHorseman.jpg/150px-ParthianHorseman.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/ParthianHorseman.jpg/225px-ParthianHorseman.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/ParthianHorseman.jpg/300px-ParthianHorseman.jpg 2x" data-file-width="478" data-file-height="523" /></a><figcaption>Parthian horseman now on display at the <a href="/wiki/Palazzo_Madama,_Turin" title="Palazzo Madama, Turin">Palazzo Madama, Turin</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MithridatesIParthiaCoinHistoryofIran.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/MithridatesIParthiaCoinHistoryofIran.jpg/250px-MithridatesIParthiaCoinHistoryofIran.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="99" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/MithridatesIParthiaCoinHistoryofIran.jpg/330px-MithridatesIParthiaCoinHistoryofIran.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/MithridatesIParthiaCoinHistoryofIran.jpg/500px-MithridatesIParthiaCoinHistoryofIran.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="394" /></a><figcaption>Coin of <a href="/wiki/Mithridates_I_of_Parthia" title="Mithridates I of Parthia">Mithridates I</a> (R. 171–138 BC). The reverse shows <a href="/wiki/Heracles" title="Heracles">Heracles</a>, and the inscription ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΜΕΓΑΛΟΥ ΑΡΣΑΚΟΥ ΦΙΛΕΛΛΗΝΟΣ "Great King Arsaces, friend of <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greeks</a>".</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ParthianWarrior.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/ParthianWarrior.jpg/150px-ParthianWarrior.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/ParthianWarrior.jpg/225px-ParthianWarrior.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/ParthianWarrior.jpg 2x" data-file-width="234" data-file-height="339" /></a><figcaption>Reproduction of a Parthian archer as depicted on <a href="/wiki/Trajan%27s_Column" title="Trajan's Column">Trajan's Column</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sarbaz_Nysa.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Sarbaz_Nysa.jpg/250px-Sarbaz_Nysa.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Sarbaz_Nysa.jpg/330px-Sarbaz_Nysa.jpg 2x" data-file-width="353" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>A sculpted head (broken off from a larger statue) of a Parthian soldier wearing a <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_armies" title="Hellenistic armies">Hellenistic-style helmet</a>, from the Parthian royal residence and necropolis of <a href="/wiki/Nisa,_Turkmenistan" title="Nisa, Turkmenistan">Nisa</a>, 2nd century BC</figcaption></figure> <p>From their base in Parthia, the <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Arsacid dynasts</a> eventually extended their dominion to include most of <a href="/wiki/Greater_Iran" title="Greater Iran">Greater Iran</a>. They also quickly established several eponymous branches on the thrones of <a href="/wiki/Arsacid_dynasty_of_Armenia" title="Arsacid dynasty of Armenia">Armenia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arsacid_dynasty_of_Iberia" title="Arsacid dynasty of Iberia">Iberia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Arsacid_Dynasty_of_Caucasian_Albania" class="mw-redirect" title="Arsacid Dynasty of Caucasian Albania">Caucasian Albania</a>. Even though the Arsacids only sporadically had their capital in Parthia, their power base was there, among the Parthian feudal families, upon whose military and financial support the Arsacids depended. In exchange for this support, these families received large tracts of land among the earliest conquered territories adjacent to Parthia, which the Parthian nobility then ruled as provincial rulers. The largest of these city-states were <a href="/wiki/Kuchan" class="mw-redirect" title="Kuchan">Kuchan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Semnan,_Iran" title="Semnan, Iran">Semnan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gorgan" title="Gorgan">Gorgan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Merv" title="Merv">Merv</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zabol" title="Zabol">Zabol</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yazd" title="Yazd">Yazd</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>From about 105 BC onwards, the power and influence of this handful of Parthian noble families was such that they frequently opposed the monarch, and would eventually be a "contributory factor in the downfall" of the dynasty.<sup id="cite_ref-Schippmann_1987_p=527_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schippmann_1987_p=527-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From about 130 BC onwards, Parthia suffered numerous incursions by various nomadic tribes, including the <a href="/wiki/Sakas" class="mw-redirect" title="Sakas">Sakas</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Yuezhi" title="Yuezhi">Yuezhi</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Massagetae" title="Massagetae">Massagetae</a>. Each time, the Arsacid dynasts responded personally, doing so even when there were more severe threats from <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucids</a> or <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Romans</a> looming on the western borders of their empire (as was the case for <a href="/wiki/Mithridates_I_of_Parthia" title="Mithridates I of Parthia">Mithridates I</a>). Defending the empire against the nomads cost <a href="/wiki/Phraates_II_of_Parthia" class="mw-redirect" title="Phraates II of Parthia">Phraates II</a> and <a href="/wiki/Artabanus_I_of_Parthia" title="Artabanus I of Parthia">Artabanus I</a> their lives.<sup id="cite_ref-Schippmann_1987_p=527_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schippmann_1987_p=527-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Roman <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Licinius_Crassus" title="Marcus Licinius Crassus">Crassus</a> attempted to conquer Parthia in 52 BC but was decisively defeated at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Carrhae" title="Battle of Carrhae">Battle of Carrhae</a>. <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Caesar</a> was planning another invasion when he was assassinated in 44 BC. A long series of <a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Parthian_Wars" title="Roman–Parthian Wars">Roman-Parthian wars</a> followed.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Around 32 BC, civil war broke out when a certain Tiridates rebelled against <a href="/wiki/Phraates_IV" title="Phraates IV">Phraates IV</a>, probably with the support of the nobility that Phraates had previously persecuted. The revolt was initially successful, but failed by 25 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 9/8, the Parthian nobility succeeded in putting their preferred king on the throne, but <a href="/wiki/Vonones_I" title="Vonones I">Vonones</a> proved to have too tight a budgetary control, so he was usurped in favor of <a href="/wiki/Artabanus_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Artabanus II">Artabanus II</a>, who seems to have been a non-Arsacid Parthian nobleman. But when Artabanus attempted to consolidate his position (at which he was successful in most instances), he failed to do so in the regions where the Parthian provincial rulers held sway.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the 2nd century AD, the <a href="/wiki/Roman-Parthian_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman-Parthian Wars">frequent wars with neighboring Rome</a> and with the nomads, and the infighting among the Parthian nobility had weakened the Arsacids to a point where they could no longer defend their subjugated territories. The empire fractured as vassalaries increasingly claimed independence or were subjugated by others, and the Arsacids were themselves finally vanquished by the <a href="/wiki/Sassanid_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Sassanid Empire">Persian Sassanids</a>, a formerly minor vassal from southwestern Iran, in April 224.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Under_the_Sasanians">Under the Sasanians</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parthia&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Under the Sasanians"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Parthia was likely the first region conquered by <a href="/wiki/Ardashir_I" title="Ardashir I">Ardashir I</a> after his victory over <a href="/wiki/Artabanus_IV" class="mw-redirect" title="Artabanus IV">Artabanus IV</a>, showing the importance of the province to the founder of the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_dynasty" title="Sasanian dynasty">Sasanian dynasty</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of the Parthian nobility continued to resist Sasanian dominion for some time, but most switched their allegiance to the Sasanians very early. Several families that claimed descent from the Parthian noble families became a Sasanian institution known as the "<a href="/wiki/Seven_Parthian_clans" class="mw-redirect" title="Seven Parthian clans">Seven houses</a>", five of which are "in all probability" not Parthian, but contrived genealogies "in order to emphasize the antiquity of their families."<sup id="cite_ref-Lukonin_1983_704_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lukonin_1983_704-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Parthia continued to hold importance throughout the 3rd century. In his <a href="/wiki/Shapur_I%27s_inscription_at_the_Ka%27ba-ye_Zartosht" title="Shapur I's inscription at the Ka'ba-ye Zartosht">Ka'be-ye Zardusht</a> inscription <a href="/wiki/Shapur_I" title="Shapur I">Shapur I</a> lists the province of Parthia in second place after Pars. The Abnun inscription describes the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Misiche" title="Battle of Misiche">Roman invasion of 243/44</a> as an attack on Pars and Parthia. Considering the Romans never went further than Mesopotamia, "Pars and Parthia" may stand for the Sasanian Empire itself.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Parthia was also the second province chosen for settlement by Roman prisoners of war after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Edessa" title="Battle of Edessa">Battle of Edessa in 260</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Language_and_literature">Language and literature</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parthia&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Language and literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Parthian_language" title="Parthian language">Parthian language</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hercules_Hatra_Iraq_Parthian_period_1st_2nd_century_CE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Hercules_Hatra_Iraq_Parthian_period_1st_2nd_century_CE.jpg/250px-Hercules_Hatra_Iraq_Parthian_period_1st_2nd_century_CE.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Hercules_Hatra_Iraq_Parthian_period_1st_2nd_century_CE.jpg/330px-Hercules_Hatra_Iraq_Parthian_period_1st_2nd_century_CE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1659" data-file-height="2797" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hercules" title="Hercules">Hercules</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hatra" title="Hatra">Hatra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>, Parthian period, 1st–2nd century AD.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Parthians spoke <a href="/wiki/Parthian_language" title="Parthian language">Parthian</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Northwestern_Iranian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Northwestern Iranian language">northwestern Iranian language</a>. No Parthian literature survives from before the Sassanid period in its original form,<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and they seem to have written down only very little. The Parthians did, however, have a thriving <a href="/wiki/Minstrel" title="Minstrel">oral minstrel-poet culture</a>, to the extent that their word for "minstrel" (<i>gosan</i>) survives to this day in many Iranian languages and especially in <a href="/wiki/Armenian_language" title="Armenian language">Armenian</a> (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D5%A3%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%BD%D5%A1%D5%B6" class="extiw" title="wikt:գուսան"><i>gusan</i></a>), on which it exercised heavy (especially <a href="/wiki/Lexical_(semiotics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lexical (semiotics)">lexical</a> and vocabulary) influence.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These professionals were evident in every facet of Parthian daily life, from cradle to grave, and they were entertainers of kings and commoners alike, proclaiming the worthiness of their patrons through association with mythical heroes and rulers.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These Parthian heroic poems, "mainly known through Persian of the lost <a href="/wiki/Middle_Persian" title="Middle Persian">Middle Persian</a> <i>Xwaday-namag</i>, and notably through <a href="/wiki/Firdausi" class="mw-redirect" title="Firdausi">Firdausi's</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Shahnameh" title="Shahnameh">Shahnameh</a></i>, [were] doubtless not yet wholly lost in the <a href="/wiki/Khurasan" class="mw-redirect" title="Khurasan">Khurasan</a> of [Firdausi's] day."<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Parthia itself, attested use of written Parthian is limited to the nearly three thousand <a href="/wiki/Ostraca" class="mw-redirect" title="Ostraca">ostraca</a> found (in what seems to have been a <a href="/wiki/Wine_storage" class="mw-redirect" title="Wine storage">wine storage</a>) at <a href="/wiki/Nisa,_Turkmenistan" title="Nisa, Turkmenistan">Nisa</a>, in present-day Turkmenistan. A handful of other evidence of written Parthian has been found outside Parthia, the most important of these being the part of a land-sale document found at <a href="/wiki/Avroman" title="Avroman">Avroman</a> (in the <a href="/wiki/Kermanshah" title="Kermanshah">Kermanshah</a> province of <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>), and more ostraca, graffiti and the fragment of a business letter found at <a href="/wiki/Dura-Europos" title="Dura-Europos">Dura-Europos</a> in present-day <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The Parthian Arsacids do not seem to have used Parthian until relatively late, and the language first appears on Arsacid coinage during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Vologases_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Vologases I">Vologases I</a> (51–58 AD).<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Evidence that use of Parthian was nonetheless widespread comes from early Sassanid times; the declarations of the early <a href="/wiki/Persis" title="Persis">Persian</a> kings were—in addition to their native <a href="/wiki/Middle_Persian" title="Middle Persian">Middle Persian</a>—also inscribed in Parthian.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The old poems known as <a href="/wiki/Fahlav%C4%ABy%C4%81t" title="Fahlavīyāt"><i>fahlaviyat</i></a> mostly come from the areas which were considered part of Parthia in the Islamic period. These poems have the characteristics of <a href="/wiki/Oral_literature" title="Oral literature">oral literature</a> and may have continued the oral traditions of Parthian minstrels.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Society">Society</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parthia&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Society"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ParthianWaterSpoutWithFaceOfIranianMan1-2ndCenturyCE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/ParthianWaterSpoutWithFaceOfIranianMan1-2ndCenturyCE.jpg/250px-ParthianWaterSpoutWithFaceOfIranianMan1-2ndCenturyCE.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/ParthianWaterSpoutWithFaceOfIranianMan1-2ndCenturyCE.jpg/330px-ParthianWaterSpoutWithFaceOfIranianMan1-2ndCenturyCE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="818" data-file-height="1100" /></a><figcaption>Parthian waterspout, 1st–2nd century AD.</figcaption></figure> <p>City-states of "some considerable size" existed in Parthia as early as the 1st millennium BC, "and not just from the time of the Achaemenids or Seleucids."<sup id="cite_ref-Schippmann_1987_p=532_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schippmann_1987_p=532-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, for the most part, society was rural, and dominated by large landholders with large numbers of serfs, slaves, and other indentured labor at their disposal.<sup id="cite_ref-Schippmann_1987_p=532_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schippmann_1987_p=532-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Communities with free peasants also existed.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>By Arsacid times, Parthian society was divided into the four classes (limited to freemen). At the top were the kings and near family members of the king. These were followed by the lesser nobility and the general priesthood, followed by the mercantile class and lower-ranking civil servants, and with farmers and herdsmen at the bottom.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Little is known of the Parthian economy, but agriculture must have played the most important role in it. Significant trade first occurs with the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Silk_road" class="mw-redirect" title="Silk road">Silk road</a> (c. 114 BC), when <a href="/wiki/Hecatompylos" class="mw-redirect" title="Hecatompylos">Hecatompylos</a> became an important junction.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Parthian_cities">Parthian cities</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parthia&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Parthian cities"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Nisa,_Turkmenistan" title="Nisa, Turkmenistan">Nisa (Nissa, Nusay)</a> or Mithradātkert, located on a main trade route, was one of the earliest capitals of the Parthian Empire (c. 250 BC). The city is located in the northern foothills of the Kopetdag mountains, 11 miles west of present-day city of <a href="/wiki/Ashgabat" title="Ashgabat">Ashgabat</a> (the capital of <a href="/wiki/Turkmenistan" title="Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nisa had a "soaring two-story hall in the Hellenistic Greek style"<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and temple complexes used by early <a href="/wiki/Arsaces_I_of_Parthia" title="Arsaces I of Parthia">Arsaces dynasty</a>. During the reign of <a href="/wiki/Mithridates_I_of_Parthia" title="Mithridates I of Parthia">Mithridates I of Parthia</a> (c. 171 – 138 BC) it was renamed <i>Mithradatkirt</i> ("fortress of Mithradates"). <a href="/wiki/Merv" title="Merv">Merv</a> (modern-day Mary) was another Parthian city.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asaak" title="Asaak">Asaak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurgan" class="mw-redirect" title="Gurgan">Gurgan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hecatompylos" class="mw-redirect" title="Hecatompylos">Hecatompylos</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parthia&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adur_Burzen-Mihr" title="Adur Burzen-Mihr">Adur Burzen-Mihr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Khorasan" title="Greater Khorasan">Greater Khorasan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khwarasan" title="Khwarasan">Khwarasan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Parthian_kings" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Parthian kings">List of Parthian kings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pahla" title="Pahla">Pahla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_shot" title="Parthian shot">Parthian shot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthians" class="mw-redirect" title="Parthians">Parthians</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Citations">Citations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parthia&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output 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class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFGhodrat-Dizaji2016" class="citation cs2">Ghodrat-Dizaji, Mehrdad (2016-08-30), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvh1dkb6.8">"Remarks on the Location of the Province of Parthia in the Sasanian Period"</a>, <i>The Parthian and Early Sasanian Empires</i>, Oxbow Books, pp. <span class="nowrap">42–</span>46, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2Fj.ctvh1dkb6.8">10.2307/j.ctvh1dkb6.8</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78570-210-5" 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(1983), "The Seleucid Period", in Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.), <i>Cambridge History of Iran</i>, vol. 3, Cambridge University Press, pp. <span class="nowrap">3–</span>20</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Seleucid+Period&rft.btitle=Cambridge+History+of+Iran&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E3-%3C%2Fspan%3E20&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.aulast=Bickerman&rft.aufirst=Elias+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParthia" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBivar1983" class="citation cs2">Bivar, A.D.H. (1983), "The Political History of Iran under the Arsacids", in Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.), <i>Cambridge History of Iran</i>, vol. 3, Cambridge UP, pp. <span class="nowrap">21–</span>99</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Political+History+of+Iran+under+the+Arsacids&rft.btitle=Cambridge+History+of+Iran&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E21-%3C%2Fspan%3E99&rft.pub=Cambridge+UP&rft.date=1983&rft.aulast=Bivar&rft.aufirst=A.D.H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParthia" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBivar2003" class="citation cs2">Bivar, A.D.H. (2003), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/gorgan-v">"Gorgan v.: Pre-Islamic History"</a>, <i>Encyclopaedia Iranica</i>, vol. 11, New York: iranica.com</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Gorgan+v.%3A+Pre-Islamic+History&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Iranica&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=iranica.com&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Bivar&rft.aufirst=A.D.H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fgorgan-v&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParthia" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBoyce1983" class="citation cs2">Boyce, Mary (1983), "Parthian writings and literature", in Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.), <i>Cambridge History of Iran</i>, vol. 3, Cambridge UP, pp. <span class="nowrap">1151–</span>1165</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Parthian+writings+and+literature&rft.btitle=Cambridge+History+of+Iran&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1151-%3C%2Fspan%3E1165&rft.pub=Cambridge+UP&rft.date=1983&rft.aulast=Boyce&rft.aufirst=Mary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParthia" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCook1985" class="citation cs2">Cook, J.M. (1985), "The Rise of the Achaemenids and Establishment of their Empire", in Gershevitch, Ilya (ed.), <i>Cambridge History of Iran</i>, vol. 2, Cambridge University Press, pp. <span class="nowrap">200–</span>291</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Rise+of+the+Achaemenids+and+Establishment+of+their+Empire&rft.btitle=Cambridge+History+of+Iran&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E200-%3C%2Fspan%3E291&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.aulast=Cook&rft.aufirst=J.M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParthia" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCurtis2007" class="citation cs2">Curtis, Vesta Sarkhosh (2007), "The Iranian Revival in the Parthian Period", in Curtis, Vesta Sarkhosh and Sarah Stewart (ed.), <i>The Age of the Parthians: The Ideas of Iran</i>, vol. 2, London & New York: I.B. Tauris & Co Ltd., in association with the London Middle East Institute at SOAS and the British Museum, pp. <span class="nowrap">7–</span>25, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84511-406-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84511-406-0"><bdi>978-1-84511-406-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Iranian+Revival+in+the+Parthian+Period&rft.btitle=The+Age+of+the+Parthians%3A+The+Ideas+of+Iran&rft.place=London+%26+New+York&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E7-%3C%2Fspan%3E25&rft.pub=I.B.+Tauris+%26+Co+Ltd.%2C+in+association+with+the+London+Middle+East+Institute+at+SOAS+and+the+British+Museum&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-84511-406-0&rft.aulast=Curtis&rft.aufirst=Vesta+Sarkhosh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParthia" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDiakonoff1985" class="citation cs2">Diakonoff, I.M. (1985), "Media I: The Medes and their Neighbours", in Gershevitch, Ilya (ed.), <i>Cambridge History of Iran</i>, vol. 2, Cambridge University Press, pp. <span class="nowrap">36–</span>148</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Media+I%3A+The+Medes+and+their+Neighbours&rft.btitle=Cambridge+History+of+Iran&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E36-%3C%2Fspan%3E148&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.aulast=Diakonoff&rft.aufirst=I.M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParthia" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLecoq1987" class="citation cs2">Lecoq, Pierre (1987), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aparna-c3k">"Aparna"</a>, <i>Encyclopaedia Iranica</i>, vol. 2, New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul, p. 151</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Aparna&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Iranica&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=151&rft.pub=Routledge+%26+Kegan+Paul&rft.date=1987&rft.aulast=Lecoq&rft.aufirst=Pierre&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Faparna-c3k&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParthia" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLukonin1983" class="citation cs2">Lukonin, Vladimir G. (1983), "Political, Social and Administrative Institutions", in Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.), <i>Cambridge History of Iran</i>, vol. 3, Cambridge University Press, pp. <span class="nowrap">681–</span>747</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Political%2C+Social+and+Administrative+Institutions&rft.btitle=Cambridge+History+of+Iran&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E681-%3C%2Fspan%3E747&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.aulast=Lukonin&rft.aufirst=Vladimir+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParthia" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMallowan1985" class="citation cs2">Mallowan, Max (1985), "Cyrus the Great", in Gershevitch, Ilya (ed.), <i>Cambridge History of Iran</i>, vol. 2, Cambridge University Press, pp. <span class="nowrap">392–</span>419</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cyrus+the+Great&rft.btitle=Cambridge+History+of+Iran&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E392-%3C%2Fspan%3E419&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.aulast=Mallowan&rft.aufirst=Max&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParthia" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li>Olbrycht, Marek Jan (1998), Parthia et ulteriores gentes. Die politischen Beziehungen zwischen dem arsakidischen Iran und den Nomaden der eurasischen Steppen, Munich.</li> <li>Olbrycht, Marek Jan (2016), "Manpower Resources and Army Organisation in the Arsakid Empire", <i>Ancient Society,</i> 46, pp. 291–338 (DOI: 10.2143/AS.46.0.3167457).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSchippmann1987" class="citation cs2">Schippmann, Klaus (1987), "Arsacids II: The Arsacid Dynasty", <i>Encyclopaedia Iranica</i>, vol. 2, New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul, pp. <span class="nowrap">525–</span>536</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Arsacids+II%3A+The+Arsacid+Dynasty&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Iranica&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E525-%3C%2Fspan%3E536&rft.pub=Routledge+%26+Kegan+Paul&rft.date=1987&rft.aulast=Schippmann&rft.aufirst=Klaus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParthia" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li>Verstandig Andre (2001), <i>Histoire de l'Empire Parthe</i>. Brussels, Le Cri.</li> <li>Wolski, Józef (1993), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brill.com/display/title/3272">"L'Empire des Arsacides"</a> (= <i>Acta Iranica</i> 32), Lovanii: Peeters</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFYarshater2006" class="citation cs2">Yarshater, Ehsan (2006), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-ii1-pre-islamic-times">"Iran ii. Iranian History: An Overview"</a>, <i>Encyclopaedia Iranica</i>, vol. 13, New York: iranica.com</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Iran+ii.+Iranian+History%3A+An+Overview&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Iranica&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=iranica.com&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Yarshater&rft.aufirst=Ehsan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Firan-ii1-pre-islamic-times&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParthia" class="Z3988"></span>.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parthia&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316" /><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFOvertoom2020" class="citation book cs1">Overtoom, Nikolaus (2020). <i>Reign of Arrows: The Rise of the Parthian Empire in the Hellenistic Middle East</i>. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780197680223" title="Special:BookSources/9780197680223"><bdi>9780197680223</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reign+of+Arrows%3A+The+Rise+of+the+Parthian+Empire+in+the+Hellenistic+Middle+East&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=9780197680223&rft.aulast=Overtoom&rft.aufirst=Nikolaus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParthia" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parthia&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFChisholm1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a>, ed. (1911). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Parthia"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Parthia">"Parthia" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i> (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Parthia&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParthia" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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href="/wiki/Persepolis" title="Persepolis">Persepolis</a> / <a href="/wiki/Naqsh-e_Rustam" class="mw-redirect" title="Naqsh-e Rustam">Naqsh-e Rustam</a> / <a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Darius_in_Susa" title="Palace of Darius in Susa">Susa</a> / <a href="/wiki/Daeva" title="Daeva">Daeva</a> inscriptions)</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;padding:0.25em;line-height:1.4em;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Akaufaka (<a href="/wiki/Quhistan" title="Quhistan">Quhistan</a>?)</li> <li>Amyrgoi</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Arabia" title="Achaemenid Arabia">Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arachosia" title="Arachosia">Arachosia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aria_(region)" title="Aria (region)">Aria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satrapy_of_Armenia" title="Satrapy of Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Assyria" title="Achaemenid Assyria">Assyria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonia#Persian_Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bactria_(satrapy)" title="Bactria (satrapy)">Bactria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cappadocia_(satrapy)" title="Cappadocia (satrapy)">Cappadocia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caria" title="Caria">Caria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carmania_(region)" title="Carmania (region)">Carmania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chorasmia_(satrapy)" title="Chorasmia (satrapy)">Chorasmia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cilicia_(satrapy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cilicia (satrapy)">Cilicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colchis" title="Colchis">Colchis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dahae" title="Dahae">Dahae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drangiana" title="Drangiana">Drangiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-seventh_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt">1st Egypt</a> / <a href="/wiki/Thirty-first_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt">2nd Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eber-Nari" title="Eber-Nari">Eber-Nari</a> (<a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kush_(satrapy)" title="Kush (satrapy)">Kush</a> (Nubia)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gand%C4%81ra" title="Gandāra">Gandāra</a> (Gandhara)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gedrosia_(satrapy)" title="Gedrosia (satrapy)">Gedrosia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyrcania" title="Hyrcania">Hyrcania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ionia_(satrapy)" title="Ionia (satrapy)">Ionia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindush" title="Hindush">Hindush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libya_(satrapy)" title="Libya (satrapy)">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lydia_(satrapy)" title="Lydia (satrapy)">Lydia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maka_(satrapy)" title="Maka (satrapy)">Maka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margiana" title="Margiana">Margiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_(region)" title="Media (region)">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massagetae" title="Massagetae">Massagetae</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Parthia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persis" title="Persis">Persis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Phoenicia" class="mw-redirect" title="Achaemenid Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phrygia" title="Phrygia">Phrygia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hellespontine_Phrygia" title="Hellespontine Phrygia">Hellespontine Phrygia</a></li> <li>Greater Phrygia</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saka" title="Saka">Saka</a></li> <li>Samaritan Province</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sattagydia" title="Sattagydia">Sattagydia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skudra" title="Skudra">Skudra (Thrace)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sogdia" title="Sogdia">Sogdia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yehud_(Persian_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Yehud (Persian province)">Yehud</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_the_Achaemenid_Empire.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The principal Achaemenid satrapies, ~500 BC."><img alt="The principal Achaemenid satrapies, ~500 BC." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Map_of_the_Achaemenid_Empire.jpg/250px-Map_of_the_Achaemenid_Empire.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="77" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Map_of_the_Achaemenid_Empire.jpg/330px-Map_of_the_Achaemenid_Empire.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1314" data-file-height="635" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div>See also <a href="/wiki/Taxation_districts_of_the_Achaemenid_Empire" title="Taxation districts of the Achaemenid Empire">Taxation districts of the Achaemenid Empire</a> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(according to <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a>)</span></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Provinces_of_the_Sasanian_Empire107" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Sasanian_Provinces" title="Template:Sasanian Provinces"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Sasanian_Provinces" title="Template talk:Sasanian Provinces"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Sasanian_Provinces" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Sasanian Provinces"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Provinces_of_the_Sasanian_Empire107" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Provinces of the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abarshahr" title="Abarshahr">Abarshahr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adurbadagan" title="Adurbadagan">Adurbadagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caucasian_Albania_(Sasanian_province)" title="Caucasian Albania (Sasanian province)">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arbayistan" title="Arbayistan">Arbayistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Armenia" title="Sasanian Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asoristan" title="Asoristan">Asoristan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balasagan" title="Balasagan">Balasagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beth_Garmai" title="Beth Garmai">Beth Garmai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dahae" title="Dahae">Dihistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Egypt" title="Sasanian Egypt">Egypt</a>*</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eran-Khwarrah-Yazdegerd" title="Eran-Khwarrah-Yazdegerd">Eran-Khwarrah-Yazdegerd</a>*</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garamig_ud_Nodardashiragan" title="Garamig ud Nodardashiragan">Garamig ud Nodardashiragan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garmekan" title="Garmekan">Garmekan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyrcania" title="Hyrcania">Gurgan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harev_(province)" title="Harev (province)">Harev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hind_(Sasanian_province)" title="Hind (Sasanian province)">Hind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Iberia" title="Sasanian Iberia">Iberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kadagistan" title="Kadagistan">Kadagistan</a>*</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khuzistan_(Sasanian_province)" title="Khuzistan (Sasanian province)">Khuzistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirman_(Sasanian_province)" title="Kirman (Sasanian province)">Kirman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kushanshahr" title="Kushanshahr">Kushanshahr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Khwarazm" title="Sasanian Khwarazm">Khwarazm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lazica" title="Lazica">Lazica</a>*</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machelones" title="Machelones">Machelonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Makran" title="Makran">Makuran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margiana" title="Margiana">Marw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mazun_(Sasanian_province)" title="Mazun (Sasanian province)">Mazun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_(region)" title="Media (region)">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meshan" title="Meshan">Meshan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adiabene#As_a_province_of_Sassanid_Persia" title="Adiabene">Nodardashiragan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradan" title="Paradan">Paradan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Padishkhwargar" title="Padishkhwargar">Padishkhwargar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pars_(Sasanian_province)" title="Pars (Sasanian province)">Pars</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Parthia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sakastan_(Sasanian_province)" title="Sakastan (Sasanian province)">Sakastan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sogdia" title="Sogdia">Sogdia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spahan_(province)" title="Spahan (province)">Spahan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suristan" title="Suristan">Suristan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turan_(Sasanian_province)" title="Turan (Sasanian province)">Turan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Yemen" title="Sasanian Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sasanian_Empire_621_A.D.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Extent of the Sasanian Empire"><img alt="Extent of the Sasanian Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Sasanian_Empire_621_A.D.jpg/50px-Sasanian_Empire_621_A.D.jpg" decoding="async" width="50" height="37" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Sasanian_Empire_621_A.D.jpg/75px-Sasanian_Empire_621_A.D.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Sasanian_Empire_621_A.D.jpg/100px-Sasanian_Empire_621_A.D.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1490" data-file-height="1106" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div><span style="font-size: 85%;">* indicates short living provinces</span></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Parthian_Empire67" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Parthian_Empire" title="Template:Parthian Empire"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Parthian_Empire" title="Template talk:Parthian Empire"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Parthian_Empire" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Parthian Empire"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Parthian_Empire67" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Origins</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parni" title="Parni">Parni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dahae" title="Dahae">Dahae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parni_conquest_of_Parthia" title="Parni conquest of Parthia">Parni conquest of Parthia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dynasty</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arsacid_dynasty_of_Armenia" title="Arsacid dynasty of Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arsacid_dynasty_of_Iberia" title="Arsacid dynasty of Iberia">Iberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arsacid_dynasty_of_Caucasian_Albania" title="Arsacid dynasty of Caucasian Albania">Caucasian Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chosroid_dynasty" title="Chosroid dynasty">Chosroid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Parthian_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Parthian Kingdom">Indo-Parthia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Noble clans</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Great_Houses_of_Iran" title="Seven Great Houses of Iran">Seven Great Houses</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Ispahbudhan" title="House of Ispahbudhan">Ispahbudhan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Karen" title="House of Karen">Karen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Mihran" title="House of Mihran">Mihran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Spandiyadh" title="House of Spandiyadh">Spandiyadh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Suren" title="House of Suren">Suren</a></li> <li>Varaz</li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Zik" title="House of Zik">Zik</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Parthian_era" title="Religion in the Parthian era">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_art" title="Parthian art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_coinage" title="Parthian coinage">Coinage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_dress" title="Parthian dress">Dress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_language" title="Parthian language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_music" title="Parthian music">Music</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Wars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid%E2%80%93Parthian_Wars" title="Seleucid–Parthian Wars">Seleucid–Parthian Wars</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size: 85%;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ecbatana" title="Battle of Ecbatana">Battle of Ecbatana</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Parthian_Wars" title="Roman–Parthian Wars">Roman–Parthian Wars</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size: 85%;"><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Parthian_War_of_58%E2%80%9363" title="Roman–Parthian War of 58–63">Roman–Parthian War of 58–63</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size: 85%;"><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Parthian_War_of_161%E2%80%93166" title="Roman–Parthian War of 161–166">Roman–Parthian War of 161–166</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size: 85%;"><a href="/wiki/Antony%27s_Atropatene_campaign" title="Antony's Atropatene campaign">Antony's Atropatene campaign</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size: 85%;"><a href="/wiki/Pompeian%E2%80%93Parthian_invasion_of_40_BC" title="Pompeian–Parthian invasion of 40 BC">Pompeian–Parthian invasion of 40 BC</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size: 85%;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ctesiphon_(165)" title="Battle of Ctesiphon (165)">Battle of Ctesiphon (165)</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size: 85%;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ctesiphon_(198)" title="Battle of Ctesiphon (198)">Battle of Ctesiphon (198)</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size: 85%;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Carrhae" title="Battle of Carrhae">Battle of Carrhae</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size: 85%;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Cilician_Gates" title="Battle of the Cilician Gates">Battle of the Cilician Gates</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size: 85%;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mount_Gindarus" title="Battle of Mount Gindarus">Battle of Mount Gindarus</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size: 85%;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Amanus_Pass" title="Battle of Amanus Pass">Battle of Amanus Pass</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size: 85%;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nisibis_(217)" title="Battle of Nisibis (217)">Battle of Nisibis (217)</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size: 85%;"><a href="/wiki/Parthian_war_of_Caracalla" title="Parthian war of Caracalla">Parthian war of Caracalla</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian%E2%80%93Parthian_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Armenian–Parthian War">Armenian–Parthian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian%E2%80%93Bactrian_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Parthian–Bactrian War">Bactrian–Parthian War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Parthia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_army" title="Parthian army">Parthian army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Dark_Age" title="Parthian Dark Age">Parthian Dark Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_shot" title="Parthian shot">Parthian shot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Iranian_relations" title="Roman–Iranian relations">Roman–Iranian relations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Parthia" title="List of monarchs of Parthia">Parthian monarchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Parthian_sub-kingdoms" title="List of rulers of Parthian sub-kingdoms">Rulers of Parthian sub-kingdoms</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output 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text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ge813190&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000305217&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Geographic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pleiades.stoa.org/places/952097">Pleiades</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://auth.wikimedia.org/loginwiki/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a 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