CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-disabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-not-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>View source for Bombing of Hamburg in World War II - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-disabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-not-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":true,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"f0efbd6c-91d2-40eb-920c-a13b00c1b0f9","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Bombing_of_Hamburg_in_World_War_II","wgTitle":"Bombing of Hamburg in World War II","wgCurRevisionId":1277374571,"wgRevisionId":0,"wgArticleId":335224,"wgIsArticle":false,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"edit","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":[],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Bombing_of_Hamburg_in_World_War_II","wgRelevantArticleId":335224,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true, "wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":80000,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading", "skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.tablesorter.styles":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.charinsert.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["mediawiki.action.edit.collapsibleFooter","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.tablesorter","jquery.makeCollapsible","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.charinsert","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.charinsert","ext.gadget.extra-toolbar-buttons","ext.gadget.refToolbar","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns", "ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.charinsert.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cjquery.tablesorter.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.18"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="noindex,nofollow,max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Royal_Air_Force_Bomber_Command%2C_1942-1945._CL3400.jpg/1200px-Royal_Air_Force_Bomber_Command%2C_1942-1945._CL3400.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="992"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Royal_Air_Force_Bomber_Command%2C_1942-1945._CL3400.jpg/800px-Royal_Air_Force_Bomber_Command%2C_1942-1945._CL3400.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="662"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Royal_Air_Force_Bomber_Command%2C_1942-1945._CL3400.jpg/640px-Royal_Air_Force_Bomber_Command%2C_1942-1945._CL3400.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="529"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="View source for Bombing of Hamburg in World War II - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombing_of_Hamburg_in_World_War_II"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Bombing_of_Hamburg_in_World_War_II&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombing_of_Hamburg_in_World_War_II"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Bombing_of_Hamburg_in_World_War_II rootpage-Bombing_of_Hamburg_in_World_War_II skin-vector-2022 action-edit"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" title="Main menu" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="n-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages"><span>Special pages</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Bombing+of+Hamburg+in+World+War+II&returntoquery=action%3Dedit" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Bombing+of+Hamburg+in+World+War+II&returntoquery=action%3Dedit" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Bombing+of+Hamburg+in+World+War+II&returntoquery=action%3Dedit" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Bombing+of+Hamburg+in+World+War+II&returntoquery=action%3Dedit" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">View source for Bombing of Hamburg in World War II</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="This article exist only in this language. Add the article for other languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-0" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Add languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="uls-after-portlet-link"></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Hamburg_in_World_War_II" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Bombing_of_Hamburg_in_World_War_II" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Hamburg_in_World_War_II"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bombing_of_Hamburg_in_World_War_II&action=edit" title="Edit this page"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bombing_of_Hamburg_in_World_War_II&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Hamburg_in_World_War_II"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bombing_of_Hamburg_in_World_War_II&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bombing_of_Hamburg_in_World_War_II&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Bombing_of_Hamburg_in_World_War_II" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Bombing_of_Hamburg_in_World_War_II" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bombing_of_Hamburg_in_World_War_II&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fw%2Findex.php%3Ftitle%3DBombing_of_Hamburg_in_World_War_II%26action%3Dedit"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fw%2Findex.php%3Ftitle%3DBombing_of_Hamburg_in_World_War_II%26action%3Dedit"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q316868" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle">← <a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Hamburg_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Hamburg in World War II">Bombing of Hamburg in World War II</a></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><p>You do not have permission to edit this page, for the following reasons: </p> <ul class="permissions-errors"><li class="mw-permissionerror-blockedtext"> <div id="mw-blocked-text" style="border: 1px solid #AAA; background-color: var(--background-color-warning-subtle, ivory); color: inherit; padding: 1.5em; width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box;"> <div style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 26px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Stop_hand_nuvola.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f1/Stop_hand_nuvola.svg/50px-Stop_hand_nuvola.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f1/Stop_hand_nuvola.svg/75px-Stop_hand_nuvola.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f1/Stop_hand_nuvola.svg/100px-Stop_hand_nuvola.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="240" data-file-height="240" /></a></span><b> This IP address has been <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Blocking_policy" title="Wikipedia:Blocking policy">blocked</a> from <i>editing</i> Wikipedia.</b></span><br /><span style="font-size: 18px;">This does not affect your ability to <i>read</i> Wikipedia pages.</span></div><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><b>Most people who see this message have done nothing wrong.</b> Some kinds of blocks restrict editing from specific service providers or telecom companies in response to recent abuse or vandalism, and can sometimes affect other users who are unrelated to that abuse. Review the information below for assistance if you do not believe that you have done anything wrong.<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> <p>The IP address or range 8.222.128.0/17 has been <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Blocking_policy" title="Wikipedia:Blocking policy">blocked</a> by <a href="/wiki/User:L235" title="User:L235">‪L235‬</a> for the following reason(s): </p> <div style="padding:10px; background:var(--background-color-base, white); color:inherit; border:1px #666 solid;"> <div class="user-block colocation-webhost" style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; background-color: #ffefd5; border: 1px solid #AAA; padding: 0.7em;"> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Server-multiple.svg/40px-Server-multiple.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="57" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Server-multiple.svg/60px-Server-multiple.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Server-multiple.svg/80px-Server-multiple.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="744" data-file-height="1052" /></span><figcaption></figcaption></figure><b>The <a href="/wiki/IP_address" title="IP address">IP address</a> that you are currently using has been blocked because it is believed to be a <a href="/wiki/Web_hosting_service" title="Web hosting service">web host provider</a> or <a href="/wiki/Colocation_centre" title="Colocation centre">colocation provider</a>.</b> To prevent abuse, <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Open_proxies" title="Wikipedia:Open proxies">web hosts and colocation providers may be blocked</a> from editing Wikipedia. <div style="border-top: 1px solid #AAA; clear: both">You will not be able to edit Wikipedia using a web host or colocation provider because it hides your IP address, much like a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Open_proxies" title="Wikipedia:Open proxies">proxy</a> or <a href="/wiki/Virtual_private_network" title="Virtual private network">VPN</a>. <p><b>We recommend that you attempt to use another connection to edit.</b> For example, if you use a proxy or VPN to connect to the internet, turn it off when editing Wikipedia. If you edit using a mobile connection, try using a Wi-Fi connection, and vice versa. If you are using a corporate internet connection, switch to a different Wi-Fi network. If you have a Wikipedia account, please log in. </p><p>If you do not have any other way to edit Wikipedia, you will need to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:IP_block_exemption#Requesting_and_granting_exemption" title="Wikipedia:IP block exemption">request an IP block exemption</a>. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1214851843">.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{box-sizing:border-box;width:100%;padding:5px;border:none;font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .hidden-title{font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .hidden-content{text-align:left}@media all and (max-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{width:auto!important;clear:none!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="hidden-begin mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style=""><div class="hidden-title skin-nightmode-reset-color" style="text-align:center;">How to appeal if you are confident that your connection does not use a colocation provider's IP address:</div><div class="hidden-content mw-collapsible-content" style=""> If you are confident that you are not using a web host, you may <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Appealing_a_block" title="Wikipedia:Appealing a block">appeal this block</a> by adding the following text on your <a href="/wiki/Help:Talk_pages" title="Help:Talk pages">talk page</a>: <code>{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Unblock" title="Template:Unblock">unblock</a>|reason=Caught by a colocation web host block but this host or IP is not a web host. My IP address is _______. <i>Place any further information here.</i> ~~~~}}</code>. <b>You must fill in the blank with your IP address for this block to be investigated.</b> Your IP address can be determined <span class="plainlinks"><b><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Get_my_IP_address?withJS=MediaWiki:Get-my-ip.js">here</a></b></span>. Alternatively, if you wish to keep your IP address private you can use the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Unblock_Ticket_Request_System" title="Wikipedia:Unblock Ticket Request System">unblock ticket request system</a>. There are several reasons you might be editing using the IP address of a web host or colocation provider (such as if you are using VPN software or a business network); please use this method of appeal only if you think your IP address is in fact not a web host or colocation provider.</div></div> <p><span class="sysop-show" style="font-size: 85%;"><span style="border:#707070 solid 1px;background-color:#ffe0e0;padding:2px"><b>Administrators:</b></span> The <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:IP_block_exemption" title="Wikipedia:IP block exemption">IP block exemption</a> user right should only be applied to allow users to edit using web host in exceptional circumstances, and requests should usually be directed to the functionaries team via email. If you intend to give the IPBE user right, a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:CheckUser" title="Wikipedia:CheckUser">CheckUser</a> needs to take a look at the account. This can be requested most easily at <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:SPI#Quick_CheckUser_requests" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:SPI">SPI Quick Checkuser Requests</a>. <b>Unblocking</b> an IP or IP range with this template <b>is highly discouraged</b> without at least contacting the blocking administrator.</span> </p> </div></div> </div> <p>This block will expire on 18:23, 24 August 2026. Your current IP address is 8.222.208.146. </p> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><div style="font-size: 16px;"> <p>Even when blocked, you will <i>usually</i> still be able to edit your <a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Special:MyTalk">user talk page</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Emailing_users" title="Wikipedia:Emailing users">email</a> administrators and other editors. </p> </div> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><div style="font-size: 16px;"> <p>For information on how to proceed, please read the <b><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Appealing_a_block#Common_questions" title="Wikipedia:Appealing a block">FAQ for blocked users</a></b> and the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Appealing_a_block" title="Wikipedia:Appealing a block">guideline on block appeals</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Guide_to_appealing_blocks" title="Wikipedia:Guide to appealing blocks">guide to appealing blocks</a> may also be helpful. </p> </div> <p>Other useful links: <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Blocking_policy" title="Wikipedia:Blocking policy">Blocking policy</a> · <a href="/wiki/Help:I_have_been_blocked" title="Help:I have been blocked">Help:I have been blocked</a> </p> </div></li><li class="mw-permissionerror-globalblocking-blockedtext-range"> <div id="mw-blocked-text" style="border: 1px solid #AAA; background-color: var(--background-color-warning-subtle, ivory); color: inherit; padding: 1.5em; width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box;"> <div style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 26px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Stop_hand_nuvola.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f1/Stop_hand_nuvola.svg/50px-Stop_hand_nuvola.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f1/Stop_hand_nuvola.svg/75px-Stop_hand_nuvola.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f1/Stop_hand_nuvola.svg/100px-Stop_hand_nuvola.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="240" data-file-height="240" /></a></span><b> This IP address range has been <a href="https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Global_blocks" class="extiw" title="m:Global blocks">globally blocked</a>.</b></span><br /><span style="font-size: 18px;">This does not affect your ability to <i>read</i> Wikipedia pages.</span></div><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><b>Most people who see this message have done nothing wrong.</b> Some kinds of blocks restrict editing from specific service providers or telecom companies in response to recent abuse or vandalism, and can sometimes affect other users who are unrelated to that abuse. Review the information below for assistance if you do not believe that you have done anything wrong.<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> <p>This block affects editing on all Wikimedia wikis. </p><p>The IP address or range 8.222.128.0/17 has been globally <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Blocking_policy" title="Wikipedia:Blocking policy">blocked</a> by <a href="/wiki/User:Jon_Kolbert" title="User:Jon Kolbert">‪Jon Kolbert‬</a> for the following reason(s): </p> <div style="padding:10px; background:var(--background-color-base, white); color:inherit; border:1px #666 solid;"> <p><a href="https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/NOP" class="extiw" title="m:Special:MyLanguage/NOP">Open proxy/Webhost</a>: See the <a href="https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/WM:OP/H" class="extiw" title="m:WM:OP/H">help page</a> if you are affected </p> </div> <p>This block will expire on 15:12, 27 August 2028. Your current IP address is 8.222.208.146. </p> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><div style="font-size: 16px;"> <p>Even while globally blocked, you will <i>usually</i> still be able to edit pages on <a href="https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/" class="extiw" title="m:">Meta-Wiki</a>. </p> </div> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><div style="font-size: 16px;"> <p>If you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the <a href="https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Stewards/Wizard" class="extiw" title="m:Special:MyLanguage/Stewards/Wizard">Stewards Block Wizard</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=MediaWiki:Wikimedia-globalblocking-blockedtext-mistake-email-steward&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MediaWiki:Wikimedia-globalblocking-blockedtext-mistake-email-steward (page does not exist)">MediaWiki:Wikimedia-globalblocking-blockedtext-mistake-email-steward</a> </p> </div> <p>Other useful links: <a href="https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Global_blocks" class="extiw" title="m:Global blocks">Global blocks</a> · <a href="/wiki/Help:I_have_been_blocked" title="Help:I have been blocked">Help:I have been blocked</a> </p> </div></li></ul><hr /> <div id="viewsourcetext">You can view and copy the source of this page:</div><textarea readonly="" accesskey="," id="wpTextbox1" cols="80" rows="25" style="" class="mw-editfont-monospace" lang="en" dir="ltr" name="wpTextbox1">{{short description|none}}  {{Use Oxford spelling |date=November 2024}} {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2022}} {{Infobox military conflict | conflict = Bombing of Hamburg | partof = the [[strategic bombing during World War II]] | image = File:Royal Air Force Bomber Command, 1942-1945. CL3400.jpg | image_size = 300 | caption = Aftermath in the [[Eilbek]] district of Hamburg. This picture was taken after much of the rubble had been cleared, probably after [[VE day]]. | date = 10 September 1939 – 14 April 1945 | place = [[Hamburg, Germany|Hamburg]], Germany | coordinates = {{coord|53|33|3|N|9|59|37|E|display=inline,title}} | map_type = | map_size = | result = Allied victory | status = | combatant1 = {{ubl |{{flag|United Kingdom}} |{{flag|United States}} |{{flag|Australia}} |{{flag|Canada|1921}} |{{flagcountry|Dominion of New Zealand}} |{{flagcountry|Union of South Africa}} }} | combatant2 = {{flag|Nazi Germany|name=Germany}} | casualties1 = Up to 104 aircraft shot down | casualties2 = Up to 40,000 people killed | notes = }} The [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] '''bombing of Hamburg during World War II''' included numerous attacks on civilians and civic infrastructure. As a large city and industrial centre, [[Hamburg]]'s [[shipyard]]s, [[U-boat pen]]s, and the Hamburg-Harburg area [[Oil campaign of World War II|oil refineries]] were attacked throughout the war.{{sfn|Levine|1992|p=149}} As part of a sustained campaign of [[strategic bombing during World War II]], the attack during the last week of July 1943, code named '''Operation Gomorrah''', created one of the largest [[firestorm]]s raised by the [[Royal Air Force]] and [[United States Army Air Forces]] in World War II,{{sfn|Dyson|2006}} killing an estimated 37,000 people in Hamburg,<ref name="NatGeo">{{cite web |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/the-bombing-of-hamburg-foreshadowed-the-horrors-of-hiroshima |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210722181412/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/the-bombing-of-hamburg-foreshadowed-the-horrors-of-hiroshima |url-status=dead |archive-date=22 July 2021 |work=[[National Geographic]] |title=The bombing of Hamburg foreshadowed the horrors of Hiroshima |first=Erin |last=Blakemore |date=22 July 2021}}</ref> wounding 180,000 more,{{cn|date=July 2023}} and destroying 60% of the city's houses.<ref name="NatGeo"/> Hamburg was selected as a target because it was considered particularly susceptible to attack with incendiaries, which, from the experience of [[the Blitz]], were known to inflict more damage than just high explosive bombs. Hamburg also contained a high number of targets supporting the German war effort and was relatively easy for navigators to find. Careful research was done on behalf of both the RAF and USAAF to discover the optimum mix of high explosives and incendiaries. Before the development of the firestorm in Hamburg, there had been no rain for some time and everything was very dry.{{sfn|RAF staff|2005a}} The unusually warm weather and good conditions ensured that the bombing was highly concentrated around the intended targets, and helped the resulting conflagration create a vortex and whirling updraft of super-heated air which became a {{convert|460|m|ft|adj=mid|-high}} tornado of fire. Various other previously used techniques and devices were instrumental as well, such as [[Area bombing directive|area bombing]], [[Pathfinder (RAF)|Pathfinders]], and [[H2S radar]], which came together to work with particular effectiveness. An early form of [[Chaff (radar countermeasure)|chaff]], code named "Window", was successfully used for the first time by the RAF{{snd}}clouds of aluminium foil strips dropped by Pathfinders as well as the initial bomber stream{{snd}}in order to completely cloud German radar. The raids inflicted severe damage to German armaments production in Hamburg. ==Naming== The name ''Gomorrah'' comes from that of one of the two Canaanite cities of [[Sodom and Gomorrah]] whose destruction is recorded in the [[Bible]]: "Then the Lord rained [[fire and brimstone|brimstone and fire]] on Sodom and Gomorrah, from the Lord out of the heavens."{{snd}}[[Book of Genesis|Genesis]] 19:24 ==Background== ===Political and military pressure=== RAF Bomber Command had made raids on Germany from the early days of World War II. Initially, only military targets were attacked. Navigation to the target over a blacked-out wartime landscape was extremely poor, as was bombing accuracy if the target city (let alone the actual military target) could be found. Consequently bombing operations were very open to criticism as a waste of resources, since such poor results were achieved. The extent of this failure was exposed to the [[Churchill war ministry|War Cabinet]] in August 1941 by the [[Butt Report]], which by analysing 600 photographs of raids in the previous three months, found that only a third of crews that claimed to have reached their targets had actually dropped their bombs within {{convert|5|mi|km|spell=in}} of them.{{sfn|Levine|1992|pp=30–31}} Opinion on targeting steadily shifted as the war progressed, and by November 1940, the view was developing that the civilian population of Germany was a legitimate target in "[[total war]]". By June 1941, RAF thinking had been reversed from seeing any civilian casualties as collateral damage when attacking a military target, to deliberately targeting civilians in an attempt to destroy their morale. This was expected to reduce industrial production and therefore hinder the German war effort. The target was no longer factories, but the people who worked in them and their homes in the surrounding area. This became known as "[[area bombing]]". This change was not driven by the inaccuracy of bombing at this stage, but by studying which aspects of the German [[the Blitz|Blitz]] on Britain had had most effect. Factories had been found to be relatively difficult to destroy, but workers needed somewhere to live, and their housing was much more easily made unusable. The absenteeism of de-housed workers was considered to have a bigger effect on industrial production than the level of damage that could be caused, with the same effort, to the factories in which they worked.{{sfn|Overy|2013|pp=255- 259}} Air Marshal [[Arthur Harris|Arthur "Bomber" Harris]] had taken charge of the [[RAF Bomber Command]] in February 1942. In the same month, the USAAF [[Eighth Air Force|8th Bomber Command]] set up a headquarters in the United Kingdom ready for the deployment of American units to Britain. [[Franklin D. Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] was optimistic that bombing had war-winning potential, despite his appeal to Hitler in September 1939 to avoid bombing civilians. [[Winston Churchill]] was similarly enthusiastic to bomb Germany. This gave both air forces the political support to deal, at this stage, with criticism of their ineffectiveness.{{sfn|Overy|2013|p=280, 282, 284}} The build up of the 8th Bomber Command was slow and though some small scale raids were made in France during the latter half of 1942, capability to attack Germany was not obtained until 1943. The British resources were also limited. The Western Allies had had to tell the Soviet Union that any idea of opening a second front in Europe in the summer of 1942 was unfeasible. The only thing Churchill had to offer [[Stalin]] was a bombing campaign against Germany. This was hard for the RAF to deliver, but it meant that the bombing of Germany could not be abandoned, so Harris would ultimately get the heavy bombers needed.{{sfn|Overy| 2013|p=296}} By the time of the big raid on Hamburg at the end of July 1943, both air forces needed a significant success to justify their existence. ===Firebombing research=== Britain's experience of being bombed in the Blitz had contributed to the RAF's thinking on how to conduct a bombing campaign. It had become clear that incendiaries could inflict much more damage than high explosive bombs. Detailed study of this was carried out by the Research and Experiment unit, RE8, (set up in November 1941). The details of how German houses were constructed were examined and tests were carried out on models to determine how effective an incendiary attack would be. The precise ratio of high explosive bombs and incendiaries was calculated. The high explosive was to blow out windows and make fire fighting dangerous. High explosive bombs with delayed action fuses were included in the mix to further suppress any fire fighting effort. The quantity of incendiaries delivered had to be high enough to totally overwhelm any fire fighting capability, so that a [[conflagration]] could become established.{{sfn|Overy| 2013|pp=327–331}} The Americans took a high level of interest in the British research on the effect of incendiaries. American expertise and experiments added to the planning of fire bombing raids. Despite belief to the contrary, US aircraft also carried a carefully considered mix of high explosive and incendiary bombs. Large quantities of US-made oil-based incendiaries went into service with the 8th Bomber Command shortly before the Hamburg raid – this was preferred by the Americans to the {{convert|4|lb|abbr=on}} [[magnesium]]-cased [[thermite]] bomb used by the British.{{sfn|Overy| 2013|pp=327–331}} It is clear that the effectiveness of the Hamburg raid relied to a large extent on the careful research on how best to cause a large fire in a German city – as opposed to the popular view that it was some sort of accidental occurrence due to unusual weather conditions.{{sfn|Overy| 2013|p=327}} ===Target selection=== A number of factors led to Hamburg being chosen for the planned firebombing raid. The construction of the city meant its vulnerability was considered "outstanding". It was Germany's second largest city. The city's shipbuilding industry made it a priority target.{{sfn|Enemy Branch|1944|pp=303–328}} It also had more industrial targets of interest to the [[Ministry of Economic Warfare]] than most other German cities. It was reasonably close to the bomber bases in Britain, so giving a short flight, with less exposure to anti-aircraft fire and fighters. Hamburg's position, close to the coast and on a prominent river made the target easy to find.{{sfn|Overy| 2013|pp=327, 331}} == Operation Gomorrah == {{more citations needed|section|date=July 2017}} [[File:Attack on Hamburg.jpg|thumb|[[Avro Lancaster|Lancaster]] over Hamburg, 30/31 January 1943]] Operation Gomorrah, was a campaign of air raids which began on 24 July 1943 and lasted for eight days and seven nights. It was at the time the heaviest assault in the [[history of aerial warfare]].{{sfn|NA staff|2009}}{{Better source needed|reason="heaviest assault" is based on a primary source – this may even qualify as Original Research|date=November 2020}} Before July 1943, RAF Bomber Command's focus had been on the [[Ruhr]] industrial region which had been the target of [[Battle of the Ruhr|a five-month-long campaign]]. Operation Gomorrah was carried out by RAF Bomber Command (including [[RCAF]], [[RAAF]] and [[Polish Air Forces in France and Great Britain|Polish]] Squadrons) and the [[USAAF]] Eighth Air Force. The British conducted night raids and the USAAF daylight raids. The initial attack on Hamburg included two new introductions to the British planning: they used "Window", later known as [[Chaff (countermeasure)|chaff]], to confuse the German radar, while the [[Pathfinder Force]] aircraft, which normally kept radio silence, reported the winds they encountered, and this information was processed and relayed to the bomber force navigators. === First RAF raid 24/25 July === The first raid on Hamburg was planned for the night of 23 July, but the raid was delayed by one day because of bad weather. Between 21:45 and 23:00{{clarify|is this double Summer time?|date=July 2024}} on 24 July 791 bombers{{Efn|73 [[Vickers Wellington]]s, 347 [[Avro Lancaster]]s, 246 [[Handley Page Halifax]]es, 125 [[Short Stirlings]]}} took off from their airfields. At 00:57 Pathfinder aircraft, guided only by [[H2S radar]], started to drop yellow [[target indicator]]s and flares. This was followed by others dropping red target indicators visually by the light of the flares. [[No. 35 Squadron RAF|No. 35 Squadron]] led the target marking and, thanks to the clear weather and H2S radar, accuracy was good, with markers falling close to the aiming point scattered over five districts. At 01:02 the main force started to bomb; this continued until 01:50 in six waves. Less than half of the bombers dropped their bombs within a three mile radius of the aiming point. Around Hamburg the Germans had lit red decoy fires which caused a hundred bombers to bomb those in error. Still, large areas were set on fire in the five districts marked by the Pathfinders. During the raid a large (6-mile) [[creepback]] developed which saved the city centre from catastrophe but caused other districts to the north to be set on fire as well.{{Sfn|Middlebrook|1983|pp=121-171}} While some 40,000 firemen were available to tackle fires, control of their resources was damaged when the [[telephone exchange]] caught fire and rubble blocked the passage of fire engines through the city streets;{{sfn|Wilson|2005|p=250}} fires were still burning three days later.{{sfn|Wilson|2005|p=252}} During the early stages of the raid, some bombs fell on the [[Blohm+Voss|Blohm and Voss]] shipyard, where three [[U-boat]]s were destroyed: ''[[German submarine U-1011|U-1011]]'' and ''U-1012'' were hit on their [[slipway]]s and never repaired, and ''U-996'' sank at the dockside.{{Sfn|Rohwer|2005|p=264}}{{Sfn|Middlebrook|1983|p=167}} The local police estimated the number of deaths at 1500.{{Sfn|Middlebrook|1983|p=172}} === First USAAF raid 25 July === A second, daylight, raid by the USAAF was conducted on 25 July. 323 aircraft attacked Hamburg, [[Kiel]] and [[Warnemünde]]. 127 aircraft were assigned to bomb the [[Blohm + Voss|Blohm and Voss]] shipyard and the [[Klöckner & Co SE|Klöckner]] aero-engine factory in Hamburg. On the outward leg of the raid, the formation was attacked by about 30 German fighters. Only two bombers were lost before reaching the target. 90 out of 127 [[Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress]]es reached Hamburg at 16:40. Despite being partly covered in smoke from the previous night bombing, some buildings in the shipyard were hit but the vital U-boat construction slipways were not damaged. The aero-engine factory was completely covered by smoke and secondary targets were bombed instead, including a generating station. Two large liners used as a depot and barracks ship were hit and sunk. German flak damaged 78 aircraft; ten of the damaged bombers that had to leave the formation were finished off by fighters. Over the North Sea on the way back to bases, the formation was attacked by eight night-fighters operating from Holland but they achieved nothing, whilst losing one of their number{{Sfn|Middlebrook|1983|pp=189-241}} Air reconnaissance on 25 July at 18:30 revealed that Hamburg was still covered in smoke from the previous raids, so another attack by the main force of bomber command on Hamburg for that night was cancelled and instead 705 bombers raided [[Essen]] that night.{{Sfn|Middlebrook|Everitt|1996|pp=412-413}} Six [[De Havilland Mosquito]]s of [[No. 139 Squadron RAF]] [[Pathfinder (RAF)#Light Night Striking Force|Light Night Striking Force]] (LNSF) carried out a nuisance raid in order to keep the city on a state of alert.{{Sfn|Middlebrook|1983|pp=243-244}} === Second USAAF raid 26 July === On 26 July the USAAF continued its attacks against targets in North-Germany. The same six [[Bombardment group|bombardment groups]] that had bombed Hamburg the previous day, were ordered to bomb the same targets. The other bombardment groups attacked the [[Continental AG|Conti]] rubber plant in [[Hanover]]. Due to problems with the formation of the [[combat box]]es and many early returns, only 54 aircraft bombed Hamburg. There was no cloud nor much smoke from burning buildings, but the Germans managed in time to conceal the harbour with artificial smoke. Again secondary targets were bombed: some buildings on the [[Howaldtswerke-Deutsche Werft]] U-boat shipyard were hit but no important installations were damaged. The power station in Neuhof was put out of order for one month and deprived Hamburg of 40% of its electricity capacity at a critical moment. All planes bombarded within a minute at 12:00. The German flak managed to damage only two airplanes, which were lost during the homebound journey to England. German fighters concentrated their attacks against the Hanover raid which lost 22 airplanes. The results of the bombing in Hanover were amplified by the fact that most of the firemen were sent as reinforcement to Hamburg.{{Sfn|Middlebrook|1983|pp=245-257}} === Second RAF raid 27/28 July === There was no RAF raid by the main force in the night of 26 July; Bomber Command rarely sent out its main force on three consecutive nights. Six Mosquitos of No. 139 Squadron RAF carried out a nuisance strike.{{Sfn|Middlebrook|1983|p=259}} On the night of 27 July, shortly before midnight,{{sfn|Bahnsen|Stürmer|p=41}} 787 RAF aircraft{{snd}}74 [[Vickers Wellington]]s, 116 [[Short Stirling]]s, 244 [[Handley Page Halifax]]es and 353 [[Avro Lancaster]]s{{snd}}bombed Hamburg.<ref name=RAF-43-Jul/> The aiming points were the dense housing of the working-class districts of [[Billwerder]], [[Borgfelde]], [[Hamm, Hamburg|Hamm]], [[Hammerbrook]], [[Hohenfelde, Hamburg|Hohenfelde]] and [[Rothenburgsort]].{{sfn|Overy| 2013|p=334}} The unusually dry and warm weather, the concentration of the bombing in one area and firefighting limitations due to [[blockbuster bomb]]s used in the early part of the raid – and the recall of Hanover's firecrews to their own city – culminated in a [[firestorm]]. The tornadic fire created a huge inferno with winds of up to {{convert|240|km/h|mph|abbr=on}} reaching temperatures of {{convert|800|C|F|abbr=on}}<ref>{{cite news |last1=Watson |first1=Greig |title=Operation Gomorrah: Firestorm created 'Germany's Nagasaki' |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-43546839 |access-date=3 March 2022 |work=BBC |date=2 August 2018}}</ref> and up to altitudes in excess of {{convert|1000|ft|m|order=flip}}, incinerating more than {{convert|8|mi2|km2|order=flip}} of the city. [[Asphalt concrete|Asphalt]] streets appeared to burst into flame (in fact, it was the phosphorus from the fire bombs that was burning), and [[fuel oil]] from damaged and destroyed ships, barges and storage tanks spilled into the water of the canals and the harbour, causing them to ignite as well. An estimated 18,474 people died on this night. A large number of those killed were seeking safety in [[air raid shelter]]s and cellars. The firestorm consumed the oxygen in the burning city above and the [[carbon monoxide]] poisoned those sheltering below.{{sfn|Overy| 2013|p=334}} The furious winds created by the firestorm had the power to sweep people up off the streets like dry leaves. {{convert|4|sqmi|sqkm|spell=In}} of the city's center were ablaze just 30 minutes after the start of the firestorm.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Neillands |first=Robin |title=The Bomber War: Theallied Air Offensive on Germany |publisher=The Overlook Press |year=2001 |isbn=1585671622 |pages=241 |language=en}}</ref> === Third RAF raid 29/30 July === Hamburg was only attacked in the night of 28 July by four Mosquitos executing a nuisance raid, a raid by the main force was impossible because of the smoke of the previous bombardment which would hide target indicators. On 29 July a photo reconnaissance [[Supermarine Spitfire|Spitfire]] from [[No. 542 Squadron RAF]] reported good weather and no problems with smoke so a third RAF raid was ordered. 777 bombers took off, of which 707 reached Hamburg. There were still fires burning which made visual marking possible, but still the Pathfinders used H2S radar to execute their markings. The Pathfinders missed the aiming point by two miles and marked a district South of the region destroyed in the previous raid. Bombers flew in from the North and because a creepback of four miles developed, the districts [[Barmbek]] and [[Wandsbek]] were very hard hit. Small fires developed easily into large fires as by this time the firefighting effort had collapsed because of the earlier raids. The Germans did not record specific data for this raid, the number of victims is unknown but on this night 370 people died by carbon monoxide poisoning in a large public shelter.{{Sfn|Middlebrook|Everitt|1996|pp=414-415}}{{Sfn|Middlebrook|1983|pp=313-330}} === Fourth RAF raid 2/3 August === On 30 July Bomber Command was ordered to attack towns in Italy. These raids were canceled the same day, but too late to mount a raid to Hamburg.{{Sfn|Middlebrook|1983|pp=331-332}} A planned raid on 31 July was cancelled due to thunderstorms over the UK.{{sfn|Wilson|2005|p=270}} Because of bad weather, the next attack on Hamburg was delayed until 2 August. Despite weather reconnaissance reports about possible storms close to Hamburg, 737 bombers took off. Five bombers were shot down by night fighters over the North Sea. Just before reaching the German coast, the bomber stream met a severe storm which forced many aircraft to abort or to bomb alternative targets. [[Cuxhaven]], [[Bremerhaven]], [[Bremen]], [[Wilhelmshaven]], [[Heligoland]] and other towns as far as 100 miles away from Hamburg reported bombs. At least four bombers crashed because of the storm. Only 400 bombers reached Hamburg but as the Pathfinders could not execute an effective marking, most of the bombs fell scattered over the city and its environments.{{Sfn|Middlebrook|Everitt|1996|pp=415-416}}{{Sfn|Middlebrook|1983|pp=333-354}} During this raid, the Germans further developed tactics to counter the effects of "Window": a running commentary was broadcasting all available data about the bomber stream. Some night fighters operated independently from ground radar guidance and used this information to search for targets. This tactic would later be further developed into what became known as "[[Zahme Sau]]". Five bombers were shot down by night fighters over the North Sea, eight were destroyed around Hamburg and a further eleven were lost on the homebound journey. Because of the storm, the bomber stream became less concentrated and some bombers lost the protection of "Window" and fell victim to night fighters operating in the [[Kammhuber Line]].{{Sfn|Middlebrook|1983|pp=333-354}} == Overview Operation Gomorrah == Approximately 3,000 sorties were flown, 9,000 tons of bombs were dropped and over 250,000 homes and houses were destroyed. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Date !Airplanes sortied !Airplanes bombed !Bomb tonnage !Airplanes lost !Victims |- |24/25 July |791{{Sfn|Middlebrook|Everitt|1996|p=411}} |728{{Sfn|Middlebrook|Everitt|1996|p=411}} |2284 tons{{Sfn|Middlebrook|Everitt|1996|p=411}} |12{{Sfn|Middlebrook|Everitt|1996|p=411}} |1,500{{Sfn|Middlebrook|Everitt|1996|p=412}} |- |25 July |123{{Sfn|Lowe|2007|p=394}} |90{{Sfn|Lowe|2007|p=394}} |186 tons |15{{Sfn|Lowe|2007|p=394}} |20{{Sfn|Middlebrook|1983|p=219}} |- |26 July |121{{Sfn|Lowe|2007|p=395}} |54{{Sfn|Lowe|2007|p=395}} |120 tons{{Sfn|Middlebrook|1983|p=252}} |2{{Sfn|Lowe|2007|p=395}} |150{{Sfn|Middlebrook|1983|p=254}} |- |27/28 July |787{{Sfn|Middlebrook|Everitt|1996|p=413}} |729{{Sfn|Middlebrook|Everitt|1996|p=413}} |2326 tons{{Sfn|Middlebrook|Everitt|1996|p=413}} |17{{Sfn|Middlebrook|Everitt|1996|p=413}} |40,000{{Sfn|Middlebrook|Everitt|1996|p=414}} |- |29/30 July |777{{Sfn|Middlebrook|Everitt|1996|p=413}} |707{{Sfn|Middlebrook|Everitt|1996|p=413}} |2318 tons{{Sfn|Middlebrook|Everitt|1996|p=413}} |28{{Sfn|Middlebrook|Everitt|1996|p=413}} |no data |- |2/3 August |740{{Sfn|Middlebrook|Everitt|1996|p=415}} |393{{Sfn|Lowe|2007|p=393}} |1416 tons{{Sfn|Middlebrook|1983|p=356|pp=}} |30{{Sfn|Middlebrook|Everitt|1996|p=415}} |no data |} ==Casualties== The death toll from Operation Gomorrah will always be uncertain, but the most accepted single number is now 37,000. If a range is stated, this is generally between 34,000 (from police records) and 40,000 (a commonly used figure in Germany before the end of the war). Most of the dead were unidentified. By 1 December 1943, there were 31,647 confirmed dead, but of these only 15,802 were based on the identification of a body. In some cases, the numbers of people who had perished in cellars converted into "air protection rooms" could only be estimated from the quantity of ash left on the floor. Those who died represented about 2.4% of the total population of Hamburg at the time.{{sfn|Overy| 2013|p=335, 435, 437}} ==Other effects== In the first week after the raid, about one million people evacuated the city. 61% of the housing stock was destroyed or damaged.{{sfn|Overy| 2013|p=335}} The city's labour force was reduced by ten percent.{{sfn|Frankland|Webster|1961|pp=260–261}} No subsequent city raid shook Germany as did that on Hamburg; documents show that German officials were thoroughly alarmed and there is some indication from later Allied interrogations of Nazi officials that Hitler stated that further raids of similar weight would force Germany out of the war. The industrial losses were severe: Hamburg never recovered to full production, only doing so in essential armaments industries (in which maximum effort was made).{{sfn|Frankland|Webster|1961|p=261}} Figures given by German sources indicate that 183 large factories were destroyed out of 524 in the city and 4,118 smaller factories out of 9,068 were destroyed.{{fact|date=November 2023}} Other losses included damage to or destruction of 580 industrial concerns and armaments works, 299 of which were important enough to be listed by name. Local transport systems were completely disrupted and did not return to normal for some time. Dwellings destroyed amounted to 214,350 out of 414,500.{{sfn|Frankland|Webster|1961|p=262}} Hamburg was hit by air raids another 69 times before the end of World War II. In total, the RAF dropped 22,580 long tons of bombs on Hamburg.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1945/1945%20-%201571.html|title=Target Analysis: Tonnage of Bombs Dropped and Number of Sea Mines Laid by R.A.F. Bomber Command: Monthly from September, 1939, to May, 1945|date=9 August 1945|magazine=Flight|page=154|access-date=10 September 2016 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170709103946/http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1945/1945%20-%201571.html|archive-date= 9 July 2017}}</ref> ===Military consequences=== The huge amount of damage to Hamburg precipitated a number of large changes to German air defence systems. Priority was given to fighter production. Research was intensified for more effective radar technology. Both aircraft and guns were diverted away from the front line to defend Germany. By August of 1943, 45 per cent of all German fighters were now located on the home front, with additional units in northern France. At the same time, heavy anti-aircraft guns in Germany were increased by over 25 per cent.{{sfn|Overy| 2013|p=335-336}} The reallocation of much of the industrial war production of Germany to home defence was an unintended consequence of Operation Gomorrah. The fighting fronts suffered due to a lack of air support as resource was devoted to fighter aircraft back in the Reich. Anti-aircraft units in Germany made greatly increased demands for personnel and, later in the war, used 25 per cent of all ammunition. It can therefore be argued that the military results of the overall bombing campaign was greater than anything arising from economic or morale effects.{{sfn|Overy| 2013|p=406–408}} === Contemporary press reports === There was press coverage of the Hamburg raids as they were taking place, with for instance both ''[[The Times]]'' of London and ''[[The New York Times]]'' running stories on 26 July 1943, after the raids had commenced but a day before the firestorm raid took place, that emphasized the large size and coordinated British-American nature of the bombing campaign against the city.<ref>{{cite news | title=Two Raids On Hamburg | newspaper=The Times | date=26 July 1943 | page= 4 | via= The Times Digital Archive  | url=https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CS67976442/TTDA?u=wikipedia&sid=TTDA&xid=9f23e021 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1943/07/26/87421868.html?pageNumber=1 | title=Biggest RAF–U.S. Raids on Riech Blast Hamburg, Hit Baltic Cities | agency=United Press | newspaper=The New York Times | date=26 July 1943 | pages=1, 7 }}</ref> [[File:Bombing of Hamburg.ogg|frame|This American propaganda film footage<ref>{{cite book |last1=Crew |first1=David F. |title=Bodies and Ruins: Imagining the Bombing of Germany, 1945 to the Present |date=2017 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=978-0-472-13013-9 |page=196 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3kk_DwAAQBAJ |language=en}}</ref> covers the Eighth Air Force's bombing of Hamburg. The bombing caused large-scale destruction of the city's residential areas.<ref name="NatGeo"/>]] The destruction of Hamburg became a major news story at the time and caused a great impression as to the extent of the damage and loss of life. By 3 August 1943, just as the raids were concluding, military expert [[George Fielding Eliot]] was analyzing the subject at length in his syndicated column published in US newspapers.<ref name="tnb-3aug"/> Newspaper editorials and cartoons also referred to the complete destruction of Hamburg.<ref name="tnb-3aug">{{cite news | url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/74317650/ | title=The Military Situation | author-first=George Fielding | author-last=Eliot | agency=New York Tribune | newspaper=The Nashville Banner | date=3 August 1943 | page=6 | via=Newspapers.com}} Also editorial "Hamburg Is No More" and cartoon "Blasted Right Out Into the Open", same page.</ref> A report from the [[Newspaper Enterprise Association]]'s London correspondent on 9 August speculated on how quickly Berlin could "be eliminated" in the same fashion.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/74396035/ | title=Berlin May Be Next Target In Allies' Plan of Bombing | author-first=Tom | author-last=Wolfe | agency=Newspaper Enterprise Association | newspaper=The Evening Standard | location=Uniontown, Pennsylvania | date=9 August 1943 | page=5 | via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> At the same time in Germany itself, the Hamburg raids were seen as a far worse development than major German military reverses then taking place [[Belgorod–Kharkov offensive operation|on the Eastern Front]] and [[Allied invasion of Sicily|in Sicily and Italy]].<ref>{{cite news | author=Our Diplomatic Correspondent | title=Anxiety Grows In Germany | newspaper=The Times | date=9 August 1943 | page= 4 | via= The Times Digital Archive  | url=https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CS67845385/TTDA?u=wikipedia&sid=TTDA&xid=55a26514 }}</ref> Initial eyewitness accounts by foreign nationals who had been in Hamburg did not attempt to give numerical figures for the destruction, instead describing it as beyond belief.<ref name="t-2aug43"/><ref name="up-9aug43"/> As one 9 August 1943 [[United Press]] story about a Swiss merchant's account related, it was a "hell released" by a "devil's concert" that amounted to "Hamburg's ceaseless, inescapable destruction on a scale that defies the imagination."<ref name="up-9aug43">{{cite news | url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/74317459/ | title=Hamburg Scene of Horror | agency=United Press | newspaper=Santa Maria Daily Times | date=9 August 1943 | page=6 | via=Newspapers.com }}</ref> Even the German press, which had previously downplayed or not discussed bombings of German cities, here emphasized the effects on Hamburg and the numbers of refugees coming from there.<ref name="t-2aug43">{{cite news | author=Our Special Correspondent | title=Evacuation Of Hamburg | newspaper=The Times | date=2 August 1943 | page= 4 | via= The Times Digital Archive  | url= https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CS69418242/TTDA?u=wikipedia&sid=TTDA&xid=ea62d788 }}</ref> Later in August, ''New York Times'' foreign correspondent [[C. L. Sulzberger]] relayed a German belief that there had been 200,000 deaths, which he viewed as credible.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1943/08/28/85078303.html?pageNumber=3 | title=Raid Terror Seen Mounting in Reich | author-first=C. L. | author-last=Sulzberger | newspaper=The New York Times | date=28 August 1943 | page=3}}</ref> By November 1943, a Swiss dispatch to Swedish newspapers gave a figure of 152,000 killed in the Hamburg bombing, but without supplying an explanation for the source of the number.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/73969484/the-minneapolis-star/ | title=8,000,000 Nazis Homeless as Result of Allied Bombings | agency=Associated Press | newspaper=Minneapolis Star Journal | date=5 November 1943 | page=9 | via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> Just a few months after the European war's conclusion, newspaper accounts described the findings of the [[United States Strategic Bombing Survey]] (USSBS), publicly released on 30 October 1945, which gave the German estimates of 60,000–100,000 deaths in the Hamburg bombings.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/74369850/ | title=305,000 Civilians Killed in Germany By Allied Bombers | author-first=Frances | author-last=Music | agency=International News Service | newspaper=The Daily Courier | location=Connellsville, Pennsylvania | date=30 October 1945 | pages=1, 5 | via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> And even higher numbers sometimes were still used. During the 1949–50 debate within the U.S. government about whether to proceed with development of the [[hydrogen bomb]], arguments based on morality were made against developing a weapon whose main utility seemed to be killing massive numbers of civilians with one detonation. Objecting to this line of reasoning, Senator [[Brien McMahon]], chairman of the [[United States Congressional Joint Committee on Atomic Energy]], wrote a letter to President [[Harry S. Truman]] in which he asked, "Where is the valid ethical distinction between the several Hamburg raids that produced 135,000 fatalities," the [[Bombing of Tokyo (10 March 1945)|March 1945 firebombing of Tokyo]], the [[atomic bombing of Hiroshima]], and the proposed thermonuclear weapon. McMahon concluded that "There is no moral dividing line that I can see" between any of these.<ref>{{cite book | author1-first=Ken | author1-last=Young | author2-first=Warner R. | author2-last=Schilling | title=Super Bomb: Organizational Conflict and the Development of the Hydrogen Bomb | publisher=Cornell University Press | location=Ithaca, New York | date=2019 | isbn=978-1-5017-4516-4 | pages=77, 179n38 }}</ref> ==Aftermath== ===Cityscape=== The totally-destroyed quarter of Hammerbrook, in which mostly [[Stevedore|port workers]] lived, was rebuilt not as a housing area but as a commercial area. The adjoining quarter of Rothenburgsort shared the same fate since only a small area of housing was rebuilt. The [[Hamburg U-Bahn|underground line]] that connected both areas with the central station was not rebuilt, either. In the destroyed residential areas, many houses were rebuilt across the street and so no longer form connected blocks. The hills of the [[Öjendorfer Park]] are formed by the debris of destroyed houses.{{sfn|Pauls|2006}} In January 1946, Major Cortez F. Enloe, a surgeon in the USAAF who worked on the USSBS, said that the fire effects of the [[atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|atomic bomb dropped on Nagasaki]] "were not nearly as bad as the effects of the R.A.F. raids on Hamburg on July 27th 1943". He estimated that more than 40,000 people died in Hamburg.<ref>{{cite magazine|title=News in Brief |url=http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1946/1946%20-%200061.html |date=10 January 1946 |magazine=Flight |page=33 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090706070809/https://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1946/1946%20-%200061.html |archive-date=6 July 2009}}</ref> {{quote|It was quite a surprise to us when the first Hamburg raid took place because you used some new device [chaff] which was preventing the anti-aircraft guns to find your bombers, so you had a great success and you repeated these attacks on Hamburg several times and each time the new success was greater and the depression was larger, and I have said, in those days, in a meeting of the [[Ministry of Aviation (Nazi Germany)|Air Ministry]], that if you would repeat this success on four or five other German towns, then we would collapse. [[Albert Speer]] – ''[[The Secret War (TV series)|The Secret War]]''}} ===Memorials=== [[File:St. Nikolai Memorial Church.jpg|thumb|upright|Sculpture at the main memorial in the ruins of the Nikolaikirche]] Several memorials in Hamburg are reminders of the air raids of World War II: * The ruins of the [[St. Nikolai (Hamburg)|Nikolaikirche]] (St Nicholas Church), which was largely destroyed during the bombing, have been made into a memorial against war. The spire of the church survived the attacks. * Memorial at the Hamburger Strasse for those who died in a shelter under the [[Karstadt]] department store at the corner of Desenißstrasse and Hamburger Strasse. The department store was hit by a bomb on the night of 29 July. The people in the air raid shelter below were killed by the heat and carbon monoxide poisoning. * The victims of the air raids were buried on the [[Ohlsdorf Cemetery]] in mass graves. The [[Ohlsdorf Cemetery#Monument for the victims of the Hamburg firestorm|memorial "Passage over the Styx"]] by [[Gerhard Marcks]] is in the centre and shows how [[Charon (mythology)|Charon]] ferries a young couple, a mother with her child, a man and a person who is despairing over the [[river Styx]]. * Many houses rebuilt after World War II have a memorial plaque with the inscription "Destroyed 1943 – 19** Rebuilt," as a reminder of their destruction during the air raids of July 1943.{{cn|date=August 2022}} {{-}} ==Timeline== {| class="wikitable sortable" |+valign=top| Raids on Hamburg during Second World War ! style="width:15%;"| Date ! style="width:15%;"| Target/Type ! |Roundel and notes |- | {{sort|1939-09-10|night of 10/11 September 1939}} | leaflets | {{sort|R 1939-09-10|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} 10 RAF aircraft.{{sfn|RAF staff|2005|loc=[http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20070706011932/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/diary1939.html Sep–Dec 39]}} |- | {{sort|1940-05-17|night 17/18 May 1940}} | [[Oil Campaign of World War II|oil installations]] | {{sort|R 1940-05-17|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} 48 [[Handley Page Hampden|Hampdens]] attacked Hamburg oil installations.<ref name=RAF-40-May-Jun>{{harvnb|RAF staff|2005|loc=[http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20070706011932/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/diary_france.html The Battle of France (May–Jun 1940)]}}</ref> |- | {{sort|1940-05-27|night 27/28 May 1940}} | oil refineries | {{sort|R 1940-05-27|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} Hampdens attacked oil refineries near Hamburg.<ref name=RAF-40-May-Jun/> |- | {{sort|1940-05-30|night 30/31 May1940}} | oil refineries | {{sort|R 1940-05-30|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} Hamburg oil refineries were bombed.<ref name=RAF-40-May-Jun/> |- |{{sort|1940-08-01|June–October 1940}} | |{{sort|R 1940-08-01|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} Hamburg, Wilhelmshaven and [[Münster]] were frequent targets during the Battle of Britain (June–October 1940) but lack of bombing accuracy meant that little damage was done,<ref name=RAF-40-BoB-Jun-Oct>{{harvnb|RAF staff|2005|loc=[http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20070706011932/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/diary_bob.html The Battle of Britain (June–October 1940)]}}</ref> (See [[Butt Report]] (August 1941)). |- |{{sort|1940-10-20|night 20/21 October 1940}} | |{{sort|R 1940-10-20|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} Hamburg bombed by Wellingtons which started 12 fires with little loss of life.<ref name=RAF-40-BoB-Jun-Oct/> |- |{{sort|1940-10-24|night 24/25 October 1940}} | |{{sort|R 1940-10-20|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} Hamburg bombed by Wellingtons which started 13 fires with little loss of life.<ref name=RAF-40-BoB-Jun-Oct/> |- |{{sort|1940-11-15|nights of 15/16 November and 16/17 November 1940}} | | {{sort|R 1940-11-15|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} over 200 aircraft. On the first night damage was caused to the Blohm & Voss shipyard and over 60 fires were started. On the second night only 60 aircraft found their target and damage was far less.{{efn|These two nights of bombing were only 24 hours after a very large raid by the German Luftwaffe on [[Coventry]] on the night of 14/15 November 1940. The raid must have been planned more than 24 hours in advance, so although these raids are often stated to be revenge attacks, it is unlikely that they were planned to be so.}}{{sfn|RAF staff|2005|loc=[http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20070706011932/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/diary1940_2.html Jul–Dec 40]}} |- |{{sort|1941-03-12|night of 12/13 March 1941}} | |{{sort|R 1941-03-12|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} Hamburg, Bremen, and Berlin bombed by a total of 257<ref name=RAF-41-January>{{harvnb|RAF staff|2005|loc=[http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20070706011932/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/diary1941_1.html Jan–Apr 41]}}.</ref> |- |{{sort|1941-03-13|The night of 13/14 March 1941}} | |{{sort|R 1941-03-13|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} 51 people were killed, the highest number in a single raid to date<ref name=RAF-41-January/> |- |{{sort|1941-04-01|April 1941}} | |{{sort|R 1941-04-01|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} During this month Hamburg was a main target.<ref name=RAF-41-January/> |- |{{sort|1941-05-01|May 1941}} | |{{sort|R 1941-05-01|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} Hamburg was bombed several times during the month. Raids now usually contained about 100 bombers.<ref name=RAF-41-May>{{harvnb|RAF staff|2005|loc=[http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20070706011932/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/diary1941_2.html May–Aug 41]}}.</ref> |- |{{sort|1941-05-11|The night of 11/12 May 1941}} | |{{sort|R 1941-05-11|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} 92 aircraft.<ref name=RAF-41-May/> |- |{{sort|1941-06-27|The night of 27/28 June 1941}} | |{{sort|R 1941-06-27|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} a raid on Bremen but most bombed Hamburg – an error of {{convert|50|mi}}; 11 out of 35 bombers were shot down by night fighters.<ref name=RAF-41-May/> |- |{{sort|1942-01-14|night of 14/15 January 1942}} | |{{sort|R 1942-01-14|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} 95 aircraft. Only 48 aircraft claimed to have bombed Hamburg. [[Hamburg-Altona railway station|Altona station]] was hit and 12 fires, 7 of them large ones, were started. Six people killed and 22 injured. No aircraft reported lost.<ref name=RAF-42-Jan>{{harvnb|RAF staff|2005|loc=[http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20070706011932/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/jan42.html Jan 42]}}.</ref> |- |{{sort|1942-01-15|night of 15/16 January 1942}} | |{{sort|R 1942-01-15|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} 96 aircraft. 52 bombers claimed to have bombed Hamburg successfully. 36 fires started 3 of which were large, 3 people killed and 25 injured. 11 Bombers lost.<ref name=RAF-42-Jan/> |- |{{sort|1942-01-17|night of 17/18 January 1942}} | |{{sort|R 1942-01-17|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} Bremen was the main target for 83 aircraft, but Hamburg was bombed as a secondary target causing 11 fires and casualties of 5 dead and 12 injured in Hamburg. Four bombers lost.<ref name=RAF-42-Jan/> |- |{{sort|1942-02-16|night of 16/17 February 1942}} | |{{sort|R 1942-02-16|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} one or two bombers.{{sfn|RAF staff|2005|loc=[http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20070706011932/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/apr42.html Apr 42]}} |- |{{sort|1942-04-08|night of 8/9 April 1942}} | |{{sort|R 1942-04-08|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} largest raid to date on a single target. Carried out by 272 aircraft. Raid was considered a failure. 17 people were killed and 119 injured. 5 planes lost.<ref name=RAF-42-Apr>{{harvnb|RAF staff|2005|loc=[http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20070706011932/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/apr42.html Apr 42]}}.</ref> |- |{{sort|1942-04-17|The night of 17/18 April 1942}} | |{{sort|R 1942-04-17|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} 173 aircraft. 75 fires, 33 classed as large were started. Twenty-three people were killed and 66 injured. Eight aircraft lost.<ref name=RAF-42-Apr/> |- |{{sort|1942-05-03|The night of 3/4 May 1942}} | |{{sort|R 1942-05-03|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} 81 aircraft, dispatched on the 100th anniversary of a great fire in Hamburg. 53 aircraft were estimated to have hit the target. 113 fires started, of which 57 were large. 77 were killed, 243 injured and 1,624 bombed out. 5 aircraft were lost.{{sfn|RAF staff|2005|loc=[http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20070706011932/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/may42.html May 42]}} |- |{{sort|1942-07-26|night of 26/27 July 1942}} | |{{sort|R 1942-07-26|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} 403 aircraft. Widespread damage was caused, mostly in housing and semi-commercial districts rather than in the docks and industrial areas. At least 800 fires started, 523 of which were large. 823 houses were destroyed and more than 5,000 damaged. More than 14,000 people were bombed out. 337 people were killed and 1,027 injured. 29 aircraft were lost, 7.2% of the force.<ref name=RAF-42-Jul>{{harvnb|RAF staff|2005|loc=[http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20070706011932/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/jul42.html Jul 42]}}.</ref> |- |{{sort|1942-07-28|night of 28/29 July 1942}} | |{{sort|R 1942-07-28|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} 256 aircraft. Due to bad weather only 68 bombed in the target area. Fifty-six fires, 15 of them large, were started. Thirteen people were killed and 48 injured. Bomber losses were high, 15.3% for the main group bombing that night.<ref name=RAF-42-Jul/> |- |{{sort|1942-08-03|day of 3 August 1942}} | |{{sort|R 1942-08-03|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} 10 aircraft.<ref name=RAF-42-Aug>{{harvnb|RAF staff|2005|loc=[http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20070706011932/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/aug42.html Aug 42]}}.</ref> |- |{{sort|1942-08-18|day of 18 August 1942}} |nuisance raid |{{sort|R 1942-08-18|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} single Mosquito.<ref name=RAF-42-Aug/> |- |{{sort|1942-09-19|day of 19 September 1942}} |nuisance raid |{{sort|R 1942-09-19|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} 2 Mosquitoes.{{sfn|RAF staff|2005|loc=[https://web.archive.org/web/20040929002140/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/sep42.html Sep 42] }} |- |{{sort|1942-10-13|night of 13/14 October 1942}} | |{{sort|R 1942-10-13|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} light secondary target raid. 2 large fires were started. 8 people were killed and 43 injured.{{sfn|RAF staff|2005|loc=[http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20070706011932/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/oct42.html Oct 42]}} |- |{{sort|1942-11-09|night of 9/10 November 1942}} | |{{sort|R 1942-11-09|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} 213 aircraft. There were 26 fires started of which 3 were large. 3 people killed and 16 injured. 15 aircraft lost, 7.0% of the force.{{sfn|RAF staff|2005|loc=[http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20070706011932/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/nov42.html Nov 42]}} |- |{{sort|1943-01-30|night of 30/31 January 1943}} | |{{sort|R 1943-01-30|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} 148 aircraft. It was the first H2S radar-assisted attack of the war. H2S use was not successful and the bombs were scattered. Of 119 fires set, 71 were large. 58 people were killed and 164 injured. 5 aircraft were lost, 3.4% of the force.{{sfn|RAF staff|2005|loc=[http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20070706011932/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/jan43.html Jan 43]}} |- |{{sort|1943-02-03|night of 3/4 February 1943}} | |{{sort|R 1943-02-03|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} 263 aircraft. Bad weather affected the bombers with many turning back early. Damage was light for what was planned to be a large raid. 16 bombers were lost, 6.1% of the force, many to nightfighters.{{sfn|RAF staff|2005|loc=[http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20070706011932/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/feb43.html Feb 43]}} |- |{{sort|1943-03-03|The night of 3/4 March 1943}} | |{{sort|R 1943-03-03|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} 417 aircraft. The Pathfinders marked the wrong target, mistaking a mud bank for the docks with their H2S radar, so most of the bombs landed {{convert|13|mi}} downstream from the centre of Hamburg, around the small town of [[Wedel]]. Those bombs which landed on Hamburg did considerable damage starting 100 fires, killing 27 people and injuring 95. The damage to Wedel was extensive. 10 aircraft lost, 2.4% of the force.{{sfn|RAF staff|2005|loc=[http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20070706011932/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/mar43.html Mar 43]}} |- |{{sort|1943-04-14|13/14 April 1943}} |nuisance raid |{{sort|R 1943-04-14|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} 2 Mosquitoes.{{sfn|RAF staff|2005|loc=[http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20070706011932/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/apr43.html Apr 43]}} |- |{{sort|1943-06-25|25 June 1943}} | Blohm & Voss |{{sort|U 1943-06-25|[[File:Eighth Air Force - Emblem (World War II).png|12px]]}} Mission Number 67: 275 B-17 were to attack [[submarine pen]]s and industrial areas of Hamburg and Bremen, but the primary targets were obscured by cloud so the bombers hit 167 bomb "targets of opportunity in NW Germany".{{sfn|McKillop|2004|loc=[http://permanent.access.gpo.gov/lps51153/airforcehistory/usaaf/chron/43/jun43.htm Jun 43]}} The [[384th Bombardment Group]] of the [[USAAF]] were involved in the attack of an initial 19 aircraft, 11 aborted the mission and only 5 joined the combat wing.<ref>{{harvnb|Preller|2014|loc=384th BG Mission 2}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=September 2014}} |- |{{sort|1943-06-26|night of 26/27 June 1943}} | nuisance raid |{{sort|R 1943-06-26|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} 4 Mosquitoes.<ref name=RAF-43-Jun>{{harvnb|RAF staff|2005|loc=[http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20070706011932/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/jun43.html Jun 43]}}.</ref> |- |{{sort|1943-06-28|night of 28/29 June 1943}} | nuisance raid |{{sort|R 1943-06-28|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} 4 Mosquitoes.<ref name=RAF-43-Jun/> |- |{{sort|1943-07-03|night of 3/4 July 1943}} |nuisance raid |{{sort|R 1943-07-03|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} 4 Mosquitoes.<ref name=RAF-43-Jul>{{harvnb|RAF staff|2005|loc=[http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20070706011932/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/jul43.html Jul 43]}}.</ref> |- |{{sort|1943-07-05|night of 5/6 July 1943}} |nuisance raid |{{sort|R 1943-07-05|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} 4 Mosquitoes.<ref name=RAF-43-Jul/> |- |{{sort|1943-07-24|night of 24/25 July 1943}} | large raid |{{sort|R 1943-07-24|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} 791 aircraft marked the opening of the "Battle of Hamburg" or so called "Operation Gomorrah raid". A countermeasure against the radar-directed German nightfighters in the form of "Window" was used for the first time. In the clear weather visual and H2S marking was accurate and on the town centre. 728 aircraft dropped their bombs in 50 minutes. Less than half the force bombed within {{convert|3|mi|km|spell=in}} of the centre with a bomb creepback of {{convert|6|mi|km|spell=in}}. Damage was caused in the central and north-western districts, particularly in Altona, Eimsbüttel and Hoheluft. The Rathaus (Town Hall), the St. Nikolai church, the main police station, the main telephone exchange and the [[Carl Hagenbeck|Hagenbeck Zoo]] were among the well-known landmarks to be hit. About 1,500 people were killed which was the largest outside the range of the [[Oboe (navigation)|"Oboe"]] radio navigation system which helped to concentrate the bombing pattern. Thanks to the use of Window only 12 aircraft were lost, 1.5% of the force.<ref name=RAF-43-Jul/>{{sfn|Brunswig|1978|p=195}} |- |{{sort|1943-07-25|25 July 1943}} | Blohm and Voss shipyard Klöckner aero-engine factory |{{sort|U 1943-07-25|[[File:Eighth Air Force - Emblem (World War II).png|12px]]}}Mission Number 76. It is planned that 127 B-17 will bomb two targets at Hamburg but due to smoke, only 90 planes from the [[91st Bombardment Group|91st]], [[351st Missile Wing|351st]], [[Space Delta 1|381st]], [[303rd Air Expeditionary Group|303rd]], [[379th Air Expeditionary Wing|379th]], [[384th Air Expeditionary Wing|384th]] bomb group ( six out of nine bomb groups of the [[1st Bombardment Wing]]) bomb secondary targets in a 15-minute period starting at 16:30. 15 B-17s were lost, and American casualties were one killed, five wounded and 150 missing.<ref name=McKillop-Jul-43>{{harvnb|McKillop|2004|loc=[http://permanent.access.gpo.gov/lps51153/airforcehistory/usaaf/chron/43/jul43.htm Jul 43]}}.</ref>{{sfn|Brunswig|1978|p=208}}{{Sfn|Middlebrook|1983|p=194}} |- |{{sort|1943-07-26.1|26 July 1943}} | Blohm and Voss shipyard Klöckner aero-engine factory |{{sort|U 1943-07-26|[[File:Eighth Air Force - Emblem (World War II).png|12px]]}}Mission Number 77. 121 B-17s dispatched against Hanover (54) and the U-boat yards at Hamburg between 11:59 and 12:00 (71).<ref name=McKillop-Jul-43/>{{sfn|Brunswig|1978|p=208}} |- |{{sort|1943-07-26.2|The night of 26/27 July 1943}} |nuisance raid |{{sort|R 1943-07-26|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} 6 Mosquitoes attacked Hamburg.<ref name=RAF-43-Jul/>{{sfn|Brunswig|1978|p=210}} |- |{{sort|1943-07-27|night of 27/28 July 1943}} |Large raid |{{sort|R 1943-07-27|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} 787 aircraft guided in by Pathfinders using H2S bombed about {{convert|2|mi|km|spell=in}} east of city centre. Due to the unseasonally dry conditions, a firestorm was created in the built-up working-class districts of Hammerbrook, Hamm, Borgfelde and Rothenburgsort. The bombing was more concentrated than the RAF was usually able to manage at this stage of the war. In just over half an hour it is estimated that 550–600 bomb loads fell into an area measuring only {{convert|2|by|1|mi|km|spell=in}} and this gradually spread the fire eastward. The firestorm lasted for about three hours, consuming approximately 16,000 multi-storeyed apartment buildings and killing an estimated 40,000 people, most of them by carbon monoxide poisoning when all the air was drawn out of their basement shelters. Fearing further raids, two-thirds of Hamburg's population, approximately 1,200,000 people, fled the city in the aftermath.<ref name=RAF-43-Jul/>{{sfn|Brunswig|1978|p=211}} |- |{{sort|1943-07-28|night of 28/29 July 1943}} | nuisance raid |{{sort|R 1943-07-28|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} 4 Mosquitoes.<ref name=RAF-43-Jul/> |- |{{sort|1943-07-29|night of 29/30 July 1943}} |Large raid |{{sort|R 1943-07-29|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} 777 aircraft guided in by pathfinders marking using H2S. The plan was to bomb the untouched northern suburbs. But a mistake in mapping led to the bombing of an area just north of the area devastated by the firestorm three nights before. The residential areas of Wandsbek and Barmbek districts and parts of the Uhlenhorst and [[Winterhude]] were severely damaged and widespread fires but no firestorm. Twenty-eight aircraft 3.6% of the force was lost.<ref name=RAF-43-Jul/>{{sfn|Brunswig|1978|p=248}} |- |{{sort|1943-08-02|night of 2/3 August 1943}} | |{{sort|R 1943-08-02|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} 740 aircraft dispatched on a raid to Hamburg but bad weather stopped all but a few bombers reaching Hamburg; many bombed secondary targets instead. 30 aircraft, 4.1% of the force was lost.{{sfn|Brunswig|1978|p=261}} |- |{{sort|1943-08-22|night of 22/23 August 1943}} |nuisance raid |{{sort|R 1943-08-22|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} 6 Mosquitoes.{{sfn|RAF staff|2005|loc=[http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20070706011932/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/aug43.html Aug 43]}} |- |{{sort|1943-11-05|night of 5/6 November 1943}} | |{{sort|R 1943-11-05|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} Hamburg and other cities raided by a total of 26 Mosquitoes.{{sfn|RAF staff|2005|loc=[http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20070706011932/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/nov43.html Nov 43]}} |- |{{sort|1944-01-01|night of 1/2 January 1944}} |diversionary raid (Berlin) |{{sort|R 1944-01-01|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} 15 Mosquitoes attacked Hamburg.{{sfn|RAF staff|2005|loc=[http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20070706011932/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/jan44.html Jan 44]}} |- |{{sort|1944-03-11|night of 11/12 March 1944}} |nuisance raid |{{sort|R 1944-03-11|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} 20 Mosquitoes.{{sfn|RAF staff|2005|loc=[http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20070706011932/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/mar44.html Mar 44]}} |- |{{sort|1944-04-06|night of 6/7 April 1944}} | |{{sort|R 1944-04-06|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} 35 Mosquitoes.<ref name=RAF-44-Apr>{{harvnb|RAF staff|2005|loc=[http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20070706011932/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/apr44.html Apr 44]}}.</ref> |- |{{sort|1944-04-27|night of 26/27 April 1944}} |diversionary raid |{{sort|R 1944-04-27|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} 16 Mosquitoes.<ref name=RAF-44-Apr/> |- |{{sort|1944-04-28|night of 28/29 April 1944}} | |{{sort|R 1944-04-28|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} 26 Mosquitoes.<ref name=RAF-44-Apr/> |- |{{sort|1944-06-18|18 June 1944}} | oil refineries |{{sort|U 1944-06-18|[[File:Eighth Air Force - Emblem (World War II).png|12px]]}} Mission 421: B-17s bombed ''Hamburg-Ebano'' (18), ''Hamburg-Eurotank'' (54), ''Hamburg-[[List of German companies by employees in 1938|Ossag]]'' (38), and ''Hamburg-Schindler'' (36).<ref name=McKillop-Jun-44>{{harvnb|McKillop|2004|loc=[http://permanent.access.gpo.gov/lps51153/airforcehistory/usaaf/chron/44/jun44.htm June]}}</ref> |- |{{sort|1944-06-20|20 June 1944}} | oil refineries |{{sort|U 1944-06-20|[[File:Eighth Air Force - Emblem (World War II).png|12px]]}} Mission 425: B-17s bombed oil refineries at ''Hamburg/Deut.Petr.AG'' (53), ''Harburg/Ebano'' (60),''Hamburg/Eurotank'' (107), Hamburg/[[List of German companies by employees in 1938|Rhenania-Ossag]] (50), ''Harburg/Rhenania'' (53), ''Hamburg/Schliemanns'' (54), and ''Hamburg/Schindler'' (26).<ref name=McKillop-Jun-44/> |- |{{sort|1944-06-22|night of 22/23 June 1944}} |diversionary raid |{{sort|R 1944-06-22|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} 29 Mosquitoes.{{sfn|RAF staff|2005|loc=[http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20070706011932/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/jun44.html Jun 44]}} |- |{{sort|1944-07-22|night of 22/23 July 1944}} |diversionary raid |{{sort|R 1944-07-22|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} 26 Mosquitoes.<ref name=RAF-44-Jul>{{harvnb|RAF staff|2005|loc=[http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20070706011932/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/jul44.html Jul 44]}}.</ref> |- |{{sort|1944-07-26|night of 26/27 July 1944}} |diversionary raid |{{sort|R 1944-07-26|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} 30 Mosquitoes.<ref name=RAF-44-Jul/> |- |{{sort|1944-07-29|night of 29/29 July 1944}} | |{{sort|R 1944-07-29|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} 307 aircraft. The raid was not a success, the bombing was scattered and German sources estimated that only 120 bombers landed their load on the city. 22 aircraft were lost mainly to night fighters.<ref name=RAF-44-Jul/> |- |{{sort|1944-08-04|4 August 1944}} | oil refineries |{{sort|U 1944-08-04|[[File:Eighth Air Force - Emblem (World War II).png|12px]]}}Mission 514: 181 B-17s bombed Hamburg refineries.<ref name=McKillop-Aug-44>{{harvnb|McKillop|2004|loc=[http://permanent.access.gpo.gov/lps51153/airforcehistory/usaaf/chron/44/aug44.htm Aug 44]}}</ref> |- |{{sort|1944-08-06|6 August 1944}} | oil refineries |{{sort|U 1944-08-06|[[File:Eighth Air Force - Emblem (World War II).png|12px]]}} Mission 524: Hamburg oil refineries bombed at Hamburg/Deutsche (54), Hamburg/{{sic|Eband}} (33), Hamburg/Rhenania (61), Hamburg/[[List of German companies by employees in 1938|Rhenania-Ossag]] (62), Hamburg/Schlieman (32), and Hamburg/Schulau (72 B-17s).<ref name=McKillop-Aug-44/> Rhenania-Ossag was a subsidiary of [[Royal Dutch Shell]].{{Citation needed|reason=McKillop does not have this info|date=April 2009}} |- |{{sort|1944-08-26|night of 26/27 August 1944}} |diversionary nuisance raid |{{sort|R 1944-08-26|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} 13 Mosquitoes.<ref name=RAF-44-Aug>{{harvnb|RAF staff|2005|loc=[http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20070706011932/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/aug44.html Aug 44]}}.</ref> |- |{{sort|1944-08-29|night of 29/30 August 1944}} |diversionary nuisance raid |{{sort|R 1944-08-29|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} Hamburg was one of five cities bombed by a total of 53 Mosquitoes.<ref name=RAF-44-Aug/> |- |{{sort|1944-09-06|night of 6/7 September 1944}} |nuisance raid |{{sort|R 1944-09-06|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} 32 Mosquitoes.<ref name=RAF-44-Sep>{{harvnb|RAF staff|2005|loc=[https://web.archive.org/web/20040929001716/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/sep44.html Sep 44]}}.</ref> |- |{{sort|1944-09-26|night of 26/27 September 1944}} |diversionary nuisance raid |{{sort|R 1944-09-26|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} 6 Mosquitoes.<ref name=RAF-44-Sep/> |- |{{sort|1944-09-30|night of 30/1 October 1944}} | |{{sort|R 1944-09-30|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} 46 Mosquitoes.<ref name=RAF-44-Oct>{{harvnb|RAF staff|2005|loc=[http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20070706011932/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/oct44.html Oct 44]}}.</ref> |- |{{sort|1944-10-06|6 October 1944}} | oil refinery (Harburg/Rhenania) |{{sort|U 1944-10-06|[[File:Eighth Air Force - Emblem (World War II).png|12px]]}} Mission 667: 121 of 406 dispatched B-24s bombed the Harburg/Rhenania oil refinery.<ref name=McKillop-Oct-44>{{harvnb|McKillop|2004|loc=[http://permanent.access.gpo.gov/lps51153/airforcehistory/usaaf/chron/44/oct44.htm Oct 44]}}</ref> |- |{{sort|1944-10-12|night of 12/13 October 1944}} | |{{sort|R 1944-10-12|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} 52 Mosquitoes.<ref name=RAF-44-Oct/> |- |{{sort|1944-10-25|25 October 1944}} | oil refineries |{{sort|U 1944-10-25|[[File:Eighth Air Force - Emblem (World War II).png|12px]]}} Mission 688: 455 B-17s dispatched to hit the Harburg (221, including those of the 447th BG) and Rhenania oil refineries (214) at Hamburg. 297 B-17s dispatched to hit the primary hit secondaries, Harburg (179) and Rhenania oil refineries (106) at Hamburg; cloud cover limited accuracy, devastation of Harburg city<ref name=McKillop-Oct-44/>{{sfn|Brunswig|1978|p=345}} |- |{{sort|1944-10-30|30 October 1944}} | oil refineries |{{sort|U 1944-10-30|[[File:Eighth Air Force - Emblem (World War II).png|12px]]}} Mission 693: 357 B-24s were dispatched to hit the Harburg oil refinery (72) and Rhenania oil refinery (67) at Hamburg, 28 bomb Hamburg targets of opportunity.<ref name=McKillop-Oct-44/> |- |{{sort|1944-11-04|4 November 1944}} | oil refinery |{{sort|U 1944-11-04|[[File:Eighth Air Force - Emblem (World War II).png|12px]]}} Mission 700: 257 B-17s were dispatched to hit the Harburg oil plant at Hamburg (238), 186 of 193 B-17s hit the Rhenania oil plant at Hamburg.<ref name=McKillop-Nov-44>{{harvnb|McKillop|2004|loc=[http://permanent.access.gpo.gov/lps51153/airforcehistory/usaaf/chron/44/nov44.htm Nov 44]}}.</ref> |- |{{sort|1944-11-05|5 November 1944}} | ordnance depots |{{sort|U 1944-11-06|[[File:Us army air corps shield.svg|12px]]}} US [[IX Tactical Air Command|Ninth (Tactical) Air Force]]: send 160 B-26s and A-20s to attack ammunition, ordnance, and supply depots in Hamburg.<ref name=McKillop-Nov-44/> |- |{{sort|1944-11-06|6 November 1944}} | oil refineries |{{sort|U 1944-11-06|[[File:Eighth Air Force - Emblem (World War II).png|12px]]}} Mission 704: 291 B-17s were dispatched to hit the Harburg (142) and Rhenania (138) oil refineries at Hamburg.<ref name=McKillop-Nov-44/> |- |{{sort|1944-11-11|night of 11/12 November 1944}} | oil refineries |{{sort|R 1944-11-11|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} 237 Lancasters and 8 Mosquitoes of No 5 Group were dispatched to hit the Rhenania-Ossag oil refinery Harburg, which had been attacked several times by American day bombers.{{sfn|RAF staff|2005|loc=[http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20070706011932/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/nov44.html Nov 44]}} |- |{{sort|1944-11-21|21 November 1944}} | oil refineries |{{sort|U 1944-11-21|[[File:Eighth Air Force - Emblem (World War II).png|12px]]}} Mission 720: 366 B-24s were sent to hit the Dpag (178) and Rhenania (171) oil plants at Hamburg.(cloud cover limited accuracy, devastigation of [[Harburg, Hamburg|Harburg]] city)<ref name=McKillop-Nov-44/>{{sfn|Brunswig|1978|p=347}} |- |{{sort|1944-11-30|night of 30/1 December 1944}} | diversionary raid |{{sort|R 1944-11-30|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} 53 Mosquitoes.<ref name=RAF-44-Dec>{{harvnb|RAF staff|2005|loc=[http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20070706011932/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/dec44.html Dec 44]}}.</ref> |- |{{sort|1944-12-11|night of 11/12 December 1944}} | |{{sort|R 1944-12-11|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} 28 Mosquitoes.<ref name=RAF-44-Dec/> |- |{{sort|1944-12-27|night of 27/28 December 1944}} | nuisance raid |{{sort|R 1944-12-27|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} 7 Mosquitoes hit Hamburg-Wandsbek and -Barmbek at 3 am.<ref name=RAF-44-Dec/>{{sfn|Brunswig|1978|p=348}} |- |{{sort|1944-12-31|31 December 1944}} | Blohm & Voss |{{sort|U 1944-12-31|[[File:Eighth Air Force - Emblem (World War II).png|12px]]}} Mission 772: 526 B-17s were dispatched to hit oil industry targets at Hamburg (68), the Wilhelmsburg refinery at Harburg (92), the Grassbrook refinery at Hamburg (71) and the industrial area at Hamburg (72).<ref name=McKillop-Dec-44>{{harvnb|McKillop|2004|loc=[http://permanent.access.gpo.gov/lps51153/airforcehistory/usaaf/chron/44/dec44.htm Dec 44]}}.</ref> |- |{{sort|1945-01-16|night of 16/17 January 1945}} | diversionary nuisance raid |{{sort|R 1945-01-16|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} 9 Mosquitoes.{{sfn|RAF staff|2005|loc=[http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20070706011932/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/jan45.html Jan 45]}} |- |{{sort|1945-02-14|24 February 1945}} | Blohm & Voss |{{sort|U 1945-02-14|[[File:Eighth Air Force - Emblem (World War II).png|12px]]}} The 384 BG bombed the Hamburg submarine yards.{{citation needed|date=September 2014}} |- |{{sort|1945-02-24|24 February 1945}} | oil refineries |{{sort|U 1945-02-24|[[File:Eighth Air Force - Emblem (World War II).png|12px]]}} Mission 845: 362 B-17s were sent to hit the [[Hamburg|Albrecht 278]] and [[Hamburg|Harburg 70]] oil refineries at Hamburg.{{sfn|McKillop|2004|loc=[http://permanent.access.gpo.gov/lps51153/airforcehistory/usaaf/chron/45/feb45.htm Feb 45]}} |- |{{sort|1945-03-05| 5 March 1945}} | oil refinery |{{sort|U 1945-03-05|[[File:Eighth Air Force - Emblem (World War II).png|12px]]}} Mission 865: 120 of 126 B-24s hit the Harburg oil refinery at Hamburg without loss.<ref name=McKillop-Mar-45>{{harvnb|McKillop|2004|loc=[http://permanent.access.gpo.gov/lps51153/airforcehistory/usaaf/chron/45/mar45.htm Mar 45]}}.</ref> |- |{{sort|1945-03-08|8/9 March 1945}} | Blohm & Voss |{{sort|R 1945-03-08|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} 312 aircraft, including those of the [[No. 466 Squadron RAAF]], bombed Blohm & Voss to destroy the type XXI [[U-boats]] (cloud cover limited accuracy).<ref name=RAF-45-Mar>{{harvnb|RAF staff|2005|loc=[http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20070706011932/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/mar45.html Mar 45]}}.</ref> |- |{{sort|1945-03-10|10 March 1945}} | Blohm & Voss |{{sort|R 1945-03-10|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} The No. 466 Squadron RAAF bombed Blohm & Voss.<ref name=RAF-45-Mar/> |- |{{sort|1945-03-11| 11 March 1945}} | oil refinery |{{sort|U 1945-03-11|[[File:Eighth Air Force - Emblem (World War II).png|12px]]}} Mission 881: 469 of 485 B-17s bomb the Wilhelmsburg oil refinery at Hamburg; one other hits a target of opportunity; one B-17 was lost and 41 damaged; three airmen were wounded and 10 were missing in action.<ref name=McKillop-Mar-45/> |- |{{sort|1945-03-20|20 March 1945}} | shipyards, docs and oil installations |{{sort|U 1945-03-20|[[File:Eighth Air Force - Emblem (World War II).png|12px]]}} Mission 898: 451 bombers and 355 fighters were dispatched to bomb the shipyard and dock area at Hamburg and an oil refinery. All the targets were bombed including the Blohm & Voss U-boat yard.<ref name=McKillop-Mar-45/> |- |{{sort|1945-03-21|night of 21/22 March 1945}} | oil refinery (Erdölwerke) |{{sort|R 1945-03-21|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} 159 aircraft put the refinery out of action for the rest of the war.<ref name=RAF-45-Mar/> |- |{{sort|1945-03-30.1|30 March 1945}} | oil depot |{{sort|U 1945-03-30|[[File:Eighth Air Force - Emblem (World War II).png|12px]]}}Mission 918: 530 B-17s were sent to bomb 2 U-boat yards oil depot at Hamburg. 64 bomb the yards and 169 the depot. 263 bomb the port area at Hamburg (the secondary target) and one bombs Bremen (a target of opportunity). Bombing was both visual and using H2X radar.<ref name=McKillop-Mar-45/> |- |{{sort|1945-03-30.2|night of 30/31 March 1945}} | |{{sort|R 1945-03-30|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} raid by 43 Mosquitoes.<ref name=RAF-45-Mar/> |- |{{sort|1945-03-31|day of 31 March 1945}} | Blohm & Voss |{{sort|R 1945-03-31|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} 469 aircraft to destroy the [[Type XXI U-boat]]s under construction. Cloud cover prevented serious damage to the target, but there was considerable damage to houses, factories, energy supplies and communications over a wide area of southern Hamburg. 11 aircraft lost mainly to German day fighters.<ref name=RAF-45-Mar/> |- |{{sort|1945-04-02|night of 2/3 April 1945}} | nuisance raid |{{sort|R 1945-04-02|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} 1 Mosquito.<ref name=RAF-45-Apr>{{harvnb|RAF staff|2005|loc=[http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20070706011932/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/apr45.html Apr 45]}}.</ref> |- |{{sort|1945-04-08|8 April 1945}} | U-boat yard |{{sort|U 1945-04-08|[[File:Eighth Air Force - Emblem (World War II).png|12px]]}} A [[Disney bomb|'Disney' mission]]: 22 of 24 B-17s bomb the Finkenwarder U-boat yard at Hamburg without loss.{{sfn|McKillop|2004|loc=[http://permanent.access.gpo.gov/lps51153/airforcehistory/usaaf/chron/45/apr45.htm Apr 45]}} |- |{{sort|1945-04-08|night of 8/9 April 1945}} | shipyard |{{sort|R 1945-04-08|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} 440 aircraft – partial cloud caused the raid to become dispersed. There was some damage to the yards but it was not clear whether the damage was American or British or both.<ref name=RAF-45-Apr/> |- |{{sort|1945-04-09|day of 9 April 1945}} | oil storage |{{sort|R 1945-04-09|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} 57 Lancasters of [[No. 5 Group RAF]] attacked oil-storage tanks (40 aircraft) and U-boat shelters (17 aircraft of [[No. 617 Squadron RAF|No. 617 "Dambuster" Squadron]] with [[Grand Slam bomb|Grand Slam]] and [[Tallboy (bomb)|Tallboy]] bombs). Both attacks were successful. 2 Lancasters were lost from the raid on the oil tanks.<ref name=RAF-45-Apr/> |- |{{sort|1945-04-10|night of 9/10 April 1945}} | diversionary raid |{{sort|R 1945-04-10|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} 24 Mosquitoes.<ref name=RAF-45-Apr/> |- |{{sort|1945-04-13|The night of 13/14 April 1945}} | diversionary raid |{{sort|R 1945-04-13|[[File:RAF roundel.svg|12px]]}} 87 Mosquitoes.<ref name=RAF-45-Apr/> |} ==Notes== {{notelist}} ==References== {{reflist}} ===Sources=== {{refbegin}} * {{Citation |last1=Bahnsen |first1=Uwe |first2=Kerstin von |last2=Stürmer |title=Die Stadt, die sterben sollte, Hamburg im Bombenkrieg, Juli 1943 |page=41}}{{full citation needed|date=September 2014}} * {{Citation |last=Brunswig |first=Hans |year=1978 |title=Feuersturm über Hamburg | publisher = Motorbuch Verlag |location=Stuttgart |isbn=3-87943-570-7 |page=195}} * {{Citation |last=Dyson |first=Freeman |author-link=Freeman Dyson |date=1 November 2006 |title=Part I: A Failure of Intelligence |url=https://www.technologyreview.com/2006/11/01/227625/a-failure-of-intelligence/ |journal=Technology Review |access-date=13 May 2020}} *{{cite Q |Q131176036 |ref={{harvid|Enemy Branch|1944}} |mode=cs2 |pages=i,303-328}} * {{Citation |last1=Frankland |first1=Noble |last2=Webster |first2=Charles |year=1961 |title=The Strategic Air Offensive Against Germany, 1939–1945, Volume II: Endeavour, Part 4 |location=London |publisher=Her Majesty's Stationery Office |pages=260–261}} * {{Citation |last=Levine |first=Alan J |year=1992 |title=The Strategic Bombing of Germany, 1940–1945 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LZ99c7ZlxxQC |page=149 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |isbn=978-0-275-94319-6}} * {{cite book |last=Lowe |first=Keith |year=2007 |title=Inferno: The Devastation of Hamburg, 1943 |publisher=Viking |isbn=978-0-670-91557-6}} * {{Citation |last=McKillop |first=Jack |date=2 July 2004 |title=United States Army Air Forces in World War II: Combat Chronology of World War II |url=http://permanent.access.gpo.gov/lps51153/airforcehistory/usaaf/chron/index.htm |publisher=U.S. Federal Depository Library Program Electronic Collection (FDLP/EC) Archive}} * {{Cite book |last=Middlebrook |first=Martin |title=Hamburg Juli '43 |publisher=Ernst Kabel Verlag |year=1983 |isbn=3-921909-72-4 |language=de}} * {{Cite book |last1=Middlebrook |first1=Martin |title=The Bomber Command War Diaries. An operational reference book 1939–1945 |last2=Everitt |first2=Chris |publisher=Midland Publishing Limited |year=1996 |isbn=1-85780-033-8}} * {{Citation |date=5 January 2009 |url=http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/cabinetpapers/help/glossary-b.htm |title=The Cabinet Papers 1915–1978: Glossary – B |publisher=The National Archives |access-date=13 May 2020 |ref={{harvid|NA staff|2009}}}} * {{Citation |last1=Overy |first1=Richard |title=The Bombing War, Europe 1939–45 |date=2013 |publisher=Penguin Books Ltd. |location=London |isbn=978-0-141-92782-4 |edition=Kindle, 2014}} * {{Citation |last=Pauls |first=Simone |date=17 August 2006 |title=So paradiesisch schön ist Hamburgs Osten |newspaper=Hamburger Morgenpost |url=http://archiv.mopo.de/archiv/2006/20060817/hamburg/panorama/so_paradiesisch_schoen_ist_hamburgs_osten.html |publisher=ARCHIV: Hamburgs grüne Oasen}}{{Dead link|date=November 2018|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}} * {{Citation |last=Preller |first=Fred |year=2014 |chapter=384th BG Mission 2 |title=384th Bomb Group (Heavy) |chapter-url=http://www.384thbombgroup.com/_content/_pages/One384thMission.php?MissionKey=2 |publisher=384thbombgroup.com |access-date=9 September 2014}}{{unreliable source?|date=September 2014}} * {{cite Q |Q131324214 |mode=cs2 |ref={{SfnRef |RAF staff |2005}} |access-date=2024-11-26 }} * {{Cite book |last=Rohwer |first=J. |title=Chronology of the War at Sea 1939–1945 |publisher=Naval Institute Press. |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-59114-119-8}} * {{Citation |date=6 April 2005a |title=Hamburg, 28th July 1943 |url=http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/hamburg.html |work=Royal Air Force Bomber Command 60th Anniversary |publisher=UK Crown |access-date=22 March 2009 |archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20070706011932/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/hamburg.html |archive-date=6 July 2007 |ref={{harvid|RAF staff|2005a}}}} * {{Citation |last=Wilson |first=Kevin |year=2005 |title=Bomber Boys |publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson |location=London |isbn=978-0-297-84637-6}} {{refend}} ==Further reading== * {{cite web |last=Doebler |first=Joachim |year=1995 |title=Life beneath the Facades of Bombed-out Streets. Housing Situation in post-war Hamburg |work= Indian Architect & Builder, Vol. 9, No. 3 (1995) |pages=102–107 |url=http://www.doebler-online.de/pdf/dfg-en.pdf|publisher=Doebler-online.de}} * {{cite book |last=Friedrich |first=Jörg |author-link=Jörg Friedrich (author) |year=2006 |title=The Fire: The bombing of Germany, 1940–1945 |publisher=Columbia University Press |location=New York |isbn=0-231-13380-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/firebombingofger00frie}} * {{cite Q |Q1219602 |ref={{sfnref |Grayling |2006}} |mode=cs1}} * [[Randall Hansen|Hansen, Randall]] (2009), ''Fire and Fury: The Allied Bombing of Germany''. New York: New American Library. {{ISBN|978-0-451-22759-1}} * Middlebrook, Martin. ''The Battle of Hamburg: allied bomber forces against a German city in 1943'' (1981) [https://archive.org/details/battleofhamburga00midd online] * {{cite book |last=Nossack |first=Hans |author-link=Hans Erich Nossack |year=2004 |title=The End: Hamburg 1943 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |isbn=0-226-59556-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/endhamburg194300noss}} * {{cite book |last=Sebald |first=Winfried |author-link=Winfried Sebald |year=2003 |title=On the Natural History of Destruction |publisher=Random House |location=New York|isbn=0-375-50484-2}} ===Primary sources=== * [http://www.anesi.com/ussbs02.htm Interrogation of Captured Prisoners, United States Strategic Bombing Survey, Summary Report, (European War), 30 September 1945] * {{cite book |last=Spaight |first=James M. |url=https://archive.org/details/BombingVindicated |title=Bombing Vindicated |publisher=G. Bles |year=1944 |oclc=1201928}} (Spaight was Principal Assistant Secretary of the UK [[Air Ministry]]) * [https://web.archive.org/web/20031130094844/http://www.seniorennet-hamburg.de/zeitzeugen/vergessen/sindel5.htm Memories of a 24-year-old woman (in German)] * [http://terribleland.shawwebspace.ca Memories of a 12 year-old girl] ==External links== {{Portal|Hamburg}} {{external media |float=right |width=30em |video1=[http://einestages.spiegel.de/static/topicalbumgallery/2405/gefangen_im_glut_orkan.html ''„Gefangen im Glut-Orkan"''] }} *{{Commons category-inline}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20101003105517/http://www.seniorennet-hamburg.de/zeitzeugen/vergessen/english/klank1_eng.htm An eyewitness account] * [https://www.battlefieldsww2.com/remnants-from-world-war-ii-in-hamburg.html Remnants from world war II in Hamburg] {{WWII city bombing}} {{RAF WWII Strategic Bombing}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Hamburg, Bombing of}} [[Category:Hamburg in World War II]] [[Category:1943 in Germany]] [[Category:Aerial operations and battles of World War II involving Canada]] [[Category:Aerial operations and battles of World War II involving the United Kingdom]] [[Category:Articles containing video clips]] [[Category:Conflicts in 1943]] [[Category:Explosions in 1943]] [[Category:Firebombings]] [[Category:Oil campaign of World War II]] [[Category:World War II strategic bombing of Germany]] [[Category:World War II strategic bombing by populated place]] </textarea><div class="templatesUsed"><div class="mw-templatesUsedExplanation"><p><span id="templatesused">Pages transcluded onto the current version of this page<span class="posteditwindowhelplinks"> (<a href="/wiki/Help:Transclusion" title="Help:Transclusion">help</a>)</span>:</span> </p></div><ul> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:-" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:-">Template:-</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:-&action=edit" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:-">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Ambox" title="Template:Ambox">Template:Ambox</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Ambox&action=edit" title="Template:Ambox">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Authority_control" title="Template:Authority control">Template:Authority control</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Authority_control&action=edit" title="Template:Authority control">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Better_source_needed" title="Template:Better source needed">Template:Better source needed</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Better_source_needed&action=edit" title="Template:Better source needed">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Blockquote" title="Template:Blockquote">Template:Blockquote</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Blockquote&action=edit" title="Template:Blockquote">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Blockquote/styles.css" title="Template:Blockquote/styles.css">Template:Blockquote/styles.css</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Blockquote/styles.css&action=edit" title="Template:Blockquote/styles.css">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Catalog_lookup_link" title="Template:Catalog lookup link">Template:Catalog lookup link</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Catalog_lookup_link&action=edit" title="Template:Catalog lookup link">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Category_handler" title="Template:Category handler">Template:Category handler</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Category_handler&action=edit" title="Template:Category handler">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Citation" title="Template:Citation">Template:Citation</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Citation&action=edit" title="Template:Citation">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Citation_needed" title="Template:Citation needed">Template:Citation needed</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Citation_needed&action=edit" title="Template:Citation needed">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_Q" title="Template:Cite Q">Template:Cite Q</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Cite_Q&action=edit" title="Template:Cite Q">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">Template:Cite book</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Cite_book&action=edit" title="Template:Cite book">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_magazine" title="Template:Cite magazine">Template:Cite magazine</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Cite_magazine&action=edit" title="Template:Cite magazine">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_news" title="Template:Cite news">Template:Cite news</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Cite_news&action=edit" title="Template:Cite news">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">Template:Cite web</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Cite_web&action=edit" title="Template:Cite web">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Clarify" title="Template:Clarify">Template:Clarify</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Clarify&action=edit" title="Template:Clarify">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Clear" title="Template:Clear">Template:Clear</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Clear&action=edit" title="Template:Clear">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Cn" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:Cn">Template:Cn</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Cn&action=edit" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:Cn">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Commons_category-inline" title="Template:Commons category-inline">Template:Commons category-inline</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Commons_category-inline&action=edit" title="Template:Commons category-inline">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Convert" title="Template:Convert">Template:Convert</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Convert&action=edit" title="Template:Convert">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Coord" title="Template:Coord">Template:Coord</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Coord&action=edit" title="Template:Coord">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Country_data_Australia" title="Template:Country data Australia">Template:Country data Australia</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Country_data_Australia&action=edit" title="Template:Country data Australia">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Country_data_Canada" title="Template:Country data Canada">Template:Country data Canada</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Country_data_Canada&action=edit" title="Template:Country data Canada">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Country_data_Dominion_of_New_Zealand" title="Template:Country data Dominion of New Zealand">Template:Country data Dominion of New Zealand</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Country_data_Dominion_of_New_Zealand&action=edit" title="Template:Country data Dominion of New Zealand">edit</a>) </li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Country_data_Nazi_Germany" title="Template:Country data Nazi Germany">Template:Country data Nazi Germany</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Country_data_Nazi_Germany&action=edit" title="Template:Country data Nazi Germany">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Country_data_Union_of_South_Africa" title="Template:Country data Union of South Africa">Template:Country data Union of South Africa</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Country_data_Union_of_South_Africa&action=edit" title="Template:Country data Union of South Africa">view source</a>) (semi-protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Country_data_United_Kingdom" title="Template:Country data United Kingdom">Template:Country data United Kingdom</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Country_data_United_Kingdom&action=edit" title="Template:Country data United Kingdom">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Country_data_United_States" title="Template:Country data United States">Template:Country data United States</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Country_data_United_States&action=edit" title="Template:Country data United States">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:DMCA" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:DMCA">Template:DMCA</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:DMCA&action=edit" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:DMCA">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Dated_maintenance_category" title="Template:Dated maintenance category">Template:Dated maintenance category</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Dated_maintenance_category&action=edit" title="Template:Dated maintenance category">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Dated_maintenance_category_(articles)" title="Template:Dated maintenance category (articles)">Template:Dated maintenance category (articles)</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Dated_maintenance_category_(articles)&action=edit" title="Template:Dated maintenance category (articles)">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Dead_link" title="Template:Dead link">Template:Dead link</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Dead_link&action=edit" title="Template:Dead link">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Delink" title="Template:Delink">Template:Delink</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Delink&action=edit" title="Template:Delink">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Efn" title="Template:Efn">Template:Efn</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Efn&action=edit" title="Template:Efn">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:External_media" title="Template:External media">Template:External media</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:External_media&action=edit" title="Template:External media">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:FULLROOTPAGENAME" title="Template:FULLROOTPAGENAME">Template:FULLROOTPAGENAME</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:FULLROOTPAGENAME&action=edit" title="Template:FULLROOTPAGENAME">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Fact" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:Fact">Template:Fact</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Fact&action=edit" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:Fact">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Find_sources_mainspace" title="Template:Find sources mainspace">Template:Find sources mainspace</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Find_sources_mainspace&action=edit" title="Template:Find sources mainspace">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:First_word" title="Template:First word">Template:First word</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:First_word&action=edit" title="Template:First word">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Fix" title="Template:Fix">Template:Fix</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Fix&action=edit" title="Template:Fix">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Fix-span" title="Template:Fix-span">Template:Fix-span</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Fix-span&action=edit" title="Template:Fix-span">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Fix/category" title="Template:Fix/category">Template:Fix/category</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Fix/category&action=edit" title="Template:Fix/category">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Flag" title="Template:Flag">Template:Flag</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Flag&action=edit" title="Template:Flag">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Flag/core" title="Template:Flag/core">Template:Flag/core</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Flag/core&action=edit" title="Template:Flag/core">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Flag_country" title="Template:Flag country">Template:Flag country</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Flag_country&action=edit" title="Template:Flag country">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Flag_country/core" title="Template:Flag country/core">Template:Flag country/core</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Flag_country/core&action=edit" title="Template:Flag country/core">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Flagcountry" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:Flagcountry">Template:Flagcountry</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Flagcountry&action=edit" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:Flagcountry">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Full_citation_needed" title="Template:Full citation needed">Template:Full citation needed</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Full_citation_needed&action=edit" title="Template:Full citation needed">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Harvard_citation_no_brackets" title="Template:Harvard citation no brackets">Template:Harvard citation no brackets</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Harvard_citation_no_brackets&action=edit" title="Template:Harvard citation no brackets">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Harvid" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:Harvid">Template:Harvid</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Harvid&action=edit" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:Harvid">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Harvnb" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:Harvnb">Template:Harvnb</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Harvnb&action=edit" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:Harvnb">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Hlist/styles.css" title="Template:Hlist/styles.css">Template:Hlist/styles.css</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Hlist/styles.css&action=edit" title="Template:Hlist/styles.css">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:ISBN" title="Template:ISBN">Template:ISBN</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:ISBN&action=edit" title="Template:ISBN">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:If_empty" title="Template:If empty">Template:If empty</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:If_empty&action=edit" title="Template:If empty">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Infobox" title="Template:Infobox">Template:Infobox</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Infobox&action=edit" title="Template:Infobox">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Infobox_military_conflict" title="Template:Infobox military conflict">Template:Infobox military conflict</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Infobox_military_conflict&action=edit" title="Template:Infobox military conflict">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Main_other" title="Template:Main other">Template:Main other</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Main_other&action=edit" title="Template:Main other">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Military_navigation" title="Template:Military navigation">Template:Military navigation</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Military_navigation&action=edit" title="Template:Military navigation">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:More_citations_needed" title="Template:More citations needed">Template:More citations needed</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:More_citations_needed&action=edit" title="Template:More citations needed">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Navbox" title="Template:Navbox">Template:Navbox</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Navbox&action=edit" title="Template:Navbox">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Notelist" title="Template:Notelist">Template:Notelist</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Notelist&action=edit" title="Template:Notelist">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Ns_has_subpages" title="Template:Ns has subpages">Template:Ns has subpages</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Ns_has_subpages&action=edit" title="Template:Ns has subpages">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Pagetype" title="Template:Pagetype">Template:Pagetype</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Pagetype&action=edit" title="Template:Pagetype">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Plainlist/styles.css" title="Template:Plainlist/styles.css">Template:Plainlist/styles.css</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Plainlist/styles.css&action=edit" title="Template:Plainlist/styles.css">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Portal" title="Template:Portal">Template:Portal</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Portal&action=edit" title="Template:Portal">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Px2" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:Px2">Template:Px2</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Px2&action=edit" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:Px2">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Quote" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:Quote">Template:Quote</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Quote&action=edit" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:Quote">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:RAF_WWII_Strategic_Bombing" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:RAF WWII Strategic Bombing">Template:RAF WWII Strategic Bombing</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:RAF_WWII_Strategic_Bombing&action=edit" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:RAF WWII Strategic Bombing">edit</a>) </li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:RAF_WWII_strategic_bombing" title="Template:RAF WWII strategic bombing">Template:RAF WWII strategic bombing</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:RAF_WWII_strategic_bombing&action=edit" title="Template:RAF WWII strategic bombing">edit</a>) </li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Refbegin" title="Template:Refbegin">Template:Refbegin</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Refbegin&action=edit" title="Template:Refbegin">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Refbegin/styles.css" title="Template:Refbegin/styles.css">Template:Refbegin/styles.css</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Refbegin/styles.css&action=edit" title="Template:Refbegin/styles.css">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Refend" title="Template:Refend">Template:Refend</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Refend&action=edit" title="Template:Refend">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Reflist" title="Template:Reflist">Template:Reflist</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Reflist&action=edit" title="Template:Reflist">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Reflist/styles.css" title="Template:Reflist/styles.css">Template:Reflist/styles.css</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Reflist/styles.css&action=edit" title="Template:Reflist/styles.css">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:SDcat" title="Template:SDcat">Template:SDcat</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:SDcat&action=edit" title="Template:SDcat">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Sfn" title="Template:Sfn">Template:Sfn</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Sfn&action=edit" title="Template:Sfn">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:SfnRef" title="Template:SfnRef">Template:SfnRef</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:SfnRef&action=edit" title="Template:SfnRef">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Sfnref" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:Sfnref">Template:Sfnref</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Sfnref&action=edit" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:Sfnref">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Short_description" title="Template:Short description">Template:Short description</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Short_description&action=edit" title="Template:Short description">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Short_description/lowercasecheck" title="Template:Short description/lowercasecheck">Template:Short description/lowercasecheck</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Short_description/lowercasecheck&action=edit" title="Template:Short description/lowercasecheck">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Sic" title="Template:Sic">Template:Sic</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Sic&action=edit" title="Template:Sic">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Sister-inline" title="Template:Sister-inline">Template:Sister-inline</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Sister-inline&action=edit" title="Template:Sister-inline">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Snd" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:Snd">Template:Snd</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Snd&action=edit" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:Snd">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Sort" title="Template:Sort">Template:Sort</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Sort&action=edit" title="Template:Sort">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Sp" title="Template:Sp">Template:Sp</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Sp&action=edit" title="Template:Sp">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Spaced_en_dash" title="Template:Spaced en dash">Template:Spaced en dash</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Spaced_en_dash&action=edit" title="Template:Spaced en dash">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Strategic_bombing_during_World_War_II" title="Template:Strategic bombing during World War II">Template:Strategic bombing during World War II</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Strategic_bombing_during_World_War_II&action=edit" title="Template:Strategic bombing during World War II">edit</a>) </li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Template_other" title="Template:Template other">Template:Template other</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Template_other&action=edit" title="Template:Template other">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Two_pixel_space" title="Template:Two pixel space">Template:Two pixel space</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Two_pixel_space&action=edit" title="Template:Two pixel space">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Ubl" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:Ubl">Template:Ubl</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Ubl&action=edit" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:Ubl">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Unbulleted_list" title="Template:Unbulleted list">Template:Unbulleted list</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Unbulleted_list&action=edit" title="Template:Unbulleted list">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Unreliable_source%3F" title="Template:Unreliable source?">Template:Unreliable source?</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Unreliable_source%3F&action=edit" title="Template:Unreliable source?">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Use_Oxford_spelling" title="Template:Use Oxford spelling">Template:Use Oxford spelling</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Use_Oxford_spelling&action=edit" title="Template:Use Oxford spelling">view source</a>) (extended confirmed protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Use_dmy_dates" title="Template:Use dmy dates">Template:Use dmy dates</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Use_dmy_dates&action=edit" title="Template:Use dmy dates">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:WWII_city_bombing" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:WWII city bombing">Template:WWII city bombing</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:WWII_city_bombing&action=edit" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:WWII city bombing">edit</a>) </li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Yesno" title="Template:Yesno">Template:Yesno</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Yesno&action=edit" title="Template:Yesno">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Yesno-no" title="Template:Yesno-no">Template:Yesno-no</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Yesno-no&action=edit" title="Template:Yesno-no">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Yesno-yes" title="Template:Yesno-yes">Template:Yesno-yes</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Yesno-yes&action=edit" title="Template:Yesno-yes">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Zero_width_joiner" title="Template:Zero width joiner">Template:Zero width joiner</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Zero_width_joiner&action=edit" title="Template:Zero width joiner">view source</a>) (extended confirmed protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Arguments" title="Module:Arguments">Module:Arguments</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Arguments&action=edit" title="Module:Arguments">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Authority_control" title="Module:Authority control">Module:Authority control</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Authority_control&action=edit" title="Module:Authority control">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Authority_control/config" title="Module:Authority control/config">Module:Authority control/config</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Authority_control/config&action=edit" title="Module:Authority control/config">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Catalog_lookup_link" title="Module:Catalog lookup link">Module:Catalog lookup link</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Catalog_lookup_link&action=edit" title="Module:Catalog lookup link">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Category_handler" title="Module:Category handler">Module:Category handler</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Category_handler&action=edit" title="Module:Category handler">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Category_handler/blacklist" title="Module:Category handler/blacklist">Module:Category handler/blacklist</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Category_handler/blacklist&action=edit" title="Module:Category handler/blacklist">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Category_handler/config" title="Module:Category handler/config">Module:Category handler/config</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Category_handler/config&action=edit" title="Module:Category handler/config">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Category_handler/data" title="Module:Category handler/data">Module:Category handler/data</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Category_handler/data&action=edit" title="Module:Category handler/data">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Category_handler/shared" title="Module:Category handler/shared">Module:Category handler/shared</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Category_handler/shared&action=edit" title="Module:Category handler/shared">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Check_for_unknown_parameters" title="Module:Check for unknown parameters">Module:Check for unknown parameters</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Check_for_unknown_parameters&action=edit" title="Module:Check for unknown parameters">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Check_isxn" title="Module:Check isxn">Module:Check isxn</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Check_isxn&action=edit" title="Module:Check isxn">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Citation/CS1" title="Module:Citation/CS1">Module:Citation/CS1</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Citation/CS1&action=edit" title="Module:Citation/CS1">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Citation/CS1/COinS" title="Module:Citation/CS1/COinS">Module:Citation/CS1/COinS</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Citation/CS1/COinS&action=edit" title="Module:Citation/CS1/COinS">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration" title="Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration">Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration&action=edit" title="Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Citation/CS1/Date_validation" title="Module:Citation/CS1/Date validation">Module:Citation/CS1/Date validation</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Citation/CS1/Date_validation&action=edit" title="Module:Citation/CS1/Date validation">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Citation/CS1/Identifiers" title="Module:Citation/CS1/Identifiers">Module:Citation/CS1/Identifiers</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Citation/CS1/Identifiers&action=edit" title="Module:Citation/CS1/Identifiers">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Citation/CS1/Utilities" title="Module:Citation/CS1/Utilities">Module:Citation/CS1/Utilities</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Citation/CS1/Utilities&action=edit" title="Module:Citation/CS1/Utilities">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Citation/CS1/Whitelist" title="Module:Citation/CS1/Whitelist">Module:Citation/CS1/Whitelist</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Citation/CS1/Whitelist&action=edit" title="Module:Citation/CS1/Whitelist">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css" title="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css">Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css&action=edit" title="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Cite_Q" title="Module:Cite Q">Module:Cite Q</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Cite_Q&action=edit" title="Module:Cite Q">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Commons_link" title="Module:Commons link">Module:Commons link</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Commons_link&action=edit" title="Module:Commons link">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Complex_date" title="Module:Complex date">Module:Complex date</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Complex_date&action=edit" title="Module:Complex date">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Convert" title="Module:Convert">Module:Convert</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Convert&action=edit" title="Module:Convert">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Convert/data" title="Module:Convert/data">Module:Convert/data</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Convert/data&action=edit" title="Module:Convert/data">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Convert/text" title="Module:Convert/text">Module:Convert/text</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Convert/text&action=edit" title="Module:Convert/text">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:ConvertNumeric" title="Module:ConvertNumeric">Module:ConvertNumeric</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:ConvertNumeric&action=edit" title="Module:ConvertNumeric">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Coordinates" title="Module:Coordinates">Module:Coordinates</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Coordinates&action=edit" title="Module:Coordinates">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Coordinates/styles.css" title="Module:Coordinates/styles.css">Module:Coordinates/styles.css</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Coordinates/styles.css&action=edit" title="Module:Coordinates/styles.css">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:DateI18n" title="Module:DateI18n">Module:DateI18n</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:DateI18n&action=edit" title="Module:DateI18n">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:DecodeEncode" title="Module:DecodeEncode">Module:DecodeEncode</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:DecodeEncode&action=edit" title="Module:DecodeEncode">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Delink" title="Module:Delink">Module:Delink</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Delink&action=edit" title="Module:Delink">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Disambiguation/templates" title="Module:Disambiguation/templates">Module:Disambiguation/templates</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Disambiguation/templates&action=edit" title="Module:Disambiguation/templates">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:EditAtWikidata" title="Module:EditAtWikidata">Module:EditAtWikidata</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:EditAtWikidata&action=edit" title="Module:EditAtWikidata">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Find_sources" title="Module:Find sources">Module:Find sources</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Find_sources&action=edit" title="Module:Find sources">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Find_sources/config" title="Module:Find sources/config">Module:Find sources/config</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Find_sources/config&action=edit" title="Module:Find sources/config">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Find_sources/links" title="Module:Find sources/links">Module:Find sources/links</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Find_sources/links&action=edit" title="Module:Find sources/links">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Find_sources/templates/Find_sources_mainspace" title="Module:Find sources/templates/Find sources mainspace">Module:Find sources/templates/Find sources mainspace</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Find_sources/templates/Find_sources_mainspace&action=edit" title="Module:Find sources/templates/Find sources mainspace">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Footnotes" title="Module:Footnotes">Module:Footnotes</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Footnotes&action=edit" title="Module:Footnotes">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Footnotes/anchor_id_list" title="Module:Footnotes/anchor id list">Module:Footnotes/anchor id list</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Footnotes/anchor_id_list&action=edit" title="Module:Footnotes/anchor id list">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Footnotes/anchor_id_list/data" title="Module:Footnotes/anchor id list/data">Module:Footnotes/anchor id list/data</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Footnotes/anchor_id_list/data&action=edit" title="Module:Footnotes/anchor id list/data">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Footnotes/whitelist" title="Module:Footnotes/whitelist">Module:Footnotes/whitelist</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Footnotes/whitelist&action=edit" title="Module:Footnotes/whitelist">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:I18n/complex_date" title="Module:I18n/complex date">Module:I18n/complex date</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:I18n/complex_date&action=edit" title="Module:I18n/complex date">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:ISOdate" title="Module:ISOdate">Module:ISOdate</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:ISOdate&action=edit" title="Module:ISOdate">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:If_empty" title="Module:If empty">Module:If empty</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:If_empty&action=edit" title="Module:If empty">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Infobox" title="Module:Infobox">Module:Infobox</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Infobox&action=edit" title="Module:Infobox">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Infobox/styles.css" title="Module:Infobox/styles.css">Module:Infobox/styles.css</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Infobox/styles.css&action=edit" title="Module:Infobox/styles.css">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:InfoboxImage" title="Module:InfoboxImage">Module:InfoboxImage</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:InfoboxImage&action=edit" title="Module:InfoboxImage">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Infobox_military_conflict" title="Module:Infobox military conflict">Module:Infobox military conflict</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Infobox_military_conflict&action=edit" title="Module:Infobox military conflict">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Infobox_military_conflict/styles.css" title="Module:Infobox military conflict/styles.css">Module:Infobox military conflict/styles.css</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Infobox_military_conflict/styles.css&action=edit" title="Module:Infobox military conflict/styles.css">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:List" title="Module:List">Module:List</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:List&action=edit" title="Module:List">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Math" title="Module:Math">Module:Math</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Math&action=edit" title="Module:Math">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Message_box" title="Module:Message box">Module:Message box</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Message_box&action=edit" title="Module:Message box">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Message_box/ambox.css" title="Module:Message box/ambox.css">Module:Message box/ambox.css</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Message_box/ambox.css&action=edit" title="Module:Message box/ambox.css">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Message_box/configuration" title="Module:Message box/configuration">Module:Message box/configuration</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Message_box/configuration&action=edit" title="Module:Message box/configuration">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Military_navigation" title="Module:Military navigation">Module:Military navigation</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Military_navigation&action=edit" title="Module:Military navigation">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Namespace_detect/config" title="Module:Namespace detect/config">Module:Namespace detect/config</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Namespace_detect/config&action=edit" title="Module:Namespace detect/config">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Namespace_detect/data" title="Module:Namespace detect/data">Module:Namespace detect/data</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Namespace_detect/data&action=edit" title="Module:Namespace detect/data">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Navbar" title="Module:Navbar">Module:Navbar</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Navbar&action=edit" title="Module:Navbar">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Navbar/configuration" title="Module:Navbar/configuration">Module:Navbar/configuration</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Navbar/configuration&action=edit" title="Module:Navbar/configuration">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Navbar/styles.css" title="Module:Navbar/styles.css">Module:Navbar/styles.css</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Navbar/styles.css&action=edit" title="Module:Navbar/styles.css">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Navbox" title="Module:Navbox">Module:Navbox</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Navbox&action=edit" title="Module:Navbox">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Navbox/configuration" title="Module:Navbox/configuration">Module:Navbox/configuration</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Navbox/configuration&action=edit" title="Module:Navbox/configuration">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Navbox/styles.css" title="Module:Navbox/styles.css">Module:Navbox/styles.css</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Navbox/styles.css&action=edit" title="Module:Navbox/styles.css">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Ns_has_subpages" title="Module:Ns has subpages">Module:Ns has subpages</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Ns_has_subpages&action=edit" title="Module:Ns has subpages">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Pagetype" title="Module:Pagetype">Module:Pagetype</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Pagetype&action=edit" title="Module:Pagetype">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Pagetype/config" title="Module:Pagetype/config">Module:Pagetype/config</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Pagetype/config&action=edit" title="Module:Pagetype/config">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Pagetype/disambiguation" class="mw-redirect" title="Module:Pagetype/disambiguation">Module:Pagetype/disambiguation</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Pagetype/disambiguation&action=edit" class="mw-redirect" title="Module:Pagetype/disambiguation">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Pagetype/rfd" title="Module:Pagetype/rfd">Module:Pagetype/rfd</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Pagetype/rfd&action=edit" title="Module:Pagetype/rfd">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Pagetype/setindex" title="Module:Pagetype/setindex">Module:Pagetype/setindex</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Pagetype/setindex&action=edit" title="Module:Pagetype/setindex">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Pagetype/softredirect" title="Module:Pagetype/softredirect">Module:Pagetype/softredirect</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Pagetype/softredirect&action=edit" title="Module:Pagetype/softredirect">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Portal" title="Module:Portal">Module:Portal</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Portal&action=edit" title="Module:Portal">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Portal/images/h" title="Module:Portal/images/h">Module:Portal/images/h</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Portal/images/h&action=edit" title="Module:Portal/images/h">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Portal/styles.css" title="Module:Portal/styles.css">Module:Portal/styles.css</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Portal/styles.css&action=edit" title="Module:Portal/styles.css">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:SDcat" title="Module:SDcat">Module:SDcat</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:SDcat&action=edit" title="Module:SDcat">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Sort" title="Module:Sort">Module:Sort</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Sort&action=edit" title="Module:Sort">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:String" title="Module:String">Module:String</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:String&action=edit" title="Module:String">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:TableTools" title="Module:TableTools">Module:TableTools</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:TableTools&action=edit" title="Module:TableTools">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Unsubst" title="Module:Unsubst">Module:Unsubst</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Unsubst&action=edit" title="Module:Unsubst">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:WPMILHIST_Infobox_style" title="Module:WPMILHIST Infobox style">Module:WPMILHIST Infobox style</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:WPMILHIST_Infobox_style&action=edit" title="Module:WPMILHIST Infobox style">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:WikidataIB" title="Module:WikidataIB">Module:WikidataIB</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:WikidataIB&action=edit" title="Module:WikidataIB">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:WikidataIB/nolinks" title="Module:WikidataIB/nolinks">Module:WikidataIB/nolinks</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:WikidataIB/nolinks&action=edit" title="Module:WikidataIB/nolinks">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:WikidataIB/titleformats" title="Module:WikidataIB/titleformats">Module:WikidataIB/titleformats</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:WikidataIB/titleformats&action=edit" title="Module:WikidataIB/titleformats">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Wikitext_Parsing" title="Module:Wikitext Parsing">Module:Wikitext Parsing</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Wikitext_Parsing&action=edit" title="Module:Wikitext Parsing">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Module:Yesno" title="Module:Yesno">Module:Yesno</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Module:Yesno&action=edit" title="Module:Yesno">view source</a>) (protected)</li></ul></div><p id="mw-returnto">Return to <a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Hamburg_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Hamburg in World War II">Bombing of Hamburg in World War II</a>.</p> <noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombing_of_Hamburg_in_World_War_II">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombing_of_Hamburg_in_World_War_II</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks catlinks-allhidden" data-mw="interface"></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bombing_of_Hamburg_in_World_War_II&action=edit&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><picture><source media="(min-width: 500px)" srcset="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia.svg" width="25" height="25" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" lang="en" loading="lazy"></picture></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><picture><source media="(min-width: 500px)" srcset="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" width="88" height="31"><img src="/w/resources/assets/mediawiki_compact.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" lang="en" width="25" height="25" loading="lazy"></picture></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-header-container vector-sticky-header-container"> <div id="vector-sticky-header" class="vector-sticky-header"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-start"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-start vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" aria-hidden="true"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-sticky-header-search-toggle" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.vector-sticky-search-form.icon"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </button> </div> <div role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box"> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="vector-sticky-search-form" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia"> <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar-primary" aria-hidden="true" >View source for Bombing of Hamburg in World War II</div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-end" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icons"> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-talk-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="talk-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbles mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbles"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-subject-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="subject-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-article mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-article"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-history-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="history-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-history mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-history"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only mw-watchlink" id="ca-watchstar-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="watch-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-star mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-star"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="wikitext-edit-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikiText mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-wikiText"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-ve-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-edit mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-edit"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-viewsource-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-protected-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-editLock mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-editLock"></span> <span></span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-buttons"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet mw-interlanguage-selector" id="p-lang-btn-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-language"></span> <span>Add languages</span> </button> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive" id="ca-addsection-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="addsection-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbleAdd-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbleAdd-progressive"></span> <span>Add topic</span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-end"> <div class="vector-user-links"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="mw-portlet mw-portlet-dock-bottom emptyPortlet" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul> </ul> </div> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-76d4c66f66-lnjnc","wgBackendResponseTime":479,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"0.058","walltime":"0.078","ppvisitednodes":{"value":417,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":17286,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":6329,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":9,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":0,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":0,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":469,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":0,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 54.432 1 -total"," 99.86% 54.356 2 Template:Blocked_text"," 41.64% 22.665 1 Template:Colocationwebhost"," 40.26% 21.912 2 Template:Replace"," 38.12% 20.752 1 Template:Hidden"," 16.39% 8.922 1 Template:Tlx"," 16.05% 8.737 1 Template:Hidden_begin"," 2.29% 1.247 1 MediaWiki:Wikimedia-globalblocking-blockedtext-mistake"," 2.15% 1.168 1 Template:Hidden_end"," 1.70% 0.926 1 MediaWiki:Wikimedia-globalblocking-blockedtext-mistake-email-steward"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.011","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":1058589,"limit":52428800}},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-76d4c66f66-lnjnc","timestamp":"20250303073123","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> </body> </html>