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class="vector-toc-link" href="#National_Spiritualist_Association_of_Churches,_USA"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>National Spiritualist Association of Churches, USA</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-National_Spiritualist_Association_of_Churches,_USA-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Christian_Spiritualism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Christian_Spiritualism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Christian Spiritualism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Christian_Spiritualism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-France_Pre-1848" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#France_Pre-1848"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>France Pre-1848</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-France_Pre-1848-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Native_American_spiritualism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Native_American_spiritualism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Native American spiritualism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Native_American_spiritualism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Caribbean" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Caribbean"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>The Caribbean</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Caribbean-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-South_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#South_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>South America</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-South_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-India" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#India"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>India</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-India-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eastern_Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eastern_Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.8</span> <span>Eastern Asia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eastern_Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.9</span> <span>China</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Japan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Japan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.10</span> <span>Japan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Japan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pacific_islands" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pacific_islands"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.11</span> <span>Pacific islands</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pacific_islands-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Antipodes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Antipodes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.12</span> <span>The Antipodes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Antipodes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.13</span> <span>Africa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Islam" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Islam"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.14</span> <span>Islam</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Islam-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spiritualistic_activities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spiritualistic_activities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Spiritualistic activities</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spiritualistic_activities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gender_balance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gender_balance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Gender balance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gender_balance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notable_individuals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_individuals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Notable individuals</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Notable_individuals-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Notable individuals subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Notable_individuals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Swedenborg" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Swedenborg"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Swedenborg</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Swedenborg-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Allan_Kardec" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Allan_Kardec"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Allan Kardec</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Allan_Kardec-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Edward_Burnett_Tylor" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Edward_Burnett_Tylor"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Edward Burnett Tylor</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Edward_Burnett_Tylor-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Joseph_Campbell" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Joseph_Campbell"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Joseph Campbell</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Joseph_Campbell-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Carl_Jung" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Carl_Jung"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>Carl Jung</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Carl_Jung-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label 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practices</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about spiritualistic beliefs and practices. For the Anglo-American religious movement that started in the 19th century, see <a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(movement)" title="Spiritualism (movement)">Spiritualism (movement)</a>. For other uses of spiritualism, see <a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Spiritualism (disambiguation)">Spiritualism (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": 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.sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="padding-top:0.4em;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Spiritualism" title="Category:Spiritualism">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="padding-top:0;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Spiritualism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#d0efec;;color: var(--color-base)">Main articles</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spirit_(animating_force)" title="Spirit (animating force)">Spirit (animating)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirit_(supernatural_entity)" title="Spirit (supernatural entity)">Spirit (supernatural)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(movement)" title="Spiritualism (movement)">Spiritualism (movement)</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Spiritualist beliefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kardecist_spiritism" title="Kardecist spiritism">Spiritism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Vitalism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#d0efec;;color: var(--color-base)">Practices</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mediumship" title="Mediumship">Mediumship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_healing" title="Faith healing">Faith healing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychometry_(paranormal)" title="Psychometry (paranormal)">Psychometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automatic_writing" title="Automatic writing">Automatic writing</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#d0efec;;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afterlife" title="Afterlife">Afterlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirit_world_(Spiritualism)" title="Spirit world (Spiritualism)">Spirit world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirit_guide" title="Spirit guide">Spirit guide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shamanism" title="Shamanism">Shamanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">Animism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychic" title="Psychic">Psychic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clairvoyance" title="Clairvoyance">Clairvoyance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paranormal" title="Paranormal">Paranormal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occult" title="Occult">Occult</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ouija" title="Ouija">Ouija</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parapsychology" title="Parapsychology">Parapsychology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/18px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/27px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/36px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a> · <span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:P_religion_world.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/P_religion_world.svg/31px-P_religion_world.svg.png" decoding="async" width="31" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/P_religion_world.svg/47px-P_religion_world.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/P_religion_world.svg/62px-P_religion_world.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Religion" title="Portal:Religion">Religion portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Spiritualism_sidebar" title="Template:Spiritualism sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Spiritualism_sidebar" title="Template talk:Spiritualism sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Spiritualism_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Spiritualism sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Spiritualism</b> is a <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysical</a> <a href="/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">belief</a> that the <a href="/wiki/World_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="World (philosophy)">world</a> is made up of at least two fundamental <a href="/wiki/Substance_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Substance (philosophy)">substances</a>, <a href="/wiki/Matter_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Matter (philosophy)">matter</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spirit_(animating_force)" title="Spirit (animating force)">spirit</a>. This very broad <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysical</a> distinction is further developed into many and various forms by the inclusion of details about what spiritual entities exist such as a <a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">soul</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Afterlife" title="Afterlife">afterlife</a>, spirits of the dead, <a href="/wiki/Deities" class="mw-redirect" title="Deities">deities</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mediumship" title="Mediumship">mediums</a>; as well as details about the nature of the relationship between spirit and matter. It may also refer to the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>, doctrine, or <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religion</a> pertaining to a spiritual aspect of existence.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It is also a term commonly used for various <a href="/wiki/Psychic" title="Psychic">psychic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Paranormal" title="Paranormal">paranormal</a> practices and beliefs recorded throughout humanity's history<sup id="cite_ref-Doyle_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Doyle-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NSAC_web_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NSAC_web-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in a variety of cultures.<sup id="cite_ref-Kucich_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kucich-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lang_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lang-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Spiritualistic traditions appear deeply rooted in <a href="/wiki/Shamanism" title="Shamanism">shamanism</a> and perhaps are one of the oldest forms of religion. <a href="/wiki/Mediumship" title="Mediumship">Mediumship</a> is a modern form of shamanism and such ideas are very much like those developed by <a href="/wiki/Edward_Burnett_Tylor" title="Edward Burnett Tylor">Edward Burnett Tylor</a> in his theory of <a href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">animism</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-Stocking_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stocking-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in which there are other parallel worlds to our own, though invisible to us and not accessible to us in our state. A <a href="/wiki/Psychic" title="Psychic">psychic</a> is to be one of the connecting links between these worlds. A psychic is defined as someone endowed with exceptional sensitivity to the <a href="/wiki/Occult" title="Occult">occult</a> dimension, who experiences visions and revelations. Some authors have stated only few individuals are said to have this capacity.<sup id="cite_ref-Brockway_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brockway-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition">Definition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spiritualism_(beliefs)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Spiritualism is the belief that <a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">spirits</a> are able to communicate with the living by agency of a medium. The earliest recorded use of the word is 1796<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and it was used by the prominent 18th-century spiritualist <a href="/wiki/Emanuel_Swedenborg" title="Emanuel Swedenborg">Emanuel Swedenborg</a>. The term "spiritualism" has come to have different meanings. A broad working definition of the term would include the multi-faceted belief in a vital principle within living beings, a <a href="/wiki/Supernatural" title="Supernatural">supernatural</a> or <a href="/wiki/Paranormal" title="Paranormal">paranormal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Divinity" title="Divinity">divine</a>, incorporeal being – force, <a href="/wiki/Spirit_(animating_force)" title="Spirit (animating force)">spirit</a> – <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/anima" class="extiw" title="wikt:anima">anima</a> animating bodies etc. Adherents of spiritualistic movements believe that the spirits of the dead survive <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mortal" class="extiw" title="wikt:mortal">mortal</a> life, and that <a href="/wiki/Sentient" class="mw-redirect" title="Sentient">sentient</a> beings from <a href="/wiki/Spirit_world_(Spiritualism)" title="Spirit world (Spiritualism)">spiritual worlds</a> can and do communicate with the living. Since ancient times, this has been an element in traditional <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_religion" title="Indigenous religion">indigenous religions</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lawrence_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lawrence-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In today's world, it is a growing phenomenon manifesting itself in traditional indigenous religiosity on all continents through non-aligned spiritualistic groups and many syncretistic movements and within elements of <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/orthodox" class="extiw" title="wikt:orthodox">orthodox</a> religions by which it is still seen as a challenge.<sup id="cite_ref-Ingo_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ingo-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many reference works <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.onelook.com/?w=spiritism&ls=a">[2]</a> also use the term <i>spiritism</i> to mean the same thing as "spiritualism" but <i>Spiritism</i> is more accurately used to mean <a href="/wiki/Kardecist_spiritism" title="Kardecist spiritism">Kardecist spiritism</a>. Central to adherents' faith is a belief that spirits of the dead communicate with the living usually through a <a href="/wiki/Mediumship" title="Mediumship">medium</a>. </p><p>The word also takes on specific alternative meanings in various differing fields of <a href="/wiki/Academia" class="mw-redirect" title="Academia">academia</a>, see below. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Usage">Usage</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spiritualism_(beliefs)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Usage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>Spiritualism</b> is used in English to mean either; </p> <ul><li>1) (<i>Religion</i>) – the belief that people can and do communicate with dead people and the practices and doctrines of people with this belief.</li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(movement)" title="Spiritualism (movement)">Spiritualism (movement)</a></div> <ul><li>2) (<i>Philosophy</i>) – In a <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophical doctrine</a> or religious beliefs emphasising that <a href="/wiki/Spirit_(animating_force)" title="Spirit (animating force)">spirits</a> and <a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">souls</a> exist or that all reality is spiritual, not material.</li> <li>3) (<i>Metaphysics</i>) – various doctrines maintaining that the ultimate reality is spirit or mind.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></div> <ul><li>4) (<i>Ethics</i>) – the view that spiritual concerns are more important than this-worldly concerns (a kind of <a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">idealism</a> or <a href="/wiki/Asceticism" title="Asceticism">asceticism</a> that is opposed to <a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">secularism</a>).</li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></div> <ul><li>5) (<i>Epistemology</i>)  – another term for <a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">mysticism</a>.</li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">mysticism</a></div> <ul><li>6) (<i>Art</i>) – "Abstract Spiritualism", a term coined by Gerard Tempest, friend of the renowned surrealist <a href="/wiki/Giorgio_de_Chirico" title="Giorgio de Chirico">Giorgio de Chirico</a> in the 1950s to describe his "landscapes of the mind's eye." A recurring theme begun in 1953 and continuing throughout the 1990s.<sup id="cite_ref-Tempest_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tempest-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Beliefs">Beliefs</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spiritualism_(beliefs)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Beliefs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_Spiritualism">Modern Spiritualism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spiritualism_(beliefs)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Modern Spiritualism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(movement)" title="Spiritualism (movement)">Spiritualism (movement)</a></div> <p>"Modern Spiritualism",<sup id="cite_ref-Podmore_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Podmore-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or "Modern American Spiritualism"<sup id="cite_ref-Britten_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Britten-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is used to refer to an Anglo-American religious movement having its golden age between the 1840s and 1920s but which continues on to this day. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="National_Spiritualist_Association_of_Churches,_USA"><span id="National_Spiritualist_Association_of_Churches.2C_USA"></span>National Spiritualist Association of Churches, USA</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spiritualism_(beliefs)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: National Spiritualist Association of Churches, USA"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/National_Spiritualist_Association_of_Churches" title="National Spiritualist Association of Churches">National Spiritualist Association of Churches</a></div> <p>The Nine Principles of the National Spiritualist Association of Churches, USA are; </p> <ol><li>We believe in Infinite Intelligence.</li> <li>We believe that the phenomena of Nature, both physical and spiritual, are the expression of Infinite Intelligence.</li> <li>We affirm that a correct understanding of such expression and living in accordance therewith, constitute true religion.</li> <li>We affirm that the existence and personal identity of the individual continue after the change called death.</li> <li>We affirm that communication with the so-called dead is a fact, scientifically proven by the phenomena of Spiritualism.</li> <li>We believe that the highest morality is contained in the Golden Rule: "Do unto others as you would have them do unto you."</li> <li>We affirm the moral responsibility of individuals, and that we make our own happiness or unhappiness as we obey or disobey Nature's physical and spiritual laws.</li> <li>We affirm that the doorway to reformation is never closed against any soul here or hereafter.</li> <li>We affirm that the precepts of Prophecy and Healing are Divine attributes proven through Mediumship.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Christian_Spiritualism">Christian Spiritualism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spiritualism_(beliefs)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Christian Spiritualism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Firstspiritualtemple2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Firstspiritualtemple2.jpg/220px-Firstspiritualtemple2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Firstspiritualtemple2.jpg/330px-Firstspiritualtemple2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Firstspiritualtemple2.jpg/440px-Firstspiritualtemple2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3735" data-file-height="2791" /></a><figcaption>First Spiritual Temple, Boston, Massachusetts, albumen print, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1885–1895</span></figcaption></figure> <p>Spiritualism has been related to the practices of early Christianity<sup id="cite_ref-Crowell_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crowell-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hyslop_Christ_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hyslop_Christ-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and has developed into an additional form of Christian Spiritualism, e.g. the still active First Spiritual Temple<sup id="cite_ref-FST_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FST-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in the US founded in 1883 and the Greater World Christian Spiritualist League (later to become the Greater World Christian Spiritualist Association) in the UK which was founded in 1931.<sup id="cite_ref-Greater_World_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Greater_World-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Foremost in the movement towards Christian Spiritualism in the United Kingdom was one of the leading pioneers in the spiritualism movement, medium and Reverend <a href="/wiki/William_Stainton_Moses" title="William Stainton Moses">William Stainton Moses</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was a member of the BNAS (British National Association of Spiritualists), vice-president of the Society for Psychic Research and launched the London Spiritualist Alliance which later became the College of Psychic Studies.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Contemporary Christian Spiritualist denominations also include those within the American <a href="/wiki/Spiritual_Church_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Spiritual Church Movement">Spiritual Church Movement</a> pioneered by <a href="/wiki/Leafy_Anderson" title="Leafy Anderson">Leafy Anderson</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-berry_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-berry-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-nola_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nola-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-spiritworld_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-spiritworld-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> such as the Metropolitan Spiritual Churches of Christ, founded in 1925,<sup id="cite_ref-metropolitan_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-metropolitan-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pentecostal Spiritual Assemblies of Christ Worldwide, founded in 1938, whose motto is "Pentecostal by Birth, Spiritual by Lifestyle, Apostolic by Experience, and Christian by Demand. A Spiritual Church... On a Spiritual Foundation... Walking in the Supernatural...,"<sup id="cite_ref-pentecostal_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pentecostal-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Universal Hagar's Spiritual Church, founded in the 1920s.<sup id="cite_ref-hurley_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hurley-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-baer_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-baer-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="France_Pre-1848">France Pre-1848</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spiritualism_(beliefs)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: France Pre-1848"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kardecist_spiritism" title="Kardecist spiritism">Kardecist spiritism</a></div><p>French spiritualism, better known as <a href="/wiki/Kardecist_spiritism" title="Kardecist spiritism">Spiritism</a>; popular throughout France and Latin American countries. Its foremost researcher and author is <a href="/wiki/Allan_Kardec" title="Allan Kardec">Allan Kardec</a>. </p><p>Spiritualist beliefs are found from time to time in the early literature of the French "<a href="/wiki/Animal_magnetism" title="Animal magnetism">magnetists</a>". As early as 1787 M. Tardy de Montravel wrote that in the trance the soul of the "somnambule" became freed from its body and was able to intercourse with other spirits. Dr G.P. Billot, and J. P. F. Deleuze and recorded discussing and documenting seances from the 1820s.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Of the early French Spiritualist, Alphonse Cahagnet, publisher of spirit messages such as "Arcanes de la vie future devoiles" (1848), is one of its foremost cases. Familiar with the teachings of <a href="/wiki/Swedenborg" class="mw-redirect" title="Swedenborg">Swedenborg</a>, and interest evoked by contemporary German clairvoyants, in Paris of his day Cahagnet stood almost alone belonging to no school. For the advent of <a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(movement)" title="Spiritualism (movement)">Modern Spiritualism</a> in America, Cahagnet would have found few readers but his documentation of his work with the medium Adele Maginot were at once amongst the most remarkable and the best-attested documents on which the early case for Spiritualism depended.<sup id="cite_ref-Podmore2000_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Podmore2000-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Native_American_spiritualism">Native American spiritualism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spiritualism_(beliefs)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Native American spiritualism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Representations of Native Americans images have played a significant role in nineteenth and twentieth century spiritualism<sup id="cite_ref-berry_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-berry-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-nola_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nola-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Aldred_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aldred-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although in reality Natives and their tradition have suffered considerably under the influences of competing Christian churches .<sup id="cite_ref-DOMBROWSKI_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DOMBROWSKI-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since 1970, there have been a number of individuals purporting to sell Native American spiritualism, sometimes called '"American Indian Spiritualism." The spread of these beliefs began with a number of literary hoaxes undertaken by non-Indians such as <a href="/wiki/Carlos_Castaneda" title="Carlos Castaneda">Carlos Castaneda</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jamake_Highwater" title="Jamake Highwater">Jamake Highwater</a>. Several Native Americans have also sought to exploit interest in Native American spiritualism, writing distortions of indigenous spiritual practices and knowledge for consumption in the mass market. This situation has been attacked by legitimate Indian scholars and by activists such as the <a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Movement" title="American Indian Movement">American Indian Movement</a>, Survival of American Indians and the late Gerald Wilkenson, head of the National Indian Youth Council.<sup id="cite_ref-Ward_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ward-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Caribbean">The Caribbean</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spiritualism_(beliefs)&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: The Caribbean"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Spiritualism in the Caribbean has taken different roads of expression based on its contact with other religious systems. In urban areas, for example, Spiritualists were highly literate and more apt to indulge the concepts of foreign authors. In the rural areas, however, illiteracy was widespread and practitioners held a diverse array of beliefs and practices. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a>, for instance, two fundamental variants of espiritism exist: </p> <ul><li><b>La Mesa Blanca Spiritualism</b> is highly colonialized, meaning the European influence is quite evident. Catholicism, Native and African meld together into a syncretic belief system. This variant is designated by the use of La Mesa Blanca or "White Table".</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Egungun" title="Egungun">Egungun</a> Spiritualism</b> has strong <a href="/wiki/Kongo_people" title="Kongo people">Kongo</a>–<a href="/wiki/Bantu_peoples" title="Bantu peoples">Bantu</a> roots. Elements from <a href="/wiki/Lucumi_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Lucumi religion">Lucumi</a>/Regla de Ocha are evident. This type of practice, designated by the use of chants and dancing (performed by the mediums) in a line or chain to the beat of songs, hymns and invocations that ultimately lead to a state of trance or possession by the Spirit, is seen in rural areas and in the province of <a href="/wiki/Santiago_de_Cuba_Province" title="Santiago de Cuba Province">Santiago</a>.</li></ul> <p>La Mesa Blanca Spiritualism is the type of <a href="/wiki/Espiritismo" title="Espiritismo">Espiritismo</a> that made its way to US. The old line Eggungun form of service has not made much headway on the mainland. Séances, in Latino cultures, are called <i>misas</i>. <a href="/wiki/Santer%C3%ADa" title="Santería">Santería</a>, more properly called <i>La Regla Lucumi</i> (as the <a href="/wiki/Yoruba_people" title="Yoruba people">Yoruba</a> were called in Cuba) is famous for its magic based on a knowledge of spirits and how to interact with them. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="South_America">South America</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spiritualism_(beliefs)&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: South America"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Candombl%C3%A9" title="Candomblé">Candomblé</a>, <a href="/wiki/Orix%C3%A1" class="mw-redirect" title="Orixá">Orixá</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Vodun" class="mw-redirect" title="Vodun">Vodun</a></div> <p>Definitions of spirit possession, channelling and mediumship within the Brazilian 'cultos' is recognised to correspond with what appears to be the majority view as described by ethnographers of spirit possession worldwide. There are a number of descriptions available concerning what happens when someone becomes possessed. Practises brought over by African <a href="/wiki/Slaves" class="mw-redirect" title="Slaves">slaves</a> from West Africa,<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mixed with indigenous South American tradition to develop their own flavour. During the suppression of Culto Omoloco or <a href="/wiki/Umbanda" title="Umbanda">Umbanda</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholic Church</a> a period of syncretism commenced that included the introduction of images of the saints present in the churches presenting a new look for repressors behind which the Africans worshipped their gods and ancestors.<sup id="cite_ref-Luz_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Luz-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This process of merger continued with the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Kardecist_spiritism" title="Kardecist spiritism">Kardecist spiritism</a><sup id="cite_ref-Hess1991_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hess1991-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and includes spiritualists.<sup id="cite_ref-Hess1987_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hess1987-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"> <caption>Use of Spirit Entities </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Afro</th> <th>Brazilian</th> <th>Origin</th> <th>Line/Tradition </th></tr> <tr> <td>Orixá</td> <td></td> <td>Yoruba</td> <td>Candomblé Nagô </td></tr> <tr> <td>Vodun</td> <td></td> <td>Dahomey</td> <td>Candomblé Jeje </td></tr> <tr> <td> </td> <td>Vodunsu, Encantado</td> <td>Europe, Middle East</td> <td>Mina </td></tr> <tr> <td> </td> <td>Caboclo Indigenous</td> <td>Amazonian</td> <td>Mina, healing & consultation </td></tr> <tr> <td> </td> <td>Animal Spirits</td> <td>Indigenous Amazonian</td> <td>Curing </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>From: 'Channellers, Cowries and Conversations with the Gods: explaining multiple <a href="/wiki/Divination" title="Divination">divination</a> methods in an Afro-Brazilian religious tradition'.<sup id="cite_ref-Cohen_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cohen-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Puerto Rico, trance mediums feature in is spiritism<sup id="cite_ref-Michtom_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Michtom-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in Cuba, syncretic spiritualistic practises similar to Santería are called Santerfa and enjoy an estimated five million Hispanic American followers.<sup id="cite_ref-González-wippler1999_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-González-wippler1999-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="India">India</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spiritualism_(beliefs)&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: India"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Spiritualism is also practised within India in both modern and ancient forms involving contacting the spirits, knowledge and wisdom of ancestors who are then worshiped for generations. Spirituality in general is seen as a process of learning the secrets of the world beneath and outside to gain inner peace.<sup id="cite_ref-Wood_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wood-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Leavitt_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leavitt-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is prevalent in both the North and the South,<sup id="cite_ref-Nuckolls1991_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nuckolls1991-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Carrin2003_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carrin2003-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and across <a href="/wiki/Caste" title="Caste">caste</a> divides by way of ritual, and exists in a variety of mediumship cults.<sup id="cite_ref-Nuckolls1991_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nuckolls1991-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Claus1979_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Claus1979-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In india there are many <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_India" title="Religion in India">religious</a> groups which are following spirituality at it best. India is known for his ancient traditions and <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_India" title="Culture of India">cultures</a>. </p><p>In 'A Tale of goddesses, money, and other terribly wonderful things: spirit possession, commodity fetishism, and the narrative of capitalism in Rajasthan', anthropologist J.G. Snodgrass explores the use of spiritualism amongst Rajasthani performing communities arguing for an appreciation of the way religious forms, and particularly the use of spiritual possessions, represent a form of language.<sup id="cite_ref-Snodgrass2002_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Snodgrass2002-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rajasthanis are possessed by a range of spiritual entities. Some of these are judged good and beneficial, some evil.<sup id="cite_ref-Jeffrey_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jeffrey-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Trance mediumship and <a href="/wiki/Channelling_(mediumistic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Channelling (mediumistic)">channelling</a> are also practised by the unrelated <a href="/wiki/New_religious_movement" title="New religious movement">new religious movement</a> called, the <a href="/wiki/Brahma_Kumaris" title="Brahma Kumaris">Brahma Kumaris</a><sup id="cite_ref-Klimo_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Klimo-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bryan_Wilson_NRM_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bryan_Wilson_NRM-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who have their headquarters in the state. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eastern_Asia">Eastern Asia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spiritualism_(beliefs)&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Eastern Asia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Noted as early as 1850 by J. R. Logan in the Journal of the Indian Archipelago IV. 552 who illustrated the different forms of spiritualism which prevailed in Eastern Asia at that time". <a href="/wiki/Henry_Olcott" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry Olcott">Henry Olcott</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Theosophical_Society" title="Theosophical Society">Theosophical Society</a> went to length to draw correlations between Eastern spiritualistic practises and Modern Spiritualism.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="China">China</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spiritualism_(beliefs)&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: China"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Way_of_Former_Heaven" class="mw-redirect" title="Way of Former Heaven">Hsien-t'ien Tao</a> sects claim to represent a way (Tao) that transcends and unites all other religions. Explicit syncretism is a noticeable feature of these groups who claim that their teachings aim to unify the "Three Religions" (Confucianism, Taoism, Buddhism), the "Five Religions" or even the former three plus Christianity and Islam. Most Hsien-tien Tao groups rely heavily on <a href="/wiki/Spirit-writing" class="mw-redirect" title="Spirit-writing">spirit-writing</a> as a means of communicating with "the Mother" as well as lower-ranking deities. Amongst practitioners, the T'zu-hui Tang differ from the other Hsien-t'ien Tao sects, which were all originally based on the Chinese mainland, in that it originated in Taiwan in post-World War II years. It was founded in 1949, when the "Golden Mother of the Jasper Pool" revealed herself through a <a href="/wiki/Mediumship" title="Mediumship">medium</a> in the northeastern Taiwanese city of Hualien. The cults influence reaches to Malaysia.<sup id="cite_ref-Topley1963_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Topley1963-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the late nineteenth century, a growing number of Western and Japanese sinologists believed that something akin Western mesmerism, planchette and spiritualism had existed in China long before emerging in the West.<sup id="cite_ref-Giles1879_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Giles1879-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Early twentieth-century Chinese psychical researchers used the theories of hypnosis and suggestion as a framework through which to clarify the scientific rationale underlying the efficacy of such healing methods as <a href="/wiki/Fulu" title="Fulu">talismans</a>, meditation, <a href="/wiki/Fuji_(planchette_writing)" title="Fuji (planchette writing)">spirit-writing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Acupuncture" title="Acupuncture">acupuncture</a> and <i><a href="/wiki/Daoyin" title="Daoyin">daoyin</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Japan">Japan</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spiritualism_(beliefs)&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Japan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Japan, spirit mediums are called Reibai. Although the primary religion of Japan, <a href="/wiki/Shintoism" class="mw-redirect" title="Shintoism">Shintoism</a> is essentially <a href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">animistic</a>, relating to <a href="/wiki/Kami" title="Kami">Kami</a>, or spirits, <a href="/wiki/Psychical_research" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychical research">psychical research</a> typical of the West was introduced to Japan by Wasaburou Asano (1874–1937). Wasaburou established the Society for Spiritual Science Research in Japan and is recognized as creating modern Japanese Spiritualism. His successor Takeo Waki further developing the movement. Later Hiroyoshi Kuwahara created Neo Spiritualism which combined Japanese Spiritualism with the content of British spirit messages.<sup id="cite_ref-Watanabe-1_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Watanabe-1-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Japan Psychic Science Association (JPSA) was started in December 1946 promotes spiritualism and conducts psychical research. It provides members with the opportunities for <a href="/wiki/Psychic_reading" title="Psychic reading">psychic readings</a> and healings and promotes scientific research by a team of scientists and engineers. </p><p>Recently widespread popular interest was inspired by Hiroyuki Ehara, a self-professed spiritual counselor who hosts a weekly television show Aura no Izumi where he looks into celebrities' past lives and reads their "auras". <a href="/wiki/Spiritual_reading" title="Spiritual reading">Spiritual reading</a> are known as Seishin Touitshuka. Other notable spiritualists include, Fukurai Tomokichi (1869–1952) Japanese pioneer of <a href="/wiki/Parapsychology" title="Parapsychology">parapsychology</a>, Mifune Chizuko (1886–1911), a clairvoyant. Mita Koichi (1885–1943), a psychic and Deguchi Onisaburo (1871–1948) Leader of Ohmoto, a Japanese Shinto sect who practised channelling known as Chinkon-kijin.<sup id="cite_ref-Watanabe-2_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Watanabe-2-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Japan also has its own traditional form or table turning or <a href="/wiki/Ouija" title="Ouija">ouija</a> called <a href="/wiki/Kokkuri_(game)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kokkuri (game)">kokkuri</a> and<sup id="cite_ref-Foster_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Foster-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> spirits beings are called <a href="/wiki/Yokai" class="mw-redirect" title="Yokai">yokai</a> in its folklore.<sup id="cite_ref-Foster2_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Foster2-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other Japanese religious leaders claiming to channel spirits include <a href="/wiki/Ryuho_Okawa" title="Ryuho Okawa">Ryuho Okawa</a> of the Japanese new religious movement Kofuku-no-Kagaku, or <a href="/wiki/Happy_Science" title="Happy Science">Happy Science</a>, who claims to channeled the spirits of <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christ" class="mw-redirect" title="Christ">Christ</a>, <a href="/wiki/Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddha">Buddha</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pacific_islands">Pacific islands</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spiritualism_(beliefs)&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Pacific islands"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Samoa, Java, Tonga etc. distinctions are made between god-like and spirit-like beings, with gods representing the moral order and spirits dealing with periphery issues, both through channelling, mediumship and possession. Authors note the susceptibility of missionaries in Samoa to local spirits, remembering that spirits were a significant feature of the Victorian milieu through the revival of <a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(movement)" title="Spiritualism (movement)">Spiritualism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Mageo-Mageo_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mageo-Mageo-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Micronesia" title="Micronesia">Micronesia</a>, recently deceased kin often appear as spirit visitors and possess female relatives in order to provide comfort and guidance. Identically to Anglo-American practises, they deliver important messages from beyond the grave. These spirits are fully sentient beings who retain social and emotional ties with their earthly homes and families. They occupy a <a href="/wiki/Liminality" title="Liminality">liminal</a> space between this world and the afterlife.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During this liminal period, spirits must learn how to "be dead", while the living struggle to reconcile themselves to the corporeal death and new spiritual life of the departed. Spirit possession and other forms of spirit communication, including the popular use of <a href="/wiki/Ouija" title="Ouija">ouija</a> boards, help to facilitate the process of "becoming dead" on both sides of the cosmological divide. Spiritualistic practices play an important role in helping individuals to understand death as a journey when it is also marked by social rupture and the problems of grief and attachment.<sup id="cite_ref-Dernbach_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dernbach-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Antipodes">The Antipodes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spiritualism_(beliefs)&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: The Antipodes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Australia, <a href="/wiki/Victorian_Aborigines" class="mw-redirect" title="Victorian Aborigines">Aborigine</a> tribes in Victoria called spirits Mrarts, understood to be the souls of "<a href="/wiki/Black_Fellows" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Fellows">Black Fellows</a> dead and gone", not demons unattached.<sup id="cite_ref-Eliade1967_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eliade1967-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The mediums, now very scarce, are Birraarks who were consulted as to matters present and future, whose practises include the 'spirit-rapping' known to the <a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(movement)" title="Spiritualism (movement)">Modern Spiritualists</a> and whistles, heard in certain Brazilian séances. The Māoris' specialty was 'trance utterance', the Tohungas being mediums.<sup id="cite_ref-Best_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Best-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ellwood_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ellwood-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Africa">Africa</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spiritualism_(beliefs)&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/West_African_Vodun" class="mw-redirect" title="West African Vodun">West African Vodun</a></div> <p>West-African Kongol and Bantu tradition is generally referred to as <a href="/wiki/West_African_Vodun" class="mw-redirect" title="West African Vodun">Vodun</a> (or anglicised to Voodoo). Spirit mediumship and spirit possession are fairly common practices in Sub-Saharan Africa, both in traditional religions and in Christian contexts. As is the norm, the term spiritualism and spiritism are used generally and interchangeably to describe indigenous spiritualistic practises.<sup id="cite_ref-Wynn_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wynn-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Spiritism, spiritualism,<sup id="cite_ref-Statesman_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Statesman-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and spiritual churches have been established in Ghana<sup id="cite_ref-Wyllie1980_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wyllie1980-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Nigeria. Following similar trends of the syncretism of traditional spirit worship and Christianity,<sup id="cite_ref-Kalu2003_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kalu2003-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kalu1995_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kalu1995-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> they pervade everyday life to the top of society where they play a part in politic elections, ritualizing to help politicians win elections and interpreting events in prophetic terms<sup id="cite_ref-Statesman_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Statesman-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and are used in healing.<sup id="cite_ref-Wyllie1994_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wyllie1994-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Kubandwa is a spirit possession cult spread all over the Great Lakes region of Africa (Rwanda, Burundi, north-western Tanzania, Uganda, Eastern Congo)<sup id="cite_ref-Berger1995_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Berger1995-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> past women have played an important role in kubandwa, both as mediums and spirits.<sup id="cite_ref-HOESING_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HOESING-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tromba mediumship features in Madagascar.<sup id="cite_ref-sharp_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sharp-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Islam">Islam</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spiritualism_(beliefs)&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Islam"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Marabout" title="Marabout">marabout</a></div> <p>Spiritualism is practised but not condoned in Islamic societies. The <a href="/wiki/Sufi" class="mw-redirect" title="Sufi">Sufi</a> sect of <a href="/wiki/Dervishes" class="mw-redirect" title="Dervishes">Dervishes</a> are referred to as "Eastern Spiritualists".<sup id="cite_ref-Brown_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brown-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Likewise, the <a href="/wiki/Z%C4%81r" title="Zār">Zār</a> cult of North Africa (Sudan, Egypt) and the Middle East (Iran).<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Spiritualistic_activities">Spiritualistic activities</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spiritualism_(beliefs)&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Spiritualistic activities"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The phenomena of Spiritualism consist of; prophecy, <a href="/wiki/Clairvoyance" title="Clairvoyance">clairvoyance</a>, clairaudience, gift of tongues, laying on of hands, healing, visions, trance, apports, revelations, raps, levitation, automatic and independent writing and painting, photography, materialization, psychometry, direct and independent voice, and any other manifestation lending support to the continuity of life after death.<sup id="cite_ref-NSAC_web2_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NSAC_web2-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Such universal practises and the giving of spiritual guidance, the different manifestations of spiritualistic activities were categorised by Sir William Crookes, a highly distinguished British physicist and chemist, as being: </p> <ul><li>The movement of heavy bodies with contact, but without mechanical exertion</li> <li>The phenomena of percussive and other allied sounds</li> <li>The alteration of weights of bodies</li> <li>Movements of heavy substances when at a distance from the medium</li> <li>The rising of tables and chairs off the ground, without contact with any person</li> <li>The levitation of human beings</li> <li>Movement of various small articles without contact with any person</li> <li>Luminous appearances</li> <li>The appearance of hands, either self-luminous or visible by ordinary light</li> <li>Direct (automatic) writing</li> <li>Phantom forms and faces</li> <li>Special instances which seem to point to the agency of an exterior intelligence</li> <li>Miscellaneous occurrences of a complex character.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gender_balance">Gender balance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spiritualism_(beliefs)&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Gender balance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Women have historically had a fairly constant interest in the spirit world. Spiritualism's current popularity in the West is a result of women having more power and visibility, giving the spirit world a prominence in society that it previously had only during spiritualism's "boom" periods when men became interested.<sup id="cite_ref-dead_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dead-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Historically, the majority of mediums for tromba spirits amongst the <a href="/wiki/Sakalava" class="mw-redirect" title="Sakalava">Sakalava</a> have also been adult women, usually in their forties or older and is likewise associated with female status.<sup id="cite_ref-sharp_72-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sharp-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In general, a Sakalava ritual in which the spirits must be fed, cannot be performed if the two are not present and represented. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notable_individuals">Notable individuals</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spiritualism_(beliefs)&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Notable individuals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Original_research plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Original_research" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/40px-Ambox_important.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/60px-Ambox_important.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/80px-Ambox_important.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="40" data-file-height="40" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>possibly contains <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research" title="Wikipedia:No original research">original research</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spiritualism_(beliefs)&action=edit">improve it</a> by <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verifying</a> the claims made and adding <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Inline_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">inline citations</a>. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2012</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Swedenborg">Swedenborg</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spiritualism_(beliefs)&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Swedenborg"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Emanuel_Swedenborg" title="Emanuel Swedenborg">Emanuel Swedenborg</a></div> <p>A Swedish scientist, philosopher, politician and <a href="/wiki/Theologian" class="mw-redirect" title="Theologian">theologian</a>. Widely recognized as the "Father of <a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(movement)" title="Spiritualism (movement)">Modern Spiritualism</a>" but practicing before the movement started. A <a href="/wiki/Clairvoyant" class="mw-redirect" title="Clairvoyant">clairvoyant</a> medium who used his spiritualist gifts for the royalty of Sweden. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Allan_Kardec">Allan Kardec</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spiritualism_(beliefs)&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Allan Kardec"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Allan_Kardec" title="Allan Kardec">Allan Kardec</a></div> <p>Developed the 19th-century spiritualist philosophical doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Kardecist_spiritism" title="Kardecist spiritism">Spiritism</a>, popular in <a href="/wiki/Francophone" class="mw-redirect" title="Francophone">Francophone</a> and Latin nations. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Edward_Burnett_Tylor">Edward Burnett Tylor</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spiritualism_(beliefs)&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Edward Burnett Tylor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Edward_Burnett_Tylor" title="Edward Burnett Tylor">Edward Burnett Tylor</a></div> <p>Anthropologist, introduced the term <a href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">animism</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Joseph_Campbell">Joseph Campbell</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spiritualism_(beliefs)&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Joseph Campbell"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Campbell" title="Joseph Campbell">Joseph Campbell</a></div> <p>American 20th-century <a href="/wiki/Mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Mythology">mythology</a> professor and author best known for his work in the fields of comparative religion. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Carl_Jung">Carl Jung</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spiritualism_(beliefs)&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Carl Jung"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Carl_Jung" title="Carl Jung">Carl Jung</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Carl_Jung" title="Carl Jung">Carl Jung</a>'s doctoral dissertation was not medical research but the investigation of a medium, his maternal cousin, Hélène Preiswerk.<sup id="cite_ref-Charet_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Charet-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The spiritualist narrative in Jung's personal life reached a climax in 1916 when he became convinced that his house was crammed with spirits. He practised a typically mediumistic activity of ‘<a href="/wiki/Automatic_writing" title="Automatic writing">spirit-directed</a>' writing.<sup id="cite_ref-Brink_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brink-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spiritualism_(beliefs)&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Necromancy" title="Necromancy">Necromancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritual_materialism" title="Spiritual materialism">Spiritual materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirituality" title="Spirituality">Spirituality</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spiritualism_(beliefs)&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.answers.com/topic/spiritualism">[1]</a>, Spiritualism in Answers.com, retrieved February 14, 2008.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Doyle-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Doyle_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFDoyle1926" class="citation journal cs1">Doyle, Arthur Conan (1926). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.173581">"The History of Spiritualism"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>118</b> (2961): 147. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1926Natur.118..147T">1926Natur.118..147T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F118147a0">10.1038/118147a0</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4122097">4122097</a>. <q>There has, however, been no time in the recorded history of the world when we do not find traces of preternatural interference and a tardy recognition of them from humanity.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=The+History+of+Spiritualism&rft.volume=118&rft.issue=2961&rft.pages=147&rft.date=1926&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4122097%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F118147a0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1926Natur.118..147T&rft.aulast=Doyle&rft.aufirst=Arthur+Conan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fin.ernet.dli.2015.173581&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NSAC_web-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NSAC_web_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080201175321/http://www.nsac.org/spiritualism.htm">"Spiritualism, Pathway of Light; Ancient and Modern Spiritualism"</a>. National Spiritualist Association of Churches. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nsac.org/spiritualism.htm">the original</a> on 2008-02-01<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-02-11</span></span>. <q>Ancient and Modern Spiritualism; so often in a lecture or a book, we hear the term "Modern American Spiritualism". Why Modern? It is Modern Spiritualism to distinguish it from the ancient form of Spiritualism, for spiritual manifestations and communications between the physical world and the spiritual world have been evident and recorded by all civilizations. In fact, every religion that has ever been, has registered Spirit manifestations. Most all of the great spiritual leaders conversed or communicated with spirits although they were called other names, such as devas, pitris, gods, ancestral spirits, ghosts and magic.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Spiritualism%2C+Pathway+of+Light%3B+Ancient+and+Modern+Spiritualism&rft.pub=National+Spiritualist+Association+of+Churches&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nsac.org%2Fspiritualism.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kucich-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kucich_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKucich2004" class="citation book cs1">Kucich, John J. (2004). <i>Ghostly Communion: Cross-Cultural Spiritualism in Nineteenth-Century American Literature</i>. Hanover: University Press of New England. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-58465-432-5" title="Special:BookSources/1-58465-432-5"><bdi>1-58465-432-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ghostly+Communion%3A+Cross-Cultural+Spiritualism+in+Nineteenth-Century+American+Literature&rft.pub=Hanover%3A+University+Press+of+New+England&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=1-58465-432-5&rft.aulast=Kucich&rft.aufirst=John+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lang-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lang_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLang1995" class="citation book cs1">Lang, Andrew (1995). <i>Myth Ritual & Religion</i>. Senate, London. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85958-182-X" title="Special:BookSources/1-85958-182-X"><bdi>1-85958-182-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Myth+Ritual+%26+Religion&rft.pub=Senate%2C+London&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=1-85958-182-X&rft.aulast=Lang&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stocking-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Stocking_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStocking1971" class="citation journal cs1">Stocking, George W. Jr. (1971). "Animism in Theory and Practice: E. B. Tylor's Unpublished 'Notes on "Spiritualism"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>". <i>Man</i>. New Series. <b>6</b> (1): 88–104. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2798430">10.2307/2798430</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2798430">2798430</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Man&rft.atitle=Animism+in+Theory+and+Practice%3A+E.+B.+Tylor%27s+Unpublished+%27Notes+on+%22Spiritualism%22&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=88-104&rft.date=1971&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2798430&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2798430%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Stocking&rft.aufirst=George+W.+Jr.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brockway-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Brockway_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrockway2007" class="citation book cs1">Brockway, Robert W. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hillmanweb.com/brockway/roots.html"><i>The Roots of New Age: Esotericism and the Occult in the Western World</i></a>. Brandon University, Brandon, Manitoba, Canada. p. 38. <q>Spiritualistic traditions are deeply rooted in shamanism, and, as such, are perhaps the oldest forms of religion. The medium is the modern urban shaman. In the séance she enters into a deep trance. While she is in that state, a control from "the other side" takes possession of her vocal cords and sense organs. The control is also a medium, a departed spirit who has capacities analogous to those of the psychic. Those who have "passed over" are thought to be still embodied, but their bodies are much more subtle than ours, though not perfect. Some occultists speak of the "beyond" as the "astral plane" inhabited by "astral bodies." This idea is very much like that discussed by the nineteenth-century ethnologist E. B. Tylor in his theory of animism. There is another world parallel to our own, though invisible to us and not accessible to us in our state. However, all forms of organic life as well as inorganic matter is eternal and is translated from one sphere of reality to the other. The connecting link is the <a href="/wiki/Mediumship" title="Mediumship">medium</a>, the person endowed with exceptional sensitivity to the hidden or occult dimension, who experiences visions and revelations.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Roots+of+New+Age%3A+Esotericism+and+the+Occult+in+the+Western+World&rft.pages=38&rft.pub=Brandon+University%2C+Brandon%2C+Manitoba%2C+Canada&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Brockway&rft.aufirst=Robert+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hillmanweb.com%2Fbrockway%2Froots.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/spiritualism">spiritualism – Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lawrence-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lawrence_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLawrence2003" class="citation book cs1">Lawrence, Edward (2003) [1921]. <i>Spiritualism Among Civilized and Savage Races</i>. Kessinger Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7661-5005-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-7661-5005-4"><bdi>0-7661-5005-4</bdi></a>. <q>What spiritualism is – The belief that beyond the present natural, visible, material universe there exists another world – real, but invisible; of a super-natural character; a sort of spiritual replica of the present, inhabited by the disembodies souls of men – is not only the most primitive concept of the human race, but the most far-reaching dogma, ethically and religiously, ever enunciated by man. It is a belief that meets us in every stage of the culture, and forms the foundation upon which the varied creeds of savage and civilised races have been reared. Under its modern name, <a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(movement)" title="Spiritualism (movement)">Spiritualism</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Kardecist_spiritism" title="Kardecist spiritism">Spiritism</a>, we are assured by its exponents that this spirit world can be scientifically attested, and that there exists no longer any satisfactory reason to doubt its truth. As we shall see, such manifestations are not restricted to the seances held by modern Spiritualist but form the common procedure among barbaric and civilised peoples alike. Intelligent intercourse between these embodied or disembodied spirits is asserted to be possible by means of specially endowed persons called mediums.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spiritualism+Among+Civilized+and+Savage+Races&rft.pub=Kessinger+Publishing&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-7661-5005-4&rft.aulast=Lawrence&rft.aufirst=Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ingo-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ingo_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWulfhorst2006" class="citation book cs1">Wulfhorst, Ingo (2006). <i>Spirits, Ancestors and Healing: A Global Challenge to the Church</i>. Geneva, The Lutheran World Federation. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-905676-49-4" title="Special:BookSources/3-905676-49-4"><bdi>3-905676-49-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spirits%2C+Ancestors+and+Healing%3A+A+Global+Challenge+to+the+Church.&rft.pub=Geneva%2C+The+Lutheran+World+Federation&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=3-905676-49-4&rft.aulast=Wulfhorst&rft.aufirst=Ingo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Engel Pascal, Psychology and Metaphysics from Maine de Biran to Bergson Pascal Engel Université Paris Sorbonne</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tempest-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Tempest_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTempest1991" class="citation book cs1">Tempest, Gerard (1991). <i>Gerard Tempest: Abstract spiritualism</i>. Bergen Museum. p. 71. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-880456-00-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-880456-00-1"><bdi>1-880456-00-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gerard+Tempest%3A+Abstract+spiritualism&rft.pages=71&rft.pub=Bergen+Museum&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=1-880456-00-1&rft.aulast=Tempest&rft.aufirst=Gerard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Podmore-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Podmore_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPodmore1903" class="citation journal cs1">Podmore, Frank (1903). "Modern Spiritualism. A History and a Criticism". <i>The American Journal of Psychology</i>. <b>14</b> (1). The American Journal of Psychology, Vol. 14, No. 1: 116–117. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1412224">10.2307/1412224</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027%2Fiau.31858027158827">2027/iau.31858027158827</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1412224">1412224</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Journal+of+Psychology&rft.atitle=Modern+Spiritualism.+A+History+and+a+Criticism&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=116-117&rft.date=1903&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2027%2Fiau.31858027158827&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1412224%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1412224&rft.aulast=Podmore&rft.aufirst=Frank&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Britten-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Britten_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBritten1870" class="citation book cs1">Britten, Emma Hardinge. (1870). <i>Modern American Spiritualism</i>. New York.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+American+Spiritualism&rft.pub=New+York&rft.date=1870&rft.aulast=Britten&rft.aufirst=Emma+Hardinge.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Crowell-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Crowell_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrowell1875" class="citation book cs1">Crowell, Eugene (1875). <i>The Identity of Primitive Christianity and Modern Spiritualism</i>. New York.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Identity+of+Primitive+Christianity+and+Modern+Spiritualism&rft.pub=New+York&rft.date=1875&rft.aulast=Crowell&rft.aufirst=Eugene&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hyslop_Christ-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hyslop_Christ_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHyslop1906" class="citation book cs1">Hyslop, Prof. James (1906). <i>The Borderland of Psychical Research</i>. G. P. Putnam's Sons. <q>The fact is that Christianity probably originated in psychic phenomena. The Gospels are certainly full of references to events which we should to-day classify as psychic, or claiming to be psychic phenomena of importance</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Borderland+of+Psychical+Research&rft.pub=G.+P.+Putnam%27s+Sons&rft.date=1906&rft.aulast=Hyslop&rft.aufirst=Prof.+James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FST-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FST_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fst.org/">"The First Spiritual Temple"</a>. The First Spiritual Temple<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-01-19</span></span>. <q>The First Spiritual Temple is an independent Christian Spiritualist Church, founded by Marcellus Seth Ayer on June 28, 1883. Spiritualism is the process whereby all religions came into being as a result of communication with God and God's Kingdom of Spirit. Our Spiritualism is both universal and ancient. We seek to understand the many and varied aspects of Spiritualism which have existed upon our planet from the moment we stepped into physical form. We are Christian Spiritualists in that we look to the Master Jesus as a most profound example of Spirit alive in the world. We embrace his teachings and accept his challenge to do even greater things than he.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+First+Spiritual+Temple&rft.pub=The+First+Spiritual+Temple&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fst.org%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Greater_World-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Greater_World_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.greaterworld.com/">"Greater World Christian Spiritualist Association"</a>. Greater World Christian Spiritualist Association<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-01-19</span></span>. <q>The Greater World Christian Spiritualist League (later to become the Greater World Christian Spiritualist Association) was founded on 30 May 1931. It is an organisation of the Christ Mission to the four corners of the earth. The inspiration for this movement, which resulted in Winifred Moyes dedicating her life to the work of the Greater World, came through her guide Zodiac, who was a teacher in the temple at the time of our Lord.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Greater+World+Christian+Spiritualist+Association&rft.pub=Greater+World+Christian+Spiritualist+Association&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.greaterworld.com%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Schofield, A. T.. Modern Spiritism: Its Science and Religion</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">F. W. H. Myers, 'The Experiences of W. Stainton Moses – II', PSPR, 11 (1895)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-berry-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-berry_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-berry_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJason_Berry1995" class="citation book cs1">Jason Berry (1995). <i>The Spirit of Blackhawk: a Mystery of Africans and Indians</i>. University Press of Mississippi.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Spirit+of+Blackhawk%3A+a+Mystery+of+Africans+and+Indians&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Mississippi&rft.date=1995&rft.au=Jason+Berry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nola-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nola_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nola_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacobsKaslow1991" class="citation book cs1">Jacobs, Claude F.; Kaslow, Andrew J. (1991). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780870497025"><i>The Spiritual Churches of New Orleans Origins, Beliefs, and Rituals of an African-American Religion</i></a></span>. The University of Tennessee Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57233-148-8" title="Special:BookSources/1-57233-148-8"><bdi>1-57233-148-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Spiritual+Churches+of+New+Orleans+Origins%2C+Beliefs%2C+and+Rituals+of+an+African-American+Religion&rft.pub=The+University+of+Tennessee+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=1-57233-148-8&rft.aulast=Jacobs&rft.aufirst=Claude+F.&rft.au=Kaslow%2C+Andrew+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780870497025&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-spiritworld-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-spiritworld_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1992" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Michael (1992). <i>Spirit World: Pattern in the Expressive Folk Culture of New Orleans</i>. Pelican Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88289-895-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88289-895-7"><bdi>978-0-88289-895-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spirit+World%3A+Pattern+in+the+Expressive+Folk+Culture+of+New+Orleans&rft.pub=Pelican+Publishing&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-88289-895-7&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-metropolitan-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-metropolitan_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.metrospiritualchurch.com">"Metropolitan Spiritual Churches of Christ"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-05-15</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Metropolitan+Spiritual+Churches+of+Christ&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.metrospiritualchurch.com&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pentecostal-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pentecostal_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.facebook.com/pages/Pentecostal-Spiritual-Assemblies-of-Christ-Worldwide/188155671194450?sk=pe#!/pages/Pentecostal-Spiritual-Assemblies-of-Christ-Worldwide/188155671194450?sk=info">"Pentecostal Spiritual Assemblies of Christ Worldwide"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Facebook" title="Facebook">Facebook</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-05-15</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Facebook&rft.atitle=Pentecostal+Spiritual+Assemblies+of+Christ+Worldwide&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.facebook.com%2Fpages%2FPentecostal-Spiritual-Assemblies-of-Christ-Worldwide%2F188155671194450%3Fsk%3Dpe%23%21%2Fpages%2FPentecostal-Spiritual-Assemblies-of-Christ-Worldwide%2F188155671194450%3Fsk%3Dinfo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hurley-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-hurley_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://fatherhurley.com">"Universal Hagar's Spiritual Church"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-05-15</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Universal+Hagar%27s+Spiritual+Church&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffatherhurley.com&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-baer-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-baer_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaer1984" class="citation book cs1">Baer, Hans A. (1984). <i>The Black Spiritual Movement: A Religious Response to Racism</i>. University of Tennessee Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Black+Spiritual+Movement%3A+A+Religious+Response+to+Racism&rft.pub=University+of+Tennessee+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.aulast=Baer&rft.aufirst=Hans+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Billot, G. P.. Recherches psychologiques sur la cause des phénomènes extraordinaires observés chez les modernes voyans, improprement dits somnambules magnétiques, ou correspondance sur le Magnétisme vital, entre un solitaire et M. Deleuze (2 vols.) . Paris, 1839.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Podmore2000-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Podmore2000_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPodmore,_F.2000" class="citation book cs1">Podmore, F. (2000). <i>Modern spiritualism</i>. Routledge/Thoemmes London.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+spiritualism&rft.pub=Routledge%2FThoemmes+London&rft.date=2000&rft.au=Podmore%2C+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Aldred-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Aldred_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAldred1903" class="citation journal cs1">Aldred, Lisa (1903). "Plastic Shamans and Astroturf Sun Dances: New Age Commercialization of Native American Spirituality". <i>The American Indian Quarterly</i>. <b>24</b> (3): 329–352. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Faiq.2000.0001">10.1353/aiq.2000.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17086676">17086676</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:6012903">6012903</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Indian+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Plastic+Shamans+and+Astroturf+Sun+Dances%3A+New+Age+Commercialization+of+Native+American+Spirituality&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=329-352&rft.date=1903&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A6012903%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17086676&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Faiq.2000.0001&rft.aulast=Aldred&rft.aufirst=Lisa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-DOMBROWSKI-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-DOMBROWSKI_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDombrowski2001" class="citation book cs1">Dombrowski, Kirk (2001). <i>Against culture: development, politics, and religion in Indian Alaska</i>. Lincoln: Univ. Nebraska Press. p. 247. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8032-1719-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-8032-1719-6"><bdi>0-8032-1719-6</bdi></a>. <q>The fact is that Christianity probably originated in psychic phenomena. The Gospels are certainly full of references to events which we should to-day classify as psychic, or claiming to be psychic phenomena of importance</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Against+culture%3A+development%2C+politics%2C+and+religion+in+Indian+Alaska&rft.pages=247&rft.pub=Lincoln%3A+Univ.+Nebraska+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-8032-1719-6&rft.aulast=Dombrowski&rft.aufirst=Kirk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ward-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ward_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChurchill1981" class="citation book cs1">Churchill, Ward (1981). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fantasiesofmaste00chur"><i>Fantasies of the Master Race: Literature, Cinema and the Colonization of American Indians</i></a></span>. Common Courage Press 1992. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9628838-7-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-9628838-7-5"><bdi>0-9628838-7-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fantasies+of+the+Master+Race%3A+Literature%2C+Cinema+and+the+Colonization+of+American+Indians&rft.pub=Common+Courage+Press+1992&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=0-9628838-7-5&rft.aulast=Churchill&rft.aufirst=Ward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffantasiesofmaste00chur&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Voduns of Maranhão: Maria AP Barretto, San Luis, Fund. Cultural of Maranhao, 1977.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Luz-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Luz_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLuz1992" class="citation book cs1">Luz (1992). <i>Cultura negra e ideologia do recalque (Black Culture and Ideology of Recalque)</i>. Society for the Study of Black Culture in Brazil.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cultura+negra+e+ideologia+do+recalque+%28Black+Culture+and+Ideology+of+Recalque%29&rft.pub=Society+for+the+Study+of+Black+Culture+in+Brazil&rft.date=1992&rft.au=Luz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Batuque in Umbanda: Symbolism, Ritualismo, Interpretation. Leopoldo Battiol, Rio de Janeiro, ed Aurora, 1963.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hess1991-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hess1991_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHess,_D.J.1991" class="citation book cs1">Hess, D.J. (1991). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/spiritsscientist0000hess"><i>Spirits and Scientists: Ideology, Spiritism, and Brazilian Culture</i></a></span>. Pennsylvania State University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-271-00724-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-271-00724-9"><bdi>0-271-00724-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spirits+and+Scientists%3A+Ideology%2C+Spiritism%2C+and+Brazilian+Culture&rft.pub=Pennsylvania+State+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=0-271-00724-9&rft.au=Hess%2C+D.J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fspiritsscientist0000hess&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hess1987-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hess1987_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHess,_D.1987" class="citation journal cs1">Hess, D. (1987). "The Many Rooms of Spiritism in Brazil". <i>Luso-Brazilian Review</i>. <b>24</b> (2): 15–34.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Luso-Brazilian+Review&rft.atitle=The+Many+Rooms+of+Spiritism+in+Brazil&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=15-34&rft.date=1987&rft.au=Hess%2C+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cohen-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Cohen_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohen,_E." class="citation journal cs1">Cohen, E. "Channellers, Cowries and Conversations with the Gods: explaining multiple divination methods in an Afro-Brazilian religious tradition". <i>In: Unveiling the Hidden: Contemporary Approaches to the Study of Divination. Edited by Lisdorf, Anders & Kirstine Munk. Berlin: Walther de Gruyter</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=In%3A+Unveiling+the+Hidden%3A+Contemporary+Approaches+to+the+Study+of+Divination.+Edited+by+Lisdorf%2C+Anders+%26+Kirstine+Munk.+Berlin%3A+Walther+de+Gruyter&rft.atitle=Channellers%2C+Cowries+and+Conversations+with+the+Gods%3A+explaining+multiple+divination+methods+in+an+Afro-Brazilian+religious+tradition&rft.au=Cohen%2C+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Michtom-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Michtom_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichtom,_M.1975" class="citation book cs1">Michtom, M. (1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://blogs.uprm.edu/healing/2007/08/30/referencias/"><i>Becoming a Medium: The Role of Trance in Puerto Rican Spiritism</i></a>. New York University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Becoming+a+Medium%3A+The+Role+of+Trance+in+Puerto+Rican+Spiritism&rft.pub=New+York+University&rft.date=1975&rft.au=Michtom%2C+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fblogs.uprm.edu%2Fhealing%2F2007%2F08%2F30%2Freferencias%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-González-wippler1999-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-González-wippler1999_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGonzález-wippler,_M.1999" class="citation book cs1">González-wippler, M. (1999). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/santerareligio00gonz/page/44"><i>Santería: The Religion (World Religion & Magic)</i></a></span>. Llewellyn Publications,U.S. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/santerareligio00gonz/page/44">44–50</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56718-329-8" title="Special:BookSources/1-56718-329-8"><bdi>1-56718-329-8</bdi></a>. <q>Santerfa can be traced to a similar belief among the Yoruba. In Nigeria, the spirits of the ancestors are believed to take possession of the living. ... he eggun are the spirits of one's ancestors. In Santerfa they include not only the spirits of relatives. Macumba, Spiritism, and Candomble combined ecstatic African traditions with European Spiritualism.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Santer%C3%ADa%3A+The+Religion+%28World+Religion+%26+Magic%29&rft.pages=44-50&rft.pub=Llewellyn+Publications%2CU.S&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=1-56718-329-8&rft.au=Gonz%C3%A1lez-wippler%2C+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsanterareligio00gonz%2Fpage%2F44&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wood-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Wood_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWood1999" class="citation book cs1">Wood, Earnest (1999). <i>The Occultism and Spiritualism of the Hindus : Practical Guidance on Raja Yoga, Hath Yoga, Concentration, Meditation and 'Spiritualism'<span></span></i>. Delhi, Pilgrims Publishing. p. 202. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-7341-105-0" title="Special:BookSources/81-7341-105-0"><bdi>81-7341-105-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Occultism+and+Spiritualism+of+the+Hindus+%3A+Practical+Guidance+on+Raja+Yoga%2C+Hath+Yoga%2C+Concentration%2C+Meditation+and+%27Spiritualism%27&rft.pages=202&rft.pub=Delhi%2C+Pilgrims+Publishing&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=81-7341-105-0&rft.aulast=Wood&rft.aufirst=Earnest&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Leavitt-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Leavitt_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeavitt,_J.Leavitt,_J.H.1997" class="citation book cs1">Leavitt, J.; Leavitt, J.H. (1997). <i>Poetry and Prophecy: The Anthropology of Inspiration</i>. University of Michigan Press. p. 62. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-472-10688-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-472-10688-0"><bdi>0-472-10688-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Poetry+and+Prophecy%3A+The+Anthropology+of+Inspiration&rft.pages=62&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-472-10688-0&rft.au=Leavitt%2C+J.&rft.au=Leavitt%2C+J.H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nuckolls1991-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nuckolls1991_43-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nuckolls1991_43-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNuckolls,_C.W.1991" class="citation journal cs1">Nuckolls, C.W. (1991). "Becoming a Possession-Medium in South India: A Psychocultural Account". <i>Medical Anthropology Quarterly</i>. <b>5</b> (1): 63–77. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Fmaq.1991.5.1.02a00090">10.1525/maq.1991.5.1.02a00090</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/648961">648961</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Medical+Anthropology+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Becoming+a+Possession-Medium+in+South+India%3A+A+Psychocultural+Account&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=63-77&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Fmaq.1991.5.1.02a00090&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F648961%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Nuckolls%2C+C.W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Carrin2003-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Carrin2003_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarrin,_M.Tambs-lyche,_H.2003" class="citation journal cs1">Carrin, M.; <a href="/wiki/Harald_Tambs-Lyche" title="Harald Tambs-Lyche">Tambs-lyche, H.</a> (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://journals.cambridge.org/abstract_S0964028203000028">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'You don't joke with these fellows.'Power and ritual in South Canara, India"</a>. <i>Social Anthropology</i>. <b>11</b> (1): 23–42. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0964028203000028">10.1017/S0964028203000028</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-01-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Social+Anthropology&rft.atitle=%27You+don%27t+joke+with+these+fellows.%27Power+and+ritual+in+South+Canara%2C+India&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=23-42&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0964028203000028&rft.au=Carrin%2C+M.&rft.au=Tambs-lyche%2C+H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjournals.cambridge.org%2Fabstract_S0964028203000028&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Claus1979-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Claus1979_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClaus,_P.J.1979" class="citation journal cs1">Claus, P.J. (1979). "Spirit possession and spirit mediumship from the perspective of Tulu oral traditions". <i>Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry</i>. <b>3</b> (1): 29–52. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00114691">10.1007/BF00114691</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/498800">498800</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:13641314">13641314</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Culture%2C+Medicine+and+Psychiatry&rft.atitle=Spirit+possession+and+spirit+mediumship+from+the+perspective+of+Tulu+oral+traditions&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=29-52&rft.date=1979&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A13641314%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F498800&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF00114691&rft.au=Claus%2C+P.J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Snodgrass2002-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Snodgrass2002_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSnodgrass,_J.G.2002" class="citation journal cs1">Snodgrass, J.G. (2002). "A tale of goddesses, money, and other terribly wonderful things: spirit possession, commodity fetishism, and the narrative of capitalism in Rajasthan, India". <i>American Ethnologist</i>. <b>29</b> (3): 602–636. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Fae.2002.29.3.602">10.1525/ae.2002.29.3.602</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Ethnologist&rft.atitle=A+tale+of+goddesses%2C+money%2C+and+other+terribly+wonderful+things%3A+spirit+possession%2C+commodity+fetishism%2C+and+the+narrative+of+capitalism+in+Rajasthan%2C+India&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=602-636&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Fae.2002.29.3.602&rft.au=Snodgrass%2C+J.G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jeffrey-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Jeffrey_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJeffrey,_G.2002" class="citation journal cs1">Jeffrey, G. (2002). "Imitation Is Far More Than the Sincerest of Flattery: The Mimetic Power of Spirit Possession in Rajasthan, India". <i>Cultural Anthropology</i>. <b>17</b>: 32–64. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Fcan.2002.17.1.32">10.1525/can.2002.17.1.32</a>. <q>Rajasthanis are possessed by a range of spiritual entities. Some of these are judged good and beneficial: spirits of murdered royalty, a god of the underworld referred to as Bhaironji, and deceased Muslims saints. Others are regarded as evil and malevolent, perpetual debtors who die perpetual debtors, stillborn babies whose mounts (ghorala, related to the Hindu term for horse) open and close their mouths in a sucking motion like a breast-feeding child, deceased widows (considered sexually voracious or "hungry" entities who lust after the bodies of newlyweds), and foreign tourists (particularly those who have committed suicide far from home and wander the grounds of Rajasthan's palace hotels). Possession by a spirit, even by those who are considered good, is typically construed as undesirable.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cultural+Anthropology&rft.atitle=Imitation+Is+Far+More+Than+the+Sincerest+of+Flattery%3A+The+Mimetic+Power+of+Spirit+Possession+in+Rajasthan%2C+India&rft.volume=17&rft.pages=32-64&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Fcan.2002.17.1.32&rft.au=Jeffrey%2C+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Klimo-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Klimo_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKlimo1998" class="citation book cs1">Klimo, Jon (1998). <i>Channeling: Investigations on Receiving Information from Paranormal Sources</i>. North Atlantic Books. p. 100. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55643-248-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55643-248-4"><bdi>978-1-55643-248-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Channeling%3A+Investigations+on+Receiving+Information+from+Paranormal+Sources&rft.pages=100&rft.pub=North+Atlantic+Books&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-1-55643-248-4&rft.aulast=Klimo&rft.aufirst=Jon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bryan_Wilson_NRM-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bryan_Wilson_NRM_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilson1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bryan_R._Wilson" title="Bryan R. Wilson">Wilson, Bryan</a> (1999). Bryan Wilson (ed.). <i>New Religious Movements: Challenge and Response</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-20049-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-20049-3"><bdi>978-0-415-20049-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+Religious+Movements%3A+Challenge+and+Response&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-415-20049-3&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=Bryan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eastern Magic and Western Spiritualism by H. S. OLCOTT, A Lecture delivered by H. S. Olcott in 1875 Printed in January 1933 by The Theosophical Publishing House, India</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Topley1963-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Topley1963_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTopley,_M.1963" class="citation journal cs1">Topley, M. (1963). "The Great Way of Former Heaven: A Group of Chinese Secret Religious Sects". <i>Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London</i>. <b>26</b> (2): 362–392. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0041977X00064727">10.1017/S0041977X00064727</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/612304">612304</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154700054">154700054</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+School+of+Oriental+and+African+Studies%2C+University+of+London&rft.atitle=The+Great+Way+of+Former+Heaven%3A+A+Group+of+Chinese+Secret+Religious+Sects&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=362-392&rft.date=1963&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154700054%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F612304%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0041977X00064727&rft.au=Topley%2C+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Giles1879-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Giles1879_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGiles,_H.A.1879" class="citation journal cs1">Giles, H.A. (1879). "Mesmerism, Planchette, and Spiritualism in China'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>". <i>Eraser's Magazine</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Eraser%27s+Magazine&rft.atitle=Mesmerism%2C+Planchette%2C+and+Spiritualism+in+China%27&rft.date=1879&rft.au=Giles%2C+H.A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBernardi_Junqueira2021" class="citation journal cs1">Bernardi Junqueira, Luis Fernando (2021-06-08). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093/shm/hkab035">"Revealing Secrets: Talismans, Healthcare and the Market of the Occult in Early Twentieth-century China"</a>. <i>Social History of Medicine</i>. <b>34</b> (hkab035): 1068–1093. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fshm%2Fhkab035">10.1093/shm/hkab035</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0951-631X">0951-631X</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8653939">8653939</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34899068">34899068</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Social+History+of+Medicine&rft.atitle=Revealing+Secrets%3A+Talismans%2C+Healthcare+and+the+Market+of+the+Occult+in+Early+Twentieth-century+China&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=hkab035&rft.pages=1068-1093&rft.date=2021-06-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8653939%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=0951-631X&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F34899068&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fshm%2Fhkab035&rft.aulast=Bernardi+Junqueira&rft.aufirst=Luis+Fernando&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%2Fshm%2Fhkab035&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Watanabe-1-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Watanabe-1_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatanabe2007" class="citation journal cs1">Watanabe, Toshihiko (2007). "An Overview History of Psychical Research and Spiritualism's Evolution". <i>Journal of International Society of Life Information Science</i>. <b>25</b> (1): 81–85.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+International+Society+of+Life+Information+Science&rft.atitle=An+Overview+History+of+Psychical+Research+and+Spiritualism%27s+Evolution&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=81-85&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Watanabe&rft.aufirst=Toshihiko&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Watanabe-2-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Watanabe-2_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCollins1997" class="citation journal cs1">Collins, Kevin K. (1997). "Seizing spirits, The chinkon ritual and early Japanese literature". <i>Columbia University</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Columbia+University&rft.atitle=Seizing+spirits%2C+The+chinkon+ritual+and+early+Japanese+literature&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Collins&rft.aufirst=Kevin+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Foster-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Foster_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoster2006" class="citation journal cs1">Foster, Prof Michael Dylan (2006). "Strange Games and Enchanted Science: The Mystery of Kokkuri". <i>The Journal of Asian Studies</i>. <b>65</b> (2): 252. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0021911806000659">10.1017/s0021911806000659</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:163833962">163833962</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Asian+Studies&rft.atitle=Strange+Games+and+Enchanted+Science%3A+The+Mystery+of+Kokkuri&rft.volume=65&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=252&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0021911806000659&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A163833962%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Foster&rft.aufirst=Prof+Michael+Dylan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Foster2-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Foster2_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoster2003" class="citation journal cs1">Foster, Prof Michael Dylan (2003). "Morphologies of mystery : Yokai and discourses of the supernatural in Japan 1666–1999". <i>Stanford University</i>: 356.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Stanford+University&rft.atitle=Morphologies+of+mystery+%3A+Yokai+and+discourses+of+the+supernatural+in+Japan+1666%E2%80%931999&rft.pages=356&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Foster&rft.aufirst=Prof+Michael+Dylan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mageo-Mageo-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mageo-Mageo_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMageo,_J.Howard,_A.1996" class="citation book cs1">Mageo, J.; Howard, A. (1996). <i>Spirits in Culture, History and Mind</i>. Routledge. p. 248. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-91367-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-91367-5"><bdi>0-415-91367-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spirits+in+Culture%2C+History+and+Mind&rft.pages=248&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-415-91367-5&rft.au=Mageo%2C+J.&rft.au=Howard%2C+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJay_D._DobbinHezel,_Francis1996" class="citation journal cs1">Jay D. Dobbin; Hezel, Francis (1996). "The Distribution Of Spirit Possession And Trance In Micronesia". <i>Pacific Studies</i>. <b>19</b> (2): 105–148.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Pacific+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Distribution+Of+Spirit+Possession+And+Trance+In+Micronesia&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=105-148&rft.date=1996&rft.au=Jay+D.+Dobbin&rft.au=Hezel%2C+Francis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dernbach-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Dernbach_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDernbach,_K.B.2005" class="citation journal cs1">Dernbach, K.B. (2005). "Spirits of the hereafter: death, funerary possession, and the afterlife in Chuuk, Micronesia". <i>Ethnology</i>. <b>44</b> (2). Ethnology, Vol. 44, No. 2: 99–123. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3773992">10.2307/3773992</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3773992">3773992</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ethnology&rft.atitle=Spirits+of+the+hereafter%3A+death%2C+funerary+possession%2C+and+the+afterlife+in+Chuuk%2C+Micronesia&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=99-123&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3773992&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3773992%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Dernbach%2C+K.B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Eliade1967-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Eliade1967_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEliade,_M.1967" class="citation journal cs1">Eliade, M. (1967). "Australian Religions. Part IV: The Medicine Men and Their Supernatural Models". <i>History of Religions</i>. <b>7</b> (2): 159–183. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F462560">10.1086/462560</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1061769">1061769</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161832994">161832994</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+of+Religions&rft.atitle=Australian+Religions.+Part+IV%3A+The+Medicine+Men+and+Their+Supernatural+Models&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=159-183&rft.date=1967&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161832994%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1061769%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F462560&rft.au=Eliade%2C+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Best-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Best_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBest,_E.1954" class="citation book cs1">Best, E. (1954). <i>Spiritual and Mental Concepts of the Maori</i>. RE Owen, Govt. printer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-477-01326-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-477-01326-0"><bdi>0-477-01326-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spiritual+and+Mental+Concepts+of+the+Maori&rft.pub=RE+Owen%2C+Govt.+printer&rft.date=1954&rft.isbn=0-477-01326-0&rft.au=Best%2C+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ellwood-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ellwood_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEllwood,_R.S.1993" class="citation book cs1">Ellwood, R.S. (1993). <i>Islands of the Dawn: The Story of Alternative Spirituality in New Zealand</i>. University of Hawaii Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8248-1487-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8248-1487-8"><bdi>0-8248-1487-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islands+of+the+Dawn%3A+The+Story+of+Alternative+Spirituality+in+New+Zealand&rft.pub=University+of+Hawaii+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0-8248-1487-8&rft.au=Ellwood%2C+R.S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wynn-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Wynn_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWynn,_W.C.1943" class="citation book cs1">Wynn, W.C. (1943). <i>An Examination of the Sociological Aspects of African Spiritism</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Examination+of+the+Sociological+Aspects+of+African+Spiritism&rft.date=1943&rft.au=Wynn%2C+W.C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Statesman-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Statesman_65-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Statesman_65-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110722152223/http://www.thestatesmanonline.com/pages/news_detail.php?newsid=4138&section=15">"Aliu Mahama, Superstition, and Elections"</a>. <i>The Statesman, Ghana</i>. 17 July 2007. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thestatesmanonline.com/pages/news_detail.php?newsid=4138&section=15">the original</a> on 22 July 2011. <q>The influence of superstition, which can come in the form of all sorts of dabbling in native spiritualism, on politics reflects how deep superstition has penetrated the Ghanaian society and its progress. The influence of superstition on politics also reveal how skeptically weak is the Ghanaian intelligentsia. It also shows a society which elites cannot extricate itself from the irrational, and sometimes at the mercy of prophets, juju-marabou mediums, Malams, and other spiritualists. Such superstitious practices need not be during general elections, it is part-and-parcel of the political elites. All these demonstrate the influence of the Ghanaian culture on politics. In Ghana politics and culture are inseparable, especially the influence of the spiritual aspects of the culture, negative or positive, on politics.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Statesman%2C+Ghana&rft.atitle=Aliu+Mahama%2C+Superstition%2C+and+Elections&rft.date=2007-07-17&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thestatesmanonline.com%2Fpages%2Fnews_detail.php%3Fnewsid%3D4138%26section%3D15&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wyllie1980-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Wyllie1980_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWyllie,_R.W.1980" class="citation book cs1">Wyllie, R.W. (1980). <i>Spiritism in Ghana: A Study of New Religious Movements</i>. AAR Studies in Religion. Vol. 21. Scholars Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89130-355-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-89130-355-8"><bdi>978-0-89130-355-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spiritism+in+Ghana%3A+A+Study+of+New+Religious+Movements&rft.series=AAR+Studies+in+Religion&rft.pub=Scholars+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0-89130-355-8&rft.au=Wyllie%2C+R.W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kalu2003-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kalu2003_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKalu,_O.2003" class="citation book cs1">Kalu, O. (2003). <i>The Embattled Gods: Christianization of Igboland, 1841–1991</i>. Africa World Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-33665-1-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-33665-1-3"><bdi>978-33665-1-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Embattled+Gods%3A+Christianization+of+Igboland%2C+1841%E2%80%931991&rft.pub=Africa+World+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-33665-1-3&rft.au=Kalu%2C+O.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kalu1995-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kalu1995_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKalu,_O.U.1995" class="citation journal cs1">Kalu, O.U. (1995). "The Dilemma of Grassroot Inculturation of the Gospel: A Case Study of a Modern Controversy in Igboland, 1983–1989". <i>Journal of Religion in Africa</i>. <b>25</b> (1). Journal of Religion in Africa, Vol. 25, No. 1: 48–72. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1581138">10.2307/1581138</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1581138">1581138</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Religion+in+Africa&rft.atitle=The+Dilemma+of+Grassroot+Inculturation+of+the+Gospel%3A+A+Case+Study+of+a+Modern+Controversy+in+Igboland%2C+1983%E2%80%931989&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=48-72&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1581138&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1581138%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Kalu%2C+O.U.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wyllie1994-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Wyllie1994_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWyllie,_R.W.1994" class="citation journal cs1">Wyllie, R.W. (1994). "Do the Effutu Really Believe That the Spirits Cause Illness? A Ghanaian Case Study". <i>Journal of Religion in Africa</i>. <b>24</b> (3): 228–240. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F157006694x00129">10.1163/157006694x00129</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1581300">1581300</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Religion+in+Africa&rft.atitle=Do+the+Effutu+Really+Believe+That+the+Spirits+Cause+Illness%3F+A+Ghanaian+Case+Study&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=228-240&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F157006694x00129&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1581300%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Wyllie%2C+R.W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Berger1995-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Berger1995_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerger,_I.1995" class="citation journal cs1">Berger, I. (1995). "<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Fertility as Power: Spirit Mediums, Priestesses and the Pre-colonial State in Interlacustrine East Africa". <i>Revealing Prophets: Prophecy in Eastern African History, Edited by David M. Anderson and Douglas H. Johnson. London: James Currey</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Revealing+Prophets%3A+Prophecy+in+Eastern+African+History%2C+Edited+by+David+M.+Anderson+and+Douglas+H.+Johnson.+London%3A+James+Currey&rft.atitle=%27Fertility+as+Power%3A+Spirit+Mediums%2C+Priestesses+and+the+Pre-colonial+State+in+Interlacustrine+East+Africa&rft.date=1995&rft.au=Berger%2C+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-HOESING-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-HOESING_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPETER_J._HOESING2006" class="citation book cs1">PETER J. HOESING (2006). <i>Kubandwa: Theory and Historiography of Shared Expressive Culture in Interlacustrine East Africa</i>. THE FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kubandwa%3A+Theory+and+Historiography+of+Shared+Expressive+Culture+in+Interlacustrine+East+Africa&rft.pub=THE+FLORIDA+STATE+UNIVERSITY&rft.date=2006&rft.au=PETER+J.+HOESING&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sharp-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sharp_72-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sharp_72-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSharp,_L.A.1993" class="citation book cs1">Sharp, L.A. (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ark.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft6t1nb4hz/"><i>The Possessed and the Dispossessed: Spirits, Identity, and Power in a Madagascar Migrant Town, Berkeley: University of California Press</i></a>. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-20708-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-20708-4"><bdi>0-520-20708-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Possessed+and+the+Dispossessed%3A+Spirits%2C+Identity%2C+and+Power+in+a+Madagascar+Migrant+Town%2C+Berkeley%3A+University+of+California+Press&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=Univ.+of+California+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0-520-20708-4&rft.au=Sharp%2C+L.A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fark.cdlib.org%2Fark%3A%2F13030%2Fft6t1nb4hz%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brown-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Brown_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown2005" class="citation book cs1">Brown, John (2005). <i>The Dervishes or Oriental Spiritualism</i>. Kessinger Publishing Co. p. 424. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4179-7332-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-4179-7332-3"><bdi>1-4179-7332-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dervishes+or+Oriental+Spiritualism&rft.pages=424&rft.pub=Kessinger+Publishing+Co&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=1-4179-7332-3&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Modarressi, Taghi. 1968. The zar cult in south Iran. In Trance and possession states, ed. Raymond Prince.Montreal: R.M. Bucke Memorial Society</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NSAC_web2-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NSAC_web2_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080201175321/http://www.nsac.org/spiritualism.htm">"Spiritualism, Pathway of Light; Ancient and Modern Spiritualism"</a>. National Spiritualist Association of Churches. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nsac.org/spiritualism.htm">the original</a> on 2008-02-01<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-02-11</span></span>. <q>The phenomena of Spiritualism consists of prophecy, clairvoyance, clairaudience, gift of tongues, laying on of hands, healing, visions, trance, apports, revelations, raps, levitation, automatic and independent writing and painting, photography, materialization, psychometry, direct and independent voice, and any other manifestation which proves the continuity of life..</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Spiritualism%2C+Pathway+of+Light%3B+Ancient+and+Modern+Spiritualism&rft.pub=National+Spiritualist+Association+of+Churches&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nsac.org%2Fspiritualism.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dead-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-dead_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScheitle2004–2005" class="citation journal cs1">Scheitle, Christopher P. (2004–2005). "Bringing Out the Dead: Gender and Historical Cycles of Spiritualism". <i>The Journal of Death and Dying</i>. <b>50</b> (3): 237–253. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2190%2FKF90-QELU-FVTH-1R4U">10.2190/KF90-QELU-FVTH-1R4U</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144148579">144148579</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Death+and+Dying&rft.atitle=Bringing+Out+the+Dead%3A+Gender+and+Historical+Cycles+of+Spiritualism&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=237-253&rft.date=2004%2F2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2190%2FKF90-QELU-FVTH-1R4U&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144148579%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Scheitle&rft.aufirst=Christopher+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Charet-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Charet_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCharet1993" class="citation book cs1">Charet, F.X. (1993). <i>Spiritualism and the Foundation of C.G. Jung's Psychology</i>. State University of New York Press. p. 139. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7914-1094-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-7914-1094-3"><bdi>0-7914-1094-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spiritualism+and+the+Foundation+of+C.G.+Jung%27s+Psychology&rft.pages=139&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0-7914-1094-3&rft.aulast=Charet&rft.aufirst=F.X.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brink-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Brink_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrink1995" class="citation journal cs1">Brink, T. L. (1995). "Spiritualism and the Foundation of C.G. Jung's Psychology by F. X. Charet". <i>Journal of the American Academy of Religion</i>. <b>63</b> (4): 893–895. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjaarel%2FLXIII.4.893">10.1093/jaarel/LXIII.4.893</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Academy+of+Religion&rft.atitle=Spiritualism+and+the+Foundation+of+C.G.+Jung%27s+Psychology+by+F.+X.+Charet&rft.volume=63&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=893-895&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fjaarel%2FLXIII.4.893&rft.aulast=Brink&rft.aufirst=T.+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spiritualism_(beliefs)&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrookes1904" class="citation book cs1">Crookes, Sir William (1904). <i>Researches into the Phenomena of Spiritualism</i> (7th ed.). Two Worlds Publishing Company Ltd.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Researches+into+the+Phenomena+of+Spiritualism&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=Two+Worlds+Publishing+Company+Ltd&rft.date=1904&rft.aulast=Crookes&rft.aufirst=Sir+William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeonard2005" class="citation book cs1">Leonard, Todd Jay (2005). <i>Talking to the Other Side: A History of Modern Spiritualism and Mediumship: A Study of the Religion, Science, Philosophy and Mediums that Encompass this American-Made Religion</i>. iUniverse, Inc. p. 364. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-595-36353-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-595-36353-9"><bdi>0-595-36353-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Talking+to+the+Other+Side%3A+A+History+of+Modern+Spiritualism+and+Mediumship%3A+A+Study+of+the+Religion%2C+Science%2C+Philosophy+and+Mediums+that+Encompass+this+American-Made+Religion&rft.pages=364&rft.pub=iUniverse%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-595-36353-9&rft.aulast=Leonard&rft.aufirst=Todd+Jay&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTolsma,_F.J.1954" class="citation journal cs1">Tolsma, F.J. (1954). "The psychiatric significance of spiritualistic (ie spiritistic) groups". <i>Folia Psychiatr Neurol Neurochir Neerl</i>. <b>57</b> (1): 17–34. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/13162043">13162043</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Folia+Psychiatr+Neurol+Neurochir+Neerl&rft.atitle=The+psychiatric+significance+of+spiritualistic+%28ie+spiritistic%29+groups&rft.volume=57&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=17-34&rft.date=1954&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F13162043&rft.au=Tolsma%2C+F.J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPérez_Y_Mena,_A.I.1995" class="citation journal cs1">Pérez Y Mena, A.I. (1995). "Puerto Rican Spiritism as a Transfeature of Afro-Latin Religion". <i>Enigmatic Powers: Syncretism with African and Indigenous Peoples' Religions Among Latinos</i>: 137–155.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Enigmatic+Powers%3A+Syncretism+with+African+and+Indigenous+Peoples%27+Religions+Among+Latinos&rft.atitle=Puerto+Rican+Spiritism+as+a+Transfeature+of+Afro-Latin+Religion&rft.pages=137-155&rft.date=1995&rft.au=P%C3%A9rez+Y+Mena%2C+A.I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpiritualism+%28beliefs%29" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spiritualism_(beliefs)&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.onelook.com/?w=spiritualism&ls=a">Spiritualism defined</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldspirituality.org/native-spiritualism.html">Native spiritualism</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.spiritwritings.com/library.html">Digital archive of spiritualist literature</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.spiritualist.tv/spiritualism/history/">The History of Spiritualism by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle (1926)</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output 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.navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Spiritualism_and_spiritism" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Spiritualism_and_spiritism" title="Template:Spiritualism and spiritism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Spiritualism_and_spiritism" title="Template talk:Spiritualism and spiritism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Spiritualism_and_spiritism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Spiritualism and spiritism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Spiritualism_and_spiritism" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(movement)" title="Spiritualism (movement)">Spiritualism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kardecist_spiritism" title="Kardecist spiritism">spiritism</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History and beliefs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apport_(paranormal)" title="Apport (paranormal)">Apport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automatic_writing" title="Automatic writing">Automatic writing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-Correspondences" class="mw-redirect" title="Cross-Correspondences">Cross-Correspondences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ectoplasm_(paranormal)" title="Ectoplasm (paranormal)">Ectoplasm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_healing" title="Faith healing">Faith healing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialization_(paranormal)" title="Materialization (paranormal)">Materialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediumship" title="Mediumship">Mediumship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%A9ance" title="Séance">Séance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirit_guide" title="Spirit guide">Spirit guides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritual_healing" class="mw-redirect" title="Spiritual healing">Spiritual healing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obsession_(Spiritism)" title="Obsession (Spiritism)">Spirit obsession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirit_photography" title="Spirit photography">Spirit photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirit_possession" title="Spirit possession">Spirit possession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirit_world_(Spiritualism)" title="Spirit world (Spiritualism)">Spirit world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Table-turning" title="Table-turning">Table-turning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theism" title="Theism">Theism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Spiritualists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Acorah" title="Derek Acorah">Derek Acorah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosemary_Altea" title="Rosemary Altea">Rosemary Altea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dan_Aykroyd" title="Dan Aykroyd">Dan Aykroyd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Bailey_(medium)" title="Charles Bailey (medium)">Charles Bailey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangs_Sisters" class="mw-redirect" title="Bangs Sisters">Bangs Sisters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ada_Besinnet" title="Ada Besinnet">Ada Besinnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_E._Braude" title="Stephen E. Braude">Stephen E. Braude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Breeze" title="William Breeze">William Breeze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosemary_Brown_(spiritualist)" title="Rosemary Brown (spiritualist)">Rosemary Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylvia_Browne" title="Sylvia Browne">Sylvia Browne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eva_Carri%C3%A8re" title="Eva Carrière">Eva Carrière</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doris_Collins" title="Doris Collins">Doris Collins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Florence_Cook_(medium)" title="Florence Cook (medium)">Florence Cook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mina_Crandon" title="Mina Crandon">Mina Crandon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Crookes" title="William Crookes">William Crookes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geraldine_Cummins" title="Geraldine Cummins">Geraldine Cummins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patience_Worth" title="Patience Worth">Pearl Curran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Decker_(medium)" title="Frank Decker (medium)">Frank Decker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Conan_Doyle" title="Arthur Conan Doyle">Arthur Conan Doyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helen_Duncan" title="Helen Duncan">Helen Duncan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eddy_Brothers" title="Eddy Brothers">Eddy Brothers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Edwards_(healer)" title="Harry Edwards (healer)">Harry Edwards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Edward" title="John Edward">John Edward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Eglinton" title="William Eglinton">William Eglinton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colin_Evans_(medium)" title="Colin Evans (medium)">Colin Evans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fox_sisters" title="Fox sisters">Fox sisters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leslie_Flint" title="Leslie Flint">Leslie Flint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Ford_(psychic)" title="Arthur Ford (psychic)">Arthur Ford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colin_Fry" title="Colin Fry">Colin Fry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eileen_J._Garrett" title="Eileen J. Garrett">Eileen Garrett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kathleen_Goligher" title="Kathleen Goligher">Kathleen Goligher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rita_Goold" title="Rita Goold">Rita Goold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Guzyk" title="Jan Guzyk">Jan Guzyk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hare_(chemist)" title="Robert Hare (chemist)">Robert Hare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alec_Harris" title="Alec Harris">Alec Harris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gordon_Higginson_(medium)" title="Gordon Higginson (medium)">Gordon Higginson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Hodgson_(parapsychologist)" title="Richard Hodgson (parapsychologist)">Richard Hodgson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dunglas_Home" title="Daniel Dunglas Home">Daniel Dunglas Home</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mme._d%27Esperance" title="Mme. d'Esperance">Elizabeth Hope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Hope_(paranormal_investigator)" title="William Hope (paranormal investigator)">William Hope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ann_O%27Delia_Diss_Debar" title="Ann O'Delia Diss Debar">Swami Laura Horos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cecil_Husk" title="Cecil Husk">Cecil Husk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_H._Hyslop" title="James H. Hyslop">James H. Hyslop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allan_Kardec" title="Allan Kardec">Allan Kardec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franek_Kluski" title="Franek Kluski">Franek Kluski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gladys_Osborne_Leonard" title="Gladys Osborne Leonard">Gladys Osborne Leonard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Lodge" title="Oliver Lodge">Oliver Lodge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Melzer" title="Heinrich Melzer">Heinrich Melzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carmine_Mirabelli" title="Carmine Mirabelli">Carmine Mirabelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Ward_Monck" title="Francis Ward Monck">Francis Ward Monck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Usborne_Moore" title="William Usborne Moore">William Usborne Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lorin_Morgan-Richards" title="Lorin Morgan-Richards">Lorin Morgan-Richards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Stainton_Moses" title="William Stainton Moses">William Stainton Moses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Einer_Nielsen" title="Einer Nielsen">Einer Nielsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eusapia_Palladino" title="Eusapia Palladino">Eusapia Palladino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonora_Piper" title="Leonora Piper">Leonora Piper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethel_Post-Parrish" title="Ethel Post-Parrish">Ethel Post-Parrish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Van_Praagh" title="James Van Praagh">James Van Praagh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bert_Reese" title="Bert Reese">Bert Reese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estelle_Roberts" title="Estelle Roberts">Estelle Roberts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jane_Roberts" title="Jane Roberts">Jane Roberts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Roy_(medium)" title="William Roy (medium)">William Roy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudi_Schneider" title="Rudi Schneider">Rudi Schneider</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Silbert" title="Maria Silbert">Maria Silbert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Slade_(medium)" title="Henry Slade (medium)">Henry Slade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doris_Stokes" title="Doris Stokes">Doris Stokes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emanuel_Swedenborg" title="Emanuel Swedenborg">Emanuel Swedenborg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosina_Thompson" title="Rosina Thompson">Rosina Thompson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82awa_Tomczyk" title="Stanisława Tomczyk">Stanisława Tomczyk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ena_Twigg" title="Ena Twigg">Ena Twigg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Valiantine" title="George Valiantine">George Valiantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Webber" title="Jack Webber">Jack Webber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etta_Wriedt" title="Etta Wriedt">Etta Wriedt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chico_Xavier" title="Chico Xavier">Chico Xavier</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Spiritualist_organizations" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Spiritualist organizations">List of Spiritualist organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritualist_church" title="Spiritualist church">Spiritualist churches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritist_centre" title="Spiritist centre">Spiritist centres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/London_Spiritualist_Alliance" class="mw-redirect" title="London Spiritualist Alliance">London Spiritualist Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Spiritualist_Association_of_Churches" title="National Spiritualist Association of Churches">National Spiritualist Association of Churches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritualists%27_National_Union" title="Spiritualists' National Union">Spiritualists' National Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritualist_Association_of_Great_Britain" title="Spiritualist Association of Great Britain">Spiritualist Association of Great Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritual_church_movement" title="Spiritual church movement">Spiritual church movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Findlay_College" title="Arthur Findlay College">Arthur Findlay College</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Spiritualist_Federation" title="International Spiritualist Federation">International Spiritualist Federation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Skeptics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/David_Abbott_(magician)" title="David Abbott (magician)">David Abbott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Henry_Anderson" title="John Henry Anderson">John Henry Anderson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Miller_Beard" title="George Miller Beard">George Miller Beard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruth_Brandon" title="Ruth Brandon">Ruth Brandon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L._H._Branson" title="L. H. Branson">Lionel Branson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derren_Brown" title="Derren Brown">Derren Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Benjamin_Carpenter" title="William Benjamin Carpenter">William Carpenter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milbourne_Christopher" title="Milbourne Christopher">Milbourne Christopher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Clodd" title="Edward Clodd">Edward Clodd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Smith_Conklin" title="Edmund Smith Conklin">Edmund Smith Conklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Millais_Culpin" title="Millais Culpin">Millais Culpin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stuart_Cumberland" title="Stuart Cumberland">Stuart Cumberland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Dingwall" title="Eric Dingwall">Eric Dingwall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Dunninger" title="Joseph Dunninger">Joseph Dunninger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_R._Evans" title="Henry R. Evans">Henry Evans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chris_French" title="Chris French">Chris French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Gardner" title="Martin Gardner">Martin Gardner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._Stanley_Hall" title="G. Stanley Hall">G. Stanley Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trevor_H._Hall" title="Trevor H. Hall">Trevor H. Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_A._Hammond" title="William A. Hammond">William A. Hammond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._E._M._Hansel" title="C. E. M. Hansel">C. E. M. Hansel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carlos_Mar%C3%ADa_de_Heredia" title="Carlos María de Heredia">Carlos María de Heredia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Hertz" title="Carl Hertz">Carl Hertz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terence_Hines" title="Terence Hines">Terence Hines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Houdini" title="Harry Houdini">Harry Houdini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Jastrow" title="Joseph Jastrow">Joseph Jastrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_LeFevre_Krebs" title="Stanley LeFevre Krebs">Stanley LeFevre Krebs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rose_Mackenberg" title="Rose Mackenberg">Rose Mackenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Marks_(psychologist)" title="David Marks (psychologist)">David Marks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Nevil_Maskelyne" title="John Nevil Maskelyne">John Nevil Maskelyne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Maudsley" title="Henry Maudsley">Henry Maudsley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_McCabe" title="Joseph McCabe">Joseph McCabe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_C._McComas" title="Henry C. McComas">Henry C. McComas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgess_McHargue" title="Georgess McHargue">Georgess McHargue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Arthur_Mercier" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Arthur Mercier">Charles Arthur Mercier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Moll_(German_psychiatrist)" title="Albert Moll (German psychiatrist)">Albert Moll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Mulholland_(magician)" title="John Mulholland (magician)">John Mulholland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fulton_Oursler" title="Fulton Oursler">Fulton Oursler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_Nickell" title="Joe Nickell">Joe Nickell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._Clephan_Palmer" title="E. Clephan Palmer">E. Clephan Palmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Pearsall" title="Ronald Pearsall">Ronald Pearsall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Podmore" title="Frank Podmore">Frank Podmore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massimo_Polidoro" title="Massimo Polidoro">Massimo Polidoro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Price" title="Harry Price">Harry Price</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julien_J._Proskauer" title="Julien J. Proskauer">Julien J. Proskauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Randi" title="James Randi">James Randi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Psychology_of_the_Occult" title="The Psychology of the Occult">Donovan Rawcliffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_F._Rinn" title="Joseph F. Rinn">Joseph F. Rinn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._E._Bechhofer_Roberts" title="C. E. Bechhofer Roberts">C. E. Bechhofer Roberts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chung_Ling_Soo" title="Chung Ling Soo">Chung Ling Soo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gordon_Stein" title="Gordon Stein">Gordon Stein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amy_Tanner" title="Amy Tanner">Amy Tanner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivor_Lloyd_Tuckett" title="Ivor Lloyd Tuckett">Ivor Lloyd Tuckett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L._Forbes_Winslow" title="L. Forbes Winslow">Lyttelton Winslow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Wiseman" title="Richard Wiseman">Richard Wiseman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy_of_religion" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_of_religion" title="Template:Philosophy of religion"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_of_religion" title="Template talk:Philosophy of religion"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_of_religion" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy of religion"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Philosophy_of_religion" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Philosophy of religion</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Concepts in religion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afterlife" title="Afterlife">Afterlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthyphro_dilemma" title="Euthyphro dilemma">Euthyphro dilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith" title="Faith">Faith</a> <ul><li>or <a href="/wiki/Belief#Religion" title="Belief">religious belief</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligent_design" title="Intelligent design">Intelligent design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miracle" title="Miracle">Miracle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">Soul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_veto" title="Theological veto">Theological veto</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Conceptions_of_God" title="Conceptions of God">Conceptions of God</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demiurge" title="Demiurge">Demiurge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_simplicity" title="Divine simplicity">Divine simplicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_egoism" title="Ethical egoism">Egoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit" title="Holy Spirit">Holy Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misotheism" title="Misotheism">Misotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandeism" title="Pandeism">Pandeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_god" title="Personal god">Personal god</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_theology" title="Process theology">Process theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God" title="God">Supreme Being</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unmoved_mover" title="Unmoved mover">Unmoved mover</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;">God in</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Abrahamic_religions" title="God in Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creator_in_Buddhism" title="Creator in Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Christianity" title="God in Christianity">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Hinduism" title="God in Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Islam" title="God in Islam">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Jainism" title="God in Jainism">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Judaism" title="God in Judaism">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Mormonism" title="God in Mormonism">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Sikhism" title="God in Sikhism">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_the_Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="God in the Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wiccan_views_of_divinity" title="Wiccan views of divinity">Wicca</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Existence_of_God" title="Existence of God">Existence of God</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;">For</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_beauty" title="Argument from beauty">Beauty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christological_argument" title="Christological argument">Christological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_consciousness" title="Argument from consciousness">Consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmological_argument" title="Cosmological argument">Cosmological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kalam_cosmological_argument" title="Kalam cosmological argument">Kalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmological_argument#Argument_from_contingency" title="Cosmological argument">Contingency</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_degree" title="Argument from degree">Degree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_desire" title="Argument from desire">Desire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_religious_experience" title="Argument from religious experience">Experience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fine-tuned_universe" title="Fine-tuned universe">Fine-tuning of the universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_love" title="Argument from love">Love</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_miracles" title="Argument from miracles">Miracles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_morality" title="Argument from morality">Morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proof_of_the_Truthful" title="Proof of the Truthful">Necessary existent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontological_argument" title="Ontological argument">Ontological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pascal%27s_wager" title="Pascal's wager">Pascal's wager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Proper basis and Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_reason" title="Argument from reason">Reason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleological_argument" title="Teleological argument">Teleological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural-law_argument" title="Natural-law argument">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watchmaker_analogy" title="Watchmaker analogy">Watchmaker analogy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_argument_for_the_existence_of_God" title="Transcendental argument for the existence of God">Transcendental</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;">Against</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ultimate_Boeing_747_gambit" title="Ultimate Boeing 747 gambit">747 gambit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheist%27s_Wager" class="mw-redirect" title="Atheist's Wager">Atheist's Wager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_free_will" title="Argument from free will">Free will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_Hell" title="Problem of Hell">Hell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_inconsistent_revelations" class="mw-redirect" title="Argument from inconsistent revelations">Inconsistent revelations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_nonbelief" title="Argument from nonbelief">Nonbelief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_noncognitivism" title="Theological noncognitivism">Noncognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occam%27s_razor" title="Occam's razor">Occam's razor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omnipotence_paradox" title="Omnipotence paradox">Omnipotence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_poor_design" title="Argument from poor design">Poor design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell%27s_teapot" title="Russell's teapot">Russell's teapot</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">Theology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acosmism" title="Acosmism">Acosmism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">Animism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antireligion" title="Antireligion">Antireligion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creationism" title="Creationism">Creationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharmism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">Deism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demonology" title="Demonology">Demonology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_command_theory" title="Divine command theory">Divine command theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dualism_in_cosmology" title="Dualism in cosmology">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_esotericism" title="Western esotericism">Esotericism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusivism" title="Exclusivism">Exclusivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheistic_existentialism" title="Atheistic existentialism">Atheistic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_theology" title="Feminist theology">Feminist theology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thealogy" title="Thealogy">Thealogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Womanist_theology" title="Womanist theology">Womanist theology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamentalism" title="Fundamentalism">Fundamentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henotheism" title="Henotheism">Henotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_humanism" title="Religious humanism">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_humanism" title="Christian humanism">Christian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inclusivism" title="Inclusivism">Inclusivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_about_religions" class="mw-redirect" title="Theories about religions">Theories about religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">Monotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">Mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Metaphysical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_naturalism" title="Religious naturalism">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_naturalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Humanistic naturalism">Humanistic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Age" title="New Age">New Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondualism" title="Nondualism">Nondualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nontheism" title="Nontheism">Nontheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandeism" title="Pandeism">Pandeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panentheism" title="Panentheism">Panentheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">Pantheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perennial_philosophy" title="Perennial philosophy">Perennialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">Polytheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Possibilianism" title="Possibilianism">Possibilianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_theology" title="Process theology">Process theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_skepticism" title="Religious skepticism">Religious skepticism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Spiritualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shamanism" title="Shamanism">Shamanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_religions" title="East Asian religions">Taoic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theism" title="Theism">Theism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_religious_language" title="Problem of religious language">Religious language</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eschatological_verification" title="Eschatological verification">Eschatological verification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_game_(philosophy)" title="Language game (philosophy)">Language game</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apophatic_theology" title="Apophatic theology">Apophatic theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verificationism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Augustinian_theodicy" title="Augustinian theodicy">Augustinian theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Best_of_all_possible_worlds" title="Best of all possible worlds">Best of all possible worlds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthyphro_dilemma" title="Euthyphro dilemma">Euthyphro dilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inconsistent_triad" title="Inconsistent triad">Inconsistent triad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irenaean_theodicy" title="Irenaean theodicy">Irenaean theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_evil" title="Natural evil">Natural evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_religion" title="Category:Philosophers of religion">Philosophers<br />of religion</a></div><br />(by date active)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient</a> and<br /><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm of Canterbury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaudapada" title="Gaudapada">Gaudapada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaunilo_of_Marmoutiers" title="Gaunilo of Marmoutiers">Gaunilo of Marmoutiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Pico_della_Mirandola" title="Giovanni Pico della Mirandola">Pico della Mirandola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">King James VI and I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcion_of_Sinope" title="Marcion of Sinope">Marcion of Sinope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adi_Shankara" title="Adi Shankara">Adi Shankara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">William of Ockham</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Augustin_Calmet" title="Antoine Augustin Calmet">Augustin Calmet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Blaise Pascal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desiderius_Erasmus" class="mw-redirect" title="Desiderius Erasmus">Desiderius Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Nicolas Malebranche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried W Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Wollaston" title="William Wollaston">William Wollaston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Chubb" title="Thomas Chubb">Thomas Chubb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baron_d%27Holbach" title="Baron d'Holbach">Baron d'Holbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Johann G Herder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1800<br />1850</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schleiermacher" title="Friedrich Schleiermacher">Friedrich Schleiermacher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Christian_Friedrich_Krause" title="Karl Christian Friedrich Krause">Karl C F Krause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg W F Hegel</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Thomas Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Whewell" title="William Whewell">William Whewell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Feuerbach" title="Ludwig Feuerbach">Ludwig Feuerbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albrecht_Ritschl" title="Albrecht Ritschl">Albrecht Ritschl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrikan_Spir" title="Afrikan Spir">Afrikan Spir</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1880<br />1900</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Haeckel" title="Ernst Haeckel">Ernst Haeckel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Kingdon_Clifford" title="William Kingdon Clifford">W K Clifford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harald_H%C3%B8ffding" title="Harald Høffding">Harald Høffding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Solovyov_(philosopher)" title="Vladimir Solovyov (philosopher)">Vladimir Solovyov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Troeltsch" title="Ernst Troeltsch">Ernst Troeltsch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Otto" title="Rudolf Otto">Rudolf Otto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lev_Shestov" title="Lev Shestov">Lev Shestov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergei_Bulgakov" title="Sergei Bulgakov">Sergei Bulgakov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pavel_Florensky" title="Pavel Florensky">Pavel Florensky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Cassirer" title="Ernst Cassirer">Ernst Cassirer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Mar%C3%A9chal" title="Joseph Maréchal">Joseph Maréchal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1920<br />postwar</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">George Santayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Buber" title="Martin Buber">Martin Buber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">René Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tillich" title="Paul Tillich">Paul Tillich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Barth" title="Karl Barth">Karl Barth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emil_Brunner" title="Emil Brunner">Emil Brunner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Bultmann" title="Rudolf Bultmann">Rudolf Bultmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Marcel" title="Gabriel Marcel">Gabriel Marcel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinhold_Niebuhr" title="Reinhold Niebuhr">Reinhold Niebuhr</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Hartshorne" title="Charles Hartshorne">Charles Hartshorne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade">Mircea Eliade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frithjof_Schuon" title="Frithjof Schuon">Frithjof Schuon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Mackie" title="J. L. Mackie">J L Mackie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Kaufmann_(philosopher)" title="Walter Kaufmann (philosopher)">Walter Kaufmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Lings" title="Martin Lings">Martin Lings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Geach" title="Peter Geach">Peter Geach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_I._Mavrodes" title="George I. Mavrodes">George I Mavrodes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Alston" title="William Alston">William Alston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antony_Flew" title="Antony Flew">Antony Flew</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1970<br />1990<br />2010</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_L._Rowe" title="William L. Rowe">William L Rowe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dewi_Zephaniah_Phillips" title="Dewi Zephaniah Phillips">Dewi Z Phillips</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Kenny" title="Anthony Kenny">Anthony Kenny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Wolterstorff" title="Nicholas Wolterstorff">Nicholas Wolterstorff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Swinburne" title="Richard Swinburne">Richard Swinburne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Merrihew_Adams" title="Robert Merrihew Adams">Robert Merrihew Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravi_Zacharias" title="Ravi Zacharias">Ravi Zacharias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_van_Inwagen" title="Peter van Inwagen">Peter van Inwagen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Daniel Dennett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyal_Rue" title="Loyal Rue">Loyal Rue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Luc_Marion" title="Jean-Luc Marion">Jean-Luc Marion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lane_Craig" title="William Lane Craig">William Lane Craig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Akbar_Rashad" title="Ali Akbar Rashad">Ali Akbar Rashad</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pruss" title="Alexander Pruss">Alexander Pruss</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_religion" title="Criticism of religion">Criticism of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desacralization_of_knowledge" title="Desacralization of knowledge">Desacralization of knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_in_religion" title="Ethics in religion">Ethics in religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exegesis" title="Exegesis">Exegesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion" title="History of religion">History of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_religious_language" title="Problem of religious language">Religious language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_philosophy" title="Religious philosophy">Religious philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_religion_articles" title="Index of philosophy of religion articles">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" 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4em">Branches</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy#Branches" title="Outline of philosophy">Branches</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_philosophy" title="Applied philosophy">Applied philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Metaphilosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Philosophy of information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">Philosophy of mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Philosophy of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practical_philosophy" title="Practical philosophy">Practical philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_philosophy" title="Theoretical philosophy">Theoretical philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_emotions" title="Aesthetic emotions">Aesthetic response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formalism_(art)" title="Formalism (art)">Formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_theory_of_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Institutional theory of art">Institutionalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_particularism" title="Epistemological particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deontology" title="Deontology">Deontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compatibilism" title="Compatibilism">Compatibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_determinism" title="Hard determinism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incompatibilism" title="Incompatibilism">Incompatibilism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_incompatibilism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hard incompatibilism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergentism" title="Emergentism">Emergentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Normativity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Event_(philosophy)" title="Event (philosophy)">Event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">Process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conceptualism" title="Conceptualism">Conceptualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_era" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By era</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">By era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculturalism" title="Agriculturalism">Agriculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">Logicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">Chinese naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangism" title="Yangism">Yangism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greco-</a><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Roman</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Presocratic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_School_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionian School (philosophy)">Ionians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academic_Skepticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic Skepticism">Academic Skepticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Platonism" title="Middle Platonism">Middle Platonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_the_Sextii" title="School of the Sextii">School of the Sextii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagoreanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sophistic" title="Second Sophistic">Second Sophistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80j%C4%ABvika" title="Ājīvika">Ājīvika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aj%C3%B1ana" title="Ajñana">Ajñana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Cārvāka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anekantavada" title="Anekantavada">Anekantavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sy%C4%81dv%C4%81da" class="mw-redirect" title="Syādvāda">Syādvāda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvāstivadā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pudgalavada" title="Pudgalavada">Pudgalavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sautr%C4%81ntika" title="Sautrāntika">Sautrāntika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svatantrika%E2%80%93Prasa%E1%B9%85gika_distinction" title="Svatantrika–Prasaṅgika distinction">Svatantrika and Prasangika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogacara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Persian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mazdakism" title="Mazdakism">Mazdakism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">East Asian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Neotaoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Korean Confucianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustinianism" title="Augustinianism">Augustinianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotism" title="Scotism">Scotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occamism" title="Occamism">Occamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Indian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achintya_Bheda_Abheda" title="Achintya Bheda Abheda">Acintya bheda abheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhedabheda" title="Bhedabheda">Bhedabheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dvaita_Vedanta" title="Dvaita Vedanta">Dvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimbarka_Sampradaya" title="Nimbarka Sampradaya">Nimbarka Sampradaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuddhadvaita" title="Shuddhadvaita">Shuddhadvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Nyāya">Navya-Nyāya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Illuminationism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">ʿIlm al-Kalām</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">Sufi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)" title="Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)">Judeo-Islamic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Realism" title="Classical Realism">Classical Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivism_and_individualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivism and individualism">Collectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edo_neo-Confucianism" title="Edo neo-Confucianism">Edo neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">Anti-</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">Absolute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objective_idealism" title="Objective idealism">Objective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">Subjective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokugaku" title="Kokugaku">Kokugaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-scholasticism" title="Neo-scholasticism">Neo-scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaardianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krausism" title="Krausism">Krausism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newtonianism" title="Newtonianism">Newtonianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzscheanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinozism" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Analytic feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Analytical Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_philosophy" title="Experimental philosophy">Experimental philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsificationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and externalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Moral realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Quinean naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postanalytic_philosophy" title="Postanalytic philosophy">Postanalytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawlsian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemics" title="Systemics">Systemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transactionalism" title="Transactionalism">Transactionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism#Developments_in_the_20th_century" title="Utilitarianism">Contemporary utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgensteinian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Marxism" title="Neo-Marxism">Neo-Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_historicism" title="New historicism">New Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posthumanism" title="Posthumanism">Posthumanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">Postmodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western Marxism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_School" title="Kyoto School">Kyoto School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism" title="Objectivism">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcritique" title="Postcritique">Postcritique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_cosmism" title="Russian cosmism">Russian cosmism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_region" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>By region</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy#Philosophic_traditions_by_region" title="Outline of philosophy">By region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ubuntu_philosophy" title="Ubuntu philosophy">Bantu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_philosophy" title="Ethiopian philosophy">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africana_philosophy" title="Africana philosophy">Africana</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" 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