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<span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Early skyscrapers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_skyscrapers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rise_of_modernism_in_Europe_and_Russia_(1918–1931)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rise_of_modernism_in_Europe_and_Russia_(1918–1931)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Rise of modernism in Europe and Russia (1918–1931)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Rise_of_modernism_in_Europe_and_Russia_(1918–1931)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Rise of modernism in Europe and Russia (1918–1931) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Rise_of_modernism_in_Europe_and_Russia_(1918–1931)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-International_Style_(1920s–1970s)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#International_Style_(1920s–1970s)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>International Style (1920s–1970s)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-International_Style_(1920s–1970s)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bauhaus_and_the_German_Werkbund_(1919–1933)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bauhaus_and_the_German_Werkbund_(1919–1933)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Bauhaus and the German Werkbund (1919–1933)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bauhaus_and_the_German_Werkbund_(1919–1933)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Expressionist_architecture_(1918–1931)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Expressionist_architecture_(1918–1931)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Expressionist architecture (1918–1931)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Expressionist_architecture_(1918–1931)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Constructivist_architecture_(1919–1931)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Constructivist_architecture_(1919–1931)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Constructivist architecture (1919–1931)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Constructivist_architecture_(1919–1931)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-New_Objectivity_(1920–1933)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_Objectivity_(1920–1933)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>New Objectivity (1920–1933)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_Objectivity_(1920–1933)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modernism_becomes_a_movement:_CIAM_(1928)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modernism_becomes_a_movement:_CIAM_(1928)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Modernism becomes a movement: CIAM (1928)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modernism_becomes_a_movement:_CIAM_(1928)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Art_Deco" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Art_Deco"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Art Deco</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Art_Deco-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Art Deco subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Art_Deco-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-American_Art_Deco;_the_skyscraper_style_(1919–1939)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#American_Art_Deco;_the_skyscraper_style_(1919–1939)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>American Art Deco; the skyscraper style (1919–1939)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-American_Art_Deco;_the_skyscraper_style_(1919–1939)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Streamline_style_and_Public_Works_Administration_(1933–1939)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Streamline_style_and_Public_Works_Administration_(1933–1939)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Streamline style and Public Works Administration (1933–1939)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Streamline_style_and_Public_Works_Administration_(1933–1939)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-American_modernism_(1919–1939)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#American_modernism_(1919–1939)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>American modernism (1919–1939)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-American_modernism_(1919–1939)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Paris_International_Exposition_of_1937_and_the_architecture_of_dictators" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Paris_International_Exposition_of_1937_and_the_architecture_of_dictators"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Paris International Exposition of 1937 and the architecture of dictators</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Paris_International_Exposition_of_1937_and_the_architecture_of_dictators-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-New_York_World's_Fair_(1939)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_York_World's_Fair_(1939)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>New York World's Fair (1939)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_York_World's_Fair_(1939)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-World_War_II:_wartime_innovation_and_postwar_reconstruction_(1939–1945)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_War_II:_wartime_innovation_and_postwar_reconstruction_(1939–1945)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>World War II: wartime innovation and postwar reconstruction (1939–1945)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-World_War_II:_wartime_innovation_and_postwar_reconstruction_(1939–1945)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Le_Corbusier_and_the_Cité_Radieuse_(1947–1952)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Le_Corbusier_and_the_Cité_Radieuse_(1947–1952)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Le Corbusier and the <i>Cité Radieuse</i> (1947–1952)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Le_Corbusier_and_the_Cité_Radieuse_(1947–1952)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Team_X_and_the_1953_International_Congress_of_Modern_Architecture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Team_X_and_the_1953_International_Congress_of_Modern_Architecture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Team X and the 1953 International Congress of Modern Architecture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Team_X_and_the_1953_International_Congress_of_Modern_Architecture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_modernist_architecture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_modernist_architecture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Late modernist architecture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_modernist_architecture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Postwar_modernism_in_the_United_States_(1945–1985)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Postwar_modernism_in_the_United_States_(1945–1985)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Postwar modernism in the United States (1945–1985)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Postwar_modernism_in_the_United_States_(1945–1985)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Postwar modernism in the United States (1945–1985) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Postwar_modernism_in_the_United_States_(1945–1985)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Frank_Lloyd_Wright_and_the_Guggenheim_Museum" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Frank_Lloyd_Wright_and_the_Guggenheim_Museum"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.1</span> <span>Frank Lloyd Wright and the Guggenheim Museum</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Frank_Lloyd_Wright_and_the_Guggenheim_Museum-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Walter_Gropius_and_Marcel_Breuer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Walter_Gropius_and_Marcel_Breuer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.2</span> <span>Walter Gropius and Marcel Breuer</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Walter_Gropius_and_Marcel_Breuer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ludwig_Mies_van_der_Rohe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ludwig_Mies_van_der_Rohe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.3</span> <span>Ludwig Mies van der Rohe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ludwig_Mies_van_der_Rohe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Richard_Neutra_and_Charles_and_Ray_Eames" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Richard_Neutra_and_Charles_and_Ray_Eames"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.4</span> <span>Richard Neutra and Charles and Ray Eames</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Richard_Neutra_and_Charles_and_Ray_Eames-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Skidmore,_Owings_and_Merrill_and_Wallace_K._Harrison" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Skidmore,_Owings_and_Merrill_and_Wallace_K._Harrison"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.5</span> <span>Skidmore, Owings and Merrill and Wallace K. Harrison</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Skidmore,_Owings_and_Merrill_and_Wallace_K._Harrison-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philip_Johnson" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philip_Johnson"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.6</span> <span>Philip Johnson</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philip_Johnson-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eero_Saarinen" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eero_Saarinen"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.7</span> <span>Eero Saarinen</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eero_Saarinen-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Louis_Kahn" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Louis_Kahn"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.8</span> <span>Louis Kahn</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Louis_Kahn-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-I._M._Pei" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#I._M._Pei"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.9</span> <span>I. M. Pei</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-I._M._Pei-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fazlur_Rahman_Khan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fazlur_Rahman_Khan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.10</span> <span>Fazlur Rahman Khan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fazlur_Rahman_Khan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Minoru_Yamasaki" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Minoru_Yamasaki"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.11</span> <span>Minoru Yamasaki</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Minoru_Yamasaki-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Postwar_modernism_in_Europe_(1945–1975)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Postwar_modernism_in_Europe_(1945–1975)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Postwar modernism in Europe (1945–1975)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Postwar_modernism_in_Europe_(1945–1975)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tropical_Modernism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tropical_Modernism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>Tropical Modernism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tropical_Modernism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Latin_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Latin_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>Latin America</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Latin_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Asia_and_Australia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Asia_and_Australia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17</span> <span>Asia and Australia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Asia_and_Australia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">18</span> <span>Africa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Preservation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Preservation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">19</span> <span>Preservation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Preservation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">20</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">21</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">22</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">23</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">24</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Modern architecture</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 52 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-52" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">52 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moderne_(Architektur)" title="Moderne (Architektur) – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Moderne (Architektur)" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%AB%D8%A9" title="عمارة الحداثة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="عمارة الحداثة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Movimientu_Modernu" title="Movimientu Modernu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Movimientu Modernu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hi%C4%81n-t%C4%81i_ki%C3%A0n-tio%CC%8Dk" title="Hiān-tāi kiàn-tio̍k – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Hiān-tāi kiàn-tio̍k" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%8D%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC_(%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%85%D1%96%D1%82%D1%8D%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0)" title="Мадэрнізм (архітэктура) – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Мадэрнізм (архітэктура)" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%85%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Модернистична архитектура – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Модернистична архитектура" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moderna_arhitektura" title="Moderna arhitektura – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Moderna arhitektura" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luskad_modern" title="Luskad modern – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Luskad modern" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arquitectura_moderna" title="Arquitectura moderna – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Arquitectura moderna" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern%C3%AD_architektura" title="Moderní architektura – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Moderní architektura" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pensaern%C3%AFaeth_Fodern" title="Pensaernïaeth Fodern – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Pensaernïaeth Fodern" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moderne_(Architektur)" title="Moderne (Architektur) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Moderne (Architektur)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arquitectura_moderna" title="Arquitectura moderna – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Arquitectura moderna" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moderna_ar%C4%A5itekturo" title="Moderna arĥitekturo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Moderna arĥitekturo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B9%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D9%85%D8%AF%D8%B1%D9%86" title="معماری مدرن – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="معماری مدرن" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture_moderne" title="Architecture moderne – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Architecture moderne" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arquitectura_moderna" title="Arquitectura moderna – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Arquitectura moderna" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B7%BC%EB%8C%80_%EA%B1%B4%EC%B6%95" title="근대 건축 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="근대 건축" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%B8%D5%A4%D5%A5%D5%BC%D5%B6_%D5%B3%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%BF%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%BA%D5%A5%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Մոդեռն ճարտարապետություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Մոդեռն ճարտարապետություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%81" title="आधुनिक वास्तु – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="आधुनिक वास्तु" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moderna_arhitektura" title="Moderna arhitektura – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Moderna arhitektura" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsitektur_modern" title="Arsitektur modern – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Arsitektur modern" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Movimento_Moderno" title="Movimento Moderno – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Movimento Moderno" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%93%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%9B%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%93%D7%A8%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%AA" title="אדריכלות מודרנית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אדריכלות מודרנית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9D%E1%83%93%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A5%E1%83%98%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90" title="მოდერნისტული არქიტექტურა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="მოდერნისტული არქიტექტურა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pennserneth_arnowedhieth" title="Pennserneth arnowedhieth – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Pennserneth arnowedhieth" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernizmo_architekt%C5%ABra" title="Modernizmo architektūra – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Modernizmo architektūra" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%85%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Модерна архитектура – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Модерна архитектура" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%86%E0%B4%A7%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95_%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A6%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF" title="ആധുനിക വാസ്തുവിദ്യ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ആധുനിക വാസ്തുവിദ്യ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE" title="आधुनिक वास्तुकला – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="आधुनिक वास्तुकला" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernisme_(architectuur)" title="Modernisme (architectuur) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Modernisme (architectuur)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%A2%E3%83%80%E3%83%8B%E3%82%BA%E3%83%A0%E5%BB%BA%E7%AF%89" title="モダニズム建築 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="モダニズム建築" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernistisk_arkitektur" title="Modernistisk arkitektur – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Modernistisk arkitektur" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernizm_(architektura)" title="Modernizm (architektura) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Modernizm (architektura)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arquitetura_moderna" title="Arquitetura moderna – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Arquitetura moderna" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arhitectura_modern%C4%83" title="Arhitectura modernă – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Arhitectura modernă" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D1%85%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Архитектурный модернизм – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Архитектурный модернизм" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arkitektura_moderne" title="Arkitektura moderne – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Arkitektura moderne" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern%C3%A1_architekt%C3%BAra" title="Moderná architektúra – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Moderná architektúra" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moderna_arhitektura" title="Moderna arhitektura – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Moderna arhitektura" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%85%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Модерна архитектура – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Модерна архитектура" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moderna_arhitektura" title="Moderna arhitektura – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Moderna arhitektura" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernistinen_arkkitehtuuri" title="Modernistinen arkkitehtuuri – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Modernistinen arkkitehtuuri" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernistisk_arkitektur" title="Modernistisk arkitektur – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Modernistisk arkitektur" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arkitekturang_moderno" title="Arkitekturang moderno – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Arkitekturang moderno" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A8%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%80%E0%AE%A9_%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%88" title="நவீன கட்டிடக்கலை – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="நவீன கட்டிடக்கலை" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%96%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%A2%E0%B9%83%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%A1%E0%B9%88" title="สถาปัตยกรรมสมัยใหม่ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="สถาปัตยกรรมสมัยใหม่" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_mimarl%C4%B1k" title="Modern mimarlık – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Modern mimarlık" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC_(%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%85%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0)" title="Модернізм (архітектура) – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Модернізм (архітектура)" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ki%E1%BA%BFn_tr%C3%BAc_hi%E1%BB%87n_%C4%91%E1%BA%A1i" title="Kiến trúc hiện đại – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Kiến trúc hiện đại" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%BB%BA%E7%AF%89" title="現代建築 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="現代建築" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%8E%B0%E4%BB%A3%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89%E5%BB%BA%E7%AD%91" title="现代主义建筑 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="现代主义建筑" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> 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.hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about modern movement architecture. For architecture in the present day, see <a href="/wiki/Contemporary_architecture" title="Contemporary architecture">contemporary architecture</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent"><caption class="infobox-title summary">Modern architecture</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div style="background-color:#F9F9F9;border-collapse:collapse;border:1px solid #AAAAAA;width:300px;display:table;margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><div style="display:table-row"><div style="display:table-cell;border-top:0;padding:1px 0 0 1px"><div style="display:table;background-color:#F9F9F9;border-collapse:collapse"><div style="display:table-row"><div style="display:table-cell;border-top:0;padding:0 1px 1px 0"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:VillaSavoye.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/3c/VillaSavoye.jpg/149px-VillaSavoye.jpg" decoding="async" width="149" height="112" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/3c/VillaSavoye.jpg/224px-VillaSavoye.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/3c/VillaSavoye.jpg/298px-VillaSavoye.jpg 2x" data-file-width="792" data-file-height="594" /></a></span></div><div style="display:table-cell;border-top:0;padding:0 1px 1px 0"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Empire_State_Building_panoramic_Jun_2013.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Empire_State_Building_panoramic_Jun_2013.jpg/149px-Empire_State_Building_panoramic_Jun_2013.jpg" decoding="async" width="149" height="112" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Empire_State_Building_panoramic_Jun_2013.jpg/224px-Empire_State_Building_panoramic_Jun_2013.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Empire_State_Building_panoramic_Jun_2013.jpg/298px-Empire_State_Building_panoramic_Jun_2013.jpg 2x" data-file-width="599" data-file-height="449" /></a></span></div></div></div><div style="display:table;background-color:#F9F9F9;border-collapse:collapse"><div style="display:table-row"><div style="display:table-cell;border-top:0;padding:0 1px 1px 0"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:PlanaltoBr.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/PlanaltoBr.jpg/149px-PlanaltoBr.jpg" decoding="async" width="149" height="98" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/PlanaltoBr.jpg/224px-PlanaltoBr.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/PlanaltoBr.jpg/298px-PlanaltoBr.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="657" /></a></span></div><div style="display:table-cell;border-top:0;padding:0 1px 1px 0"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Fagus_Gropius_Hauptgebaeude_200705_wiki_front.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Fagus_Gropius_Hauptgebaeude_200705_wiki_front.jpg/149px-Fagus_Gropius_Hauptgebaeude_200705_wiki_front.jpg" decoding="async" width="149" height="89" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Fagus_Gropius_Hauptgebaeude_200705_wiki_front.jpg/224px-Fagus_Gropius_Hauptgebaeude_200705_wiki_front.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Fagus_Gropius_Hauptgebaeude_200705_wiki_front.jpg/298px-Fagus_Gropius_Hauptgebaeude_200705_wiki_front.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></div></div></div><div style="display:table;background-color:#F9F9F9;border-collapse:collapse"><div style="display:table-row"><div style="display:table-cell;border-top:0;padding:0 1px 1px 0"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Fallingwater_-_DSC05643.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Fallingwater_-_DSC05643.JPG/149px-Fallingwater_-_DSC05643.JPG" decoding="async" width="149" height="99" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Fallingwater_-_DSC05643.JPG/224px-Fallingwater_-_DSC05643.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Fallingwater_-_DSC05643.JPG/298px-Fallingwater_-_DSC05643.JPG 2x" data-file-width="5472" data-file-height="3648" /></a></span></div><div style="display:table-cell;border-top:0;padding:0 1px 1px 0"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sydney_Opera_House_Sails_edit02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Sydney_Opera_House_Sails_edit02.jpg/149px-Sydney_Opera_House_Sails_edit02.jpg" decoding="async" width="149" height="98" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Sydney_Opera_House_Sails_edit02.jpg/224px-Sydney_Opera_House_Sails_edit02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Sydney_Opera_House_Sails_edit02.jpg/298px-Sydney_Opera_House_Sails_edit02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="846" /></a></span></div></div></div></div></div></div><div class="infobox-caption">Top: <a href="/wiki/Villa_Savoye" title="Villa Savoye">Villa Savoye</a>, France, by <a href="/wiki/Le_Corbusier" title="Le Corbusier">Le Corbusier</a> (1927); <a href="/wiki/Empire_State_Building" title="Empire State Building">Empire State Building</a>, New York, by <a href="/wiki/Shreve,_Lamb_%26_Harmon" title="Shreve, Lamb & Harmon">Shreve, Lamb & Harmon</a> (1931)<br />Center: <a href="/wiki/Pal%C3%A1cio_do_Planalto" title="Palácio do Planalto">Palácio do Planalto</a>, Brasília, by <a href="/wiki/Oscar_Niemeyer" title="Oscar Niemeyer">Oscar Niemeyer</a> (1960); <a href="/wiki/Fagus_Factory" title="Fagus Factory">Fagus Factory</a>, Germany, by <a href="/wiki/Walter_Gropius" title="Walter Gropius">Walter Gropius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Meyer_(architect)" title="Adolf Meyer (architect)">Adolf Meyer</a> (1911–1913)<br />Bottom: <a href="/wiki/Fallingwater" title="Fallingwater">Fallingwater</a>, Pennsylvania, by <a href="/wiki/Frank_Lloyd_Wright" title="Frank Lloyd Wright">Frank Lloyd Wright</a> (1935); <a href="/wiki/Sydney_Opera_House" title="Sydney Opera House">Sydney Opera House</a>, Sydney, Australia, by <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B8rn_Utzon" title="Jørn Utzon">Jørn Utzon</a> (1973)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Years active</th><td class="infobox-data">1920s–1980s</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Location</th><td class="infobox-data">International</td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Modern architecture</b>, also called <b>modernist architecture</b>, was an <a href="/wiki/Architectural" class="mw-redirect" title="Architectural">architectural</a> <a href="/wiki/Architectural_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Architectural movement">movement</a> and <a href="/wiki/Architectural_style" title="Architectural style">style</a> that was prominent in the 20th century, between the earlier <a href="/wiki/Art_Deco_Architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Art Deco Architecture">Art Deco</a> and later <a href="/wiki/Postmodern_architecture" title="Postmodern architecture">postmodern</a> movements. Modern architecture was based upon new and innovative technologies of construction (particularly the use of <a href="/wiki/Glass" title="Glass">glass</a>, <a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">steel</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Concrete" title="Concrete">concrete</a>); the principle <a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(architecture)" title="Functionalism (architecture)">functionalism</a> (i.e. that <a href="/wiki/Form_follows_function" title="Form follows function">form should follow function</a>); an embrace of <a href="/wiki/Minimalism" title="Minimalism">minimalism</a>; and a rejection of <a href="/wiki/Ornament_(art)" title="Ornament (art)">ornament</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Le_Corbusier" title="Le Corbusier">Le Corbusier</a>, the roots of the movement were to be found in the works of <a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Viollet-le-Duc" title="Eugène Viollet-le-Duc">Eugène Viollet le duc</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while <a href="/wiki/Mies_van_der_Rohe" class="mw-redirect" title="Mies van der Rohe">Mies van der Rohe</a> was heavily inspired by <a href="/wiki/Karl_Friedrich_Schinkel" title="Karl Friedrich Schinkel">Karl Friedrich Schinkel</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The movement emerged in the first half of the 20th century and became dominant after <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> until the 1980s, when it was gradually replaced as the principal style for institutional and <a href="/wiki/Corporation" title="Corporation">corporate</a> buildings by <a href="/wiki/Postmodern_architecture" title="Postmodern architecture">postmodern architecture</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETietz19996–10_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETietz19996–10-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origins">Origins</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_architecture&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Origins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></div> <p>Modern architecture emerged at the end of the 19th century from revolutions in technology, engineering, and building materials, and from a desire to break away from historical architectural styles and invent something that was purely functional and new. </p><p>The revolution in materials came first, with the use of <a href="/wiki/Cast_iron" title="Cast iron">cast iron</a>, <a href="/wiki/Drywall" title="Drywall">drywall</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plate_glass" title="Plate glass">plate glass</a>, and reinforced concrete, to build structures that were stronger, lighter, and taller. The <a href="/wiki/Cast_plate_glass" class="mw-redirect" title="Cast plate glass">cast plate glass</a> process was invented in 1848, allowing the manufacture of very large windows. <a href="/wiki/The_Crystal_Palace" title="The Crystal Palace">The Crystal Palace</a> by <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Paxton" title="Joseph Paxton">Joseph Paxton</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Great_Exhibition" title="Great Exhibition">Great Exhibition</a> of 1851 was an early example of iron and plate glass construction, followed in 1864 by the first glass and metal <a href="/wiki/Curtain_wall_(architecture)" title="Curtain wall (architecture)">curtain wall</a>. These developments together led to the first steel-framed skyscraper, the ten-story <a href="/wiki/Home_Insurance_Building" title="Home Insurance Building">Home Insurance Building</a> in Chicago, built in 1884 by <a href="/wiki/William_Le_Baron_Jenney" title="William Le Baron Jenney">William Le Baron Jenney</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBony201242–43_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBony201242–43-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and based on the works of Viollet le Duc. </p><p>French industrialist François Coignet was the first to use iron-reinforced concrete, that is, concrete strengthened with iron bars, as a technique for constructing buildings.<sup id="cite_ref-britannia_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-britannia-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1853 Coignet built the first iron reinforced concrete structure, a four-storey house in the suburbs of Paris.<sup id="cite_ref-britannia_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-britannia-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A further important step forward was the invention of the safety <a href="/wiki/Elevator" title="Elevator">elevator</a> by <a href="/wiki/Elisha_Otis" title="Elisha Otis">Elisha Otis</a>, first demonstrated at the <a href="/wiki/New_York_Crystal_Palace" title="New York Crystal Palace">New York Crystal Palace</a> exposition in 1854, which made tall office and apartment buildings practical.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBony201242_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBony201242-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another important technology for the new architecture was electric light, which greatly reduced the inherent danger of fires caused by gas in the 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBony201216_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBony201216-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 192px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 190px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bauakademie_Schinkel_(Eduard_Gaertner).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Berlin Bauakademie, by Karl Friedrich Schinkel (1832–36), is considered one of the forerunners of modern architecture due to its hithertofore relatively streamlined façade of the building"><img alt="The Berlin Bauakademie, by Karl Friedrich Schinkel (1832–36), is considered one of the forerunners of modern architecture due to its hithertofore relatively streamlined façade of the building" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Bauakademie_Schinkel_%28Eduard_Gaertner%29.jpg/285px-Bauakademie_Schinkel_%28Eduard_Gaertner%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Bauakademie_Schinkel_%28Eduard_Gaertner%29.jpg/428px-Bauakademie_Schinkel_%28Eduard_Gaertner%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Bauakademie_Schinkel_%28Eduard_Gaertner%29.jpg/570px-Bauakademie_Schinkel_%28Eduard_Gaertner%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2370" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The Berlin <a href="/wiki/Bauakademie" title="Bauakademie">Bauakademie</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Karl_Friedrich_Schinkel" title="Karl Friedrich Schinkel">Karl Friedrich Schinkel</a> (1832–36), is considered one of the forerunners of modern architecture due to its hithertofore relatively streamlined <a href="/wiki/Fa%C3%A7ade" title="Façade">façade</a> of the building</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 211.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 209.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Crystal_Palace.PNG" class="mw-file-description" title="The Crystal Palace (1851) was one of the first buildings to have cast plate glass windows supported by a cast-iron frame"><img alt="The Crystal Palace (1851) was one of the first buildings to have cast plate glass windows supported by a cast-iron frame" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Crystal_Palace.PNG/314px-Crystal_Palace.PNG" decoding="async" width="210" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Crystal_Palace.PNG/472px-Crystal_Palace.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f0/Crystal_Palace.PNG 2x" data-file-width="476" data-file-height="341" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/The_Crystal_Palace" title="The Crystal Palace">The Crystal Palace</a> (1851) was one of the first buildings to have <a href="/wiki/Cast_plate_glass" class="mw-redirect" title="Cast plate glass">cast plate glass</a> windows supported by a <a href="/wiki/Cast-iron" class="mw-redirect" title="Cast-iron">cast-iron</a> frame</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 183.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 181.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Maison_Fran%C3%A7ois_Coignet_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The first house built of reinforced concrete, designed by François Coignet (1853) in Saint-Denis near Paris"><img alt="The first house built of reinforced concrete, designed by François Coignet (1853) in Saint-Denis near Paris" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Maison_Fran%C3%A7ois_Coignet_2.jpg/272px-Maison_Fran%C3%A7ois_Coignet_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="182" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Maison_Fran%C3%A7ois_Coignet_2.jpg/408px-Maison_Fran%C3%A7ois_Coignet_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Maison_Fran%C3%A7ois_Coignet_2.jpg/544px-Maison_Fran%C3%A7ois_Coignet_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2552" data-file-height="2113" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The first house built of reinforced concrete, designed by François Coignet (1853) in <a href="/wiki/Saint-Denis,_Seine-Saint-Denis" title="Saint-Denis, Seine-Saint-Denis">Saint-Denis</a> near Paris</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 114.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 112.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Home_Insurance_Building.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="The Home Insurance Building in Chicago, by William Le Baron Jenney (1884)"><img alt="The Home Insurance Building in Chicago, by William Le Baron Jenney (1884)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Home_Insurance_Building.JPG/169px-Home_Insurance_Building.JPG" decoding="async" width="113" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Home_Insurance_Building.JPG/253px-Home_Insurance_Building.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Home_Insurance_Building.JPG/337px-Home_Insurance_Building.JPG 2x" data-file-width="660" data-file-height="880" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Home_Insurance_Building" title="Home Insurance Building">Home Insurance Building</a> in Chicago, by <a href="/wiki/William_Le_Baron_Jenney" title="William Le Baron Jenney">William Le Baron Jenney</a> (1884)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 119.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 117.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Construction_tour_eiffel5.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="The Eiffel Tower being constructed (August 1887–89)"><img alt="The Eiffel Tower being constructed (August 1887–89)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Construction_tour_eiffel5.JPG/176px-Construction_tour_eiffel5.JPG" decoding="async" width="118" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Construction_tour_eiffel5.JPG/264px-Construction_tour_eiffel5.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Construction_tour_eiffel5.JPG/351px-Construction_tour_eiffel5.JPG 2x" data-file-width="431" data-file-height="552" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Eiffel_Tower" title="Eiffel Tower">Eiffel Tower</a> being constructed (August 1887–89)</div> </li> </ul> <p>The debut of new materials and techniques inspired architects to break away from the neoclassical and eclectic models that dominated European and American architecture in the late 19th century, most notably <a href="/wiki/Eclecticism_in_art" title="Eclecticism in art">eclecticism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Victorian_architecture" title="Victorian architecture">Victorian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Edwardian_architecture" title="Edwardian architecture">Edwardian architecture</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Beaux-Arts_architecture" title="Beaux-Arts architecture">Beaux-Arts architectural style</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This break with the past was particularly urged by the architectural theorist and historian <a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Viollet-le-Duc" title="Eugène Viollet-le-Duc">Eugène Viollet-le-Duc</a>. In his 1872 book <i>Entretiens sur L'Architecture</i>, he urged: "use the means and knowledge given to us by our times, without the intervening traditions which are no longer viable today, and in that way we can inaugurate a new architecture. For each function its material; for each material its form and its ornament."<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This book influenced a generation of architects, including <a href="/wiki/Louis_Sullivan" title="Louis Sullivan">Louis Sullivan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Victor_Horta" title="Victor Horta">Victor Horta</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hector_Guimard" title="Hector Guimard">Hector Guimard</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Antoni_Gaud%C3%AD" title="Antoni Gaudí">Antoni Gaudí</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBouillon198524_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBouillon198524-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_modernism_in_Europe_(1900–1914)"><span id="Early_modernism_in_Europe_.281900.E2.80.931914.29"></span>Early modernism in Europe (1900–1914)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_architecture&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Early modernism in Europe (1900–1914)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 202px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Schoolofart1.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Glasgow School of Art by Charles Rennie Mackintosh (1896–99)"><img alt="The Glasgow School of Art by Charles Rennie Mackintosh (1896–99)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Schoolofart1.jpg/300px-Schoolofart1.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Schoolofart1.jpg/451px-Schoolofart1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Schoolofart1.jpg/600px-Schoolofart1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Glasgow_School_of_Art" title="Glasgow School of Art">Glasgow School of Art</a> by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Rennie_Mackintosh" title="Charles Rennie Mackintosh">Charles Rennie Mackintosh</a> (1896–99)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 102px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 100px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:25bis_rue_Benjamin-Franklin_(25437741212).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Reinforced concrete apartment building by Auguste Perret, Paris (1903)"><img alt="Reinforced concrete apartment building by Auguste Perret, Paris (1903)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/25bis_rue_Benjamin-Franklin_%2825437741212%29.jpg/150px-25bis_rue_Benjamin-Franklin_%2825437741212%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/25bis_rue_Benjamin-Franklin_%2825437741212%29.jpg/225px-25bis_rue_Benjamin-Franklin_%2825437741212%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/25bis_rue_Benjamin-Franklin_%2825437741212%29.jpg/300px-25bis_rue_Benjamin-Franklin_%2825437741212%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="5472" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Reinforced concrete apartment building by <a href="/wiki/Auguste_Perret" title="Auguste Perret">Auguste Perret</a>, Paris (1903)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 227.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 225.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Vienna_-_PSK_Otto_Wagner%27s_Postsparkasse_-_5977.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Austrian Postal Savings Bank in Vienna by Otto Wagner (1904–1906)"><img alt="Austrian Postal Savings Bank in Vienna by Otto Wagner (1904–1906)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Vienna_-_PSK_Otto_Wagner%27s_Postsparkasse_-_5977.jpg/338px-Vienna_-_PSK_Otto_Wagner%27s_Postsparkasse_-_5977.jpg" decoding="async" width="226" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Vienna_-_PSK_Otto_Wagner%27s_Postsparkasse_-_5977.jpg/507px-Vienna_-_PSK_Otto_Wagner%27s_Postsparkasse_-_5977.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Vienna_-_PSK_Otto_Wagner%27s_Postsparkasse_-_5977.jpg/675px-Vienna_-_PSK_Otto_Wagner%27s_Postsparkasse_-_5977.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4368" data-file-height="2912" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Postal_Savings_Bank" title="Austrian Postal Savings Bank">Austrian Postal Savings Bank</a> in Vienna by <a href="/wiki/Otto_Wagner" title="Otto Wagner">Otto Wagner</a> (1904–1906)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 206.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 204.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Berlin_AEG_Turbinenfabrik.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The AEG turbine factory in Berlin by Peter Behrens (1909)"><img alt="The AEG turbine factory in Berlin by Peter Behrens (1909)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Berlin_AEG_Turbinenfabrik.jpg/307px-Berlin_AEG_Turbinenfabrik.jpg" decoding="async" width="205" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Berlin_AEG_Turbinenfabrik.jpg/460px-Berlin_AEG_Turbinenfabrik.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Berlin_AEG_Turbinenfabrik.jpg/613px-Berlin_AEG_Turbinenfabrik.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1410" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/AEG_turbine_factory" title="AEG turbine factory">AEG turbine factory</a> in Berlin by <a href="/wiki/Peter_Behrens" title="Peter Behrens">Peter Behrens</a> (1909)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 206.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 204.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Casa_Steiner_-_Foto_Fachada_Trasera.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Steiner House in Vienna by Adolf Loos, main façade (1910)"><img alt="The Steiner House in Vienna by Adolf Loos, main façade (1910)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Casa_Steiner_-_Foto_Fachada_Trasera.jpg/307px-Casa_Steiner_-_Foto_Fachada_Trasera.jpg" decoding="async" width="205" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Casa_Steiner_-_Foto_Fachada_Trasera.jpg/461px-Casa_Steiner_-_Foto_Fachada_Trasera.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Casa_Steiner_-_Foto_Fachada_Trasera.jpg/614px-Casa_Steiner_-_Foto_Fachada_Trasera.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="469" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Steiner_House" title="Steiner House">Steiner House</a> in Vienna by <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Loos" title="Adolf Loos">Adolf Loos</a>, main façade (1910)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 202px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Woluwe-St-Pierre_-_Hoffmann_050917_(1).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Stoclet Palace by Josef Hoffmann, Brussels, (1906–1911)"><img alt="Stoclet Palace by Josef Hoffmann, Brussels, (1906–1911)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Woluwe-St-Pierre_-_Hoffmann_050917_%281%29.jpg/300px-Woluwe-St-Pierre_-_Hoffmann_050917_%281%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Woluwe-St-Pierre_-_Hoffmann_050917_%281%29.jpg/451px-Woluwe-St-Pierre_-_Hoffmann_050917_%281%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Woluwe-St-Pierre_-_Hoffmann_050917_%281%29.jpg/600px-Woluwe-St-Pierre_-_Hoffmann_050917_%281%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Stoclet_Palace" title="Stoclet Palace">Stoclet Palace</a> by <a href="/wiki/Josef_Hoffmann" title="Josef Hoffmann">Josef Hoffmann</a>, Brussels, (1906–1911)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 202px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Th%C3%A9%C3%A2tre_des_Champs-%C3%89lys%C3%A9es_DSC09330.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Théâtre des Champs-Élysées in Paris by Auguste Perret (1911–1913)"><img alt="The Théâtre des Champs-Élysées in Paris by Auguste Perret (1911–1913)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Th%C3%A9%C3%A2tre_des_Champs-%C3%89lys%C3%A9es_DSC09330.jpg/300px-Th%C3%A9%C3%A2tre_des_Champs-%C3%89lys%C3%A9es_DSC09330.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Th%C3%A9%C3%A2tre_des_Champs-%C3%89lys%C3%A9es_DSC09330.jpg/451px-Th%C3%A9%C3%A2tre_des_Champs-%C3%89lys%C3%A9es_DSC09330.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Th%C3%A9%C3%A2tre_des_Champs-%C3%89lys%C3%A9es_DSC09330.jpg/600px-Th%C3%A9%C3%A2tre_des_Champs-%C3%89lys%C3%A9es_DSC09330.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4320" data-file-height="3240" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9%C3%A2tre_des_Champs-%C3%89lys%C3%A9es" title="Théâtre des Champs-Élysées">Théâtre des Champs-Élysées</a> in Paris by <a href="/wiki/Auguste_Perret" title="Auguste Perret">Auguste Perret</a> (1911–1913)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 202px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:01Sauvage26rueVavin.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Stepped concrete apartment building in Paris by Henri Sauvage (1912–1914)"><img alt="Stepped concrete apartment building in Paris by Henri Sauvage (1912–1914)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/01Sauvage26rueVavin.JPG/300px-01Sauvage26rueVavin.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/01Sauvage26rueVavin.JPG/451px-01Sauvage26rueVavin.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/01Sauvage26rueVavin.JPG/600px-01Sauvage26rueVavin.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="900" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Stepped concrete apartment building in Paris by <a href="/wiki/Henri_Sauvage" title="Henri Sauvage">Henri Sauvage</a> (1912–1914)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 217.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 215.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%8F_ginsburg4.PNG" class="mw-file-description" title="The Ginsburg skyscraper in Kyiv (1910–1912) by Adolf Minkus and Fyodor Troupianskyi, Europe's tallest building by roof height before 1925."><img alt="The Ginsburg skyscraper in Kyiv (1910–1912) by Adolf Minkus and Fyodor Troupianskyi, Europe's tallest building by roof height before 1925." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%8F_ginsburg4.PNG/323px-%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%8F_ginsburg4.PNG" decoding="async" width="216" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c3/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%8F_ginsburg4.PNG 1.5x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="244" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/The_Ginsburg_skyscraper" class="mw-redirect" title="The Ginsburg skyscraper">The Ginsburg skyscraper</a> in <a href="/wiki/Kyiv" title="Kyiv">Kyiv</a> (1910–1912) by Adolf Minkus and Fyodor Troupianskyi, Europe's tallest building by roof height before 1925. </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 230.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 228.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wroclaw_-_Hala_Stulecia_z_fontanna.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Centennial Hall in Wrocław by Max Berg (1911–1913)"><img alt="The Centennial Hall in Wrocław by Max Berg (1911–1913)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Wroclaw_-_Hala_Stulecia_z_fontanna.jpg/343px-Wroclaw_-_Hala_Stulecia_z_fontanna.jpg" decoding="async" width="229" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Wroclaw_-_Hala_Stulecia_z_fontanna.jpg/515px-Wroclaw_-_Hala_Stulecia_z_fontanna.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Wroclaw_-_Hala_Stulecia_z_fontanna.jpg/686px-Wroclaw_-_Hala_Stulecia_z_fontanna.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4514" data-file-height="2962" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Hala_Stulecia_(Wroc%C5%82aw)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hala Stulecia (Wrocław)">Centennial Hall</a> in <a href="/wiki/Wroc%C5%82aw" title="Wrocław">Wrocław</a> by <a href="/wiki/Max_Berg" title="Max Berg">Max Berg</a> (1911–1913)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 202px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Fagus-Werke-01.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Fagus Factory in Alfeld by Walter Gropius and Adolf Meyer (1911–13)"><img alt="The Fagus Factory in Alfeld by Walter Gropius and Adolf Meyer (1911–13)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Fagus-Werke-01.jpg/300px-Fagus-Werke-01.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Fagus-Werke-01.jpg/451px-Fagus-Werke-01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Fagus-Werke-01.jpg/600px-Fagus-Werke-01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1152" data-file-height="864" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Fagus_Factory" title="Fagus Factory">Fagus Factory</a> in <a href="/wiki/Alfeld" title="Alfeld">Alfeld</a> by <a href="/wiki/Walter_Gropius" title="Walter Gropius">Walter Gropius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Meyer_(architect)" title="Adolf Meyer (architect)">Adolf Meyer</a> (1911–13)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 166px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 164px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Taut_Glass_Pavilion_exterior_1914.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Glass Pavilion in Cologne by German architect Bruno Taut (1914)"><img alt="The Glass Pavilion in Cologne by German architect Bruno Taut (1914)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Taut_Glass_Pavilion_exterior_1914.jpg/246px-Taut_Glass_Pavilion_exterior_1914.jpg" decoding="async" width="164" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Taut_Glass_Pavilion_exterior_1914.jpg/369px-Taut_Glass_Pavilion_exterior_1914.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Taut_Glass_Pavilion_exterior_1914.jpg/492px-Taut_Glass_Pavilion_exterior_1914.jpg 2x" data-file-width="567" data-file-height="519" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Glass_Pavilion" title="Glass Pavilion">Glass Pavilion</a> in <a href="/wiki/Cologne" title="Cologne">Cologne</a> by German architect <a href="/wiki/Bruno_Taut" title="Bruno Taut">Bruno Taut</a> (1914) </div> </li> </ul> <p>At the end of the 19th century, a few architects began to challenge the traditional <a href="/wiki/Beaux-Arts_architecture" title="Beaux-Arts architecture">Beaux Arts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_architecture" title="Neoclassical architecture">Neoclassical</a> styles that dominated architecture in Europe and the United States. The <a href="/wiki/Glasgow_School_of_Art" title="Glasgow School of Art">Glasgow School of Art</a> (1896–99) designed by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Rennie_Mackintosh" title="Charles Rennie Mackintosh">Charles Rennie Mackintosh</a>, had a façade dominated by large vertical bays of windows.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBony201227_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBony201227-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Art_Nouveau" title="Art Nouveau">Art Nouveau</a> style was launched in the 1890s by <a href="/wiki/Victor_Horta" title="Victor Horta">Victor Horta</a> in Belgium and <a href="/wiki/Hector_Guimard" title="Hector Guimard">Hector Guimard</a> in France; it introduced new styles of decoration, based on vegetal and floral forms. In Barcelona, <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gaudi" class="mw-redirect" title="Antonio Gaudi">Antonio Gaudi</a> conceived architecture as a form of sculpture; the façade of the <a href="/wiki/Casa_Batll%C3%B3" title="Casa Batlló">Casa Batlló</a> in Barcelona (1904–1907) had no straight lines; it was encrusted with colorful mosaics of stone and ceramic tiles.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBony201233_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBony201233-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Architects also began to experiment with new materials and techniques, which gave them greater freedom to create new forms. In 1903–1904 in Paris <a href="/wiki/Auguste_Perret" title="Auguste Perret">Auguste Perret</a> and <a href="/wiki/Henri_Sauvage" title="Henri Sauvage">Henri Sauvage</a> began to use <a href="/wiki/Reinforced_concrete" title="Reinforced concrete">reinforced concrete</a>, previously only used for industrial structures, to build apartment buildings.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoisson2009318–319_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoisson2009318–319-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Reinforced concrete, which could be molded into any shape, and which could create enormous spaces without the need of supporting pillars, replaced stone and brick as the primary material for modernist architects. The first concrete apartment buildings by Perret and Sauvage were covered with ceramic tiles, but in 1905 Perret built the first concrete parking garage on 51 rue de Ponthieu in Paris; here the concrete was left bare, and the space between the concrete was filled with glass windows. <a href="/wiki/Henri_Sauvage" title="Henri Sauvage">Henri Sauvage</a> added another construction innovation in an apartment building on Rue Vavin in Paris (1912–1914); the reinforced concrete building was in steps, with each floor set back from the floor below, creating a series of terraces. Between 1910 and 1913, Auguste Perret built the <a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9%C3%A2tre_des_Champs-%C3%89lys%C3%A9es" title="Théâtre des Champs-Élysées">Théâtre des Champs-Élysées</a>, a masterpiece of reinforced concrete construction, with Art Deco sculptural bas-reliefs on the façade by <a href="/wiki/Antoine_Bourdelle" title="Antoine Bourdelle">Antoine Bourdelle</a>. Because of the concrete construction, no columns blocked the spectator's view of the stage.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoisson2009318_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoisson2009318-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Otto_Wagner" title="Otto Wagner">Otto Wagner</a>, in Vienna, was another pioneer of the new style. In his book <i>Moderne Architektur</i> (1895) he had called for a more rationalist style of architecture, based on "modern life".<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He designed a stylized ornamental metro station at <a href="/wiki/Karlsplatz" title="Karlsplatz">Karlsplatz</a> in Vienna (1888–89), then an ornamental <a href="/wiki/Art_Nouveau" title="Art Nouveau">Art Nouveau</a> residence, Majolika House (1898), before moving to a much more geometric and simplified style, without ornament, in the <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Postal_Savings_Bank" title="Austrian Postal Savings Bank">Austrian Postal Savings Bank</a> (1904–1906). Wagner declared his intention to express the function of the building in its exterior. The reinforced concrete exterior was covered with plaques of marble attached with bolts of polished aluminum. The interior was purely functional and spare, a large open space of steel, glass, and concrete where the only decoration was the structure itself.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBony201236_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBony201236-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Viennese architect <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Loos" title="Adolf Loos">Adolf Loos</a> also began removing any ornament from his buildings. His <a href="/wiki/Steiner_House" title="Steiner House">Steiner House</a>, in Vienna (1910), was an example of what he called <a href="/wiki/Rationalist_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Rationalist architecture">rationalist architecture</a>; it had a simple <a href="/wiki/Stucco" title="Stucco">stucco</a> rectangular façade with square windows and no ornament. The fame of the new movement, which became known as the <a href="/wiki/Vienna_Secession" title="Vienna Secession">Vienna Secession</a> spread beyond Austria. <a href="/wiki/Josef_Hoffmann" title="Josef Hoffmann">Josef Hoffmann</a>, a student of Wagner, constructed a landmark of early modernist architecture, the <a href="/wiki/Stoclet_Palace" title="Stoclet Palace">Stoclet Palace</a>, in Brussels, in 1906–1911. This residence, built of brick covered with Norwegian marble, was composed of geometric blocks, wings, and a tower. A large pool in front of the house reflected its cubic forms. The interior was decorated with paintings by <a href="/wiki/Gustav_Klimt" title="Gustav Klimt">Gustav Klimt</a> and other artists, and the architect even designed clothing for the family to match the architecture.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBony201238_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBony201238-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Germany, a modernist industrial movement, <i><a href="/wiki/Deutscher_Werkbund" title="Deutscher Werkbund">Deutscher Werkbund</a></i> (German Work Federation) had been created in Munich in 1907 by <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Muthesius" title="Hermann Muthesius">Hermann Muthesius</a>, a prominent architectural commentator. Its goal was to bring together designers and industrialists, to turn out well-designed, high-quality products, and in the process to invent a new type of architecture.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The organization originally included twelve architects and twelve business firms, but quickly expanded. The architects include <a href="/wiki/Peter_Behrens" title="Peter Behrens">Peter Behrens</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theodor_Fischer" title="Theodor Fischer">Theodor Fischer</a> (who served as its first president), <a href="/wiki/Josef_Hoffmann" title="Josef Hoffmann">Josef Hoffmann</a> and <a href="/wiki/Richard_Riemerschmid" title="Richard Riemerschmid">Richard Riemerschmid</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1909 Behrens designed one of the earliest and most influential industrial buildings in the modernist style, the <a href="/wiki/AEG_turbine_factory" title="AEG turbine factory">AEG turbine factory</a>, a functional monument of steel and concrete. In 1911–1913, <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Meyer_(architect)" title="Adolf Meyer (architect)">Adolf Meyer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Walter_Gropius" title="Walter Gropius">Walter Gropius</a>, who had both worked for Behrens, built another revolutionary industrial plant, the Fagus Factory in Alfeld an der Laine, a building without ornament where every construction element was on display. The <i>Werkbund</i> organized a major exposition of modernist design in Cologne just a few weeks before the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914. For the 1914 Cologne exhibition, <a href="/wiki/Bruno_Taut" title="Bruno Taut">Bruno Taut</a> built a revolutionary glass pavilion.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETietz199919_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETietz199919-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_American_modernism_(1890s–1914)"><span id="Early_American_modernism_.281890s.E2.80.931914.29"></span>Early American modernism (1890s–1914)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_architecture&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Early American modernism (1890s–1914)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Frank_Lloyd_Wright" title="Frank Lloyd Wright">Frank Lloyd Wright</a></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 244.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 242.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:William_H._Winslow_House_Front_Facade.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="William H. Winslow House, by Frank Lloyd Wright, River Forest, Illinois (1893–94)"><img alt="William H. Winslow House, by Frank Lloyd Wright, River Forest, Illinois (1893–94)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/William_H._Winslow_House_Front_Facade.jpg/364px-William_H._Winslow_House_Front_Facade.jpg" decoding="async" width="243" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/William_H._Winslow_House_Front_Facade.jpg/547px-William_H._Winslow_House_Front_Facade.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/William_H._Winslow_House_Front_Facade.jpg/728px-William_H._Winslow_House_Front_Facade.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2052" data-file-height="1269" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/William_H._Winslow_House" class="mw-redirect" title="William H. Winslow House">William H. Winslow House</a>, by Frank Lloyd Wright, River Forest, Illinois (1893–94)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 202px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Oak_park_house2.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Arthur Heurtley House in Oak Park, Illinois (1902)"><img alt="The Arthur Heurtley House in Oak Park, Illinois (1902)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Oak_park_house2.jpg/300px-Oak_park_house2.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Oak_park_house2.jpg/451px-Oak_park_house2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Oak_park_house2.jpg/600px-Oak_park_house2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Heurtley_House" title="Arthur Heurtley House">Arthur Heurtley House</a> in Oak Park, Illinois (1902)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 189.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 187.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:LarkinAdministrationBuilding1906.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Larkin Administration Building by Frank Lloyd Wright, Buffalo, New York (1904–1906)"><img alt="Larkin Administration Building by Frank Lloyd Wright, Buffalo, New York (1904–1906)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/LarkinAdministrationBuilding1906.jpg/281px-LarkinAdministrationBuilding1906.jpg" decoding="async" width="188" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/LarkinAdministrationBuilding1906.jpg/423px-LarkinAdministrationBuilding1906.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/LarkinAdministrationBuilding1906.jpg/563px-LarkinAdministrationBuilding1906.jpg 2x" data-file-width="630" data-file-height="504" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Larkin_Administration_Building" title="Larkin Administration Building">Larkin Administration Building</a> by <a href="/wiki/Frank_Lloyd_Wright" title="Frank Lloyd Wright">Frank Lloyd Wright</a>, <a href="/wiki/Buffalo,_New_York" title="Buffalo, New York">Buffalo, New York</a> (1904–1906)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 227.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 225.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Unity_Temple_-_Oak_Park_IL_9_(3224132995).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Interior of Unity Temple by Frank Lloyd Wright, Oak Park, Illinois (1905–1908)"><img alt="Interior of Unity Temple by Frank Lloyd Wright, Oak Park, Illinois (1905–1908)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Unity_Temple_-_Oak_Park_IL_9_%283224132995%29.jpg/338px-Unity_Temple_-_Oak_Park_IL_9_%283224132995%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="226" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Unity_Temple_-_Oak_Park_IL_9_%283224132995%29.jpg/507px-Unity_Temple_-_Oak_Park_IL_9_%283224132995%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Unity_Temple_-_Oak_Park_IL_9_%283224132995%29.jpg/675px-Unity_Temple_-_Oak_Park_IL_9_%283224132995%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3504" data-file-height="2336" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Interior of <a href="/wiki/Unity_Temple" title="Unity Temple">Unity Temple</a> by <a href="/wiki/Frank_Lloyd_Wright" title="Frank Lloyd Wright">Frank Lloyd Wright</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oak_Park,_Illinois" title="Oak Park, Illinois">Oak Park, Illinois</a> (1905–1908)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 202px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Frederick_C._Robie_House.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="The Robie House by Frank Lloyd Wright, Chicago (1909)"><img alt="The Robie House by Frank Lloyd Wright, Chicago (1909)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Frederick_C._Robie_House.JPG/300px-Frederick_C._Robie_House.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Frederick_C._Robie_House.JPG/451px-Frederick_C._Robie_House.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Frederick_C._Robie_House.JPG/600px-Frederick_C._Robie_House.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Robie_House" title="Robie House">Robie House</a> by <a href="/wiki/Frank_Lloyd_Wright" title="Frank Lloyd Wright">Frank Lloyd Wright</a>, Chicago (1909)</div> </li> </ul> <p><a href="/wiki/Frank_Lloyd_Wright" title="Frank Lloyd Wright">Frank Lloyd Wright</a> was a highly original and independent American architect who refused to be categorized in any one architectural movement. Like <a href="/wiki/Le_Corbusier" title="Le Corbusier">Le Corbusier</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Mies_van_der_Rohe" title="Ludwig Mies van der Rohe">Ludwig Mies van der Rohe</a>, he had no formal architectural training. From 1887 to 1893 he worked in the Chicago office of <a href="/wiki/Louis_Sullivan" title="Louis Sullivan">Louis Sullivan</a>, who pioneered the first tall steel-frame office buildings in Chicago, and who famously stated "<a href="/wiki/Form_follows_function" title="Form follows function">form follows function</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETietz199916_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETietz199916-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wright set out to break all the traditional rules. He was particularly famous for his <a href="/wiki/Prairie_Houses" class="mw-redirect" title="Prairie Houses">Prairie Houses</a>, including the <a href="/wiki/Winslow_House_(River_Forest,_Illinois)" title="Winslow House (River Forest, Illinois)">Winslow House</a> in <a href="/wiki/River_Forest,_Illinois" title="River Forest, Illinois">River Forest, Illinois</a> (1893–94); <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Heurtley_House" title="Arthur Heurtley House">Arthur Heurtley House</a> (1902) and <a href="/wiki/Robie_House" title="Robie House">Robie House</a> (1909); sprawling, geometric residences without decoration, with strong horizontal lines which seemed to grow out of the earth, and which echoed the wide flat spaces of the American prairie. His <a href="/wiki/Larkin_Administration_Building" title="Larkin Administration Building">Larkin Building</a> (1904–1906) in <a href="/wiki/Buffalo,_New_York" title="Buffalo, New York">Buffalo, New York</a>, <a href="/wiki/Unity_Temple" title="Unity Temple">Unity Temple</a> (1905) in <a href="/wiki/Oak_Park,_Illinois" title="Oak Park, Illinois">Oak Park, Illinois</a> and Unity Temple had highly original forms and no connection with historical precedents.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBony201262–63_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBony201262–63-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_skyscrapers">Early skyscrapers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_architecture&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Early skyscrapers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Early_skyscrapers" title="Early skyscrapers">Early skyscrapers</a></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 114.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 112.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Home_Insurance_Building.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Home Insurance Building in Chicago by William Le Baron Jenney (1883)"><img alt="Home Insurance Building in Chicago by William Le Baron Jenney (1883)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Home_Insurance_Building.JPG/169px-Home_Insurance_Building.JPG" decoding="async" width="113" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Home_Insurance_Building.JPG/253px-Home_Insurance_Building.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Home_Insurance_Building.JPG/337px-Home_Insurance_Building.JPG 2x" data-file-width="660" data-file-height="880" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Home_Insurance_Building" title="Home Insurance Building">Home Insurance Building</a> in Chicago by <a href="/wiki/William_Le_Baron_Jenney" title="William Le Baron Jenney">William Le Baron Jenney</a> (1883)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 108.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 106.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Prudential_buffalo_louis_sullivan.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Prudential (Guaranty) Building by Louis Sullivan in Buffalo, New York (1896)"><img alt="Prudential (Guaranty) Building by Louis Sullivan in Buffalo, New York (1896)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Prudential_buffalo_louis_sullivan.jpg/160px-Prudential_buffalo_louis_sullivan.jpg" decoding="async" width="107" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Prudential_buffalo_louis_sullivan.jpg/240px-Prudential_buffalo_louis_sullivan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Prudential_buffalo_louis_sullivan.jpg/320px-Prudential_buffalo_louis_sullivan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3340" data-file-height="4698" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Prudential_(Guaranty)_Building" title="Prudential (Guaranty) Building">Prudential (Guaranty) Building</a> by <a href="/wiki/Louis_Sullivan" title="Louis Sullivan">Louis Sullivan</a> in <a href="/wiki/Buffalo,_New_York" title="Buffalo, New York">Buffalo, New York</a> (1896)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 117.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 115.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Detroit_Photographic_Company_(0645).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Flatiron Building in New York City (1903)"><img alt="The Flatiron Building in New York City (1903)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Detroit_Photographic_Company_%280645%29.jpg/173px-Detroit_Photographic_Company_%280645%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="116" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Detroit_Photographic_Company_%280645%29.jpg/260px-Detroit_Photographic_Company_%280645%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Detroit_Photographic_Company_%280645%29.jpg/346px-Detroit_Photographic_Company_%280645%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1152" data-file-height="1496" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Flatiron_Building" title="Flatiron Building">Flatiron Building</a> in New York City (1903)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 118px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 116px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Carson_Pirie_Scott_building,_Chicago,_Illinois_-_Louis_Sullivan.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Carson, Pirie, Scott and Company Building in Chicago by Louis Sullivan (1904–1906)"><img alt="The Carson, Pirie, Scott and Company Building in Chicago by Louis Sullivan (1904–1906)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Carson_Pirie_Scott_building%2C_Chicago%2C_Illinois_-_Louis_Sullivan.jpg/174px-Carson_Pirie_Scott_building%2C_Chicago%2C_Illinois_-_Louis_Sullivan.jpg" decoding="async" width="116" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Carson_Pirie_Scott_building%2C_Chicago%2C_Illinois_-_Louis_Sullivan.jpg/261px-Carson_Pirie_Scott_building%2C_Chicago%2C_Illinois_-_Louis_Sullivan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Carson_Pirie_Scott_building%2C_Chicago%2C_Illinois_-_Louis_Sullivan.jpg/348px-Carson_Pirie_Scott_building%2C_Chicago%2C_Illinois_-_Louis_Sullivan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="661" data-file-height="855" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Carson,_Pirie,_Scott_and_Company_Building" class="mw-redirect" title="Carson, Pirie, Scott and Company Building">Carson, Pirie, Scott and Company Building</a> in Chicago by <a href="/wiki/Louis_Sullivan" title="Louis Sullivan">Louis Sullivan</a> (1904–1906)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 242px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 240px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Woolworth_Building_and_City_Hall_Park,_New_York_City_1910s_retouched.png" class="mw-file-description" title="The Woolworth Building and the New York skyline in 1913. It was modern on the inside but neo-Gothic on the outside."><img alt="The Woolworth Building and the New York skyline in 1913. It was modern on the inside but neo-Gothic on the outside." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Woolworth_Building_and_City_Hall_Park%2C_New_York_City_1910s_retouched.png/360px-Woolworth_Building_and_City_Hall_Park%2C_New_York_City_1910s_retouched.png" decoding="async" width="240" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Woolworth_Building_and_City_Hall_Park%2C_New_York_City_1910s_retouched.png 1.5x" data-file-width="529" data-file-height="331" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Woolworth_Building" title="Woolworth Building">Woolworth Building</a> and the New York skyline in 1913. It was modern on the inside but <a href="/wiki/Neo-Gothic" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Gothic">neo-Gothic</a> on the outside.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 121.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 119.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:WoolworthBuilding_crop.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The neo-Gothic crown of the Woolworth Building by Cass Gilbert (1912)"><img alt="The neo-Gothic crown of the Woolworth Building by Cass Gilbert (1912)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/WoolworthBuilding_crop.jpg/179px-WoolworthBuilding_crop.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/WoolworthBuilding_crop.jpg/269px-WoolworthBuilding_crop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/WoolworthBuilding_crop.jpg/359px-WoolworthBuilding_crop.jpg 2x" data-file-width="484" data-file-height="607" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The neo-Gothic crown of the <a href="/wiki/Woolworth_Building" title="Woolworth Building">Woolworth Building</a> by <a href="/wiki/Cass_Gilbert" title="Cass Gilbert">Cass Gilbert</a> (1912)</div> </li> </ul> <p>At the end of the 19th century, the first <a href="/wiki/Skyscrapers" class="mw-redirect" title="Skyscrapers">skyscrapers</a> began to appear in the United States. They were a response to the shortage of land and high cost of real estate in the center of the fast-growing American cities, and the availability of new technologies, including fireproof steel frames and improvements in the safety <a href="/wiki/Elevator" title="Elevator">elevator</a> invented by <a href="/wiki/Elisha_Otis" title="Elisha Otis">Elisha Otis</a> in 1852. The first steel-framed "skyscraper", The <a href="/wiki/Home_Insurance_Building" title="Home Insurance Building">Home Insurance Building</a> in Chicago, was ten stories high. It was designed by <a href="/wiki/William_Le_Baron_Jenney" title="William Le Baron Jenney">William Le Baron Jenney</a> in 1883, and was briefly the tallest building in the world. <a href="/wiki/Louis_Sullivan" title="Louis Sullivan">Louis Sullivan</a> built another monumental new structure, the <a href="/wiki/Carson,_Pirie,_Scott_and_Company_Building" class="mw-redirect" title="Carson, Pirie, Scott and Company Building">Carson, Pirie, Scott and Company Building</a>, in the heart of Chicago in 1904–1906. While these buildings were revolutionary in their steel frames and height, their decoration was borrowed from <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Revival_architecture" title="Renaissance Revival architecture">Neo-Renaissance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neo-Gothic" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Gothic">Neo-Gothic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Beaux-Arts_architecture" title="Beaux-Arts architecture">Beaux-Arts architecture</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Woolworth_Building" title="Woolworth Building">Woolworth Building</a>, designed by <a href="/wiki/Cass_Gilbert" title="Cass Gilbert">Cass Gilbert</a>, was completed in 1912, and was the tallest building in the world until the completion of the <a href="/wiki/Chrysler_Building" title="Chrysler Building">Chrysler Building</a> in 1929. The structure was purely modern, but its exterior was decorated with Neo-Gothic ornament, complete with decorative buttresses, arches and spires, which caused it to be nicknamed the "Cathedral of Commerce".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurchardBush-Brown196683_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurchardBush-Brown196683-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Rise_of_modernism_in_Europe_and_Russia_(1918–1931)"><span id="Rise_of_modernism_in_Europe_and_Russia_.281918.E2.80.931931.29"></span>Rise of modernism in Europe and Russia (1918–1931)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_architecture&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Rise of modernism in Europe and Russia (1918–1931)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After the first World War, a prolonged struggle began between architects who favored the more traditional styles of <a href="/wiki/Neo-classical_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-classical architecture">neo-classicism</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Beaux-Arts_architecture" title="Beaux-Arts architecture">Beaux-Arts architecture</a> style, and the modernists, led by <a href="/wiki/Le_Corbusier" title="Le Corbusier">Le Corbusier</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Mallet-Stevens" title="Robert Mallet-Stevens">Robert Mallet-Stevens</a> in France, <a href="/wiki/Walter_Gropius" title="Walter Gropius">Walter Gropius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Mies_van_der_Rohe" title="Ludwig Mies van der Rohe">Ludwig Mies van der Rohe</a> in Germany, and <a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Melnikov" title="Konstantin Melnikov">Konstantin Melnikov</a> in the new <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>, who wanted only pure forms and the elimination of any decoration. <a href="/wiki/Louis_Sullivan" title="Louis Sullivan">Louis Sullivan</a> popularized the axiom <i><a href="/wiki/Form_follows_function" title="Form follows function">Form follows function</a></i> to emphasize the importance of utilitarian simplicity in modern architecture. <a href="/wiki/Art_Deco" title="Art Deco">Art Deco</a> architects such as <a href="/wiki/Auguste_Perret" title="Auguste Perret">Auguste Perret</a> and <a href="/wiki/Henri_Sauvage" title="Henri Sauvage">Henri Sauvage</a> often made a compromise between the two, combining modernist forms and stylized decoration. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="International_Style_(1920s–1970s)"><span id="International_Style_.281920s.E2.80.931970s.29"></span>International Style (1920s–1970s)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_architecture&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: International Style (1920s–1970s)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/International_Style_(architecture)" class="mw-redirect" title="International Style (architecture)">International Style (architecture)</a></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 227.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 225.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Villa_La_Roche_2013.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Villa La Roche-Jeanneret (now Fondation Le Corbusier) by Le Corbusier, Paris (1923–25)"><img alt="The Villa La Roche-Jeanneret (now Fondation Le Corbusier) by Le Corbusier, Paris (1923–25)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Villa_La_Roche_2013.jpg/338px-Villa_La_Roche_2013.jpg" decoding="async" width="226" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Villa_La_Roche_2013.jpg/507px-Villa_La_Roche_2013.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Villa_La_Roche_2013.jpg/675px-Villa_La_Roche_2013.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="2304" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Villa_La_Roche" title="Villa La Roche">Villa La Roche</a>-Jeanneret (now <a href="/wiki/Fondation_Le_Corbusier" title="Fondation Le Corbusier">Fondation Le Corbusier</a>) by <a href="/wiki/Le_Corbusier" title="Le Corbusier">Le Corbusier</a>, Paris (1923–25)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 209.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 207.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Weissenhof_Corbusier_03.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Corbusier Haus in Weissenhof Estate, Stuttgart, Germany (1927)"><img alt="Corbusier Haus in Weissenhof Estate, Stuttgart, Germany (1927)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Weissenhof_Corbusier_03.jpg/311px-Weissenhof_Corbusier_03.jpg" decoding="async" width="208" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Weissenhof_Corbusier_03.jpg/467px-Weissenhof_Corbusier_03.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Weissenhof_Corbusier_03.jpg/621px-Weissenhof_Corbusier_03.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3056" data-file-height="2214" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Corbusier Haus in <a href="/wiki/Weissenhof_Estate" title="Weissenhof Estate">Weissenhof Estate</a>, Stuttgart, Germany (1927)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 227.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 225.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Weissenhof_photo_house_citrohan_east_fa%C3%A7ade_Le_Corbusier_%26_Pierre_Jeanneret_Stuttgart_Germany_2005-10-08.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Citrohan Haus in Weissenhof Estate, Stuttgart, Germany by Le Corbusier (1927)"><img alt="Citrohan Haus in Weissenhof Estate, Stuttgart, Germany by Le Corbusier (1927)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Weissenhof_photo_house_citrohan_east_fa%C3%A7ade_Le_Corbusier_%26_Pierre_Jeanneret_Stuttgart_Germany_2005-10-08.jpg/338px-Weissenhof_photo_house_citrohan_east_fa%C3%A7ade_Le_Corbusier_%26_Pierre_Jeanneret_Stuttgart_Germany_2005-10-08.jpg" decoding="async" width="226" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Weissenhof_photo_house_citrohan_east_fa%C3%A7ade_Le_Corbusier_%26_Pierre_Jeanneret_Stuttgart_Germany_2005-10-08.jpg/507px-Weissenhof_photo_house_citrohan_east_fa%C3%A7ade_Le_Corbusier_%26_Pierre_Jeanneret_Stuttgart_Germany_2005-10-08.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Weissenhof_photo_house_citrohan_east_fa%C3%A7ade_Le_Corbusier_%26_Pierre_Jeanneret_Stuttgart_Germany_2005-10-08.jpg/675px-Weissenhof_photo_house_citrohan_east_fa%C3%A7ade_Le_Corbusier_%26_Pierre_Jeanneret_Stuttgart_Germany_2005-10-08.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="1024" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Citrohan Haus in <a href="/wiki/Weissenhof_Estate" title="Weissenhof Estate">Weissenhof Estate</a>, Stuttgart, Germany by Le Corbusier (1927)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 202px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:VillaSavoye.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Villa Savoye in Poissy by Le Corbusier (1928–31)"><img alt="The Villa Savoye in Poissy by Le Corbusier (1928–31)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/3c/VillaSavoye.jpg/300px-VillaSavoye.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/3c/VillaSavoye.jpg/451px-VillaSavoye.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/3c/VillaSavoye.jpg/600px-VillaSavoye.jpg 2x" data-file-width="792" data-file-height="594" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Villa_Savoye" title="Villa Savoye">Villa Savoye</a> in <a href="/wiki/Poissy" title="Poissy">Poissy</a> by Le Corbusier (1928–31)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 228px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 226px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:MalletStevensMezy2.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Villa Paul Poiret by Robert Mallet-Stevens (1921–1925)"><img alt="Villa Paul Poiret by Robert Mallet-Stevens (1921–1925)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/MalletStevensMezy2.jpg/339px-MalletStevensMezy2.jpg" decoding="async" width="226" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/MalletStevensMezy2.jpg/509px-MalletStevensMezy2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/MalletStevensMezy2.jpg/678px-MalletStevensMezy2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="996" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Villa_Paul_Poiret" title="Villa Paul Poiret">Villa Paul Poiret</a> by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Mallet-Stevens" title="Robert Mallet-Stevens">Robert Mallet-Stevens</a> (1921–1925)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 202px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Villa_Noailles_(Mallet-Stevens,_1923).JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="The Villa Noailles in Hyères by Robert Mallet-Stevens (1923)"><img alt="The Villa Noailles in Hyères by Robert Mallet-Stevens (1923)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Villa_Noailles_%28Mallet-Stevens%2C_1923%29.JPG/300px-Villa_Noailles_%28Mallet-Stevens%2C_1923%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Villa_Noailles_%28Mallet-Stevens%2C_1923%29.JPG/451px-Villa_Noailles_%28Mallet-Stevens%2C_1923%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Villa_Noailles_%28Mallet-Stevens%2C_1923%29.JPG/600px-Villa_Noailles_%28Mallet-Stevens%2C_1923%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4179" data-file-height="3134" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Villa_Noailles" title="Villa Noailles">Villa Noailles</a> in <a href="/wiki/Hy%C3%A8res" title="Hyères">Hyères</a> by Robert Mallet-Stevens (1923)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 202px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Villa_des_fr%C3%A8res_Martel_construite_par_Robert_Mallet-Stevens_au_10_rue_Mallet-Stevens_(Paris),_en_1927.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Hôtel Martel rue Mallet-Stevens, by Robert Mallet-Stevens (1926–1927)"><img alt="Hôtel Martel rue Mallet-Stevens, by Robert Mallet-Stevens (1926–1927)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Villa_des_fr%C3%A8res_Martel_construite_par_Robert_Mallet-Stevens_au_10_rue_Mallet-Stevens_%28Paris%29%2C_en_1927.jpg/300px-Villa_des_fr%C3%A8res_Martel_construite_par_Robert_Mallet-Stevens_au_10_rue_Mallet-Stevens_%28Paris%29%2C_en_1927.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Villa_des_fr%C3%A8res_Martel_construite_par_Robert_Mallet-Stevens_au_10_rue_Mallet-Stevens_%28Paris%29%2C_en_1927.jpg/451px-Villa_des_fr%C3%A8res_Martel_construite_par_Robert_Mallet-Stevens_au_10_rue_Mallet-Stevens_%28Paris%29%2C_en_1927.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Villa_des_fr%C3%A8res_Martel_construite_par_Robert_Mallet-Stevens_au_10_rue_Mallet-Stevens_%28Paris%29%2C_en_1927.jpg/600px-Villa_des_fr%C3%A8res_Martel_construite_par_Robert_Mallet-Stevens_au_10_rue_Mallet-Stevens_%28Paris%29%2C_en_1927.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Hôtel Martel rue Mallet-Stevens, by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Mallet-Stevens" title="Robert Mallet-Stevens">Robert Mallet-Stevens</a> (1926–1927)</div> </li> </ul> <p>The dominant figure in the rise of modernism in France was Charles-Édouard Jeanerette, a Swiss-French architect who in 1920 took the name <a href="/wiki/Le_Corbusier" title="Le Corbusier">Le Corbusier</a>. In 1920 he co-founded a journal called '<i>L'Espirit Nouveau</i> and energetically promoted architecture that was functional, pure, and free of any decoration or historical associations. He was also a passionate advocate of a new urbanism, based on planned cities. In 1922 he presented a design of a city for three million people, whose inhabitants lived in identical sixty-story tall skyscrapers surrounded by open parkland. He designed modular houses, which would be mass-produced on the same plan and assembled into apartment blocks, neighborhoods, and cities. In 1923 he published "Toward an Architecture", with his famous slogan, "a house is a machine for living in."<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He tirelessly promoted his ideas through slogans, articles, books, conferences, and participation in Expositions. </p><p>To illustrate his ideas, in the 1920s he built a series of houses and villas in and around Paris. They were all built according to a common system, based upon the use of reinforced concrete, and of reinforced concrete pylons in the interior which supported the structure, allowing glass curtain walls on the façade and open floor plans, independent of the structure. They were always white, and had no ornament or decoration on the outside or inside. The best-known of these houses was the <a href="/wiki/Villa_Savoye" title="Villa Savoye">Villa Savoye</a>, built in 1928–1931 in the Paris suburb of <a href="/wiki/Poissy" title="Poissy">Poissy</a>. An elegant white box wrapped with a ribbon of glass windows around on the façade, with living space that opened upon an interior garden and countryside around, raised up by a row of white pylons in the center of a large lawn, it became an icon of modernist architecture.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBony201283_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBony201283-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bauhaus_and_the_German_Werkbund_(1919–1933)"><span id="Bauhaus_and_the_German_Werkbund_.281919.E2.80.931933.29"></span>Bauhaus and the German Werkbund (1919–1933)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_architecture&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Bauhaus and the German Werkbund (1919–1933)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bauhaus" title="Bauhaus">Bauhaus</a></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 252px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 250px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bauhaus_Dessau_2018.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Bauhaus Dessau building in Dessau, designed by Walter Gropius (1926)"><img alt="The Bauhaus Dessau building in Dessau, designed by Walter Gropius (1926)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Bauhaus_Dessau_2018.jpg/375px-Bauhaus_Dessau_2018.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Bauhaus_Dessau_2018.jpg/564px-Bauhaus_Dessau_2018.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Bauhaus_Dessau_2018.jpg/750px-Bauhaus_Dessau_2018.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3930" data-file-height="2358" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Bauhaus_Dessau_building" class="mw-redirect" title="Bauhaus Dessau building">Bauhaus Dessau building</a> in <a href="/wiki/Dessau" title="Dessau">Dessau</a>, designed by <a href="/wiki/Walter_Gropius" title="Walter Gropius">Walter Gropius</a> (1926)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 204px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 202px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bernau_bei_Berlin_ADGB_Schule_Wohntrakte_vorne.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="ADGB Trade Union School in Bernau bei Berlin by Hannes Meyer and Hans Wittwer (1928–30)"><img alt="ADGB Trade Union School in Bernau bei Berlin by Hannes Meyer and Hans Wittwer (1928–30)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Bernau_bei_Berlin_ADGB_Schule_Wohntrakte_vorne.jpg/303px-Bernau_bei_Berlin_ADGB_Schule_Wohntrakte_vorne.jpg" decoding="async" width="202" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Bernau_bei_Berlin_ADGB_Schule_Wohntrakte_vorne.jpg/455px-Bernau_bei_Berlin_ADGB_Schule_Wohntrakte_vorne.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Bernau_bei_Berlin_ADGB_Schule_Wohntrakte_vorne.jpg/606px-Bernau_bei_Berlin_ADGB_Schule_Wohntrakte_vorne.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="1712" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/ADGB_Trade_Union_School" title="ADGB Trade Union School">ADGB Trade Union School</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bernau_bei_Berlin" title="Bernau bei Berlin">Bernau bei Berlin</a> by <a href="/wiki/Hannes_Meyer" title="Hannes Meyer">Hannes Meyer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hans_Wittwer" title="Hans Wittwer">Hans Wittwer</a> (1928–30)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 203.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 201.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Haus_am_Horn,_Weimar_(S%C3%BCdwestansicht).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Haus am Horn, Weimar by Georg Muche (1923)"><img alt="Haus am Horn, Weimar by Georg Muche (1923)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Haus_am_Horn%2C_Weimar_%28S%C3%BCdwestansicht%29.jpg/302px-Haus_am_Horn%2C_Weimar_%28S%C3%BCdwestansicht%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="202" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Haus_am_Horn%2C_Weimar_%28S%C3%BCdwestansicht%29.jpg/453px-Haus_am_Horn%2C_Weimar_%28S%C3%BCdwestansicht%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Haus_am_Horn%2C_Weimar_%28S%C3%BCdwestansicht%29.jpg/603px-Haus_am_Horn%2C_Weimar_%28S%C3%BCdwestansicht%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1909" data-file-height="1425" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Haus_am_Horn" title="Haus am Horn">Haus am Horn</a>, <a href="/wiki/Weimar" title="Weimar">Weimar</a> by <a href="/wiki/Georg_Muche" title="Georg Muche">Georg Muche</a> (1923)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 226px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 224px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Barcelona_Pavilion,_Barcelona,_2010.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Barcelona Pavilion (modern reconstruction) by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe (1929)"><img alt="The Barcelona Pavilion (modern reconstruction) by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe (1929)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/The_Barcelona_Pavilion%2C_Barcelona%2C_2010.jpg/336px-The_Barcelona_Pavilion%2C_Barcelona%2C_2010.jpg" decoding="async" width="224" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/The_Barcelona_Pavilion%2C_Barcelona%2C_2010.jpg/505px-The_Barcelona_Pavilion%2C_Barcelona%2C_2010.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/The_Barcelona_Pavilion%2C_Barcelona%2C_2010.jpg/673px-The_Barcelona_Pavilion%2C_Barcelona%2C_2010.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5466" data-file-height="3658" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Barcelona_Pavilion" title="Barcelona Pavilion">Barcelona Pavilion</a> (modern reconstruction) by <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Mies_van_der_Rohe" title="Ludwig Mies van der Rohe">Ludwig Mies van der Rohe</a> (1929)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 192px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 190px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:WeissenhofsiedlungJJPOud-pjt.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Weissenhof Estate in Stuttgart, built by the German Werkbund (1927)"><img alt="The Weissenhof Estate in Stuttgart, built by the German Werkbund (1927)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/WeissenhofsiedlungJJPOud-pjt.jpg/285px-WeissenhofsiedlungJJPOud-pjt.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/WeissenhofsiedlungJJPOud-pjt.jpg/429px-WeissenhofsiedlungJJPOud-pjt.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/WeissenhofsiedlungJJPOud-pjt.jpg/571px-WeissenhofsiedlungJJPOud-pjt.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4079" data-file-height="3217" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Weissenhof_Estate" title="Weissenhof Estate">Weissenhof Estate</a> in <a href="/wiki/Stuttgart" title="Stuttgart">Stuttgart</a>, built by the <a href="/wiki/German_Werkbund" class="mw-redirect" title="German Werkbund">German Werkbund</a> (1927)</div> </li> </ul> <p>In Germany, two important modernist movements appeared after the first World War, The <a href="/wiki/Bauhaus" title="Bauhaus">Bauhaus</a> was a school founded in <a href="/wiki/Weimar" title="Weimar">Weimar</a> in 1919 under the direction of <a href="/wiki/Walter_Gropius" title="Walter Gropius">Walter Gropius</a>. Gropius was the son of the official state architect of Berlin, who studied before the war with <a href="/wiki/Peter_Behrens" title="Peter Behrens">Peter Behrens</a>, and designed the modernist Fagus turbine factory. The Bauhaus was a fusion of the prewar Academy of Arts and the school of technology. In 1926 it was transferred from Weimar to Dessau; Gropius designed the new school and student dormitories in the new, purely functional modernist style he was encouraging. The school brought together modernists in all fields; the faculty included the modernist painters <a href="/wiki/Vasily_Kandinsky" class="mw-redirect" title="Vasily Kandinsky">Vasily Kandinsky</a>, <a href="/wiki/Josef_Albers" title="Josef Albers">Joseph Albers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paul_Klee" title="Paul Klee">Paul Klee</a>, and the designer <a href="/wiki/Marcel_Breuer" title="Marcel Breuer">Marcel Breuer</a>. </p><p>Gropius became an important theorist of modernism, writing <i>The Idea and Construction</i> in 1923. He was an advocate of standardization in architecture, and the mass construction of rationally designed apartment blocks for factory workers. In 1928 he was commissioned by the <a href="/wiki/Siemens" title="Siemens">Siemens</a> company to build apartment for workers in the suburbs of Berlin, and in 1929 he proposed the construction of clusters of slender eight- to ten-story high-rise apartment towers for workers. </p><p>While Gropius was active at the Bauhaus, <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Mies_van_der_Rohe" title="Ludwig Mies van der Rohe">Ludwig Mies van der Rohe</a> led the modernist architectural movement in Berlin. Inspired by the <a href="/wiki/De_Stijl" title="De Stijl">De Stijl</a> movement in the Netherlands, he built clusters of concrete summer houses and proposed a project for a glass office tower. He became the vice president of the German Werkbund, and became the head of the Bauhaus from 1930 to 1933. proposing a wide variety of modernist plans for urban reconstruction. His most famous modernist work was the German pavilion for the 1929 international exposition in Barcelona. It was a work of pure modernism, with glass and concrete walls and clean, horizontal lines. Though it was only a temporary structure, and was torn down in 1930, it became, along with Le Corbusier's <a href="/wiki/Villa_Savoye" title="Villa Savoye">Villa Savoye</a>, one of the best-known landmarks of modernist architecture. A reconstructed version now stands on the original site in Barcelona.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBony201293–95_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBony201293–95-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When the Nazis came to power in Germany, they viewed the Bauhaus as a training ground for communists, and closed the school in 1933. Gropius left Germany and went to England, then to the United States, where he and <a href="/wiki/Marcel_Breuer" title="Marcel Breuer">Marcel Breuer</a> both joined the faculty of the <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Graduate_School_of_Design" title="Harvard Graduate School of Design">Harvard Graduate School of Design</a>, and became the teachers of a generation of American postwar architects. In 1937 Mies van der Rohe also moved to the United States; he became one of the most famous designers of postwar American skyscrapers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBony201293–95_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBony201293–95-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Expressionist_architecture_(1918–1931)"><span id="Expressionist_architecture_.281918.E2.80.931931.29"></span>Expressionist architecture (1918–1931)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_architecture&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Expressionist architecture (1918–1931)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Expressionist_architecture" title="Expressionist architecture">Expressionist architecture</a></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 111.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 109.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Berlin_Grosses_Schauspielhaus_Poelzig_Foyer.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Foyer of the Großes Schauspielhaus, or Great Theater, in Berlin by Hans Poelzig (1919)"><img alt="Foyer of the Großes Schauspielhaus, or Great Theater, in Berlin by Hans Poelzig (1919)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Berlin_Grosses_Schauspielhaus_Poelzig_Foyer.jpg/164px-Berlin_Grosses_Schauspielhaus_Poelzig_Foyer.jpg" decoding="async" width="110" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Berlin_Grosses_Schauspielhaus_Poelzig_Foyer.jpg/246px-Berlin_Grosses_Schauspielhaus_Poelzig_Foyer.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Berlin_Grosses_Schauspielhaus_Poelzig_Foyer.jpg/327px-Berlin_Grosses_Schauspielhaus_Poelzig_Foyer.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="1511" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Foyer of the Großes Schauspielhaus, or Great Theater, in Berlin by <a href="/wiki/Hans_Poelzig" title="Hans Poelzig">Hans Poelzig</a> (1919)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 202px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Einsteinturm_7443.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Einstein Tower near Berlin by Erich Mendelsohn (1920–24)"><img alt="The Einstein Tower near Berlin by Erich Mendelsohn (1920–24)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Einsteinturm_7443.jpg/300px-Einsteinturm_7443.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Einsteinturm_7443.jpg/451px-Einsteinturm_7443.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Einsteinturm_7443.jpg/600px-Einsteinturm_7443.jpg 2x" data-file-width="819" data-file-height="614" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Einstein_Tower" title="Einstein Tower">Einstein Tower</a> near Berlin by <a href="/wiki/Erich_Mendelsohn" title="Erich Mendelsohn">Erich Mendelsohn</a> (1920–24)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 157.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 155.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Berlin,_Mitte,_Schuetzenstrasse,_Mosse-Zentrum_05.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Mossehaus in Berlin by Erich Mendelsohn, an early example of streamline moderne (1921–23)"><img alt="The Mossehaus in Berlin by Erich Mendelsohn, an early example of streamline moderne (1921–23)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Berlin%2C_Mitte%2C_Schuetzenstrasse%2C_Mosse-Zentrum_05.jpg/233px-Berlin%2C_Mitte%2C_Schuetzenstrasse%2C_Mosse-Zentrum_05.jpg" decoding="async" width="156" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Berlin%2C_Mitte%2C_Schuetzenstrasse%2C_Mosse-Zentrum_05.jpg/349px-Berlin%2C_Mitte%2C_Schuetzenstrasse%2C_Mosse-Zentrum_05.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Berlin%2C_Mitte%2C_Schuetzenstrasse%2C_Mosse-Zentrum_05.jpg/465px-Berlin%2C_Mitte%2C_Schuetzenstrasse%2C_Mosse-Zentrum_05.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1386" data-file-height="1341" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Mossehaus" title="Mossehaus">Mossehaus</a> in Berlin by <a href="/wiki/Erich_Mendelsohn" title="Erich Mendelsohn">Erich Mendelsohn</a>, an early example of streamline moderne (1921–23)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 150.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 148.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Chilehaus_-_Hamburg.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Chilehaus in Hamburg by Fritz Höger (1921–24)"><img alt="The Chilehaus in Hamburg by Fritz Höger (1921–24)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Chilehaus_-_Hamburg.jpg/223px-Chilehaus_-_Hamburg.jpg" decoding="async" width="149" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Chilehaus_-_Hamburg.jpg/335px-Chilehaus_-_Hamburg.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Chilehaus_-_Hamburg.jpg/446px-Chilehaus_-_Hamburg.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3300" data-file-height="3330" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Chilehaus" title="Chilehaus">Chilehaus</a> in Hamburg by <a href="/wiki/Fritz_H%C3%B6ger" class="mw-redirect" title="Fritz Höger">Fritz Höger</a> (1921–24)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 202px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Berlin_Hufeisensiedlung_UAV_04-2017.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Horseshoe Estate public housing project by Bruno Taut (1925)"><img alt="Horseshoe Estate public housing project by Bruno Taut (1925)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Berlin_Hufeisensiedlung_UAV_04-2017.jpg/300px-Berlin_Hufeisensiedlung_UAV_04-2017.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Berlin_Hufeisensiedlung_UAV_04-2017.jpg/451px-Berlin_Hufeisensiedlung_UAV_04-2017.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Berlin_Hufeisensiedlung_UAV_04-2017.jpg/600px-Berlin_Hufeisensiedlung_UAV_04-2017.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3573" data-file-height="2680" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Horseshoe_Estate" class="mw-redirect" title="Horseshoe Estate">Horseshoe Estate</a> public housing project by <a href="/wiki/Bruno_Taut" title="Bruno Taut">Bruno Taut</a> (1925)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 304px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 302px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Goetheanum_im_Winter_von_S%C3%BCden.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Second Goetheanum in Dornach near Basel (Switzerland) by the Austrian architect Rudolf Steiner (1924–1928)"><img alt="Second Goetheanum in Dornach near Basel (Switzerland) by the Austrian architect Rudolf Steiner (1924–1928)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Goetheanum_im_Winter_von_S%C3%BCden.jpg/453px-Goetheanum_im_Winter_von_S%C3%BCden.jpg" decoding="async" width="302" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Goetheanum_im_Winter_von_S%C3%BCden.jpg/680px-Goetheanum_im_Winter_von_S%C3%BCden.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Goetheanum_im_Winter_von_S%C3%BCden.jpg/905px-Goetheanum_im_Winter_von_S%C3%BCden.jpg 2x" data-file-width="8240" data-file-height="4098" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Goetheanum" title="Goetheanum">Second Goetheanum</a> in <a href="/wiki/Dornach" title="Dornach">Dornach</a> near <a href="/wiki/Basel" title="Basel">Basel</a> (<a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a>) by the Austrian architect <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Steiner" title="Rudolf Steiner">Rudolf Steiner</a> (1924–1928)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 216.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 214.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Amsterdam_Het_Schip_006.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Het Schip apartment building in Amsterdam by Michel de Klerk (1917–1920)"><img alt="Het Schip apartment building in Amsterdam by Michel de Klerk (1917–1920)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Amsterdam_Het_Schip_006.JPG/322px-Amsterdam_Het_Schip_006.JPG" decoding="async" width="215" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Amsterdam_Het_Schip_006.JPG/483px-Amsterdam_Het_Schip_006.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Amsterdam_Het_Schip_006.JPG/643px-Amsterdam_Het_Schip_006.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2344" data-file-height="1640" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Het_Schip" title="Het Schip">Het Schip</a> apartment building in <a href="/wiki/Amsterdam" title="Amsterdam">Amsterdam</a> by <a href="/wiki/Michel_de_Klerk" title="Michel de Klerk">Michel de Klerk</a> (1917–1920)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 163.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 161.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Den_Haag_De_Bijenkorf_001.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="De Bijenkorf store in The Hague by Piet Kramer (1924–1926)"><img alt="De Bijenkorf store in The Hague by Piet Kramer (1924–1926)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Den_Haag_De_Bijenkorf_001.JPG/242px-Den_Haag_De_Bijenkorf_001.JPG" decoding="async" width="162" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Den_Haag_De_Bijenkorf_001.JPG/363px-Den_Haag_De_Bijenkorf_001.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Den_Haag_De_Bijenkorf_001.JPG/483px-Den_Haag_De_Bijenkorf_001.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1229" data-file-height="1145" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span title="Dutch-language text"><span lang="nl" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/De_Bijenkorf" title="De Bijenkorf">De Bijenkorf</a></span></span> store in <a href="/wiki/The_Hague" title="The Hague">The Hague</a> by <a href="/wiki/Piet_Kramer" title="Piet Kramer">Piet Kramer</a> (1924–1926)</div> </li> </ul> <p><a href="/wiki/Expressionism" title="Expressionism">Expressionism</a>, which appeared in Germany between 1910 and 1925, was a counter-movement against the strictly functional architecture of the Bauhaus and Werkbund. Its advocates, including <a href="/wiki/Bruno_Taut" title="Bruno Taut">Bruno Taut</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hans_Poelzig" title="Hans Poelzig">Hans Poelzig</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Hoger" class="mw-redirect" title="Fritz Hoger">Fritz Hoger</a> and <a href="/wiki/Erich_Mendelsohn" title="Erich Mendelsohn">Erich Mendelsohn</a>, wanted to create architecture that was poetic, expressive, and optimistic. Many expressionist architects had fought in World War I and their experiences, combined with the political turmoil and social upheaval that followed the <a href="/wiki/German_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="German Revolution">German Revolution</a> of 1919, resulted in a utopian outlook and a romantic socialist agenda.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Economic conditions severely limited the number of built commissions between 1914 and the mid-1920s,<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As result, many of the most innovative expressionist projects, including <a href="/wiki/Bruno_Taut" title="Bruno Taut">Bruno Taut</a>'s <i>Alpine Architecture</i> and <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Finsterlin" title="Hermann Finsterlin">Hermann Finsterlin</a>'s <i>Formspiels</i>, remained on paper. <a href="/wiki/Scenography" title="Scenography">Scenography</a> for theatre and films provided another outlet for the expressionist imagination,<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and provided supplemental incomes for designers attempting to challenge conventions in a harsh economic climate. A particular type, using bricks to create its forms (rather than concrete) is known as <a href="/wiki/Brick_Expressionism" title="Brick Expressionism">Brick Expressionism</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Erich_Mendelsohn" title="Erich Mendelsohn">Erich Mendelsohn</a>, (who disliked the term Expressionism for his work) began his career designing churches, silos, and factories which were highly imaginative, but, for lack of resources, were never built. In 1920, he finally was able to construct one of his works in the city of Potsdam; an observatory and research center called the <a href="/wiki/Einsteinium" title="Einsteinium">Einsteinium</a>, named in tribute to <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a>. It was supposed to be built of reinforced concrete, but because of technical problems it was finally built of traditional materials covered with plaster. His sculptural form, very different from the austere rectangular forms of the Bauhaus, first won him commissions to build movie theaters and retail stores in Stuttgart, Nuremberg, and Berlin. His <a href="/wiki/Mossehaus" title="Mossehaus">Mossehaus</a> in Berlin was an early model for the <a href="/wiki/Streamline_moderne" class="mw-redirect" title="Streamline moderne">streamline moderne</a> style. His <a href="/wiki/Columbushaus" title="Columbushaus">Columbushaus</a> on Potsdamer Platz in Berlin (1931) was a prototype for the modernist office buildings that followed. (It was torn down in 1957, because it stood in the zone between East and West Berlin, where the <a href="/wiki/Berlin_Wall" title="Berlin Wall">Berlin Wall</a> was constructed.) Following the rise of the Nazis to power, he moved to England (1933), then to the United States (1941).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBony201295_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBony201295-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Fritz_H%C3%B6ger" class="mw-redirect" title="Fritz Höger">Fritz Höger</a> was another notable Expressionist architect of the period. His <a href="/wiki/Chilehaus" title="Chilehaus">Chilehaus</a> was built as the headquarters of a shipping company, and was modeled after a giant steamship, a triangular building with a sharply pointed bow. It was constructed of dark brick, and used external piers to express its vertical structure. Its external decoration borrowed from Gothic cathedrals, as did its internal arcades. <a href="/wiki/Hans_Poelzig" title="Hans Poelzig">Hans Poelzig</a> was another notable expressionist architect. In 1919 he built the <a href="/wiki/Gro%C3%9Fes_Schauspielhaus" title="Großes Schauspielhaus">Großes Schauspielhaus</a>, an immense theater in Berlin, seating five thousand spectators for theater impresario <a href="/wiki/Max_Reinhardt" title="Max Reinhardt">Max Reinhardt</a>. It featured elongated shapes like stalagmites hanging down from its gigantic dome, and lights on massive columns in its foyer. He also constructed the <a href="/wiki/IG_Farben_building" class="mw-redirect" title="IG Farben building">IG Farben building</a>, a massive corporate headquarters, now the main building of <a href="/wiki/Goethe_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Goethe University">Goethe University</a> in Frankfurt. <a href="/wiki/Bruno_Taut" title="Bruno Taut">Bruno Taut</a> specialized in building large-scale apartment complexes for working-class Berliners. He built twelve thousand individual units, sometimes in buildings with unusual shapes, such as a giant horseshoe. Unlike most other modernists, he used bright exterior colors to give his buildings more life The use of dark brick in the German projects gave that particular style a name, <a href="/wiki/Brick_Expressionism" title="Brick Expressionism">Brick Expressionism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETietz199926–27_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETietz199926–27-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Austrian philosopher, architect, and social critic <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Steiner" title="Rudolf Steiner">Rudolf Steiner</a> also departed as far as possible from traditional architectural forms. His <a href="/wiki/Goetheanum" title="Goetheanum">Second Goetheanum</a>, built from 1926 near <a href="/wiki/Basel" title="Basel">Basel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Erich_Mendelsohn" title="Erich Mendelsohn">Mendelsohn</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Einsteinturm" class="mw-redirect" title="Einsteinturm">Einsteinturm</a> in Potsdam, Germany, were based on no traditional models and had entirely original shapes. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Constructivist_architecture_(1919–1931)"><span id="Constructivist_architecture_.281919.E2.80.931931.29"></span>Constructivist architecture (1919–1931)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_architecture&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Constructivist architecture (1919–1931)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Constructivist_architecture" title="Constructivist architecture">Constructivist architecture</a></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 114px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 112px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tatlin%27s_Tower_maket_1919_year.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Model of the Tower for the Third International, by Vladimir Tatlin (1919)"><img alt="Model of the Tower for the Third International, by Vladimir Tatlin (1919)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Tatlin%27s_Tower_maket_1919_year.jpg/168px-Tatlin%27s_Tower_maket_1919_year.jpg" decoding="async" width="112" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Tatlin%27s_Tower_maket_1919_year.jpg/253px-Tatlin%27s_Tower_maket_1919_year.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Tatlin%27s_Tower_maket_1919_year.jpg/336px-Tatlin%27s_Tower_maket_1919_year.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1680" data-file-height="2247" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Model of the Tower for the Third International, by <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Tatlin" title="Vladimir Tatlin">Vladimir Tatlin</a> (1919)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 248px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 246px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Lenin_Mausoleum.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Lenin Mausoleum in Moscow by Alexey Shchusev (1924)"><img alt="The Lenin Mausoleum in Moscow by Alexey Shchusev (1924)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Lenin_Mausoleum.jpg/369px-Lenin_Mausoleum.jpg" decoding="async" width="246" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Lenin_Mausoleum.jpg/554px-Lenin_Mausoleum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Lenin_Mausoleum.jpg/737px-Lenin_Mausoleum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2456" data-file-height="1500" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Lenin_Mausoleum" class="mw-redirect" title="Lenin Mausoleum">Lenin Mausoleum</a> in Moscow by <a href="/wiki/Alexey_Shchusev" title="Alexey Shchusev">Alexey Shchusev</a> (1924)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 111.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 109.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pavillon_de_l%27URSS_Paris_(1925).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The USSR Pavilion at the 1925 Paris Exposition of Decorative Arts, by Konstantin Melnikov (1925)"><img alt="The USSR Pavilion at the 1925 Paris Exposition of Decorative Arts, by Konstantin Melnikov (1925)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Pavillon_de_l%27URSS_Paris_%281925%29.jpg/164px-Pavillon_de_l%27URSS_Paris_%281925%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="110" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Pavillon_de_l%27URSS_Paris_%281925%29.jpg/247px-Pavillon_de_l%27URSS_Paris_%281925%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Pavillon_de_l%27URSS_Paris_%281925%29.jpg/329px-Pavillon_de_l%27URSS_Paris_%281925%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="878" data-file-height="1200" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The USSR Pavilion at the 1925 Paris Exposition of Decorative Arts, by <a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Melnikov" title="Konstantin Melnikov">Konstantin Melnikov</a> (1925)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 226.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 224.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Moscow_RusakovWorkersClub_2253.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Rusakov Workers' Club, Moscow, by Konstantin Melnikov (1928)"><img alt="Rusakov Workers' Club, Moscow, by Konstantin Melnikov (1928)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Moscow_RusakovWorkersClub_2253.jpg/337px-Moscow_RusakovWorkersClub_2253.jpg" decoding="async" width="225" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Moscow_RusakovWorkersClub_2253.jpg/506px-Moscow_RusakovWorkersClub_2253.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Moscow_RusakovWorkersClub_2253.jpg/674px-Moscow_RusakovWorkersClub_2253.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3951" data-file-height="2638" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Rusakov Workers' Club, Moscow, by <a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Melnikov" title="Konstantin Melnikov">Konstantin Melnikov</a> (1928)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 232px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Mr.M._C._Dresselhuyspaviljoen,_overzicht_van_de_zuidvleugel,_dan_wel_scheeve_vleugel,_tijdens_restauratie_-_Hilversum_-_20422171_-_RCE.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Zonnestraal Sanatorium in Hilversum by Jan Duiker and Bernard Bijvoet (1926–1928)"><img alt="Zonnestraal Sanatorium in Hilversum by Jan Duiker and Bernard Bijvoet (1926–1928)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Mr.M._C._Dresselhuyspaviljoen%2C_overzicht_van_de_zuidvleugel%2C_dan_wel_scheeve_vleugel%2C_tijdens_restauratie_-_Hilversum_-_20422171_-_RCE.jpg/345px-Mr.M._C._Dresselhuyspaviljoen%2C_overzicht_van_de_zuidvleugel%2C_dan_wel_scheeve_vleugel%2C_tijdens_restauratie_-_Hilversum_-_20422171_-_RCE.jpg" decoding="async" width="230" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Mr.M._C._Dresselhuyspaviljoen%2C_overzicht_van_de_zuidvleugel%2C_dan_wel_scheeve_vleugel%2C_tijdens_restauratie_-_Hilversum_-_20422171_-_RCE.jpg/518px-Mr.M._C._Dresselhuyspaviljoen%2C_overzicht_van_de_zuidvleugel%2C_dan_wel_scheeve_vleugel%2C_tijdens_restauratie_-_Hilversum_-_20422171_-_RCE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Mr.M._C._Dresselhuyspaviljoen%2C_overzicht_van_de_zuidvleugel%2C_dan_wel_scheeve_vleugel%2C_tijdens_restauratie_-_Hilversum_-_20422171_-_RCE.jpg/690px-Mr.M._C._Dresselhuyspaviljoen%2C_overzicht_van_de_zuidvleugel%2C_dan_wel_scheeve_vleugel%2C_tijdens_restauratie_-_Hilversum_-_20422171_-_RCE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4004" data-file-height="2612" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Zonnestraal_(estate)" title="Zonnestraal (estate)">Zonnestraal Sanatorium</a> in <a href="/wiki/Hilversum" title="Hilversum">Hilversum</a> by <a href="/wiki/Jan_Duiker" title="Jan Duiker">Jan Duiker</a> and Bernard Bijvoet (1926–1928)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 175.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 173.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Openluchtschool_-_Open-air_School_(8157211576).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Open air school in Amsterdam by Jan Duiker (1929–1930)"><img alt="Open air school in Amsterdam by Jan Duiker (1929–1930)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Openluchtschool_-_Open-air_School_%288157211576%29.jpg/260px-Openluchtschool_-_Open-air_School_%288157211576%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="174" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Openluchtschool_-_Open-air_School_%288157211576%29.jpg/390px-Openluchtschool_-_Open-air_School_%288157211576%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Openluchtschool_-_Open-air_School_%288157211576%29.jpg/519px-Openluchtschool_-_Open-air_School_%288157211576%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1115" data-file-height="966" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Open_air_school" title="Open air school">Open air school</a> in Amsterdam by <a href="/wiki/Jan_Duiker" title="Jan Duiker">Jan Duiker</a> (1929–1930)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 227.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 225.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:VN5_HDR2.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Van Nelle Factory in Rotterdam by Leendert van der Vlugt and Mart Stam (1927–1931)"><img alt="Van Nelle Factory in Rotterdam by Leendert van der Vlugt and Mart Stam (1927–1931)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/VN5_HDR2.jpg/338px-VN5_HDR2.jpg" decoding="async" width="226" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/VN5_HDR2.jpg/507px-VN5_HDR2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/VN5_HDR2.jpg/675px-VN5_HDR2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3884" data-file-height="2589" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Van_Nelle_Factory" title="Van Nelle Factory">Van Nelle Factory</a> in <a href="/wiki/Rotterdam" title="Rotterdam">Rotterdam</a> by <a href="/wiki/Leendert_van_der_Vlugt" title="Leendert van der Vlugt">Leendert van der Vlugt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mart_Stam" title="Mart Stam">Mart Stam</a> (1927–1931)</div> </li> </ul> <p>After the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a> of 1917, Russian avant-garde artists and architects began searching for a new Soviet style which could replace traditional neoclassicism. The new architectural movements were closely tied with the literary and artistic movements of the period, the <a href="/wiki/Futurism" title="Futurism">futurism</a> of poet <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Mayakovskiy" class="mw-redirect" title="Vladimir Mayakovskiy">Vladimir Mayakovskiy</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Suprematism" title="Suprematism">Suprematism</a> of painter <a href="/wiki/Kasimir_Malevich" class="mw-redirect" title="Kasimir Malevich">Kasimir Malevich</a>, and the colorful <a href="/wiki/Rayonism" title="Rayonism">Rayonism</a> of painter <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Larionov" title="Mikhail Larionov">Mikhail Larionov</a>. The most startling design that emerged was the tower proposed by painter and sculptor <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Tatlin" title="Vladimir Tatlin">Vladimir Tatlin</a> for the Moscow meeting of the Third <a href="/wiki/Communist_International" title="Communist International">Communist International</a> in 1920: he proposed two interlaced towers of metal four hundred meters high, with four geometric volumes suspended from cables. The movement of Russian <a href="/wiki/Constructivist_architecture" title="Constructivist architecture">Constructivist architecture</a> was launched in 1921 by a group of artists led by <a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Rodchenko" class="mw-redirect" title="Aleksandr Rodchenko">Aleksandr Rodchenko</a>. Their manifesto proclaimed that their goal was to find the "communist expression of material structures". Soviet architects began to construct workers' clubs, communal apartment houses, and communal kitchens for feeding whole neighborhoods.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBony201286–87_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBony201286–87-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One of the first prominent constructivist architects to emerge in Moscow was <a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Melnikov" title="Konstantin Melnikov">Konstantin Melnikov</a>, the number of working clubs – including <a href="/wiki/Rusakov_Workers%27_Club" title="Rusakov Workers' Club">Rusakov Workers' Club</a> (1928) – and his own living house, <a href="/wiki/The_Melnikov_House" class="mw-redirect" title="The Melnikov House">Melnikov House</a> (1929) near <a href="/wiki/Arbat_Street" title="Arbat Street">Arbat Street</a> in Moscow. Melnikov traveled to Paris in 1925 where he built the Soviet Pavilion for the <a href="/wiki/International_Exhibition_of_Modern_Decorative_and_Industrial_Arts" title="International Exhibition of Modern Decorative and Industrial Arts">International Exhibition of Modern Decorative and Industrial Arts</a> in Paris in 1925; it was a highly geometric vertical construction of glass and steel crossed by a diagonal stairway, and crowned with a hammer and sickle. The leading group of constructivist architects, led by <a href="/wiki/Vesnin_brothers" title="Vesnin brothers">Vesnin brothers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Moisei_Ginzburg" title="Moisei Ginzburg">Moisei Ginzburg</a>, was publishing the 'Contemporary Architecture' journal. This group created several major constructivist projects in the wake of the First Five Year Plan – including colossal <a href="/wiki/Dnieper_Hydroelectric_Station" title="Dnieper Hydroelectric Station">Dnieper Hydroelectric Station</a> (1932) – and made an attempt to start the standardization of living blocks with Ginzburg's <a href="/wiki/Narkomfin_building" title="Narkomfin building">Narkomfin building</a>. A number of architects from the pre-Soviet period also took up the constructivist style. The most famous example was <a href="/wiki/Lenin%27s_Mausoleum" title="Lenin's Mausoleum">Lenin's Mausoleum</a> in Moscow (1924), by <a href="/wiki/Alexey_Shchusev" title="Alexey Shchusev">Alexey Shchusev</a> (1924)<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The main centers of constructivist architecture were Moscow and Leningrad; however, during the industrialization many constructivist buildings were erected in provincial cities. The regional industrial centers, including <a href="/wiki/Yekaterinburg" title="Yekaterinburg">Ekaterinburg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kharkiv" title="Kharkiv">Kharkiv</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ivanovo" title="Ivanovo">Ivanovo</a>, were rebuilt in the constructivist manner; some cities, like <a href="/wiki/Magnitogorsk" title="Magnitogorsk">Magnitogorsk</a> or <a href="/wiki/Zaporizhzhia" title="Zaporizhzhia">Zaporizhzhia</a>, were constructed anew (the so-called <i>socgorod</i>, or 'socialist city'). </p><p>The style fell markedly out of favor in the 1930s, replaced by the more grandiose nationalist styles that Stalin favored. Constructivist architects and even <a href="/wiki/Le_Corbusier" title="Le Corbusier">Le Corbusier</a> projects for the new <a href="/wiki/Palace_of_the_Soviets" title="Palace of the Soviets">Palace of the Soviets</a> from 1931 to 1933, but the winner was an early Stalinist building in the style termed <a href="/wiki/Postconstructivism" title="Postconstructivism">Postconstructivism</a>. The last major Russian constructivist building, by <a href="/wiki/Boris_Iofan" title="Boris Iofan">Boris Iofan</a>, was built for the <a href="/wiki/Exposition_Internationale_des_Arts_et_Techniques_dans_la_Vie_Moderne" title="Exposition Internationale des Arts et Techniques dans la Vie Moderne">Paris World Exhibition</a> (1937), where it faced the pavilion of Nazi Germany by Hitler's architect <a href="/wiki/Albert_Speer" title="Albert Speer">Albert Speer</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="New_Objectivity_(1920–1933)"><span id="New_Objectivity_.281920.E2.80.931933.29"></span>New Objectivity (1920–1933)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_architecture&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: New Objectivity (1920–1933)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/New_Objectivity_(architecture)" title="New Objectivity (architecture)">New Objectivity (architecture)</a></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 134.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 132.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ernstmay2.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Römerstadt, Frankfurt am Main, by Ernst May (1927–1929)"><img alt="Römerstadt, Frankfurt am Main, by Ernst May (1927–1929)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Ernstmay2.jpg/199px-Ernstmay2.jpg" decoding="async" width="133" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Ernstmay2.jpg/298px-Ernstmay2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Ernstmay2.jpg/397px-Ernstmay2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="399" data-file-height="452" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/R%C3%B6merstadt" title="Römerstadt">Römerstadt</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Frankfurt" title="New Frankfurt">Frankfurt am Main</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Ernst_May" title="Ernst May">Ernst May</a> (1927–1929)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 202px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Neues-frankfurt_heimatsiedlung.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Heimatsiedlung in Frankfurt an Main by Franz Roeckle (1927–1934)"><img alt="Heimatsiedlung in Frankfurt an Main by Franz Roeckle (1927–1934)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Neues-frankfurt_heimatsiedlung.jpg/300px-Neues-frankfurt_heimatsiedlung.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Neues-frankfurt_heimatsiedlung.jpg/451px-Neues-frankfurt_heimatsiedlung.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Neues-frankfurt_heimatsiedlung.jpg/600px-Neues-frankfurt_heimatsiedlung.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Heimatsiedlung in <a href="/wiki/New_Frankfurt" title="New Frankfurt">Frankfurt an Main</a> by Franz Roeckle (1927–1934)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 102px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 100px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Weissenhof_photo_apartment_house_Mies_van_der_Rohe_Stuttgart_Germany_2005-10-08.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Apartment house in Stuttgart by Mies van der Rohe (1927)"><img alt="Apartment house in Stuttgart by Mies van der Rohe (1927)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Weissenhof_photo_apartment_house_Mies_van_der_Rohe_Stuttgart_Germany_2005-10-08.jpg/150px-Weissenhof_photo_apartment_house_Mies_van_der_Rohe_Stuttgart_Germany_2005-10-08.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Weissenhof_photo_apartment_house_Mies_van_der_Rohe_Stuttgart_Germany_2005-10-08.jpg/225px-Weissenhof_photo_apartment_house_Mies_van_der_Rohe_Stuttgart_Germany_2005-10-08.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Weissenhof_photo_apartment_house_Mies_van_der_Rohe_Stuttgart_Germany_2005-10-08.jpg/300px-Weissenhof_photo_apartment_house_Mies_van_der_Rohe_Stuttgart_Germany_2005-10-08.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1536" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Apartment house in <a href="/wiki/Wei%C3%9Fenhofsiedlung" class="mw-redirect" title="Weißenhofsiedlung">Stuttgart</a> by <a href="/wiki/Mies_van_der_Rohe" class="mw-redirect" title="Mies van der Rohe">Mies van der Rohe</a> (1927)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 114.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 112.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Berlin-taut-bauten-naugarderstrII.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Flats in Berlin's Prenzlauer Berg by Bruno Taut (1920s)"><img alt="Flats in Berlin's Prenzlauer Berg by Bruno Taut (1920s)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Berlin-taut-bauten-naugarderstrII.jpg/169px-Berlin-taut-bauten-naugarderstrII.jpg" decoding="async" width="113" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Berlin-taut-bauten-naugarderstrII.jpg/253px-Berlin-taut-bauten-naugarderstrII.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Berlin-taut-bauten-naugarderstrII.jpg/337px-Berlin-taut-bauten-naugarderstrII.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1600" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Flats in Berlin's <a href="/wiki/Prenzlauer_Berg" title="Prenzlauer Berg">Prenzlauer Berg</a> by <a href="/wiki/Bruno_Taut" title="Bruno Taut">Bruno Taut</a> (1920s)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 213.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Berlin_Maeckeritzstr.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Flats in Siemensstadt, Berlin, by Hans Scharoun (early 1930s)"><img alt="Flats in Siemensstadt, Berlin, by Hans Scharoun (early 1930s)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Berlin_Maeckeritzstr.jpg/320px-Berlin_Maeckeritzstr.jpg" decoding="async" width="214" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Berlin_Maeckeritzstr.jpg/481px-Berlin_Maeckeritzstr.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Berlin_Maeckeritzstr.jpg/640px-Berlin_Maeckeritzstr.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1350" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Flats in <a href="/wiki/Siemensstadt" title="Siemensstadt">Siemensstadt</a>, Berlin, by <a href="/wiki/Hans_Scharoun" title="Hans Scharoun">Hans Scharoun</a> (early 1930s)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 179.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 177.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Kaufhaus_Schocken_in_Chemnitz_2014.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Former Schocken Department Store, Chemnitz, by Erich Mendelsohn (1927-1930)"><img alt="Former Schocken Department Store, Chemnitz, by Erich Mendelsohn (1927-1930)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Kaufhaus_Schocken_in_Chemnitz_2014.jpg/266px-Kaufhaus_Schocken_in_Chemnitz_2014.jpg" decoding="async" width="178" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Kaufhaus_Schocken_in_Chemnitz_2014.jpg/399px-Kaufhaus_Schocken_in_Chemnitz_2014.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Kaufhaus_Schocken_in_Chemnitz_2014.jpg/531px-Kaufhaus_Schocken_in_Chemnitz_2014.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2753" data-file-height="2333" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Former Schocken Department Store, <a href="/wiki/Chemnitz" title="Chemnitz">Chemnitz</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Erich_Mendelsohn" title="Erich Mendelsohn">Erich Mendelsohn</a> (1927-1930) </div> </li> </ul> <p>The New Objectivity (in German Neue Sachlichkeit, sometimes also translated as New Sobriety) is a name often given to the Modern architecture that emerged in Europe, primarily German-speaking Europe, in the 1920s and 30s. It is also frequently called Neues Bauen (New Building). The New Objectivity took place in many German cities in that period, for example in Frankfurt with its <a href="/wiki/Neues_Frankfurt" class="mw-redirect" title="Neues Frankfurt">Neues Frankfurt</a> project. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modernism_becomes_a_movement:_CIAM_(1928)"><span id="Modernism_becomes_a_movement:_CIAM_.281928.29"></span>Modernism becomes a movement: CIAM (1928)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_architecture&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Modernism becomes a movement: CIAM (1928)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Congr%C3%A8s_Internationaux_d%27Architecture_Moderne" title="Congrès Internationaux d'Architecture Moderne">Congrès Internationaux d'Architecture Moderne</a></div> <p>By the late 1920s, modernism had become an important movement in Europe. Architecture, which previously had been predominantly national, began to become international. The architects traveled, met each other, and shared ideas. Several modernists, including <a href="/wiki/Le_Corbusier" title="Le Corbusier">Le Corbusier</a>, had participated in the competition for the headquarters of the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a> in 1927. In the same year, the German Werkbund organized an architectural exposition at the <a href="/wiki/Weissenhof_Estate" title="Weissenhof Estate">Weissenhof Estate</a> <a href="/wiki/Stuttgart" title="Stuttgart">Stuttgart</a>. Seventeen leading modernist architects in Europe were invited to design twenty-one houses; Le Corbusier, and <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Mies_van_der_Rohe" title="Ludwig Mies van der Rohe">Ludwig Mies van der Rohe</a> played a major part. In 1927 Le Corbusier, Pierre Chareau, and others proposed the foundation of an international conference to establish the basis for a common style. The first meeting of the <i><a href="/wiki/Congr%C3%A8s_International_d%27Architecture_Moderne" class="mw-redirect" title="Congrès International d'Architecture Moderne">Congrès Internationaux d'Architecture Moderne</a></i> or International Congresses of Modern Architects (CIAM), was held in a chateau on <a href="/wiki/Lake_Leman" class="mw-redirect" title="Lake Leman">Lake Leman</a> in Switzerland 26–28 June 1928. Those attending included Le Corbusier, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Mallet-Stevens" title="Robert Mallet-Stevens">Robert Mallet-Stevens</a>, <a href="/wiki/Auguste_Perret" title="Auguste Perret">Auguste Perret</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Chareau" title="Pierre Chareau">Pierre Chareau</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tony_Garnier_(architect)" title="Tony Garnier (architect)">Tony Garnier</a> from France; <a href="/wiki/Victor_Bourgeois" title="Victor Bourgeois">Victor Bourgeois</a> from Belgium; <a href="/wiki/Walter_Gropius" title="Walter Gropius">Walter Gropius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Erich_Mendelsohn" title="Erich Mendelsohn">Erich Mendelsohn</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ernst_May" title="Ernst May">Ernst May</a> and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe from Germany; <a href="/wiki/Josef_Frank_(architect)" title="Josef Frank (architect)">Josef Frank</a> from Austria; <a href="/wiki/Mart_Stam" title="Mart Stam">Mart Stam</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gerrit_Rietveld" title="Gerrit Rietveld">Gerrit Rietveld</a> from the Netherlands, and <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Loos" title="Adolf Loos">Adolf Loos</a> from Czechoslovakia. A delegation of Soviet architects was invited to attend, but they were unable to obtain visas. Later members included <a href="/wiki/Josep_Llu%C3%ADs_Sert" title="Josep Lluís Sert">Josep Lluís Sert</a> of Spain and <a href="/wiki/Alvar_Aalto" title="Alvar Aalto">Alvar Aalto</a> of Finland. No one attended from the United States. A second meeting was organized in 1930 in Brussels by Victor Bourgeois on the topic "Rational methods for groups of habitations". A third meeting, on "The functional city", was scheduled for Moscow in 1932, but was cancelled at the last minute. Instead, the delegates held their meeting on a cruise ship traveling between Marseille and Athens. On board, they together drafted a text on how modern cities should be organized. The text, called The <a href="/wiki/Athens_Charter" title="Athens Charter">Athens Charter</a>, after considerable editing by Corbusier and others, was finally published in 1957 and became an influential text for city planners in the 1950s and 1960s. The group met once more in Paris in 1937 to discuss public housing and was scheduled to meet in the United States in 1939, but the meeting was cancelled because of the war. The legacy of the CIAM was a roughly common style and doctrine which helped define modern architecture in Europe and the United States after World War II.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBony201284–85_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBony201284–85-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Art_Deco">Art Deco</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_architecture&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Art Deco"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Art_Deco" title="Art Deco">Art Deco</a></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 315.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 313.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Paris-FR-75-Expo_1925_Arts_d%C3%A9coratifs-pavillon_des_Galeries_Lafayette.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Pavilion of the Galeries Lafayette Department Store at the Paris International Exposition of Decorative Arts (1925)"><img alt="Pavilion of the Galeries Lafayette Department Store at the Paris International Exposition of Decorative Arts (1925)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Paris-FR-75-Expo_1925_Arts_d%C3%A9coratifs-pavillon_des_Galeries_Lafayette.jpg/470px-Paris-FR-75-Expo_1925_Arts_d%C3%A9coratifs-pavillon_des_Galeries_Lafayette.jpg" decoding="async" width="314" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Paris-FR-75-Expo_1925_Arts_d%C3%A9coratifs-pavillon_des_Galeries_Lafayette.jpg/704px-Paris-FR-75-Expo_1925_Arts_d%C3%A9coratifs-pavillon_des_Galeries_Lafayette.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Paris-FR-75-Expo_1925_Arts_d%C3%A9coratifs-pavillon_des_Galeries_Lafayette.jpg/939px-Paris-FR-75-Expo_1925_Arts_d%C3%A9coratifs-pavillon_des_Galeries_Lafayette.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3435" data-file-height="2195" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Pavilion of the <a href="/wiki/Galeries_Lafayette" title="Galeries Lafayette">Galeries Lafayette</a> Department Store at the <a href="/wiki/International_Exhibition_of_Modern_Decorative_and_Industrial_Arts" title="International Exhibition of Modern Decorative and Industrial Arts">Paris International Exposition of Decorative Arts</a> (1925)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 266.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 264.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:P1030956_Paris_Ier_La_Samaritaine_rwk.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="La Samaritaine department store, by Henri Sauvage, Paris, (1925–28)"><img alt="La Samaritaine department store, by Henri Sauvage, Paris, (1925–28)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/P1030956_Paris_Ier_La_Samaritaine_rwk.JPG/397px-P1030956_Paris_Ier_La_Samaritaine_rwk.JPG" decoding="async" width="265" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/P1030956_Paris_Ier_La_Samaritaine_rwk.JPG/596px-P1030956_Paris_Ier_La_Samaritaine_rwk.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/P1030956_Paris_Ier_La_Samaritaine_rwk.JPG/795px-P1030956_Paris_Ier_La_Samaritaine_rwk.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1133" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/La_Samaritaine" title="La Samaritaine">La Samaritaine</a> department store, by <a href="/wiki/Henri_Sauvage" title="Henri Sauvage">Henri Sauvage</a>, Paris, (1925–28)</div> </li> </ul> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Art_Deco" title="Art Deco">Art Deco</a> architectural style (called <i>Style Moderne</i> in France), was modern, but it was not modernist; it had many features of modernism, including the use of reinforced concrete, glass, steel, chrome, and it rejected traditional historical models, such as the <a href="/wiki/Beaux-Arts_style" class="mw-redirect" title="Beaux-Arts style">Beaux-Arts style</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neo-classicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-classicism">Neo-classicism</a>; but, unlike the modernist styles of Le Corbusier and Mies van der Rohe, it made lavish use of decoration and color. It reveled in the symbols of modernity; lightning flashes, sunrises, and zig-zags. Art Deco had begun in France before World War I and spread through Europe; in the 1920s and 1930s it became a highly popular style in the United States, South America, India, China, Australia, and Japan. In Europe, Art Deco was particularly popular for department stores and movie theaters. The style reached its peak in Europe at the <a href="/wiki/International_Exhibition_of_Modern_Decorative_and_Industrial_Arts" title="International Exhibition of Modern Decorative and Industrial Arts">International Exhibition of Modern Decorative and Industrial Arts</a> in 1925, which featured art deco pavilions and decoration from twenty countries. Only two pavilions were purely modernist; the Esprit Nouveau pavilion of Le Corbusier, which represented his idea for a mass-produced housing unit, and the pavilion of the USSR, by <a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Melnikov" title="Konstantin Melnikov">Konstantin Melnikov</a> in a flamboyantly <a href="/wiki/Futurist_architecture" title="Futurist architecture">futurist</a> style.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Later French landmarks in the Art Deco style included the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Rex" title="Grand Rex">Grand Rex</a> movie theater in Paris, <a href="/wiki/La_Samaritaine" title="La Samaritaine">La Samaritaine</a> department store by <a href="/wiki/Henri_Sauvage" title="Henri Sauvage">Henri Sauvage</a> (1926–28) and the Social and Economic Council building in Paris (1937–38) by <a href="/wiki/Auguste_Perret" title="Auguste Perret">Auguste Perret</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Palais_de_Tokyo" title="Palais de Tokyo">Palais de Tokyo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Palais_de_Chaillot" title="Palais de Chaillot">Palais de Chaillot</a>, both built by collectives of architects for the 1937 Paris <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Exposition_Internationale_des_Arts_et_Techniques_dans_la_Vie_Moderne" title="Exposition Internationale des Arts et Techniques dans la Vie Moderne">Exposition Internationale des Arts et Techniques dans la Vie Moderne</a></span></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="American_Art_Deco;_the_skyscraper_style_(1919–1939)"><span id="American_Art_Deco.3B_the_skyscraper_style_.281919.E2.80.931939.29"></span>American Art Deco; the skyscraper style (1919–1939)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_architecture&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: American Art Deco; the skyscraper style (1919–1939)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Art_Deco" title="Art Deco">Art Deco</a> and <a href="/wiki/Streamline_Moderne" title="Streamline Moderne">Streamline Moderne</a></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 152px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:American_Radiator_Building.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The American Radiator Building in New York City by Raymond Hood (1924)"><img alt="The American Radiator Building in New York City by Raymond Hood (1924)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/American_Radiator_Building.jpg/225px-American_Radiator_Building.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/American_Radiator_Building.jpg/337px-American_Radiator_Building.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/American_Radiator_Building.jpg/450px-American_Radiator_Building.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2976" data-file-height="3968" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/American_Radiator_Building" title="American Radiator Building">American Radiator Building</a> in New York City by <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Hood" title="Raymond Hood">Raymond Hood</a> (1924)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 135.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 133.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Guardian_Building_Detroit_Interior_Clock.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Guardian Building in Detroit, by Wirt C. Rowland (1927–29)"><img alt="Guardian Building in Detroit, by Wirt C. Rowland (1927–29)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Guardian_Building_Detroit_Interior_Clock.jpg/200px-Guardian_Building_Detroit_Interior_Clock.jpg" decoding="async" width="134" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Guardian_Building_Detroit_Interior_Clock.jpg/300px-Guardian_Building_Detroit_Interior_Clock.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Guardian_Building_Detroit_Interior_Clock.jpg/400px-Guardian_Building_Detroit_Interior_Clock.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1695" data-file-height="2542" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Guardian_Building" title="Guardian Building">Guardian Building</a> in Detroit, by <a href="/wiki/Wirt_C._Rowland" title="Wirt C. Rowland">Wirt C. Rowland</a> (1927–29)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 111.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 109.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Chrysler_Building_spire,_Manhattan,_by_Carol_Highsmith_(LOC_highsm.04444).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Chrysler Building in New York City, by William Van Alen (1928–30)"><img alt="Chrysler Building in New York City, by William Van Alen (1928–30)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Chrysler_Building_spire%2C_Manhattan%2C_by_Carol_Highsmith_%28LOC_highsm.04444%29.jpg/164px-Chrysler_Building_spire%2C_Manhattan%2C_by_Carol_Highsmith_%28LOC_highsm.04444%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="110" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Chrysler_Building_spire%2C_Manhattan%2C_by_Carol_Highsmith_%28LOC_highsm.04444%29.jpg/246px-Chrysler_Building_spire%2C_Manhattan%2C_by_Carol_Highsmith_%28LOC_highsm.04444%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Chrysler_Building_spire%2C_Manhattan%2C_by_Carol_Highsmith_%28LOC_highsm.04444%29.jpg/328px-Chrysler_Building_spire%2C_Manhattan%2C_by_Carol_Highsmith_%28LOC_highsm.04444%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2344" data-file-height="4284" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Chrysler_Building" title="Chrysler Building">Chrysler Building</a> in New York City, by <a href="/wiki/William_Van_Alen" title="William Van Alen">William Van Alen</a> (1928–30)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 234px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 232px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:GeneralElectricBuilding-Crown.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Crown of the General Electric Building (also known as 570 Lexington Avenue) by Cross & Cross (1933)"><img alt="Crown of the General Electric Building (also known as 570 Lexington Avenue) by Cross & Cross (1933)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/GeneralElectricBuilding-Crown.jpg/348px-GeneralElectricBuilding-Crown.jpg" decoding="async" width="232" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/GeneralElectricBuilding-Crown.jpg/522px-GeneralElectricBuilding-Crown.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/GeneralElectricBuilding-Crown.jpg/696px-GeneralElectricBuilding-Crown.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1489" data-file-height="1284" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Crown of the <a href="/wiki/General_Electric_Building" title="General Electric Building">General Electric Building</a> (also known as 570 Lexington Avenue) by <a href="/wiki/Cross_%26_Cross" title="Cross & Cross">Cross & Cross</a> (1933)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 150.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 148.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:GE_Building_by_David_Shankbone.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="30 Rockefeller Center, now the Comcast Building, by Raymond Hood (1933)"><img alt="30 Rockefeller Center, now the Comcast Building, by Raymond Hood (1933)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/GE_Building_by_David_Shankbone.JPG/223px-GE_Building_by_David_Shankbone.JPG" decoding="async" width="149" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/GE_Building_by_David_Shankbone.JPG/334px-GE_Building_by_David_Shankbone.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/GE_Building_by_David_Shankbone.JPG/446px-GE_Building_by_David_Shankbone.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2380" data-file-height="3204" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">30 Rockefeller Center, now the <a href="/wiki/Comcast_Building" class="mw-redirect" title="Comcast Building">Comcast Building</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Hood" title="Raymond Hood">Raymond Hood</a> (1933)</div> </li> </ul> <p>In the late 1920s and early 1930s, an exuberant American variant of Art Deco appeared in the <a href="/wiki/Chrysler_Building" title="Chrysler Building">Chrysler Building</a>, <a href="/wiki/Empire_State_Building" title="Empire State Building">Empire State Building</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rockefeller_Center" title="Rockefeller Center">Rockefeller Center</a> in New York City, and <a href="/wiki/Guardian_Building" title="Guardian Building">Guardian Building</a> in Detroit. The first skyscrapers in Chicago and New York had been designed in a neo-gothic or neoclassical style, but these buildings were very different; they combined modern materials and technology (stainless steel, concrete, aluminum, chrome-plated steel) with Art Deco geometry; stylized zig-zags, lightning flashes, fountains, sunrises, and, at the top of the Chrysler building, Art Deco "gargoyles" in the form of stainless steel radiator ornaments. The interiors of these new buildings, sometimes termed Cathedrals of Commerce", were lavishly decorated in bright contrasting colors, with geometric patterns variously influenced by Egyptian and Mayan pyramids, African textile patterns, and European cathedrals, <a href="/wiki/Frank_Lloyd_Wright" title="Frank Lloyd Wright">Frank Lloyd Wright</a> himself experimented with <a href="/wiki/Mayan_Revival_architecture" title="Mayan Revival architecture">Mayan Revival</a>, in the concrete cube-based <a href="/wiki/Ennis_House" title="Ennis House">Ennis House</a> of 1924 in Los Angeles. The style appeared in the late 1920s and 1930s in all major American cities. The style was used most often in office buildings, but it also appeared in the enormous movie palaces that were built in large cities when sound films were introduced.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDuncan1988_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDuncan1988-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Streamline_style_and_Public_Works_Administration_(1933–1939)"><span id="Streamline_style_and_Public_Works_Administration_.281933.E2.80.931939.29"></span>Streamline style and Public Works Administration (1933–1939)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_architecture&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Streamline style and Public Works Administration (1933–1939)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 258.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 256.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pan-Pacific_Auditorium_entrance.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Pan-Pacific Auditorium in Los Angeles (1936)"><img alt="Pan-Pacific Auditorium in Los Angeles (1936)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Pan-Pacific_Auditorium_entrance.jpg/385px-Pan-Pacific_Auditorium_entrance.jpg" decoding="async" width="257" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Pan-Pacific_Auditorium_entrance.jpg/577px-Pan-Pacific_Auditorium_entrance.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Pan-Pacific_Auditorium_entrance.jpg/769px-Pan-Pacific_Auditorium_entrance.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4724" data-file-height="3685" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Pan-Pacific_Auditorium" title="Pan-Pacific Auditorium">Pan-Pacific Auditorium</a> in Los Angeles (1936)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 268.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 266.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:SFMaritimeMuseum.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The San Francisco Maritime Museum, originally was a public bathhouse (1936)"><img alt="The San Francisco Maritime Museum, originally was a public bathhouse (1936)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/SFMaritimeMuseum.jpg/400px-SFMaritimeMuseum.jpg" decoding="async" width="267" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/SFMaritimeMuseum.jpg/600px-SFMaritimeMuseum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/SFMaritimeMuseum.jpg/800px-SFMaritimeMuseum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="1152" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/San_Francisco_Maritime_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="San Francisco Maritime Museum">San Francisco Maritime Museum</a>, originally was a public bathhouse (1936)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 302px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 300px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Hoover_Dam_(3467678621).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Intake towers of Hoover Dam (1931–36)"><img alt="Intake towers of Hoover Dam (1931–36)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Hoover_Dam_%283467678621%29.jpg/450px-Hoover_Dam_%283467678621%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Hoover_Dam_%283467678621%29.jpg/675px-Hoover_Dam_%283467678621%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Hoover_Dam_%283467678621%29.jpg/900px-Hoover_Dam_%283467678621%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2784" data-file-height="1856" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Intake towers of <a href="/wiki/Hoover_Dam" title="Hoover Dam">Hoover Dam</a> (1931–36)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 268.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 266.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:U.S._Post_Office_(Long_Beach_Main).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Long Beach Main Post Office (1933–34)"><img alt="Long Beach Main Post Office (1933–34)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/U.S._Post_Office_%28Long_Beach_Main%29.jpg/400px-U.S._Post_Office_%28Long_Beach_Main%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="267" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/U.S._Post_Office_%28Long_Beach_Main%29.jpg/600px-U.S._Post_Office_%28Long_Beach_Main%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/U.S._Post_Office_%28Long_Beach_Main%29.jpg/800px-U.S._Post_Office_%28Long_Beach_Main%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="2592" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Long_Beach_Main_Post_Office" title="Long Beach Main Post Office">Long Beach Main Post Office</a> (1933–34)</div> </li> </ul> <p>The beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a> in 1929 brought an end to lavishly decorated Art Deco architecture and a temporary halt to the construction of new skyscrapers. It also brought in a new style, called "<a href="/wiki/Streamline_Moderne" title="Streamline Moderne">Streamline Moderne</a>" or sometimes just Streamline. This style, sometimes modeled after for the form of ocean liners, featured rounded corners, strong horizontal lines, and often nautical features, such as superstructures and steel railings. It was associated with modernity and especially with transportation; the style was often used for new airport terminals, train and bus stations, and for gas stations and diners built along the growing American highway system. In the 1930s the style was used not only in buildings, but in railroad locomotives, and even refrigerators and vacuum cleaners. It both borrowed from <a href="/wiki/Industrial_design" title="Industrial design">industrial design</a> and influenced it.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDucher2014204_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDucher2014204-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the United States, the Great Depression led to a new style for government buildings, sometimes called <a href="/wiki/PWA_Moderne" class="mw-redirect" title="PWA Moderne">PWA Moderne</a>, for the <a href="/wiki/Public_Works_Administration" title="Public Works Administration">Public Works Administration</a>, which launched gigantic construction programs in the U.S. to stimulate employment. It was essentially classical architecture stripped of ornament, and was employed in state and federal buildings, from post offices to the largest office building in the world at that time, <a href="/wiki/The_Pentagon" title="The Pentagon">Pentagon</a> (1941–43), begun just before the United States entered the Second World War.<sup id="cite_ref-GEMWWII_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GEMWWII-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="American_modernism_(1919–1939)"><span id="American_modernism_.281919.E2.80.931939.29"></span>American modernism (1919–1939)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_architecture&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: American modernism (1919–1939)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Frank_Lloyd_Wright" title="Frank Lloyd Wright">Frank Lloyd Wright</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rudolph_Schindler_(architect)" title="Rudolph Schindler (architect)">Rudolph Schindler (architect)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Richard_Neutra" title="Richard Neutra">Richard Neutra</a></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 302.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 300.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ennis_House_front_view_2005.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ennis House in Los Angeles, by Frank Lloyd Wright (1924)"><img alt="Ennis House in Los Angeles, by Frank Lloyd Wright (1924)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Ennis_House_front_view_2005.jpg/451px-Ennis_House_front_view_2005.jpg" decoding="async" width="301" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Ennis_House_front_view_2005.jpg/677px-Ennis_House_front_view_2005.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Ennis_House_front_view_2005.jpg/902px-Ennis_House_front_view_2005.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1624" data-file-height="1080" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Ennis_House" title="Ennis House">Ennis House</a> in Los Angeles, by Frank Lloyd Wright (1924)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 302px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 300px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Fallingwater_-_DSC05643.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Fallingwater by Frank Lloyd Wright (1928–34)"><img alt="Fallingwater by Frank Lloyd Wright (1928–34)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Fallingwater_-_DSC05643.JPG/450px-Fallingwater_-_DSC05643.JPG" decoding="async" width="300" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Fallingwater_-_DSC05643.JPG/675px-Fallingwater_-_DSC05643.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Fallingwater_-_DSC05643.JPG/900px-Fallingwater_-_DSC05643.JPG 2x" data-file-width="5472" data-file-height="3648" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Fallingwater" title="Fallingwater">Fallingwater</a> by Frank Lloyd Wright (1928–34)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 268.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 266.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Lovell_Beach_House_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Lovell Beach House in Newport Beach by Rudolph Schindler (1926)"><img alt="Lovell Beach House in Newport Beach by Rudolph Schindler (1926)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Lovell_Beach_House_02.jpg/400px-Lovell_Beach_House_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="267" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Lovell_Beach_House_02.jpg/600px-Lovell_Beach_House_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Lovell_Beach_House_02.jpg/800px-Lovell_Beach_House_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Lovell_Beach_House" title="Lovell Beach House">Lovell Beach House</a> in <a href="/wiki/Newport_Beach" class="mw-redirect" title="Newport Beach">Newport Beach</a> by <a href="/wiki/Rudolph_Schindler_(architect)" title="Rudolph Schindler (architect)">Rudolph Schindler</a> (1926)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 268.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 266.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Lovell_House_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Lovell Health House in Los Feliz, Los Angeles, California, by Richard Neutra (1927–29)"><img alt="Lovell Health House in Los Feliz, Los Angeles, California, by Richard Neutra (1927–29)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Lovell_House_2.jpg/400px-Lovell_House_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="267" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Lovell_House_2.jpg/600px-Lovell_House_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Lovell_House_2.jpg/800px-Lovell_House_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1125" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Lovell_House" title="Lovell House">Lovell Health House</a> in Los Feliz, Los Angeles, California, by <a href="/wiki/Richard_Neutra" title="Richard Neutra">Richard Neutra</a> (1927–29)</div> </li> </ul> <p>During the 1920s and 1930s, Frank Lloyd Wright resolutely refused to associate himself with any architectural movements. He considered his architecture to be entirely unique and his own. Between 1916 and 1922, he broke away from his earlier prairie house style and worked instead on houses decorated with textured blocks of cement; this became known as his "Mayan style", after the pyramids of the ancient Mayan civilization. He experimented for a time with modular mass-produced housing. He identified his architecture as "Usonian", a combination of USA, "utopian" and "organic social order". His business was severely affected by the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a> that began in 1929; he had fewer wealthy clients who wanted to experiment. Between 1928 and 1935, he built only two buildings: a hotel near <a href="/wiki/Chandler,_Arizona" title="Chandler, Arizona">Chandler, Arizona</a>, and the most famous of all his residences, <a href="/wiki/Fallingwater" title="Fallingwater">Fallingwater</a> (1934–37), a vacation house in Pennsylvania for Edgar J. Kaufman. Fallingwater is a remarkable structure of concrete slabs suspended over a waterfall, perfectly uniting architecture and nature.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBony201299_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBony201299-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Austrian architect <a href="/wiki/Rudolph_Schindler_(architect)" title="Rudolph Schindler (architect)">Rudolph Schindler</a> designed what could be called the first house in the modern style in 1922, the Schindler house. Schindler also contributed to American modernism with his design for the <a href="/wiki/Lovell_Beach_House" title="Lovell Beach House">Lovell Beach House</a> in <a href="/wiki/Newport_Beach" class="mw-redirect" title="Newport Beach">Newport Beach</a>. The Austrian architect <a href="/wiki/Richard_Neutra" title="Richard Neutra">Richard Neutra</a> moved to the United States in 1923, worked for a short time with Frank Lloyd Wright, also quickly became a force in American architecture through his modernist design for the same client, the <a href="/wiki/Lovell_House" title="Lovell House">Lovell Health House</a> in Los Angeles. Neutra's most notable architectural work was the <a href="/wiki/Kaufmann_Desert_House" title="Kaufmann Desert House">Kaufmann Desert House</a> in 1946, and he designed hundreds of further projects.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Paris_International_Exposition_of_1937_and_the_architecture_of_dictators">Paris International Exposition of 1937 and the architecture of dictators</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_architecture&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Paris International Exposition of 1937 and the architecture of dictators"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 269.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 267.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Paris_75016_Fontaines_du_Trocad%C3%A9ro_20090815.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Palais de Chaillot by Louis-Hippolyte Boileau, Jacques Carlu and Léon Azéma from the 1937 Paris International Exposition"><img alt="The Palais de Chaillot by Louis-Hippolyte Boileau, Jacques Carlu and Léon Azéma from the 1937 Paris International Exposition" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Paris_75016_Fontaines_du_Trocad%C3%A9ro_20090815.jpg/401px-Paris_75016_Fontaines_du_Trocad%C3%A9ro_20090815.jpg" decoding="async" width="268" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Paris_75016_Fontaines_du_Trocad%C3%A9ro_20090815.jpg/601px-Paris_75016_Fontaines_du_Trocad%C3%A9ro_20090815.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Paris_75016_Fontaines_du_Trocad%C3%A9ro_20090815.jpg/801px-Paris_75016_Fontaines_du_Trocad%C3%A9ro_20090815.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3204" data-file-height="2400" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Palais_de_Chaillot" title="Palais de Chaillot">Palais de Chaillot</a> by <a href="/wiki/Louis-Hippolyte_Boileau" title="Louis-Hippolyte Boileau">Louis-Hippolyte Boileau</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Carlu" title="Jacques Carlu">Jacques Carlu</a> and <a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Az%C3%A9ma" title="Léon Azéma">Léon Azéma</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Exposition_Internationale_des_Arts_et_Techniques_dans_la_Vie_Moderne" title="Exposition Internationale des Arts et Techniques dans la Vie Moderne">1937 Paris International Exposition</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 274.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 272.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Exposition_Internationale_des_Arts_et_Techniques_dans_la_Vie_Moderne_15.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Pavilion of Nazi Germany (left) faced the Pavilion of the Soviet Union (right) at the 1937 Paris Exposition."><img alt="The Pavilion of Nazi Germany (left) faced the Pavilion of the Soviet Union (right) at the 1937 Paris Exposition." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Exposition_Internationale_des_Arts_et_Techniques_dans_la_Vie_Moderne_15.jpg/409px-Exposition_Internationale_des_Arts_et_Techniques_dans_la_Vie_Moderne_15.jpg" decoding="async" width="273" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Exposition_Internationale_des_Arts_et_Techniques_dans_la_Vie_Moderne_15.jpg/613px-Exposition_Internationale_des_Arts_et_Techniques_dans_la_Vie_Moderne_15.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Exposition_Internationale_des_Arts_et_Techniques_dans_la_Vie_Moderne_15.jpg/817px-Exposition_Internationale_des_Arts_et_Techniques_dans_la_Vie_Moderne_15.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4405" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The Pavilion of Nazi Germany (left) faced the Pavilion of the Soviet Union (right) at the 1937 Paris Exposition.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 302px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 300px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Rutes_Hist%C3%B2riques_a_Horta-Guinard%C3%B3-pabello_republica_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Reconstruction of the Pavilion of the Second Spanish Republic by Josep Lluis Sert (1937) displayed Picasso's painting Guernica (1937)"><img alt="Reconstruction of the Pavilion of the Second Spanish Republic by Josep Lluis Sert (1937) displayed Picasso's painting Guernica (1937)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Rutes_Hist%C3%B2riques_a_Horta-Guinard%C3%B3-pabello_republica_02.jpg/450px-Rutes_Hist%C3%B2riques_a_Horta-Guinard%C3%B3-pabello_republica_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Rutes_Hist%C3%B2riques_a_Horta-Guinard%C3%B3-pabello_republica_02.jpg/675px-Rutes_Hist%C3%B2riques_a_Horta-Guinard%C3%B3-pabello_republica_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Rutes_Hist%C3%B2riques_a_Horta-Guinard%C3%B3-pabello_republica_02.jpg/900px-Rutes_Hist%C3%B2riques_a_Horta-Guinard%C3%B3-pabello_republica_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2657" data-file-height="1772" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Reconstruction of the Pavilion of the <a href="/wiki/Second_Spanish_Republic" title="Second Spanish Republic">Second Spanish Republic</a> by <a href="/wiki/Josep_Lluis_Sert" class="mw-redirect" title="Josep Lluis Sert">Josep Lluis Sert</a> (1937) displayed Picasso's painting <i><a href="/wiki/Guernica_(Picasso)" title="Guernica (Picasso)">Guernica</a></i> (1937)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 286px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 284px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nazi_party_rally_grounds_(1938)_3.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Zeppelinfield stadium in Nuremberg, Germany (1934), built by Albert Speer for Nazi Party rallies"><img alt="The Zeppelinfield stadium in Nuremberg, Germany (1934), built by Albert Speer for Nazi Party rallies" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Nazi_party_rally_grounds_%281938%29_3.jpg/426px-Nazi_party_rally_grounds_%281938%29_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="284" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Nazi_party_rally_grounds_%281938%29_3.jpg/638px-Nazi_party_rally_grounds_%281938%29_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/Nazi_party_rally_grounds_%281938%29_3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="851" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The Zeppelinfield stadium in <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg" title="Nuremberg">Nuremberg</a>, Germany (1934), built by <a href="/wiki/Albert_Speer" title="Albert Speer">Albert Speer</a> for Nazi Party rallies</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 268.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 266.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Como,_ex_casa_del_fascio_04.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="The Casa del Fascio (House of Fascism) in Como, Italy, by Giuseppe Terragni (1932–1936)"><img alt="The Casa del Fascio (House of Fascism) in Como, Italy, by Giuseppe Terragni (1932–1936)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Como%2C_ex_casa_del_fascio_04.JPG/400px-Como%2C_ex_casa_del_fascio_04.JPG" decoding="async" width="267" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Como%2C_ex_casa_del_fascio_04.JPG/600px-Como%2C_ex_casa_del_fascio_04.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Como%2C_ex_casa_del_fascio_04.JPG/800px-Como%2C_ex_casa_del_fascio_04.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <i>Casa del Fascio</i> (House of Fascism) in Como, Italy, by <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Terragni" title="Giuseppe Terragni">Giuseppe Terragni</a> (1932–1936)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 302px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 300px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Palais_de_Tokyo,_Mus%C3%A9e_d%27Art_Moderne_de_la_Ville_de_Paris.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Palais de Tokyo, Musée d'Art Moderne de la Ville de Paris"><img alt="Palais de Tokyo, Musée d'Art Moderne de la Ville de Paris" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f0/Palais_de_Tokyo%2C_Mus%C3%A9e_d%27Art_Moderne_de_la_Ville_de_Paris.jpg/450px-Palais_de_Tokyo%2C_Mus%C3%A9e_d%27Art_Moderne_de_la_Ville_de_Paris.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f0/Palais_de_Tokyo%2C_Mus%C3%A9e_d%27Art_Moderne_de_la_Ville_de_Paris.jpg/675px-Palais_de_Tokyo%2C_Mus%C3%A9e_d%27Art_Moderne_de_la_Ville_de_Paris.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f0/Palais_de_Tokyo%2C_Mus%C3%A9e_d%27Art_Moderne_de_la_Ville_de_Paris.jpg/900px-Palais_de_Tokyo%2C_Mus%C3%A9e_d%27Art_Moderne_de_la_Ville_de_Paris.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5500" data-file-height="3667" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Palais_de_Tokyo" title="Palais de Tokyo">Palais de Tokyo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_d%27Art_Moderne_de_la_Ville_de_Paris" class="mw-redirect" title="Musée d'Art Moderne de la Ville de Paris">Musée d'Art Moderne de la Ville de Paris</a> </div> </li> </ul> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Exposition_Internationale_des_Arts_et_Techniques_dans_la_Vie_Moderne" title="Exposition Internationale des Arts et Techniques dans la Vie Moderne">1937 Paris International Exposition</a> in Paris effectively marked the end of the Art Deco, and of pre-war architectural styles. Most of the pavilions were in a neoclassical Deco style, with colonnades and sculptural decoration. The pavilions of Nazi Germany, designed by <a href="/wiki/Albert_Speer" title="Albert Speer">Albert Speer</a>, in a German neoclassical style topped by eagle and swastika, faced the pavilion of the Soviet Union, topped by enormous statues of a worker and a peasant carrying a hammer and sickle. As to the modernists, Le Corbusier was practically, but not quite invisible at the Exposition; he participated in the Pavilion des temps nouveaux, but focused mainly on his painting.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJournel2015216_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJournel2015216-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The one modernist who did attract attention was a collaborator of Le Corbusier, <a href="/wiki/Josep_Lluis_Sert" class="mw-redirect" title="Josep Lluis Sert">Josep Lluis Sert</a>, the Spanish architect, whose pavilion of the <a href="/wiki/Second_Spanish_Republic" title="Second Spanish Republic">Second Spanish Republic</a> was pure modernist glass and steel box. Inside it displayed the most modernist work of the Exposition, the painting <i><a href="/wiki/Guernica_(Picasso)" title="Guernica (Picasso)">Guernica</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Pablo_Picasso" title="Pablo Picasso">Pablo Picasso</a>. The original building was destroyed after the Exposition, but it was recreated in 1992 in Barcelona. </p><p>The rise of nationalism in the 1930s was reflected in the <a href="/wiki/Fascist_architecture" title="Fascist architecture">Fascist architecture</a> of Italy, and <a href="/wiki/Nazi_architecture" title="Nazi architecture">Nazi architecture</a> of Germany, based on classical styles and designed to express power and grandeur. The Nazi architecture, much of it designed by <a href="/wiki/Albert_Speer" title="Albert Speer">Albert Speer</a>, was intended to awe the spectators by its huge scale. Adolf Hitler intended to turn Berlin into the capital of Europe, grander than Rome or Paris. The Nazis closed the Bauhaus, and the most prominent modern architects soon departed for Britain or the United States. In Italy, Benito Mussolini wished to present himself as the heir to the glory and empire of ancient Rome.<sup id="cite_ref-Frampton1_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frampton1-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mussolini's government was not as hostile to modernism as The Nazis; the spirit of <a href="/wiki/Rationalism_(architecture)" title="Rationalism (architecture)">Italian Rationalism</a> of the 1920s continued, with the work of architect <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Terragni" title="Giuseppe Terragni">Giuseppe Terragni</a>. His <i>Casa del Fascio</i> in Como, headquarters of the local Fascist party, was a perfectly modernist building, with geometric proportions (33.2 meters long by 16.6 meters high), a clean façade of marble, and a Renaissance-inspired interior courtyard. Opposed to Terragni was Marcello Piacitini, a proponent of monumental fascist architecture, who rebuilt the University of Rome, and designed the Italian pavilion at the 1937 Paris Exposition, and planned a grand reconstruction of Rome on the fascist model.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBony2012120–121_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBony2012120–121-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="New_York_World's_Fair_(1939)"><span id="New_York_World.27s_Fair_.281939.29"></span>New York World's Fair (1939)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_architecture&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: New York World's Fair (1939)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 147.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 145.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:1939fairhelicline.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Trylon and Perisphere, symbols of the 1939 World's Fair"><img alt="The Trylon and Perisphere, symbols of the 1939 World's Fair" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/1939fairhelicline.jpg/218px-1939fairhelicline.jpg" decoding="async" width="146" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ab/1939fairhelicline.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="306" data-file-height="420" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The Trylon and Perisphere, symbols of the 1939 World's Fair</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 286.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 284.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:World_Fair_1939_LOC_gsc.5a03061.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Pavilion of the Ford Motor Company, in the Streamline Moderne style"><img alt="Pavilion of the Ford Motor Company, in the Streamline Moderne style" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/World_Fair_1939_LOC_gsc.5a03061.jpg/427px-World_Fair_1939_LOC_gsc.5a03061.jpg" decoding="async" width="285" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/World_Fair_1939_LOC_gsc.5a03061.jpg/641px-World_Fair_1939_LOC_gsc.5a03061.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/World_Fair_1939_LOC_gsc.5a03061.jpg/854px-World_Fair_1939_LOC_gsc.5a03061.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7336" data-file-height="5155" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Pavilion of the Ford Motor Company, in the <a href="/wiki/Streamline_Moderne" title="Streamline Moderne">Streamline Moderne</a> style</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 312.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 310.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:RCA_Exhibit_Building_1939_World%27s_Fair_Postcard_2007.016_front.tif" class="mw-file-description" title="The RCA Pavilion featured early public television broadcasts"><img alt="The RCA Pavilion featured early public television broadcasts" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/RCA_Exhibit_Building_1939_World%27s_Fair_Postcard_2007.016_front.tif/lossy-page1-466px-RCA_Exhibit_Building_1939_World%27s_Fair_Postcard_2007.016_front.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="311" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/RCA_Exhibit_Building_1939_World%27s_Fair_Postcard_2007.016_front.tif/lossy-page1-698px-RCA_Exhibit_Building_1939_World%27s_Fair_Postcard_2007.016_front.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/RCA_Exhibit_Building_1939_World%27s_Fair_Postcard_2007.016_front.tif/lossy-page1-931px-RCA_Exhibit_Building_1939_World%27s_Fair_Postcard_2007.016_front.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1697" data-file-height="1094" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The RCA Pavilion featured early public television broadcasts</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 281.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 279.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:House_of_Glass_Worlds_Fair_1939_LOC_gsc.5a03199.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Living room of the House of Glass, showing what future homes would look like"><img alt="Living room of the House of Glass, showing what future homes would look like" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/House_of_Glass_Worlds_Fair_1939_LOC_gsc.5a03199.jpg/419px-House_of_Glass_Worlds_Fair_1939_LOC_gsc.5a03199.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/House_of_Glass_Worlds_Fair_1939_LOC_gsc.5a03199.jpg/629px-House_of_Glass_Worlds_Fair_1939_LOC_gsc.5a03199.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/House_of_Glass_Worlds_Fair_1939_LOC_gsc.5a03199.jpg/838px-House_of_Glass_Worlds_Fair_1939_LOC_gsc.5a03199.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4931" data-file-height="3531" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Living room of the House of Glass, showing what future homes would look like</div> </li> </ul> <p>The <a href="/wiki/1939_New_York_World%27s_Fair" title="1939 New York World's Fair">1939 New York World's Fair</a> marked a turning point in architecture between Art Deco and modern architecture. The theme of the Fair was the <i>World of Tomorrow</i>, and its symbols were the purely geometric trylon and periphery sculpture. It had many monuments to Art Deco, such as the Ford Pavilion in the <a href="/wiki/Streamline_Moderne" title="Streamline Moderne">Streamline Moderne</a> style, but also included the new International Style that would replace Art Deco as the dominant style after the War. The Pavilions of Finland, by <a href="/wiki/Alvar_Aalto" title="Alvar Aalto">Alvar Aalto</a>, of Sweden by <a href="/wiki/Sven_Markelius" title="Sven Markelius">Sven Markelius</a>, and of Brazil by <a href="/wiki/Oscar_Niemeyer" title="Oscar Niemeyer">Oscar Niemeyer</a> and <a href="/wiki/L%C3%BAcio_Costa" title="Lúcio Costa">Lúcio Costa</a>, looked forward to a new style. They became leaders in the postwar modernist movement.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBony2012128_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBony2012128-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="World_War_II:_wartime_innovation_and_postwar_reconstruction_(1939–1945)"><span id="World_War_II:_wartime_innovation_and_postwar_reconstruction_.281939.E2.80.931945.29"></span>World War II: wartime innovation and postwar reconstruction (1939–1945)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_architecture&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: World War II: wartime innovation and postwar reconstruction (1939–1945)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 587.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 585.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Le_Havre_hiver_1944-1945.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="The center of Le Havre destroyed by bombing in 1944"><img alt="The center of Le Havre destroyed by bombing in 1944" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Le_Havre_hiver_1944-1945.JPG/878px-Le_Havre_hiver_1944-1945.JPG" decoding="async" width="586" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Le_Havre_hiver_1944-1945.JPG/1317px-Le_Havre_hiver_1944-1945.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Le_Havre_hiver_1944-1945.JPG/1756px-Le_Havre_hiver_1944-1945.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2575" data-file-height="880" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The center of <a href="/wiki/Le_Havre" title="Le Havre">Le Havre</a> destroyed by bombing in 1944</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 300px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 298px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:LeHavre.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The center of Le Havre as reconstructed by Auguste Perret (1946–1964)"><img alt="The center of Le Havre as reconstructed by Auguste Perret (1946–1964)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/LeHavre.jpg/447px-LeHavre.jpg" decoding="async" width="298" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/LeHavre.jpg/671px-LeHavre.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/LeHavre.jpg/895px-LeHavre.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1777" data-file-height="1192" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The center of <a href="/wiki/Le_Havre" title="Le Havre">Le Havre</a> as reconstructed by <a href="/wiki/Auguste_Perret" title="Auguste Perret">Auguste Perret</a> (1946–1964)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 282px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 280px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Quonset_hut_emplacement_in_Japan.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Quonset hut en route to Japan (1945)"><img alt="Quonset hut en route to Japan (1945)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Quonset_hut_emplacement_in_Japan.jpg/420px-Quonset_hut_emplacement_in_Japan.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Quonset_hut_emplacement_in_Japan.jpg/630px-Quonset_hut_emplacement_in_Japan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Quonset_hut_emplacement_in_Japan.jpg/839px-Quonset_hut_emplacement_in_Japan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1291" data-file-height="923" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Quonset_hut" title="Quonset hut">Quonset hut</a> en route to Japan (1945)</div> </li> </ul> <p><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> (1939–1945) and its aftermath was a major factor in driving innovation in building technology, and in turn, architectural possibilities.<sup id="cite_ref-GEMWWII_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GEMWWII-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Materials_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Materials-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The wartime industrial demands resulted in shortages of steel and other building materials, leading to the adoption of new materials, such as aluminum, The war and postwar period brought greatly expanded use of <a href="/wiki/Prefabricated_building" title="Prefabricated building">prefabricated building</a>; largely for the military and government. The semi-circular metal <a href="/wiki/Nissen_hut" title="Nissen hut">Nissen hut</a> of World War I was revived as the <a href="/wiki/Quonset_hut" title="Quonset hut">Quonset hut</a>. The years immediately after the war saw the development of radical experimental houses, including the enameled-steel <a href="/wiki/Lustron_house" title="Lustron house">Lustron house</a> (1947–1950), and Buckminster Fuller's experimental aluminum <a href="/wiki/Dymaxion_House" class="mw-redirect" title="Dymaxion House">Dymaxion House</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Materials_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Materials-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The unprecedented destruction caused by the war was another factor in the rise of modern architecture. Large parts of major cities, from Berlin, Tokyo, and Dresden to Rotterdam and east London; all the port cities of France, particularly <a href="/wiki/Le_Havre" title="Le Havre">Le Havre</a>, Brest, Marseille, Cherbourg had been destroyed by bombing. In the United States, little civilian construction had been done since the 1920s; housing was needed for millions of American soldiers returning from the war. The postwar housing shortages in Europe and the United States led to the design and construction of enormous government-financed housing projects, usually in run-down center of American cities, and in the suburbs of Paris and other European cities, where land was available, </p><p>One of the largest reconstruction projects was that of the city center of Le Havre, destroyed by the Germans and by Allied bombing in 1944; 133 hectares of buildings in the center were flattened, destroying 12,500 buildings and leaving 40,000 persons homeless. The architect <a href="/wiki/Auguste_Perret" title="Auguste Perret">Auguste Perret</a>, a pioneer in the use of reinforced concrete and prefabricated materials, designed and built an entirely new center to the city, with apartment blocks, cultural, commercial, and government buildings. He restored historic monuments when possible, and built a new church, St. Joseph, with a lighthouse-like tower in the center to inspire hope. His rebuilt city was declared a UNESCO World Heritage site in 2005.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBony2012140–41_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBony2012140–41-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Le_Corbusier_and_the_Cité_Radieuse_(1947–1952)"><span id="Le_Corbusier_and_the_Cit.C3.A9_Radieuse_.281947.E2.80.931952.29"></span>Le Corbusier and the <i>Cité Radieuse</i> (1947–1952)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_architecture&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Le Corbusier and the Cité Radieuse (1947–1952)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 270px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 268px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Unite_d%27Habitation_salon.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Salon and Terrace of an original unit of the Unité d'Habitation, now at the Cité de l'Architecture et du Patrimoine in Paris (1952)"><img alt="Salon and Terrace of an original unit of the Unité d'Habitation, now at the Cité de l'Architecture et du Patrimoine in Paris (1952)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Unite_d%27Habitation_salon.jpg/402px-Unite_d%27Habitation_salon.jpg" decoding="async" width="268" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Unite_d%27Habitation_salon.jpg/603px-Unite_d%27Habitation_salon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Unite_d%27Habitation_salon.jpg/803px-Unite_d%27Habitation_salon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1936" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Salon and Terrace of an original unit of the <a href="/wiki/Unit%C3%A9_d%27Habitation" class="mw-redirect" title="Unité d'Habitation">Unité d'Habitation</a>, now at the <a href="/wiki/Cit%C3%A9_de_l%27Architecture_et_du_Patrimoine" title="Cité de l'Architecture et du Patrimoine">Cité de l'Architecture et du Patrimoine</a> in Paris (1952)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 268.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 266.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:RonchampCorbu.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Chapel of Notre-Dame-du-Haut in Ronchamp (1950–1955)"><img alt="The Chapel of Notre-Dame-du-Haut in Ronchamp (1950–1955)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/59/RonchampCorbu.jpg/400px-RonchampCorbu.jpg" decoding="async" width="267" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/59/RonchampCorbu.jpg/600px-RonchampCorbu.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/5/59/RonchampCorbu.jpg 2x" data-file-width="648" data-file-height="486" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Notre_Dame_du_Haut" class="mw-redirect" title="Notre Dame du Haut">Chapel of Notre-Dame-du-Haut</a> in Ronchamp (1950–1955)</div> </li> </ul> <p>Shortly after the War, the French architect <a href="/wiki/Le_Corbusier" title="Le Corbusier">Le Corbusier</a>, who was nearly sixty years old and had not constructed a building in ten years, was commissioned by the French government to construct a new apartment block in <a href="/wiki/Marseille" title="Marseille">Marseille</a>. He called it <a href="/wiki/Unit%C3%A9_d%27Habitation" class="mw-redirect" title="Unité d'Habitation">Unité d'Habitation</a> in Marseille, but it more popularly took the name of the <a href="/wiki/Cit%C3%A9_Radieuse" class="mw-redirect" title="Cité Radieuse">Cité Radieuse</a> (and later "Cité du Fada" "City of the crazy one" in Marseille French), after his book about futuristic urban planning. Following his doctrines of design, the building had a concrete frame raised up above the street on pylons. It contained 337 duplex apartment units, fit into the framework like pieces of a puzzle. Each unit had two levels and a small terrace. Interior "streets" had shops, a nursery school, and other serves, and the flat terrace roof had a running track, ventilation ducts, and a small theater. Le Corbusier designed furniture, carpets, and lamps to go with the building, all purely functional; the only decoration was a choice of interior colors that Le Corbusier gave to residents. Unité d'Habitation became a prototype for similar buildings in other cities, both in France and Germany. Combined with his equally radical organic design for the <a href="/wiki/Notre_Dame_du_Haut" class="mw-redirect" title="Notre Dame du Haut">Chapel of Notre-Dame du-Haut</a> at <a href="/wiki/Ronchamp" title="Ronchamp">Ronchamp</a>, this work propelled Corbusier in the first rank of postwar modern architects.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJournel2015152–163_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJournel2015152–163-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Team_X_and_the_1953_International_Congress_of_Modern_Architecture">Team X and the 1953 International Congress of Modern Architecture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_architecture&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Team X and the 1953 International Congress of Modern Architecture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Casablanca#GAMMA" title="Architecture of Casablanca">Architecture of Casablanca § GAMMA</a></div> <p>In the early 1950s, <a href="/wiki/Michel_%C3%89cochard" title="Michel Écochard">Michel Écochard</a>, director of urban planning under the <a href="/wiki/French_Protectorate_in_Morocco" class="mw-redirect" title="French Protectorate in Morocco">French Protectorate in Morocco</a>, commissioned GAMMA (<span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Groupe_des_Architectes_Modernes_Marocains" title="Groupe des Architectes Modernes Marocains">Groupe des Architectes Modernes Marocains</a></i></span>)—which initially included the architects <a href="/wiki/Elie_Azagury" title="Elie Azagury">Elie Azagury</a>, <a href="/wiki/Georges_Candilis" title="Georges Candilis">George Candillis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alexis_Josic" title="Alexis Josic">Alexis Josic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shadrach_Woods" title="Shadrach Woods">Shadrach Woods</a>—to design housing in the <a href="/wiki/Hay_Mohammadi" title="Hay Mohammadi">Hay Mohammedi</a> neighborhood of <a href="/wiki/Casablanca" title="Casablanca">Casablanca</a> that provided a "culturally specific living tissue" for laborers and migrants <a href="/wiki/Rural_flight" title="Rural flight">from the countryside</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:822_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:822-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/w/index.php?title=S%C3%A9miramis_(Casablanca)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sémiramis (Casablanca) (page does not exist)">Sémiramis</a>, <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nid_d%E2%80%99Abeille&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nid d’Abeille (page does not exist)">Nid d’Abeille</a></i></span> (Honeycomb), and <a href="/wiki/Carri%C3%A8res_Centrales" title="Carrières Centrales">Carrières Centrales</a> were some of the first examples of this <a href="/w/index.php?title=Vernacular_Modernism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vernacular Modernism (page does not exist)">Vernacular Modernism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the 1953 <a href="/wiki/Congr%C3%A8s_Internationaux_d%27Architecture_Moderne" title="Congrès Internationaux d'Architecture Moderne"><i>Congrès Internationaux d'Architecture</i> Moderne</a> (CIAM), <a href="/w/index.php?title=ATBAT-Afrique&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ATBAT-Afrique (page does not exist)">ATBAT-Afrique</a>—the Africa branch of <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atelier_des_B%C3%A2tisseurs&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Atelier des Bâtisseurs (page does not exist)">Atelier des Bâtisseurs</a></i></span> founded in 1947 by figures including <a href="/wiki/Le_Corbusier" title="Le Corbusier">Le Corbusier</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Bodiansky" title="Vladimir Bodiansky">Vladimir Bodiansky</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Wogenscky" title="André Wogenscky">André Wogenscky</a>—prepared a study of Casablanca's <a href="/wiki/Shanty_town" title="Shanty town">bidonvilles</a> entitled "Habitat for the Greatest Number".<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The presenters, <a href="/wiki/Georges_Candilis" title="Georges Candilis">Georges Candilis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Michel_%C3%89cochard" title="Michel Écochard">Michel Ecochard</a>, argued—against doctrine—that architects must consider local culture and climate in their designs.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:822_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:822-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This generated great debate among modernist architects around the world and eventually provoked a schism and the creation of <a href="/wiki/Team_10" title="Team 10">Team 10</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ecochard's 8x8 meter model at Carrières Centrales earned him recognition as a pioneer in the architecture of <a href="/wiki/Multi-family_residential" class="mw-redirect" title="Multi-family residential">collective housing</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though his Moroccan colleague <a href="/wiki/Elie_Azagury" title="Elie Azagury">Elie Azagury</a> was critical of him for serving as a tool of the French colonial regime and for ignoring the economic and social necessity that Moroccans live in higher density vertical housing.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Late_modernist_architecture">Late modernist architecture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_architecture&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Late modernist architecture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FL_Ponte_Vedra_Beach_Arthur_Milam_House07.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/FL_Ponte_Vedra_Beach_Arthur_Milam_House07.jpg/220px-FL_Ponte_Vedra_Beach_Arthur_Milam_House07.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/FL_Ponte_Vedra_Beach_Arthur_Milam_House07.jpg/330px-FL_Ponte_Vedra_Beach_Arthur_Milam_House07.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/FL_Ponte_Vedra_Beach_Arthur_Milam_House07.jpg/440px-FL_Ponte_Vedra_Beach_Arthur_Milam_House07.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4288" data-file-height="3216" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Milam_Residence" title="Milam Residence">Milam Residence</a>: an early example of Late modernist architecture.</figcaption></figure> <p>Late modernist architecture is generally understood to include buildings designed (1968–1980) with exceptions. <a href="/wiki/Modernist_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Modernist architecture">Modernist architecture</a> includes the buildings designed between 1945 and the 1960s. The late modernist style is characterized by bold shapes and sharp corners, slightly more defined than <a href="/wiki/Brutalist_architecture" title="Brutalist architecture">Brutalist architecture</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Touhey_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Touhey-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Postwar_modernism_in_the_United_States_(1945–1985)"><span id="Postwar_modernism_in_the_United_States_.281945.E2.80.931985.29"></span>Postwar modernism in the United States (1945–1985)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_architecture&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Postwar modernism in the United States (1945–1985)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/International_Style_(architecture)" class="mw-redirect" title="International Style (architecture)">International Style (architecture)</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/International_Style_(architecture)" class="mw-redirect" title="International Style (architecture)">International Style</a> of architecture had appeared in Europe, particularly in the <a href="/wiki/Bauhaus" title="Bauhaus">Bauhaus</a> movement, in the late 1920s. In 1932 it was recognized and given a name at an Exhibition at the <a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Modern_Art" title="Museum of Modern Art">Museum of Modern Art</a> in New York City organized by architect <a href="/wiki/Philip_Johnson" title="Philip Johnson">Philip Johnson</a> and architectural critic <a href="/wiki/Henry-Russell_Hitchcock" title="Henry-Russell Hitchcock">Henry-Russell Hitchcock</a>, Between 1937 and 1941, following the rise Hitler and the Nazis in Germany, most of the leaders of the German Bauhaus movement found a new home in the United States, and played an important part in the development of American modern architecture. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Frank_Lloyd_Wright_and_the_Guggenheim_Museum">Frank Lloyd Wright and the Guggenheim Museum</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_architecture&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Frank Lloyd Wright and the Guggenheim Museum"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 268.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 266.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Lakeland_FSC_Pfeiffer_Chapel01.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Pfeiffer Chapel at Florida Southern College by Frank Lloyd Wright (1941–1958)"><img alt="The Pfeiffer Chapel at Florida Southern College by Frank Lloyd Wright (1941–1958)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lakeland_FSC_Pfeiffer_Chapel01.jpg/400px-Lakeland_FSC_Pfeiffer_Chapel01.jpg" decoding="async" width="267" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lakeland_FSC_Pfeiffer_Chapel01.jpg/600px-Lakeland_FSC_Pfeiffer_Chapel01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lakeland_FSC_Pfeiffer_Chapel01.jpg/800px-Lakeland_FSC_Pfeiffer_Chapel01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The Pfeiffer Chapel at <a href="/wiki/Florida_Southern_College" title="Florida Southern College">Florida Southern College</a> by Frank Lloyd Wright (1941–1958)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 258px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 256px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Building,_globe,_and_grounds_of_the_S.C._Johnson_and_son_headquarters_building,_designed_by_Frank_Lloyd_Wright,_Racine,_Wisconsin_LCCN2011634906.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The tower of the Johnson Wax Headquarters and Research Center (1944–50)"><img alt="The tower of the Johnson Wax Headquarters and Research Center (1944–50)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Building%2C_globe%2C_and_grounds_of_the_S.C._Johnson_and_son_headquarters_building%2C_designed_by_Frank_Lloyd_Wright%2C_Racine%2C_Wisconsin_LCCN2011634906.jpg/384px-Building%2C_globe%2C_and_grounds_of_the_S.C._Johnson_and_son_headquarters_building%2C_designed_by_Frank_Lloyd_Wright%2C_Racine%2C_Wisconsin_LCCN2011634906.jpg" decoding="async" width="256" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Building%2C_globe%2C_and_grounds_of_the_S.C._Johnson_and_son_headquarters_building%2C_designed_by_Frank_Lloyd_Wright%2C_Racine%2C_Wisconsin_LCCN2011634906.jpg/577px-Building%2C_globe%2C_and_grounds_of_the_S.C._Johnson_and_son_headquarters_building%2C_designed_by_Frank_Lloyd_Wright%2C_Racine%2C_Wisconsin_LCCN2011634906.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Building%2C_globe%2C_and_grounds_of_the_S.C._Johnson_and_son_headquarters_building%2C_designed_by_Frank_Lloyd_Wright%2C_Racine%2C_Wisconsin_LCCN2011634906.jpg/769px-Building%2C_globe%2C_and_grounds_of_the_S.C._Johnson_and_son_headquarters_building%2C_designed_by_Frank_Lloyd_Wright%2C_Racine%2C_Wisconsin_LCCN2011634906.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7672" data-file-height="5989" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The tower of the <a href="/wiki/Johnson_Wax_Headquarters" title="Johnson Wax Headquarters">Johnson Wax Headquarters</a> and Research Center (1944–50)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 152px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Price_Tower_-_Bartlesville.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Price Tower in Bartlesville, Oklahoma (1956)"><img alt="The Price Tower in Bartlesville, Oklahoma (1956)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Price_Tower_-_Bartlesville.jpg/225px-Price_Tower_-_Bartlesville.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Price_Tower_-_Bartlesville.jpg/337px-Price_Tower_-_Bartlesville.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Price_Tower_-_Bartlesville.jpg/450px-Price_Tower_-_Bartlesville.jpg 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="1280" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Price_Tower" title="Price Tower">Price Tower</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bartlesville" class="mw-redirect" title="Bartlesville">Bartlesville</a>, Oklahoma (1956)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 302px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 300px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:NYC_-_Guggenheim_Museum.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Solomon Guggenheim Museum, by Frank Lloyd Wright (1946–1959)"><img alt="Solomon Guggenheim Museum, by Frank Lloyd Wright (1946–1959)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/NYC_-_Guggenheim_Museum.jpg/450px-NYC_-_Guggenheim_Museum.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/NYC_-_Guggenheim_Museum.jpg/675px-NYC_-_Guggenheim_Museum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/NYC_-_Guggenheim_Museum.jpg/900px-NYC_-_Guggenheim_Museum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Solomon_Guggenheim_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="Solomon Guggenheim Museum">Solomon Guggenheim Museum</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Frank_Lloyd_Wright" title="Frank Lloyd Wright">Frank Lloyd Wright</a> (1946–1959)</div> </li> </ul> <p><a href="/wiki/Frank_Lloyd_Wright" title="Frank Lloyd Wright">Frank Lloyd Wright</a> was eighty years old in 1947; he had been present at the beginning of American modernism, and though he refused to accept that he belonged to any movement, continued to play a leading role almost to its end. One of his most original late projects was the campus of <a href="/wiki/Florida_Southern_College" title="Florida Southern College">Florida Southern College</a> in <a href="/wiki/Lakeland,_Florida" title="Lakeland, Florida">Lakeland, Florida</a>, begun in 1941 and completed in 1943. He designed nine new buildings in a style that he described as "The <a href="/wiki/Child_of_the_Sun" title="Child of the Sun">Child of the Sun</a>". He wrote that he wanted the campus to "grow out of the ground and into the light, a child of the sun". </p><p>He completed several notable projects in the 1940s, including the <a href="/wiki/Johnson_Wax_Headquarters" title="Johnson Wax Headquarters">Johnson Wax Headquarters</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Price_Tower" title="Price Tower">Price Tower</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bartlesville" class="mw-redirect" title="Bartlesville">Bartlesville</a>, Oklahoma (1956). The building is unusual that it is supported by its central core of four elevator shafts; the rest of the building is cantilevered to this core, like the branches of a tree. Wright originally planned the structure for an apartment building in New York City. That project was cancelled because of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a>, and he adapted the design for an oil pipeline and equipment company in Oklahoma. He wrote that in New York City his building would have been lost in a forest of tall buildings, but that in Oklahoma it stood alone. The design is asymmetrical; each side is different. </p><p>In 1943 he was commissioned by the art collector <a href="/wiki/Solomon_R._Guggenheim" title="Solomon R. Guggenheim">Solomon R. Guggenheim</a> to design a museum for his collection of modern art. His design was entirely original; a bowl-shaped building with a spiral ramp inside that led museum visitors on an upward tour of the art of the 20th century. Work began in 1946 but it was not completed until 1959, the year that he died.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBony2012128_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBony2012128-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Walter_Gropius_and_Marcel_Breuer">Walter Gropius and Marcel Breuer</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_architecture&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Walter Gropius and Marcel Breuer"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 268.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 266.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Story_Hall,_Harvard_University,_Cambridge_MA.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Story Hall of the Harvard Law School by Walter Gropius and (The Architects Collaborative)"><img alt="Story Hall of the Harvard Law School by Walter Gropius and (The Architects Collaborative)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Story_Hall%2C_Harvard_University%2C_Cambridge_MA.jpg/400px-Story_Hall%2C_Harvard_University%2C_Cambridge_MA.jpg" decoding="async" width="267" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Story_Hall%2C_Harvard_University%2C_Cambridge_MA.jpg/600px-Story_Hall%2C_Harvard_University%2C_Cambridge_MA.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Story_Hall%2C_Harvard_University%2C_Cambridge_MA.jpg/800px-Story_Hall%2C_Harvard_University%2C_Cambridge_MA.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Story Hall of the <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Law_School" title="Harvard Law School">Harvard Law School</a> by <a href="/wiki/Walter_Gropius" title="Walter Gropius">Walter Gropius</a> and (<a href="/wiki/The_Architects_Collaborative" title="The Architects Collaborative">The Architects Collaborative</a>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 302.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 300.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Stillman_Photo_2.jpeg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Stillman House Litchfield, Connecticut, by Marcel Breuer (1950) The swimming pool mural is by Alexander Calder"><img alt="The Stillman House Litchfield, Connecticut, by Marcel Breuer (1950) The swimming pool mural is by Alexander Calder" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/df/Stillman_Photo_2.jpeg/451px-Stillman_Photo_2.jpeg" decoding="async" width="301" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/df/Stillman_Photo_2.jpeg/677px-Stillman_Photo_2.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/df/Stillman_Photo_2.jpeg/903px-Stillman_Photo_2.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="851" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Stillman_House" title="Stillman House">Stillman House</a> <a href="/wiki/Litchfield,_Connecticut" title="Litchfield, Connecticut">Litchfield, Connecticut</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Marcel_Breuer" title="Marcel Breuer">Marcel Breuer</a> (1950) The swimming pool mural is by <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Calder" title="Alexander Calder">Alexander Calder</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 144.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 142.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Walter_Gropius_photo_MetLife_Building_fassade_New_York_USA_2005-10-03.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The PanAm building (Now MetLife Building) in New York, by Walter Gropius and The Architects Collaborative (1958–63)"><img alt="The PanAm building (Now MetLife Building) in New York, by Walter Gropius and The Architects Collaborative (1958–63)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Walter_Gropius_photo_MetLife_Building_fassade_New_York_USA_2005-10-03.jpg/214px-Walter_Gropius_photo_MetLife_Building_fassade_New_York_USA_2005-10-03.jpg" decoding="async" width="143" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Walter_Gropius_photo_MetLife_Building_fassade_New_York_USA_2005-10-03.jpg/321px-Walter_Gropius_photo_MetLife_Building_fassade_New_York_USA_2005-10-03.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Walter_Gropius_photo_MetLife_Building_fassade_New_York_USA_2005-10-03.jpg/428px-Walter_Gropius_photo_MetLife_Building_fassade_New_York_USA_2005-10-03.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1143" data-file-height="1600" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The PanAm building (Now <a href="/wiki/MetLife_Building" title="MetLife Building">MetLife Building</a>) in New York, by <a href="/wiki/Walter_Gropius" title="Walter Gropius">Walter Gropius</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_Architects_Collaborative" title="The Architects Collaborative">The Architects Collaborative</a> (1958–63)</div> </li> </ul> <p><a href="/wiki/Walter_Gropius" title="Walter Gropius">Walter Gropius</a>, the founder of the <a href="/wiki/Bauhaus" title="Bauhaus">Bauhaus</a>, moved to England in 1934 and spent three years there before being invited to the United States by Walter Hudnut of the <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Graduate_School_of_Design" title="Harvard Graduate School of Design">Harvard Graduate School of Design</a>; Gropius became the head of the architecture faculty. <a href="/wiki/Marcel_Breuer" title="Marcel Breuer">Marcel Breuer</a>, who had worked with him at the Bauhaus, joined him and opened an office in Cambridge. The fame of Gropius and Breuer attracted many students, who themselves became famous architects, including <a href="/wiki/Ieoh_Ming_Pei" class="mw-redirect" title="Ieoh Ming Pei">Ieoh Ming Pei</a> and <a href="/wiki/Philip_Johnson" title="Philip Johnson">Philip Johnson</a>. They did not receive an important commission until 1941, when they designed housing for workers in Kensington, Pennsylvania, near Pittsburgh., In 1945 Gropius and Breuer associated with a group of younger architects under the name TAC (<a href="/wiki/The_Architects_Collaborative" title="The Architects Collaborative">The Architects Collaborative</a>). Their notable works included the building of the <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Graduate_School_of_Design" title="Harvard Graduate School of Design">Harvard Graduate School of Design</a>, the U.S. Embassy in Athens (1956–57), and the headquarters of Pan American Airways in New York (1958–63).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBony2012120_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBony2012120-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ludwig_Mies_van_der_Rohe">Ludwig Mies van der Rohe</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_architecture&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Ludwig Mies van der Rohe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 302.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 300.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:VT16_PD_zahrada.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Villa Tugendhat in Brno, Czech Republic (1928–30)"><img alt="Villa Tugendhat in Brno, Czech Republic (1928–30)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/VT16_PD_zahrada.jpg/451px-VT16_PD_zahrada.jpg" decoding="async" width="301" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/VT16_PD_zahrada.jpg/677px-VT16_PD_zahrada.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/VT16_PD_zahrada.jpg/903px-VT16_PD_zahrada.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2909" data-file-height="1934" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Villa_Tugendhat" title="Villa Tugendhat">Villa Tugendhat</a> in <a href="/wiki/Brno" title="Brno">Brno</a>, Czech Republic (1928–30)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 302px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 300px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Farnsworth_House_by_Mies_Van_Der_Rohe_-_exterior-8.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Farnsworth House in Plano, Illinois (1945–51)"><img alt="The Farnsworth House in Plano, Illinois (1945–51)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Farnsworth_House_by_Mies_Van_Der_Rohe_-_exterior-8.jpg/450px-Farnsworth_House_by_Mies_Van_Der_Rohe_-_exterior-8.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Farnsworth_House_by_Mies_Van_Der_Rohe_-_exterior-8.jpg/675px-Farnsworth_House_by_Mies_Van_Der_Rohe_-_exterior-8.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Farnsworth_House_by_Mies_Van_Der_Rohe_-_exterior-8.jpg/900px-Farnsworth_House_by_Mies_Van_Der_Rohe_-_exterior-8.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5456" data-file-height="3638" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Farnsworth_House" title="Farnsworth House">Farnsworth House</a> in <a href="/wiki/Plano,_Illinois" title="Plano, Illinois">Plano, Illinois</a> (1945–51)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 324px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 322px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:S.R._Crown_Hall.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Crown Hall at the Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago (1956)"><img alt="Crown Hall at the Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago (1956)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/S.R._Crown_Hall.jpg/483px-S.R._Crown_Hall.jpg" decoding="async" width="322" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/S.R._Crown_Hall.jpg/724px-S.R._Crown_Hall.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/S.R._Crown_Hall.jpg/965px-S.R._Crown_Hall.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1650" data-file-height="1026" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Crown_Hall" class="mw-redirect" title="Crown Hall">Crown Hall</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Illinois_Institute_of_Technology" title="Illinois Institute of Technology">Illinois Institute of Technology</a>, Chicago (1956)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 152px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Seagrambuilding.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Seagram Building, New York City, 1958, by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe"><img alt="The Seagram Building, New York City, 1958, by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Seagrambuilding.jpg/225px-Seagrambuilding.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Seagrambuilding.jpg/337px-Seagrambuilding.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Seagrambuilding.jpg/450px-Seagrambuilding.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1704" data-file-height="2272" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Seagram_Building" title="Seagram Building">Seagram Building</a>, New York City, 1958, by <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Mies_van_der_Rohe" title="Ludwig Mies van der Rohe">Ludwig Mies van der Rohe</a></div> </li> </ul> <p><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Mies_van_der_Rohe" title="Ludwig Mies van der Rohe">Ludwig Mies van der Rohe</a> described his architecture with the famous saying, "Less is more". As the director of the school of architecture of what is now called the <a href="/wiki/Illinois_Institute_of_Technology" title="Illinois Institute of Technology">Illinois Institute of Technology</a> from 1939 to 1956, Mies (as he was commonly known) made Chicago the leading city for American modernism in the postwar years. He constructed new buildings for the Institute in modernist style, two high-rise apartment buildings on Lakeshore Drive (1948–51), which became models for high-rises across the country. Other major works included <a href="/wiki/Farnsworth_House" title="Farnsworth House">Farnsworth House</a> in <a href="/wiki/Plano,_Illinois" title="Plano, Illinois">Plano, Illinois</a> (1945–1951), a simple horizontal glass box that had an enormous influence on American residential architecture. The Chicago Convention Center (1952–54) and <a href="/wiki/Crown_Hall" class="mw-redirect" title="Crown Hall">Crown Hall</a> at the Illinois Institute of Technology (1950–56), and The <a href="/wiki/Seagram_Building" title="Seagram Building">Seagram Building</a> in New York City (1954–58) also set a new standard for purity and elegance. Based on granite pillars, the smooth glass and steel walls were given a touch of color by the use of bronze-toned I-beams in the structure. He returned to Germany in 1962–68 to build the new Nationalgallerie in Berlin. His students and followers included <a href="/wiki/Philip_Johnson" title="Philip Johnson">Philip Johnson</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Eero_Saarinen" title="Eero Saarinen">Eero Saarinen</a>, whose work was substantially influenced by his ideas.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBony2012129_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBony2012129-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Richard_Neutra_and_Charles_and_Ray_Eames">Richard Neutra and Charles and Ray Eames</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_architecture&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Richard Neutra and Charles and Ray Eames"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 274px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 272px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Eames_House0.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Eames House by Charles and Ray Eames, Pacific Palisades, (1949)"><img alt="Eames House by Charles and Ray Eames, Pacific Palisades, (1949)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Eames_House0.jpg/408px-Eames_House0.jpg" decoding="async" width="272" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Eames_House0.jpg/611px-Eames_House0.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/03/Eames_House0.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="589" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Eames_House" title="Eames House">Eames House</a> by <a href="/wiki/Charles_and_Ray_Eames" title="Charles and Ray Eames">Charles and Ray Eames</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Palisades,_Los_Angeles" title="Pacific Palisades, Los Angeles">Pacific Palisades</a>, (1949)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 327.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 325.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:NeutraOfficeBldg.1.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Neutra Office Building by Richard Neutra in Los Angeles (1950)"><img alt="Neutra Office Building by Richard Neutra in Los Angeles (1950)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/NeutraOfficeBldg.1.jpg/488px-NeutraOfficeBldg.1.jpg" decoding="async" width="326" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/NeutraOfficeBldg.1.jpg/731px-NeutraOfficeBldg.1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/NeutraOfficeBldg.1.jpg/975px-NeutraOfficeBldg.1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2899" data-file-height="1785" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Neutra_Office_Building" title="Neutra Office Building">Neutra Office Building</a> by <a href="/wiki/Richard_Neutra" title="Richard Neutra">Richard Neutra</a> in Los Angeles (1950)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 309.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 307.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Constance_Perkins_House.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Constance Perkins House by Richard Neutra, Los Angeles (1962)"><img alt="The Constance Perkins House by Richard Neutra, Los Angeles (1962)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Constance_Perkins_House.jpg/461px-Constance_Perkins_House.jpg" decoding="async" width="308" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Constance_Perkins_House.jpg/691px-Constance_Perkins_House.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Constance_Perkins_House.jpg/922px-Constance_Perkins_House.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3002" data-file-height="1955" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Constance_Perkins_House" title="Constance Perkins House">Constance Perkins House</a> by <a href="/wiki/Richard_Neutra" title="Richard Neutra">Richard Neutra</a>, Los Angeles (1962)</div> </li> </ul> <p>Influential residential architects in the new style in the United States included <a href="/wiki/Richard_Neutra" title="Richard Neutra">Richard Neutra</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charles_and_Ray_Eames" title="Charles and Ray Eames">Charles and Ray Eames</a>. The most celebrated work of the Eames was <a href="/wiki/Eames_House" title="Eames House">Eames House</a> in <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Palisades,_Los_Angeles" title="Pacific Palisades, Los Angeles">Pacific Palisades</a>, California, (1949) Charles Eames in collaboration with <a href="/wiki/Eero_Saarinen" title="Eero Saarinen">Eero Saarinen</a> It is composed of two structures, an architects residence and his studio, joined in the form of an L. The house, influenced by Japanese architecture, is made of translucent and transparent panels organized in simple volumes, often using natural materials, supported on a steel framework. The frame of the house was assembled in sixteen hours by five workmen. He brightened up his buildings with panels of pure colors.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBony2012135_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBony2012135-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Richard_Neutra" title="Richard Neutra">Richard Neutra</a> continued to build influential houses in Los Angeles, using the theme of the simple box. Many of these houses erased the line distinction between indoor and outdoor spaces with walls of plate glass.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Neutra's <a href="/wiki/Constance_Perkins_House" title="Constance Perkins House">Constance Perkins House</a> in <a href="/wiki/Pasadena,_California" title="Pasadena, California">Pasadena, California</a> (1962) was re-examination of the modest single-family dwelling. It was built of inexpensive material–wood, plaster, and glass–and completed at a cost of just under $18,000. Neutra scaled the house to the physical dimensions of its owner, a small woman. It features a reflecting pool which meanders under of the glass walls of the house. One of Neutra's most unusual buildings was <a href="/wiki/Shepherd%27s_Grove" title="Shepherd's Grove">Shepherd's Grove</a> in <a href="/wiki/Garden_Grove,_California" title="Garden Grove, California">Garden Grove, California</a>, which featured an adjoining parking lot where worshippers could follow the service without leaving their cars. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Skidmore,_Owings_and_Merrill_and_Wallace_K._Harrison"><span id="Skidmore.2C_Owings_and_Merrill_and_Wallace_K._Harrison"></span>Skidmore, Owings and Merrill and Wallace K. Harrison</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_architecture&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Skidmore, Owings and Merrill and Wallace K. Harrison"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 186px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 184px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Manhattan_House_65_jeh.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Manhattan House by Skidmore, Owings & Merrill (1950–51)"><img alt="Manhattan House by Skidmore, Owings & Merrill (1950–51)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Manhattan_House_65_jeh.JPG/276px-Manhattan_House_65_jeh.JPG" decoding="async" width="184" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Manhattan_House_65_jeh.JPG/413px-Manhattan_House_65_jeh.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Manhattan_House_65_jeh.JPG/551px-Manhattan_House_65_jeh.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2219" data-file-height="2415" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Manhattan_House" title="Manhattan House">Manhattan House</a> by <a href="/wiki/Skidmore,_Owings_%26_Merrill" class="mw-redirect" title="Skidmore, Owings & Merrill">Skidmore, Owings & Merrill</a> (1950–51)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 152px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Lever_House_by_David_Shankbone.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Lever House by Skidmore, Owings & Merrill (1951–52)"><img alt="Lever House by Skidmore, Owings & Merrill (1951–52)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Lever_House_by_David_Shankbone.jpg/225px-Lever_House_by_David_Shankbone.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Lever_House_by_David_Shankbone.jpg/337px-Lever_House_by_David_Shankbone.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Lever_House_by_David_Shankbone.jpg/450px-Lever_House_by_David_Shankbone.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2448" data-file-height="3264" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Lever_House" title="Lever House">Lever House</a> by <a href="/wiki/Skidmore,_Owings_%26_Merrill" class="mw-redirect" title="Skidmore, Owings & Merrill">Skidmore, Owings & Merrill</a> (1951–52)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 288px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 286px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Manufacturers_Trust_Company_Building_510_Fifth_Avenue.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Manufacturers Trust Company Building, by Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, New York City (1954)"><img alt="Manufacturers Trust Company Building, by Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, New York City (1954)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Manufacturers_Trust_Company_Building_510_Fifth_Avenue.jpg/429px-Manufacturers_Trust_Company_Building_510_Fifth_Avenue.jpg" decoding="async" width="286" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Manufacturers_Trust_Company_Building_510_Fifth_Avenue.jpg/643px-Manufacturers_Trust_Company_Building_510_Fifth_Avenue.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Manufacturers_Trust_Company_Building_510_Fifth_Avenue.jpg/857px-Manufacturers_Trust_Company_Building_510_Fifth_Avenue.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2775" data-file-height="1943" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Manufacturers_Trust_Company_Building" title="Manufacturers Trust Company Building">Manufacturers Trust Company Building</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Skidmore,_Owings_%26_Merrill" class="mw-redirect" title="Skidmore, Owings & Merrill">Skidmore, Owings & Merrill</a>, New York City (1954)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 268.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 266.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Yale-beinecke-library.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Beinecke Library at Yale University by Skidmore, Owings & Merrill (1963)"><img alt="Beinecke Library at Yale University by Skidmore, Owings & Merrill (1963)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Yale-beinecke-library.jpg/400px-Yale-beinecke-library.jpg" decoding="async" width="267" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Yale-beinecke-library.jpg/600px-Yale-beinecke-library.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Yale-beinecke-library.jpg/800px-Yale-beinecke-library.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="750" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Beinecke_Library" class="mw-redirect" title="Beinecke Library">Beinecke Library</a> at <a href="/wiki/Yale_University" title="Yale University">Yale University</a> by <a href="/wiki/Skidmore,_Owings_%26_Merrill" class="mw-redirect" title="Skidmore, Owings & Merrill">Skidmore, Owings & Merrill</a> (1963)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 152px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:United_Nations_Headquarters.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="United Nations Headquarters in New York, by Wallace Harrison with Oscar Niemeyer and Le Corbusier (1952)"><img alt="United Nations Headquarters in New York, by Wallace Harrison with Oscar Niemeyer and Le Corbusier (1952)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/United_Nations_Headquarters.JPG/225px-United_Nations_Headquarters.JPG" decoding="async" width="150" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/United_Nations_Headquarters.JPG/337px-United_Nations_Headquarters.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/United_Nations_Headquarters.JPG/450px-United_Nations_Headquarters.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2448" data-file-height="3264" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Headquarters" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Headquarters">United Nations Headquarters</a> in New York, by <a href="/wiki/Wallace_Harrison" title="Wallace Harrison">Wallace Harrison</a> with <a href="/wiki/Oscar_Niemeyer" title="Oscar Niemeyer">Oscar Niemeyer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Le_Corbusier" title="Le Corbusier">Le Corbusier</a> (1952)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 232.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:CFiorentini007.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Metropolitan Opera House at Lincoln Center in New York City by Wallace Harrison (1966)"><img alt="The Metropolitan Opera House at Lincoln Center in New York City by Wallace Harrison (1966)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/CFiorentini007.jpg/346px-CFiorentini007.jpg" decoding="async" width="231" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/CFiorentini007.jpg/518px-CFiorentini007.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/CFiorentini007.jpg/691px-CFiorentini007.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3483" data-file-height="3024" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Opera_House_(Lincoln_Center)" title="Metropolitan Opera House (Lincoln Center)">Metropolitan Opera House</a> at <a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Center" title="Lincoln Center">Lincoln Center</a> in New York City by <a href="/wiki/Wallace_Harrison" title="Wallace Harrison">Wallace Harrison</a> (1966)</div> </li> </ul> <p>Many of the notable modern buildings in the postwar years were produced by two architectural mega-agencies, which brought together large teams of designers for very complex projects. The firm of <a href="/wiki/Skidmore,_Owings_%26_Merrill" class="mw-redirect" title="Skidmore, Owings & Merrill">Skidmore, Owings & Merrill</a> was founded in Chicago in 1936 by <a href="/wiki/Louis_Skidmore" title="Louis Skidmore">Louis Skidmore</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Owings" class="mw-redirect" title="Nathaniel Owings">Nathaniel Owings</a>, and joined in 1939 by engineer <a href="/wiki/John_O._Merrill" title="John O. Merrill">John Merrill</a>, It soon went under the name of SOM. Its first big project was <a href="/wiki/Oak_Ridge_National_Laboratory" title="Oak Ridge National Laboratory">Oak Ridge National Laboratory</a> in <a href="/wiki/Oak_Ridge,_Tennessee" title="Oak Ridge, Tennessee">Oak Ridge, Tennessee</a>, the gigantic government installation that produced plutonium for the first nuclear weapons. In 1964 the firm had eighteen "partner-owners", 54 "associate participants, "and 750 architects, technicians, designers, decorators, and landscape architects. Their style was largely inspired by the work of <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Mies_van_der_Rohe" title="Ludwig Mies van der Rohe">Ludwig Mies van der Rohe</a>, and their buildings soon had a large place in the New York skyline, including the <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_House" title="Manhattan House">Manhattan House</a> (1950–51), <a href="/wiki/Lever_House" title="Lever House">Lever House</a> (1951–52) and the <a href="/wiki/Manufacturers_Trust_Company_Building" title="Manufacturers Trust Company Building">Manufacturers Trust Company Building</a> (1954). Later buildings by the firm include <a href="/wiki/Beinecke_Library" class="mw-redirect" title="Beinecke Library">Beinecke Library</a> at <a href="/wiki/Yale_University" title="Yale University">Yale University</a> (1963), the <a href="/wiki/Willis_Tower" title="Willis Tower">Willis Tower</a>, formerly Sears Tower in Chicago (1973) and <a href="/wiki/One_World_Trade_Center" title="One World Trade Center">One World Trade Center</a> in New York City (2013), which replaced the building destroyed in the terrorist attack of 11 September 2001.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBony2012132–33_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBony2012132–33-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Wallace_Harrison" title="Wallace Harrison">Wallace Harrison</a> played a major part in the modern architectural history of New York; as the architectural advisor of the <a href="/wiki/Rockefeller_Family" class="mw-redirect" title="Rockefeller Family">Rockefeller Family</a>, he helped design <a href="/wiki/Rockefeller_Center" title="Rockefeller Center">Rockefeller Center</a>, the major Art Deco architectural project of the 1930s. He was supervising architect for the 1939 New York World's Fair, and, with his partner <a href="/wiki/Max_Abramowitz" class="mw-redirect" title="Max Abramowitz">Max Abramowitz</a>, was the builder and chief architect of the <a href="/wiki/Headquarters_of_the_United_Nations" title="Headquarters of the United Nations">headquarters of the United Nations</a>; Harrison headed a committee of international architects, which included <a href="/wiki/Oscar_Niemeyer" title="Oscar Niemeyer">Oscar Niemeyer</a> (who produced the original plan approved by the committee) and <a href="/wiki/Le_Corbusier" title="Le Corbusier">Le Corbusier</a>. Other landmark New York buildings designed by Harrison and his firm included <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Opera_House_(Lincoln_Center)" title="Metropolitan Opera House (Lincoln Center)">Metropolitan Opera House</a>, the master plan for <a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Center" title="Lincoln Center">Lincoln Center</a>, and <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_International_Airport" title="John F. Kennedy International Airport">John F. Kennedy International Airport</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBony2012132_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBony2012132-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philip_Johnson">Philip Johnson</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_architecture&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Philip Johnson"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 412px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 410px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Glasshouse-philip-johnson.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Glass House by Philip Johnson in New Canaan, Connecticut (1953)"><img alt="The Glass House by Philip Johnson in New Canaan, Connecticut (1953)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Glasshouse-philip-johnson.jpg/615px-Glasshouse-philip-johnson.jpg" decoding="async" width="410" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Glasshouse-philip-johnson.jpg/923px-Glasshouse-philip-johnson.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Glasshouse-philip-johnson.jpg/1230px-Glasshouse-philip-johnson.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2515" data-file-height="1227" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Glass_House" title="Glass House">Glass House</a> by <a href="/wiki/Philip_Johnson" title="Philip Johnson">Philip Johnson</a> in <a href="/wiki/New_Canaan,_Connecticut" title="New Canaan, Connecticut">New Canaan, Connecticut</a> (1953)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 121.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 119.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:IDS_reflecting_Wells_Fargo.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The IDS Center in Minneapolis, Minnesota, by Philip Johnson (1969–72)"><img alt="The IDS Center in Minneapolis, Minnesota, by Philip Johnson (1969–72)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/IDS_reflecting_Wells_Fargo.jpg/179px-IDS_reflecting_Wells_Fargo.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/IDS_reflecting_Wells_Fargo.jpg/268px-IDS_reflecting_Wells_Fargo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/IDS_reflecting_Wells_Fargo.jpg/358px-IDS_reflecting_Wells_Fargo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1220" data-file-height="2044" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/IDS_Center" title="IDS Center">IDS Center</a> in Minneapolis, Minnesota, by Philip Johnson (1969–72)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 246.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 244.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Crys-ext.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Crystal Cathedral by Philip Johnson (1977–80)"><img alt="The Crystal Cathedral by Philip Johnson (1977–80)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Crys-ext.jpg/367px-Crys-ext.jpg" decoding="async" width="245" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Crys-ext.jpg/550px-Crys-ext.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Crys-ext.jpg/733px-Crys-ext.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1997" data-file-height="1634" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Crystal_Cathedral" class="mw-redirect" title="Crystal Cathedral">Crystal Cathedral</a> by Philip Johnson (1977–80)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 92.666666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 90.666666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Williamstower.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Williams Tower in Houston, Texas, by Philip Johnson (1981–1983)"><img alt="The Williams Tower in Houston, Texas, by Philip Johnson (1981–1983)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Williamstower.jpg/136px-Williamstower.jpg" decoding="async" width="91" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Williamstower.jpg/204px-Williamstower.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Williamstower.jpg/273px-Williamstower.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="1759" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Williams_Tower" title="Williams Tower">Williams Tower</a> in <a href="/wiki/Houston" title="Houston">Houston</a>, Texas, by Philip Johnson (1981–1983)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 152px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pittsburgh-pennsylvania-ppg-place-2007.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="PPG Place in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, by Philip Johnson (1981–84)"><img alt="PPG Place in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, by Philip Johnson (1981–84)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Pittsburgh-pennsylvania-ppg-place-2007.jpg/225px-Pittsburgh-pennsylvania-ppg-place-2007.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Pittsburgh-pennsylvania-ppg-place-2007.jpg/337px-Pittsburgh-pennsylvania-ppg-place-2007.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Pittsburgh-pennsylvania-ppg-place-2007.jpg/450px-Pittsburgh-pennsylvania-ppg-place-2007.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2279" data-file-height="3038" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/PPG_Place" title="PPG Place">PPG Place</a> in <a href="/wiki/Pittsburgh" title="Pittsburgh">Pittsburgh</a>, Pennsylvania, by Philip Johnson (1981–84)</div> </li> </ul> <p><a href="/wiki/Philip_Johnson" title="Philip Johnson">Philip Johnson</a> (1906–2005) was one of the youngest and last major figures in American modern architecture. He trained at Harvard with Walter Gropius, then was director of the department of architecture and modern design at the <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art" title="Metropolitan Museum of Art">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a> from 1946 to 1954. In 1947, he published a book about <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Mies_van_der_Rohe" title="Ludwig Mies van der Rohe">Ludwig Mies van der Rohe</a>, and in 1953 designed his own residence, the <a href="/wiki/Glass_House" title="Glass House">Glass House</a> in <a href="/wiki/New_Canaan,_Connecticut" title="New Canaan, Connecticut">New Canaan, Connecticut</a> in a style modeled after Mies's <a href="/wiki/Farnsworth_House" title="Farnsworth House">Farnsworth House</a>. Beginning in 1955 he began to go in his own direction, moving gradually toward expressionism with designs that increasingly departed from the orthodoxies of modern architecture. His final and decisive break with modern architecture was the AT&T Building (later known as the Sony Tower), and now the <a href="/wiki/550_Madison_Avenue" title="550 Madison Avenue">550 Madison Avenue</a> in New York City, (1979) an essentially modernist skyscraper completely altered by the addition of broken <a href="/wiki/Pediment" title="Pediment">pediment</a> with a circular opening. This building is generally considered to mark the beginning of <a href="/wiki/Postmodern_architecture" title="Postmodern architecture">Postmodern architecture</a> in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBony2012132_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBony2012132-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eero_Saarinen">Eero Saarinen</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_architecture&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Eero Saarinen"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 207.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 205.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:St_Louis_night_expblend_cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Gateway Arch in Saint Louis, Missouri (1948–1965)"><img alt="The Gateway Arch in Saint Louis, Missouri (1948–1965)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/St_Louis_night_expblend_cropped.jpg/308px-St_Louis_night_expblend_cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="206" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/St_Louis_night_expblend_cropped.jpg/463px-St_Louis_night_expblend_cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/St_Louis_night_expblend_cropped.jpg/617px-St_Louis_night_expblend_cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1620" data-file-height="1576" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Gateway_Arch" title="Gateway Arch">Gateway Arch</a> in <a href="/wiki/St._Louis" title="St. Louis">Saint Louis</a>, Missouri (1948–1965)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 358px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 356px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Warren_-_General_Motors_Technical_Center_(50826111923).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Main building of the General Motors Technical Center (1949–55)"><img alt="Main building of the General Motors Technical Center (1949–55)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Warren_-_General_Motors_Technical_Center_%2850826111923%29.jpg/534px-Warren_-_General_Motors_Technical_Center_%2850826111923%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="356" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Warren_-_General_Motors_Technical_Center_%2850826111923%29.jpg/800px-Warren_-_General_Motors_Technical_Center_%2850826111923%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Warren_-_General_Motors_Technical_Center_%2850826111923%29.jpg/1067px-Warren_-_General_Motors_Technical_Center_%2850826111923%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4286" data-file-height="2411" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Main building of the <a href="/wiki/General_Motors_Technical_Center" title="General Motors Technical Center">General Motors Technical Center</a> (1949–55)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 270px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 268px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ingalls_Rink_Highsmith.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Ingalls Rink in New Haven, Connecticut (1953–58)"><img alt="The Ingalls Rink in New Haven, Connecticut (1953–58)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Ingalls_Rink_Highsmith.jpg/402px-Ingalls_Rink_Highsmith.jpg" decoding="async" width="268" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Ingalls_Rink_Highsmith.jpg/603px-Ingalls_Rink_Highsmith.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Ingalls_Rink_Highsmith.jpg/804px-Ingalls_Rink_Highsmith.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5250" data-file-height="3918" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Ingalls_Rink" title="Ingalls Rink">Ingalls Rink</a> in <a href="/wiki/New_Haven" class="mw-redirect" title="New Haven">New Haven</a>, Connecticut (1953–58)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 268.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 266.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Jfkairport.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The TWA Terminal at JFK Airport in New York, by Eero Saarinen (1956–62)"><img alt="The TWA Terminal at JFK Airport in New York, by Eero Saarinen (1956–62)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Jfkairport.jpg/400px-Jfkairport.jpg" decoding="async" width="267" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Jfkairport.jpg/600px-Jfkairport.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Jfkairport.jpg/800px-Jfkairport.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The TWA Terminal at JFK Airport in New York, by <a href="/wiki/Eero_Saarinen" title="Eero Saarinen">Eero Saarinen</a> (1956–62)</div> </li> </ul> <p><a href="/wiki/Eero_Saarinen" title="Eero Saarinen">Eero Saarinen</a> (1910–1961) was the son of <a href="/wiki/Eliel_Saarinen" title="Eliel Saarinen">Eliel Saarinen</a>, the most famous Finnish architect of the Art Nouveau period, who emigrated to the United States in 1923, when Eero was thirteen. He studied art and sculpture at the academy where his father taught, and then at the <a href="/wiki/Acad%C3%A9mie_de_la_Grande_Chaumi%C3%A8re" title="Académie de la Grande Chaumière">Académie de la Grande Chaumière</a> Academy in Paris before studying architecture at Yale University. His architectural designs were more like enormous pieces of sculpture than traditional modern buildings; he broke away from the elegant boxes inspired by Mies van der Rohe and used instead sweeping curves and parabolas, like the wings of birds. In 1948 he conceived the idea of a monument in St. Louis, Missouri in the form of a parabolic arch 192 meters high, made of stainless steel (1948). He then designed the <a href="/wiki/General_Motors_Technical_Center" title="General Motors Technical Center">General Motors Technical Center</a> in Warren, Michigan (1949–55), a glass modernist box in the style of Mies van der Rohe, followed by the IBM Research Center in Yorktown, Virginia (1957–61). His next works were a major departure in style; he produced a particularly striking sculptural design for the <a href="/wiki/Ingalls_Rink" title="Ingalls Rink">Ingalls Rink</a> in <a href="/wiki/New_Haven" class="mw-redirect" title="New Haven">New Haven</a>, Connecticut (1956–59, an ice skiing rink with a parabolic roof suspended from cables, which served as a preliminary model for next and most famous work, the <a href="/wiki/TWA_Terminal" class="mw-redirect" title="TWA Terminal">TWA Terminal</a> at JFK airport in New York (1956–1962). His declared intention was to design a building that was distinctive and memorable, and also one that would capture the particular excitement of passengers before a journey. The structure is separated into four white concrete parabolic vaults, which together resemble a bird on the ground perched for flight. Each of the four curving roof vaults has two sides attached to columns in a Y form just outside the structure. One of the angles of each shell is lightly raised, and the other is attached to the center of the structure. The roof is connected with the ground by curtain walls of glass. All of the details inside the building, including the benches, counters, escalators, and clocks, were designed in the same style.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBony2012171–72_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBony2012171–72-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Louis_Kahn">Louis Kahn</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_architecture&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Louis Kahn"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 446.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 444.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:First_Unitarian_Church_of_Rochester_NY_North_Side_at_West_end_1227-8.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The First Unitarian Church of Rochester by Louis Kahn (1962)"><img alt="The First Unitarian Church of Rochester by Louis Kahn (1962)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/First_Unitarian_Church_of_Rochester_NY_North_Side_at_West_end_1227-8.jpg/667px-First_Unitarian_Church_of_Rochester_NY_North_Side_at_West_end_1227-8.jpg" decoding="async" width="445" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/First_Unitarian_Church_of_Rochester_NY_North_Side_at_West_end_1227-8.jpg/1000px-First_Unitarian_Church_of_Rochester_NY_North_Side_at_West_end_1227-8.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/First_Unitarian_Church_of_Rochester_NY_North_Side_at_West_end_1227-8.jpg/1334px-First_Unitarian_Church_of_Rochester_NY_North_Side_at_West_end_1227-8.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2531" data-file-height="1139" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/First_Unitarian_Church_of_Rochester_(building)" title="First Unitarian Church of Rochester (building)">First Unitarian Church of Rochester</a> by Louis Kahn (1962)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 268.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 266.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Salk_Institute_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Salk Institute by Louis Kahn (1962–63)"><img alt="The Salk Institute by Louis Kahn (1962–63)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Salk_Institute_2.jpg/400px-Salk_Institute_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="267" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Salk_Institute_2.jpg/600px-Salk_Institute_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Salk_Institute_2.jpg/800px-Salk_Institute_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4032" data-file-height="3024" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Salk_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="Salk Institute">Salk Institute</a> by <a href="/wiki/Louis_Kahn" title="Louis Kahn">Louis Kahn</a> (1962–63)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 304.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 302.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:WTP2_Mike_Reali_01d.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Richards Medical Research Laboratories by Louis Kahn (1957–61)"><img alt="Richards Medical Research Laboratories by Louis Kahn (1957–61)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/WTP2_Mike_Reali_01d.jpg/454px-WTP2_Mike_Reali_01d.jpg" decoding="async" width="303" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/WTP2_Mike_Reali_01d.jpg/681px-WTP2_Mike_Reali_01d.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/WTP2_Mike_Reali_01d.jpg/908px-WTP2_Mike_Reali_01d.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3024" data-file-height="1998" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Richards_Medical_Research_Laboratories" title="Richards Medical Research Laboratories">Richards Medical Research Laboratories</a> by Louis Kahn (1957–61)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 255.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 253.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Kimbell_Art_Museum_Dusk_Highsmith.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Kimball Art Museum in Fort Worth, Texas (1966–72)"><img alt="The Kimball Art Museum in Fort Worth, Texas (1966–72)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Kimbell_Art_Museum_Dusk_Highsmith.jpg/380px-Kimbell_Art_Museum_Dusk_Highsmith.jpg" decoding="async" width="254" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Kimbell_Art_Museum_Dusk_Highsmith.jpg/570px-Kimbell_Art_Museum_Dusk_Highsmith.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Kimbell_Art_Museum_Dusk_Highsmith.jpg/759px-Kimbell_Art_Museum_Dusk_Highsmith.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6911" data-file-height="5462" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Kimball_Art_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="Kimball Art Museum">Kimball Art Museum</a> in <a href="/wiki/Fort_Worth" class="mw-redirect" title="Fort Worth">Fort Worth</a>, Texas (1966–72)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 268.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 266.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Jatiyo_Sangshad_Bhaban_(Roehl).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The National Parliament Building in Dhaka, Bangladesh (1962–74)"><img alt="The National Parliament Building in Dhaka, Bangladesh (1962–74)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Jatiyo_Sangshad_Bhaban_%28Roehl%29.jpg/400px-Jatiyo_Sangshad_Bhaban_%28Roehl%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="267" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Jatiyo_Sangshad_Bhaban_%28Roehl%29.jpg/600px-Jatiyo_Sangshad_Bhaban_%28Roehl%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/08/Jatiyo_Sangshad_Bhaban_%28Roehl%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Jatiyo_Sangshad_Bhaban" class="mw-redirect" title="Jatiyo Sangshad Bhaban">National Parliament Building</a> in <a href="/wiki/Dhaka" title="Dhaka">Dhaka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a> (1962–74)</div> </li> </ul> <p><a href="/wiki/Louis_Kahn" title="Louis Kahn">Louis Kahn</a> (1901–74) was another American architect who moved away from the Mies van der Rohe model of the glass box, and other dogmas of the prevailing international style. He borrowed from a wide variety of styles, and idioms, including neoclassicism. He was a professor of architecture at Yale University from 1947 to 1957, where his students included <a href="/wiki/Eero_Saarinen" title="Eero Saarinen">Eero Saarinen</a>. From 1957 until his death he was a professor of architecture at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania" title="University of Pennsylvania">University of Pennsylvania</a>. His work and ideas influenced <a href="/wiki/Philip_Johnson" title="Philip Johnson">Philip Johnson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Minoru_Yamasaki" title="Minoru Yamasaki">Minoru Yamasaki</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Edward_Durell_Stone" title="Edward Durell Stone">Edward Durell Stone</a> as they moved toward a more neoclassical style. Unlike Mies, he did not try to make his buildings look light; he constructed mainly with concrete and brick, and made his buildings look monumental and solid. He drew from a wide variety of different sources; the towers of <a href="/wiki/Richards_Medical_Research_Laboratories" title="Richards Medical Research Laboratories">Richards Medical Research Laboratories</a> were inspired by the architecture of the Renaissance towns he had seen in Italy as a resident architect at the <a href="/wiki/American_Academy_in_Rome" title="American Academy in Rome">American Academy in Rome</a> in 1950. Notable buildings by Kahn in the United States include the <a href="/wiki/First_Unitarian_Church_of_Rochester_(building)" title="First Unitarian Church of Rochester (building)">First Unitarian Church of Rochester</a>, New York (1962); and the <a href="/wiki/Kimball_Art_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="Kimball Art Museum">Kimball Art Museum</a> in <a href="/wiki/Fort_Worth" class="mw-redirect" title="Fort Worth">Fort Worth</a>, Texas (1966–72). Following the example of <a href="/wiki/Le_Corbusier" title="Le Corbusier">Le Corbusier</a> and his design of the government buildings in <a href="/wiki/Chandigarh" title="Chandigarh">Chandigarh</a>, the capital city of the <a href="/wiki/Haryana" title="Haryana">Haryana</a> & <a href="/wiki/Punjab,_India" title="Punjab, India">Punjab</a> State of India, Kahn designed the <a href="/wiki/Jatiyo_Sangshad_Bhaban" class="mw-redirect" title="Jatiyo Sangshad Bhaban">Jatiyo Sangshad Bhaban</a> (National Assembly Building) in <a href="/wiki/Dhaka" title="Dhaka">Dhaka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a> (1962–74), when that country won independence from Pakistan. It was Kahn's last work.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBony2012149_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBony2012149-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="I._M._Pei">I. M. Pei</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_architecture&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: I. M. Pei"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 152px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Green_Building,_MIT,_Cambridge,_Massachusetts.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Green Building at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology by I. M. Pei (1962–64)"><img alt="Green Building at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology by I. M. Pei (1962–64)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Green_Building%2C_MIT%2C_Cambridge%2C_Massachusetts.JPG/225px-Green_Building%2C_MIT%2C_Cambridge%2C_Massachusetts.JPG" decoding="async" width="150" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Green_Building%2C_MIT%2C_Cambridge%2C_Massachusetts.JPG/337px-Green_Building%2C_MIT%2C_Cambridge%2C_Massachusetts.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Green_Building%2C_MIT%2C_Cambridge%2C_Massachusetts.JPG/450px-Green_Building%2C_MIT%2C_Cambridge%2C_Massachusetts.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="2560" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Green_Building_(MIT)" title="Green Building (MIT)">Green Building</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> by <a href="/wiki/I._M._Pei" title="I. M. Pei">I. M. Pei</a> (1962–64)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 253.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 251.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:National_Center_for_Atmospheric_Research_-_Boulder,_Colorado.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The National Center for Atmospheric Research in Boulder, Colorado by I. M. Pei (1963–67)"><img alt="The National Center for Atmospheric Research in Boulder, Colorado by I. M. Pei (1963–67)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/National_Center_for_Atmospheric_Research_-_Boulder%2C_Colorado.jpg/377px-National_Center_for_Atmospheric_Research_-_Boulder%2C_Colorado.jpg" decoding="async" width="252" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/National_Center_for_Atmospheric_Research_-_Boulder%2C_Colorado.jpg/566px-National_Center_for_Atmospheric_Research_-_Boulder%2C_Colorado.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/National_Center_for_Atmospheric_Research_-_Boulder%2C_Colorado.jpg/755px-National_Center_for_Atmospheric_Research_-_Boulder%2C_Colorado.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2406" data-file-height="1913" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/National_Center_for_Atmospheric_Research" title="National Center for Atmospheric Research">National Center for Atmospheric Research</a> in <a href="/wiki/Boulder,_Colorado" title="Boulder, Colorado">Boulder, Colorado</a> by I. M. Pei (1963–67)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 148.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 146.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Johnson_Museum_of_Art,_Cornell_Univ_Ithaca_NY_USA.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Herbert F. Johnson Museum of Art at Cornell University in Ithaca, New York by I. M. Pei (1973)"><img alt="Herbert F. Johnson Museum of Art at Cornell University in Ithaca, New York by I. M. Pei (1973)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Johnson_Museum_of_Art%2C_Cornell_Univ_Ithaca_NY_USA.jpg/220px-Johnson_Museum_of_Art%2C_Cornell_Univ_Ithaca_NY_USA.jpg" decoding="async" width="147" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Johnson_Museum_of_Art%2C_Cornell_Univ_Ithaca_NY_USA.jpg/329px-Johnson_Museum_of_Art%2C_Cornell_Univ_Ithaca_NY_USA.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Johnson_Museum_of_Art%2C_Cornell_Univ_Ithaca_NY_USA.jpg/439px-Johnson_Museum_of_Art%2C_Cornell_Univ_Ithaca_NY_USA.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1499" data-file-height="2047" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Herbert_F._Johnson_Museum_of_Art" title="Herbert F. Johnson Museum of Art">Herbert F. Johnson Museum of Art</a> at <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University" title="Cornell University">Cornell University</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ithaca,_New_York" title="Ithaca, New York">Ithaca, New York</a> by I. M. Pei (1973)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 253.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 251.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:National_Gallery_East_Wing_by_Matthew_Bisanz.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="East Wing of the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C., by I M. Pei (1978)"><img alt="East Wing of the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C., by I M. Pei (1978)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/National_Gallery_East_Wing_by_Matthew_Bisanz.JPG/377px-National_Gallery_East_Wing_by_Matthew_Bisanz.JPG" decoding="async" width="252" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/National_Gallery_East_Wing_by_Matthew_Bisanz.JPG/566px-National_Gallery_East_Wing_by_Matthew_Bisanz.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/National_Gallery_East_Wing_by_Matthew_Bisanz.JPG/754px-National_Gallery_East_Wing_by_Matthew_Bisanz.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3458" data-file-height="2751" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">East Wing of the <a href="/wiki/National_Gallery_of_Art" title="National Gallery of Art">National Gallery of Art</a> in Washington, D.C., by I M. Pei (1978)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 478px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 476px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Louvre_Museum_Wikimedia_Commons.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Pyramid of the Louvre Museum in Paris by I. M. Pei (1983–89)"><img alt="Pyramid of the Louvre Museum in Paris by I. M. Pei (1983–89)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Louvre_Museum_Wikimedia_Commons.jpg/714px-Louvre_Museum_Wikimedia_Commons.jpg" decoding="async" width="476" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Louvre_Museum_Wikimedia_Commons.jpg/1071px-Louvre_Museum_Wikimedia_Commons.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Louvre_Museum_Wikimedia_Commons.jpg/1428px-Louvre_Museum_Wikimedia_Commons.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6740" data-file-height="2832" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Pyramid of the <a href="/wiki/Louvre_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="Louvre Museum">Louvre Museum</a> in Paris by I. M. Pei (1983–89)</div> </li> </ul> <p><a href="/wiki/I._M._Pei" title="I. M. Pei">I. M. Pei</a> (1917–2019) was a major figure in late modernism and the debut of <a href="/wiki/Post-modern_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-modern architecture">Post-modern architecture</a>. He was born in China and educated in the United States, studying architecture at the <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a>. While the architecture school there still trained in the <a href="/wiki/Beaux-Arts_architecture" title="Beaux-Arts architecture">Beaux-Arts architecture</a> style, Pei discovered the writings of <a href="/wiki/Le_Corbusier" title="Le Corbusier">Le Corbusier</a>, and a two-day visit by Le Corbusier to the campus in 1935 had a major impact on Pei's ideas of architecture. In the late 1930s, he moved to the <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Graduate_School_of_Design" title="Harvard Graduate School of Design">Harvard Graduate School of Design</a>, where he studied with <a href="/wiki/Walter_Gropius" title="Walter Gropius">Walter Gropius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marcel_Breuer" title="Marcel Breuer">Marcel Breuer</a> and became deeply involved in Modernism.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoehm200036_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoehm200036-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the war he worked on large projects for the New York real estate developer <a href="/wiki/William_Zeckendorf" title="William Zeckendorf">William Zeckendorf</a>, before breaking away and starting his own firm. One of the first buildings his own firm designed was the <a href="/wiki/Green_Building_(MIT)" title="Green Building (MIT)">Green Building</a> at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. While the clean modernist façade was admired, the building developed an unexpected problem; it created a wind tunnel effect, and in strong winds the doors could not be opened. Pei was forced to construct a tunnel so visitors could enter the building during high winds. </p><p>Between 1963 and 1967 Pei designed the <a href="/wiki/Mesa_Laboratory" title="Mesa Laboratory">Mesa Laboratory</a> for the <a href="/wiki/National_Center_for_Atmospheric_Research" title="National Center for Atmospheric Research">National Center for Atmospheric Research</a> outside <a href="/wiki/Boulder,_Colorado" title="Boulder, Colorado">Boulder, Colorado</a>, in an open area at the foothills of the Rocky Mountains. The project differed from Pei's earlier urban work; it would rest in an open area in the foothills of the <a href="/wiki/Rocky_Mountains" title="Rocky Mountains">Rocky Mountains</a>. His design was a striking departure from traditional modernism; it looked as if it were carved out of the side of the mountain.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoehm200059_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoehm200059-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the late modernist area, art museums bypassed skyscrapers as the most prestigious architectural projects; they offered greater possibilities for innovation in form and more visibility. Pei established himself with his design for the <a href="/wiki/Herbert_F._Johnson_Museum_of_Art" title="Herbert F. Johnson Museum of Art">Herbert F. Johnson Museum of Art</a> at <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University" title="Cornell University">Cornell University</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ithaca,_New_York" title="Ithaca, New York">Ithaca, New York</a> (1973), which was praised for its imaginative use of a small space, and its respect for the landscape and other buildings around it. This led to the commission for one of the most important museum projects of the period, the new East Wing of the <a href="/wiki/National_Gallery_of_Art" title="National Gallery of Art">National Gallery of Art</a> in Washington, completed in 1978, and to another of Pei's most famous projects, the pyramid at the entrance of <a href="/wiki/Louvre_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="Louvre Museum">Louvre Museum</a> in Paris (1983–89). Pei chose the pyramid as the form that best harmonized with the Renaissance and neoclassical forms of the historic Louvre, as well as for its associations with Napoleon and the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Pyramids" title="Battle of the Pyramids">Battle of the Pyramids</a>. Each face of the pyramid is supported by 128 beams of stainless steel, supporting 675 panels of glass, each 2.9 by 1.9 meters (9 ft 6 in by 6 ft 3 in).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBony2012210_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBony2012210-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fazlur_Rahman_Khan">Fazlur Rahman Khan</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_architecture&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Fazlur Rahman Khan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 135.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 133.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Hancock_tower_2006.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="John Hancock Center in Chicago by Fazlur Rahman Khan was the first building to use X-bracing to create the trussed-tube design."><img alt="John Hancock Center in Chicago by Fazlur Rahman Khan was the first building to use X-bracing to create the trussed-tube design." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Hancock_tower_2006.jpg/200px-Hancock_tower_2006.jpg" decoding="async" width="134" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Hancock_tower_2006.jpg/301px-Hancock_tower_2006.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Hancock_tower_2006.jpg/401px-Hancock_tower_2006.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1433" data-file-height="2144" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/John_Hancock_Center" title="John Hancock Center">John Hancock Center</a> in Chicago by <a href="/wiki/Fazlur_Rahman_Khan" title="Fazlur Rahman Khan">Fazlur Rahman Khan</a> was the first building to use X-bracing to create the trussed-tube design. </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 348.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 346.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:2004-07-14_2600x1500_chicago_lake_skyline.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Willis Tower in Chicago was the first building to use the bundled-tube design."><img alt="Willis Tower in Chicago was the first building to use the bundled-tube design." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/2004-07-14_2600x1500_chicago_lake_skyline.jpg/520px-2004-07-14_2600x1500_chicago_lake_skyline.jpg" decoding="async" width="347" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/2004-07-14_2600x1500_chicago_lake_skyline.jpg/780px-2004-07-14_2600x1500_chicago_lake_skyline.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/2004-07-14_2600x1500_chicago_lake_skyline.jpg/1040px-2004-07-14_2600x1500_chicago_lake_skyline.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2600" data-file-height="1500" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Willis_Tower" title="Willis Tower">Willis Tower</a> in Chicago was the first building to use the bundled-tube design. </div> </li> </ul> <p>In 1955, employed by the architectural firm <a href="/wiki/Skidmore,_Owings_%26_Merrill" class="mw-redirect" title="Skidmore, Owings & Merrill">Skidmore, Owings & Merrill</a> (SOM), he began working in Chicago. He was made a partner in 1966. He worked the rest of his life side by side with Architect Bruce Graham.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Khan introduced design methods and concepts for efficient use of material in building architecture. His first building to employ the tube structure was the <a href="/wiki/Chestnut_De-Witt_apartment_building" class="mw-redirect" title="Chestnut De-Witt apartment building">Chestnut De-Witt apartment building</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Baker_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baker-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the 1960s and 1970s, he became noted for his designs for Chicago's 100-story <a href="/wiki/John_Hancock_Center" title="John Hancock Center">John Hancock Center</a>, which was the first building to use the trussed-tube design, and 110-story Sears Tower, since renamed <a href="/wiki/Willis_Tower" title="Willis Tower">Willis Tower</a>, the tallest building in the world from 1973 until 1998, which was the first building to use the framed-tube design. </p><p>He believed that engineers needed a broader perspective on life, saying, "The technical man must not be lost in his own technology; he must be able to appreciate life, and life is art, drama, music, and most importantly, people." Khan's personal papers, most of which were in his office at the time of his death, are held by the <a href="/wiki/Ryerson_%26_Burnham_Libraries" title="Ryerson & Burnham Libraries">Ryerson & Burnham Libraries</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Art_Institute_of_Chicago" title="Art Institute of Chicago">Art Institute of Chicago</a>. The Fazlur Khan Collection includes manuscripts, sketches, audio cassette tapes, slides and other materials regarding his work. </p><p>Khan's seminal work of developing tall building structural systems are still used today as the starting point when considering design options for tall buildings. Tube structures have since been used in many skyscrapers, including the <a href="/wiki/Construction_of_the_World_Trade_Center" title="Construction of the World Trade Center">construction of the World Trade Center</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aon_Center_(Chicago)" title="Aon Center (Chicago)">Aon Centre</a>, <a href="/wiki/Petronas_Towers" title="Petronas Towers">Petronas Towers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jin_Mao_Building" class="mw-redirect" title="Jin Mao Building">Jin Mao Building</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bank_of_China_Tower,_Hong_Kong" class="mw-redirect" title="Bank of China Tower, Hong Kong">Bank of China Tower</a> and most other buildings in excess of 40 stories constructed since the 1960s. The strong influence of tube structure design is also evident in the world's current tallest skyscraper, the <a href="/wiki/Burj_Khalifa" title="Burj Khalifa">Burj Khalifa</a> in <a href="/wiki/Dubai" title="Dubai">Dubai</a>. According to Stephen Bayley of <i><a href="/wiki/The_Daily_Telegraph" title="The Daily Telegraph">The Daily Telegraph</a></i>: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Khan invented a new way of building tall. ... So Fazlur Khan created the unconventional skyscraper. Reversing the logic of the steel frame, he decided that the building's external envelope could – given enough trussing, framing and bracing – be the structure itself. This made buildings even lighter. The "bundled tube" meant buildings no longer need be boxlike in appearance: they could become sculpture. Khan's amazing insight – he was name-checked by Obama in his Cairo University speech last year – changed both the economics and the morphology of supertall buildings. And it made Burj Khalifa possible: proportionately, Burj employs perhaps half the steel that conservatively supports the Empire State Building. ... Burj Khalifa is the ultimate expression of his audacious, lightweight design philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Minoru_Yamasaki">Minoru Yamasaki</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_architecture&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Minoru Yamasaki"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 506.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 504.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Skyline_Twin_Towers_Sander_Lamme.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Twin Towers of the World Trade Center (1973–2001) in Lower Manhattan by Minoru Yamasaki (1913–1986)"><img alt="The Twin Towers of the World Trade Center (1973–2001) in Lower Manhattan by Minoru Yamasaki (1913–1986)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Skyline_Twin_Towers_Sander_Lamme.jpg/757px-Skyline_Twin_Towers_Sander_Lamme.jpg" decoding="async" width="505" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Skyline_Twin_Towers_Sander_Lamme.jpg/1136px-Skyline_Twin_Towers_Sander_Lamme.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Skyline_Twin_Towers_Sander_Lamme.jpg/1514px-Skyline_Twin_Towers_Sander_Lamme.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2780" data-file-height="1102" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The Twin Towers of the <a href="/wiki/World_Trade_Center_(1973%E2%80%932001)" title="World Trade Center (1973–2001)">World Trade Center (1973–2001)</a> in <a href="/wiki/Lower_Manhattan" title="Lower Manhattan">Lower Manhattan</a> by <a href="/wiki/Minoru_Yamasaki" title="Minoru Yamasaki">Minoru Yamasaki</a> (1913–1986)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 328.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 326.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pruitt-igoeUSGS02.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Wendell O. Pruitt Homes and William Igoe Apartments Housing Project, in St. Louis (1955–1976)"><img alt="The Wendell O. Pruitt Homes and William Igoe Apartments Housing Project, in St. Louis (1955–1976)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Pruitt-igoeUSGS02.jpg/490px-Pruitt-igoeUSGS02.jpg" decoding="async" width="327" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Pruitt-igoeUSGS02.jpg/735px-Pruitt-igoeUSGS02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Pruitt-igoeUSGS02.jpg/979px-Pruitt-igoeUSGS02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2105" data-file-height="1290" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Pruitt%E2%80%93Igoe" title="Pruitt–Igoe">Wendell O. Pruitt Homes and William Igoe Apartments</a> Housing Project, in <a href="/wiki/St._Louis" title="St. Louis">St. Louis</a> (1955–1976)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 162px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:CenturyPlazaTowers.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Century Plaza Towers in Los Angeles, California (1975)"><img alt="The Century Plaza Towers in Los Angeles, California (1975)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/CenturyPlazaTowers.jpg/240px-CenturyPlazaTowers.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/CenturyPlazaTowers.jpg/360px-CenturyPlazaTowers.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/CenturyPlazaTowers.jpg/481px-CenturyPlazaTowers.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="2876" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Century_Plaza_Towers" title="Century Plaza Towers">Century Plaza Towers</a> in Los Angeles, California (1975) </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 151.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 149.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:OneWoodwardAvenue.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="One Woodward Avenue in Detroit, Michigan (1962)"><img alt="One Woodward Avenue in Detroit, Michigan (1962)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/OneWoodwardAvenue.JPG/224px-OneWoodwardAvenue.JPG" decoding="async" width="150" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/OneWoodwardAvenue.JPG/337px-OneWoodwardAvenue.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/OneWoodwardAvenue.JPG/449px-OneWoodwardAvenue.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2132" data-file-height="2848" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/One_Woodward_Avenue" title="One Woodward Avenue">One Woodward Avenue</a> in Detroit, Michigan (1962)</div> </li> </ul> <p>In the United States, Minoru Yamasaki found major independent success in implementing unique engineering solutions to then-complicated problems, including the space that elevator shafts took up on each floor, and dealing with his personal fear of heights. During this period, he created a number of office buildings which led to his innovative design of the 1,360 ft (410 m) towers of the World Trade Center in 1964, which began construction 21 March 1966.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first of the towers was finished in 1970.<sup id="cite_ref-HistoryPANYNJ_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HistoryPANYNJ-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of his buildings feature superficial details inspired by the pointed arches of <a href="/wiki/Gothic_architecture" title="Gothic architecture">Gothic architecture</a>, and make use of extremely narrow vertical windows. This narrow-windowed style arose from his own personal <a href="/wiki/Acrophobia" title="Acrophobia">fear of heights</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-GlanzLipton_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GlanzLipton-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One particular design challenge of the World Trade Center's design related to the efficacy of the elevator system, which was unique in the world. Yamasaki integrated the fastest elevators at the time, running at 1,700 feet per minute. Instead of placing a large traditional elevator shaft in the core of each tower, Yamasaki created the Twin Towers' "<a href="/wiki/Sky_lobby" title="Sky lobby">Skylobby</a>" system. The Skylobby design created three separate, connected elevator systems which would serve different segments of the building, depending on which floor was chosen, saving approximately 70% of the space used for a traditional shaft. The space saved was then used for office space.<sup id="cite_ref-jaffee_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jaffee-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition to these accomplishments, he had also designed the Pruitt-Igoe Housing Project, the largest ever housing project built in the United States, which was fully torn down in 1976 due to bad market conditions and the decrepit state of the buildings themselves. Separately, he had also designed the Century Plaza Towers and One Woodward Avenue, among 63 other projects he had developed during his career. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Postwar_modernism_in_Europe_(1945–1975)"><span id="Postwar_modernism_in_Europe_.281945.E2.80.931975.29"></span>Postwar modernism in Europe (1945–1975)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_architecture&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Postwar modernism in Europe (1945–1975)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 268.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 266.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sainte_Marie_de_La_Tourette_2007.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Sainte Marie de La Tourette in Eveux-sur-l'Arbresle, France by Le Corbusier and Iannis Xenakis (1956–60)"><img alt="Sainte Marie de La Tourette in Eveux-sur-l'Arbresle, France by Le Corbusier and Iannis Xenakis (1956–60)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/d8/Sainte_Marie_de_La_Tourette_2007.jpg/400px-Sainte_Marie_de_La_Tourette_2007.jpg" decoding="async" width="267" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/d8/Sainte_Marie_de_La_Tourette_2007.jpg/600px-Sainte_Marie_de_La_Tourette_2007.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/d8/Sainte_Marie_de_La_Tourette_2007.jpg/800px-Sainte_Marie_de_La_Tourette_2007.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Sainte_Marie_de_La_Tourette" title="Sainte Marie de La Tourette">Sainte Marie de La Tourette</a> in Eveux-sur-l'Arbresle, France by <a href="/wiki/Le_Corbusier" title="Le Corbusier">Le Corbusier</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iannis_Xenakis" title="Iannis Xenakis">Iannis Xenakis</a> (1956–60)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 302px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 300px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:National_Theatre,_London.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Royal National Theatre, London, by Denys Lasdun (1967–1976)"><img alt="Royal National Theatre, London, by Denys Lasdun (1967–1976)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/National_Theatre%2C_London.jpg/450px-National_Theatre%2C_London.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/National_Theatre%2C_London.jpg/675px-National_Theatre%2C_London.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/National_Theatre%2C_London.jpg/900px-National_Theatre%2C_London.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5616" data-file-height="3744" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Royal_National_Theatre" title="Royal National Theatre">Royal National Theatre</a>, London, by <a href="/wiki/Denys_Lasdun" title="Denys Lasdun">Denys Lasdun</a> (1967–1976)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 298px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 296px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Helsinki_University_of_Technology_auditorium.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Auditorium of the University of Technology, Helsinki, by Alvar Aalto (1964)"><img alt="Auditorium of the University of Technology, Helsinki, by Alvar Aalto (1964)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Helsinki_University_of_Technology_auditorium.jpg/444px-Helsinki_University_of_Technology_auditorium.jpg" decoding="async" width="296" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/Helsinki_University_of_Technology_auditorium.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="666" data-file-height="450" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Auditorium of the University of Technology, Helsinki, by <a href="/wiki/Alvar_Aalto" title="Alvar Aalto">Alvar Aalto</a> (1964)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 268.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 266.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Academisch_ziekenhuis_C.H.U..jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="University Hospital Center in Liège, Belgium by Charles Vandenhove (1962–82)"><img alt="University Hospital Center in Liège, Belgium by Charles Vandenhove (1962–82)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Academisch_ziekenhuis_C.H.U..jpg/400px-Academisch_ziekenhuis_C.H.U..jpg" decoding="async" width="267" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Academisch_ziekenhuis_C.H.U..jpg/600px-Academisch_ziekenhuis_C.H.U..jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Academisch_ziekenhuis_C.H.U..jpg/800px-Academisch_ziekenhuis_C.H.U..jpg 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="720" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">University Hospital Center in <a href="/wiki/Li%C3%A8ge" title="Liège">Liège</a>, Belgium by Charles Vandenhove (1962–82)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 133.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 131.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Looking_up_at_Torre_Pirelli_from_Piazza_Duca_d%27Aosta,_Milan.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Pirelli Tower in Milan, by Gio Ponti and Pier Luigi Nervi (1958–60)"><img alt="The Pirelli Tower in Milan, by Gio Ponti and Pier Luigi Nervi (1958–60)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/50/Looking_up_at_Torre_Pirelli_from_Piazza_Duca_d%27Aosta%2C_Milan.jpg/197px-Looking_up_at_Torre_Pirelli_from_Piazza_Duca_d%27Aosta%2C_Milan.jpg" decoding="async" width="132" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/50/Looking_up_at_Torre_Pirelli_from_Piazza_Duca_d%27Aosta%2C_Milan.jpg/296px-Looking_up_at_Torre_Pirelli_from_Piazza_Duca_d%27Aosta%2C_Milan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/50/Looking_up_at_Torre_Pirelli_from_Piazza_Duca_d%27Aosta%2C_Milan.jpg/395px-Looking_up_at_Torre_Pirelli_from_Piazza_Duca_d%27Aosta%2C_Milan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3824" data-file-height="5808" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Pirelli_Tower" title="Pirelli Tower">Pirelli Tower</a> in Milan, by <a href="/wiki/Gio_Ponti" title="Gio Ponti">Gio Ponti</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pier_Luigi_Nervi" title="Pier Luigi Nervi">Pier Luigi Nervi</a> (1958–60)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 268.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 266.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:02_Fondation_Maeght.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="The Fondation Maeght by Josep Lluis Sert (1959–1964)"><img alt="The Fondation Maeght by Josep Lluis Sert (1959–1964)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/02_Fondation_Maeght.JPG/400px-02_Fondation_Maeght.JPG" decoding="async" width="267" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/02_Fondation_Maeght.JPG/600px-02_Fondation_Maeght.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/02_Fondation_Maeght.JPG/800px-02_Fondation_Maeght.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1500" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Fondation_Maeght" title="Fondation Maeght">Fondation Maeght</a> by <a href="/wiki/Josep_Lluis_Sert" class="mw-redirect" title="Josep Lluis Sert">Josep Lluis Sert</a> (1959–1964)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 268.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 266.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Katholische_Kirche_Idstein_022.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Church of St. Martin, Idstein Germany by Johannes Krahn (1965)"><img alt="Church of St. Martin, Idstein Germany by Johannes Krahn (1965)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Katholische_Kirche_Idstein_022.JPG/400px-Katholische_Kirche_Idstein_022.JPG" decoding="async" width="267" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Katholische_Kirche_Idstein_022.JPG/600px-Katholische_Kirche_Idstein_022.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Katholische_Kirche_Idstein_022.JPG/800px-Katholische_Kirche_Idstein_022.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Church of <a href="/wiki/St._Martin,_Idstein" title="St. Martin, Idstein">St. Martin, Idstein</a> Germany by <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Krahn" title="Johannes Krahn">Johannes Krahn</a> (1965)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 279.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 277.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Warszawa_1975_WDC_42783.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Warszawa Centralna railway station in Poland by Arseniusz Romanowicz (1975)"><img alt="Warszawa Centralna railway station in Poland by Arseniusz Romanowicz (1975)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Warszawa_1975_WDC_42783.jpg/416px-Warszawa_1975_WDC_42783.jpg" decoding="async" width="278" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Warszawa_1975_WDC_42783.jpg/623px-Warszawa_1975_WDC_42783.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Warszawa_1975_WDC_42783.jpg/831px-Warszawa_1975_WDC_42783.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2126" data-file-height="1535" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Warszawa_Centralna_railway_station" title="Warszawa Centralna railway station">Warszawa Centralna railway station</a> in Poland by Arseniusz Romanowicz (1975)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 252.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 250.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Orphanage-1a.Aldo_van_Eyck.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Municipal Orphanage in Amsterdam by Aldo van Eyck (1960), "Aesthetics of Number", architectural movement Structuralism."><img alt="Municipal Orphanage in Amsterdam by Aldo van Eyck (1960), "Aesthetics of Number", architectural movement Structuralism." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Orphanage-1a.Aldo_van_Eyck.jpg/376px-Orphanage-1a.Aldo_van_Eyck.jpg" decoding="async" width="251" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Orphanage-1a.Aldo_van_Eyck.jpg/564px-Orphanage-1a.Aldo_van_Eyck.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/Orphanage-1a.Aldo_van_Eyck.jpg 2x" data-file-width="707" data-file-height="564" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Municipal Orphanage in <a href="/wiki/Amsterdam" title="Amsterdam">Amsterdam</a> by <a href="/wiki/Aldo_van_Eyck" title="Aldo van Eyck">Aldo van Eyck</a> (1960), "Aesthetics of Number", architectural movement <a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(architecture)" title="Structuralism (architecture)">Structuralism</a>.</div> </li> </ul> <p>In France, <a href="/wiki/Le_Corbusier" title="Le Corbusier">Le Corbusier</a> remained the most prominent architect, though he built few buildings there. His most prominent late work was the convent of <a href="/wiki/Sainte_Marie_de_La_Tourette" title="Sainte Marie de La Tourette">Sainte Marie de La Tourette</a> in Eveux-sur-l'Arbresle. The Convent, built of raw concrete, was austere and without ornament, inspired by the medieval monasteries he had visited on his first trip to Italy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJournel2015164–165_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJournel2015164–165-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Britain, the major figures in modernism included <a href="/wiki/Wells_Coates" title="Wells Coates">Wells Coates</a> (1895–1958), <a href="/wiki/FRS_Yorke" class="mw-redirect" title="FRS Yorke">FRS Yorke</a> (1906–1962), <a href="/wiki/James_Stirling_(architect)" title="James Stirling (architect)">James Stirling</a> (1926–1992) and <a href="/wiki/Denys_Lasdun" title="Denys Lasdun">Denys Lasdun</a> (1914–2001). Lasdun's best-known work is the <a href="/wiki/Royal_National_Theatre" title="Royal National Theatre">Royal National Theatre</a> (1967–1976) on the south bank of the Thames. Its raw concrete and blockish form offended British traditionalists; <a href="/wiki/Charles_III" title="Charles III">Charles III, King of the U.K</a> compared it with a nuclear power station. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Maison_Mattot" title="Maison Mattot">Belgium</a>, a major figure was Charles Vandenhove (born 1927) who constructed an important series of buildings for the University Hospital Center in <a href="/wiki/Li%C3%A8ge" title="Liège">Liège</a>. His later work ventured into colorful rethinking of historical styles, such as Palladian architecture.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBony2012162_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBony2012162-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Finland, the most influential architect was <a href="/wiki/Alvar_Aalto" title="Alvar Aalto">Alvar Aalto</a>, who adapted his version of modernism to the Nordic landscape, light, and materials, particularly the use of wood. After World War II, he taught architecture in the United States. In Denmark, <a href="/wiki/Arne_Jacobsen" title="Arne Jacobsen">Arne Jacobsen</a> was the best-known of the modernists, who designed furniture as well as carefully proportioned buildings. </p><p>In Italy, the most prominent modernist was <a href="/wiki/Gio_Ponti" title="Gio Ponti">Gio Ponti</a>, who worked often with the structural engineer <a href="/wiki/Pier_Luigi_Nervi" title="Pier Luigi Nervi">Pier Luigi Nervi</a>, a specialist in reinforced concrete. Nervi created concrete beams of exceptional length, twenty-five meters, which allowed greater flexibility in forms and greater heights. Their best-known design was the <a href="/wiki/Pirelli_Building" class="mw-redirect" title="Pirelli Building">Pirelli Building</a> in Milan (1958–1960), which for decades was the tallest building in Italy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBony2012164–165_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBony2012164–165-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The most famous Spanish modernist was the Catalan architect <a href="/wiki/Josep_Lluis_Sert" class="mw-redirect" title="Josep Lluis Sert">Josep Lluis Sert</a>, who worked with great success in Spain, France, and the United States. In his early career, he worked for a time under Le Corbusier, and designed the Spanish pavilion for the 1937 Paris Exposition. His notable later work included the <a href="/wiki/Fondation_Maeght" title="Fondation Maeght">Fondation Maeght</a> in Saint-Paul-de-Provence, France (1964), and the <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Science_Center" title="Harvard Science Center">Harvard Science Center</a> in Cambridge, Massachusetts. He served as Dean of Architecture at the <a href="/wiki/Harvard_School_of_Design" class="mw-redirect" title="Harvard School of Design">Harvard School of Design</a>. </p><p>Notable German modernists included <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Krahn" title="Johannes Krahn">Johannes Krahn</a>, who played an important part in rebuilding German cities after World War II, and built several important museums and churches, notably <a href="/wiki/St._Martin,_Idstein" title="St. Martin, Idstein">St. Martin, Idstein</a>, which artfully combined stone masonry, concrete, and glass. Leading Austrian architects of the style included <a href="/wiki/Gustav_Peichl" title="Gustav Peichl">Gustav Peichl</a>, whose later works included the <a href="/wiki/Kunst-_und_Ausstellungshalle_der_Bundesrepublik_Deutschland" title="Kunst- und Ausstellungshalle der Bundesrepublik Deutschland">Art and Exhibition Center of the German Federal Republic</a> in Bonn, Germany (1989). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Tropical_Modernism">Tropical Modernism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_architecture&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Tropical Modernism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Tropical_Modernism" title="Tropical Modernism">Tropical Modernism</a></b>, or <b>Tropical Modern</b> is a style of architecture that merges modernist architecture principles with tropical <a href="/wiki/Vernacular_architecture" title="Vernacular architecture">vernacular</a> traditions, emerging in the mid-20th century. The term is used to describe modernist architecture in various regions of the world, including Latin America, Asia and Africa, as detailed below. Architects adapted to local conditions by using features which encouraged protection from harsh sunlight (such as solar shading) and encouraged the flow of cooling breezes through buildings (through narrow corridors).<sup id="cite_ref-:0_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some contend that the style originated in the 'hot, humid conditions' of West Africa in the 1940s.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Typical features include geometric screens. <a href="/wiki/Maxwell_Fry" title="Maxwell Fry">Maxwell Fry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jane_Drew" title="Jane Drew">Jane Drew</a>, of the <a href="/wiki/Architectural_Association_School_of_Architecture" title="Architectural Association School of Architecture">Architectural Association</a> architecture school in London, UK, made important contributions to research and practice in the Tropical Modernism style, after founding the School of Tropical Study at the <a href="/wiki/Architectural_Association_School_of_Architecture" title="Architectural Association School of Architecture">AA.</a> Speaking about the adoption of modernism in post-independence Ghana, Professor <a href="/wiki/Ola_Uduku" title="Ola Uduku">Ola Ukuku</a>, states that ‘those involved in developing Tropical Modernism were actually operating as agents of the colonies at the time’.<sup id="cite_ref-Bridgeman_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bridgeman-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Latin_America">Latin America</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_architecture&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Latin America"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 152px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:MESP4.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ministry of Health and Education in Rio de Janeiro by Lúcio Costa (1936–43)"><img alt="Ministry of Health and Education in Rio de Janeiro by Lúcio Costa (1936–43)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/MESP4.jpg/225px-MESP4.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/MESP4.jpg/337px-MESP4.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/MESP4.jpg/450px-MESP4.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1600" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Ministry of Health and Education in <a href="/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro" title="Rio de Janeiro">Rio de Janeiro</a> by <a href="/wiki/L%C3%BAcio_Costa" title="Lúcio Costa">Lúcio Costa</a> (1936–43)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 302px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 300px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:MAM_-_Museu_de_Arte_Moderna_do_Rio_de_Janeiro_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="MAM Rio museum, by Affonso Eduardo Reidy (1960)"><img alt="MAM Rio museum, by Affonso Eduardo Reidy (1960)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/MAM_-_Museu_de_Arte_Moderna_do_Rio_de_Janeiro_02.jpg/450px-MAM_-_Museu_de_Arte_Moderna_do_Rio_de_Janeiro_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/MAM_-_Museu_de_Arte_Moderna_do_Rio_de_Janeiro_02.jpg/675px-MAM_-_Museu_de_Arte_Moderna_do_Rio_de_Janeiro_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/MAM_-_Museu_de_Arte_Moderna_do_Rio_de_Janeiro_02.jpg/900px-MAM_-_Museu_de_Arte_Moderna_do_Rio_de_Janeiro_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Modern_Art,_Rio_de_Janeiro" title="Museum of Modern Art, Rio de Janeiro">MAM Rio</a> museum, by <a href="/wiki/Affonso_Eduardo_Reidy" title="Affonso Eduardo Reidy">Affonso Eduardo Reidy</a> (1960)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 297.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 295.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Congresso_Nacional.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The National Congress building in Brasília by Oscar Niemeyer (1956–61)"><img alt="The National Congress building in Brasília by Oscar Niemeyer (1956–61)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Congresso_Nacional.jpg/443px-Congresso_Nacional.jpg" decoding="async" width="296" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Congresso_Nacional.jpg/664px-Congresso_Nacional.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Congresso_Nacional.jpg/886px-Congresso_Nacional.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2699" data-file-height="1829" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The National Congress building in <a href="/wiki/Bras%C3%ADlia" title="Brasília">Brasília</a> by Oscar Niemeyer (1956–61)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 302px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 300px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Catedral_de_Bsb.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Cathedral of Brasília by Oscar Niemeyer (1958–1970)"><img alt="The Cathedral of Brasília by Oscar Niemeyer (1958–1970)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Catedral_de_Bsb.jpg/450px-Catedral_de_Bsb.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Catedral_de_Bsb.jpg/675px-Catedral_de_Bsb.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Catedral_de_Bsb.jpg/900px-Catedral_de_Bsb.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4270" data-file-height="2847" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Cathedral_of_Bras%C3%ADlia" title="Cathedral of Brasília">Cathedral of Brasília</a> by <a href="/wiki/Oscar_Niemeyer" title="Oscar Niemeyer">Oscar Niemeyer</a> (1958–1970)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 398px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 396px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:06-11-2014_Novembro_Azul_(15546341448).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Palácio do Planalto, offices of the Brazilian president, by Oscar Niemeyer (1958–60)"><img alt="The Palácio do Planalto, offices of the Brazilian president, by Oscar Niemeyer (1958–60)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/06-11-2014_Novembro_Azul_%2815546341448%29.jpg/594px-06-11-2014_Novembro_Azul_%2815546341448%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="396" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/06-11-2014_Novembro_Azul_%2815546341448%29.jpg/891px-06-11-2014_Novembro_Azul_%2815546341448%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/06-11-2014_Novembro_Azul_%2815546341448%29.jpg/1187px-06-11-2014_Novembro_Azul_%2815546341448%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5341" data-file-height="2700" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Pal%C3%A1cio_do_Planalto" title="Palácio do Planalto">Palácio do Planalto</a>, offices of the Brazilian president, by Oscar Niemeyer (1958–60)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 302px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 300px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:MASP_2017_001.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="São Paulo Museum of Art, MASP, by Lina Bo Bardi (1957–68)"><img alt="São Paulo Museum of Art, MASP, by Lina Bo Bardi (1957–68)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/MASP_2017_001.jpg/450px-MASP_2017_001.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/MASP_2017_001.jpg/675px-MASP_2017_001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/MASP_2017_001.jpg/900px-MASP_2017_001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Paulo_Museum_of_Art" title="São Paulo Museum of Art">São Paulo Museum of Art</a>, MASP, by <a href="/wiki/Lina_Bo_Bardi" title="Lina Bo Bardi">Lina Bo Bardi</a> (1957–68)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 152px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Torre_Latinoamericana_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Torre Latinoamericana in Mexico City by Augusto H. Alvarez (1956)"><img alt="The Torre Latinoamericana in Mexico City by Augusto H. Alvarez (1956)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Torre_Latinoamericana_1.jpg/225px-Torre_Latinoamericana_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Torre_Latinoamericana_1.jpg/337px-Torre_Latinoamericana_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Torre_Latinoamericana_1.jpg/450px-Torre_Latinoamericana_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1704" data-file-height="2272" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Torre_Latinoamericana" title="Torre Latinoamericana">Torre Latinoamericana</a> in Mexico City by <a href="/wiki/Augusto_H._Alvarez" class="mw-redirect" title="Augusto H. Alvarez">Augusto H. Alvarez</a> (1956)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 302.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 300.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Explanada_de_El_Colegio_de_M%C3%A9xico.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Colegio de México in Mexico City by Teodoro González de León and Abraham Zabludovsky (1976)"><img alt="The Colegio de México in Mexico City by Teodoro González de León and Abraham Zabludovsky (1976)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Explanada_de_El_Colegio_de_M%C3%A9xico.jpg/451px-Explanada_de_El_Colegio_de_M%C3%A9xico.jpg" decoding="async" width="301" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/Explanada_de_El_Colegio_de_M%C3%A9xico.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Colegio_de_M%C3%A9xico" class="mw-redirect" title="Colegio de México">Colegio de México</a> in Mexico City by <a href="/wiki/Teodoro_Gonz%C3%A1lez_de_Le%C3%B3n" title="Teodoro González de León">Teodoro González de León</a> and <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Zabludovsky" title="Abraham Zabludovsky">Abraham Zabludovsky</a> (1976)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 302.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 300.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Luis_Barragan_-_Casa_Luis_Barragan_%E5%BC%B5%E5%9F%BA%E7%BE%A9%E8%80%81%E5%B8%AB%E6%8B%8D%E6%94%9D_010.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Interior of the Luis Barragán House and Studio in Mexico City, by Luis Barragan (1948)"><img alt="Interior of the Luis Barragán House and Studio in Mexico City, by Luis Barragan (1948)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Luis_Barragan_-_Casa_Luis_Barragan_%E5%BC%B5%E5%9F%BA%E7%BE%A9%E8%80%81%E5%B8%AB%E6%8B%8D%E6%94%9D_010.jpg/451px-Luis_Barragan_-_Casa_Luis_Barragan_%E5%BC%B5%E5%9F%BA%E7%BE%A9%E8%80%81%E5%B8%AB%E6%8B%8D%E6%94%9D_010.jpg" decoding="async" width="301" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Luis_Barragan_-_Casa_Luis_Barragan_%E5%BC%B5%E5%9F%BA%E7%BE%A9%E8%80%81%E5%B8%AB%E6%8B%8D%E6%94%9D_010.jpg/676px-Luis_Barragan_-_Casa_Luis_Barragan_%E5%BC%B5%E5%9F%BA%E7%BE%A9%E8%80%81%E5%B8%AB%E6%8B%8D%E6%94%9D_010.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Luis_Barragan_-_Casa_Luis_Barragan_%E5%BC%B5%E5%9F%BA%E7%BE%A9%E8%80%81%E5%B8%AB%E6%8B%8D%E6%94%9D_010.jpg/901px-Luis_Barragan_-_Casa_Luis_Barragan_%E5%BC%B5%E5%9F%BA%E7%BE%A9%E8%80%81%E5%B8%AB%E6%8B%8D%E6%94%9D_010.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="682" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Interior of the <a href="/wiki/Luis_Barrag%C3%A1n_House_and_Studio" title="Luis Barragán House and Studio">Luis Barragán House and Studio</a> in Mexico City, by <a href="/wiki/Luis_Barragan" class="mw-redirect" title="Luis Barragan">Luis Barragan</a> (1948)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 286.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 284.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Mural_on_rear_of_Alfonso_Caro_Auditorium,_UNAM,_Mexcio_City.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Alfonso Caro Auditorium in UNAM, Mexico City, by Eugenio Peschard (1953)"><img alt="The Alfonso Caro Auditorium in UNAM, Mexico City, by Eugenio Peschard (1953)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Mural_on_rear_of_Alfonso_Caro_Auditorium%2C_UNAM%2C_Mexcio_City.jpg/427px-Mural_on_rear_of_Alfonso_Caro_Auditorium%2C_UNAM%2C_Mexcio_City.jpg" decoding="async" width="285" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Mural_on_rear_of_Alfonso_Caro_Auditorium%2C_UNAM%2C_Mexcio_City.jpg/641px-Mural_on_rear_of_Alfonso_Caro_Auditorium%2C_UNAM%2C_Mexcio_City.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Mural_on_rear_of_Alfonso_Caro_Auditorium%2C_UNAM%2C_Mexcio_City.jpg/854px-Mural_on_rear_of_Alfonso_Caro_Auditorium%2C_UNAM%2C_Mexcio_City.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5652" data-file-height="3972" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The Alfonso Caro Auditorium in <a href="/wiki/National_Autonomous_University_of_Mexico" title="National Autonomous University of Mexico">UNAM, Mexico City</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Eugenio_Peschard" title="Eugenio Peschard">Eugenio Peschard</a> (1953)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 245.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 243.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Torres_del_Parque.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Residencias del Parque in Bogotá, Colombia by Rogelio Salmona (1965–1970)"><img alt="Residencias del Parque in Bogotá, Colombia by Rogelio Salmona (1965–1970)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Torres_del_Parque.JPG/365px-Torres_del_Parque.JPG" decoding="async" width="244" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Torres_del_Parque.JPG/547px-Torres_del_Parque.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Torres_del_Parque.JPG/729px-Torres_del_Parque.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1297" data-file-height="1067" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Residencias del Parque in <a href="/wiki/Bogot%C3%A1" title="Bogotá">Bogotá</a>, <a href="/wiki/Colombia" title="Colombia">Colombia</a> by <a href="/wiki/Rogelio_Salmona" title="Rogelio Salmona">Rogelio Salmona</a> (1965–1970)</div> </li> </ul> <p>Architectural historians sometimes label Latin American modernism as "<a href="/wiki/Tropical_Modernism" title="Tropical Modernism">tropical modernism</a>". This reflects architects who adapted modernism to the tropical climate as well as the sociopolitical contexts of Latin America.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Brazil became a showcase of modern architecture in the late 1930s through the work of <a href="/wiki/L%C3%BAcio_Costa" title="Lúcio Costa">Lúcio Costa</a> (1902–1998) and <a href="/wiki/Oscar_Niemeyer" title="Oscar Niemeyer">Oscar Niemeyer</a> (1907–2012). Costa had the lead and Niemeyer collaborated on the Ministry of Education and Health in Rio de Janeiro (1936–43) and the Brazilian pavilion at the 1939 World's Fair in New York. Following the war, Niemeyer, along with Le Corbusier, conceived the form of the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Headquarters" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Headquarters">United Nations Headquarters</a> constructed by Walter Harrison. </p><p>Lúcio Costa also had overall responsibility for the plan of the most audacious modernist project in Brazil; the creation of new capital, <a href="/wiki/Bras%C3%ADlia" title="Brasília">Brasília</a>, constructed between 1956 and 1961. Costa made the general plan, laid out in the form of a cross, with the major government buildings in the center. Niemeyer was responsible for designing the government buildings, including the palace of the President;the National Assembly, composed of two towers for the two branches of the legislature and two meeting halls, one with a cupola and other with an inverted cupola. Niemeyer also built the cathedral, eighteen ministries, and giant blocks of housing, each designed for three thousand residents, each with its own school, shops, and chapel. Modernism was employed both as an architectural principle and as a guideline for organizing society, as explored in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Modernist_City" title="The Modernist City">The Modernist City</a>.</i><sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following a military coup d'état in Brazil in 1964, Niemeyer moved to France, where he designed the modernist headquarters of the French Communist Party in Paris (1965–1980), a miniature of his United Nations plan.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBony2012165–167_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBony2012165–167-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mexico also had a prominent modernist movement. Important figures included Félix Candela, born in Spain, who emigrated to Mexico in 1939; he specialized in concrete structures in unusual parabolic forms. Another important figure was <a href="/wiki/Mario_Pani" title="Mario Pani">Mario Pani</a>, who designed the <a href="/wiki/Conservatorio_Nacional_de_M%C3%BAsica_(Mexico)" title="Conservatorio Nacional de Música (Mexico)">National Conservatory of Music</a> in Mexico City (1949), and the <a href="/wiki/Torre_Insignia" title="Torre Insignia">Torre Insignia</a> (1988); Pani was also instrumental in the construction of the new <a href="/wiki/Ciudad_Universitaria,_Mexico_City" title="Ciudad Universitaria, Mexico City">University of Mexico City</a> in the 1950s, alongside <a href="/wiki/Juan_O%27Gorman" title="Juan O'Gorman">Juan O'Gorman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eugenio_Peschard" title="Eugenio Peschard">Eugenio Peschard</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Enrique_del_Moral" title="Enrique del Moral">Enrique del Moral</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Torre_Latinoamericana" title="Torre Latinoamericana">Torre Latinoamericana</a>, designed by <a href="/wiki/Augusto_H._Alvarez" class="mw-redirect" title="Augusto H. Alvarez">Augusto H. Alvarez</a>, was one of the earliest modernist skyscrapers in Mexico City (1956); it successfully withstood the <a href="/wiki/1985_Mexico_City_earthquake" title="1985 Mexico City earthquake">1985 Mexico City earthquake</a>, which destroyed many other buildings in the city center. <a href="/wiki/Pedro_Ramirez_Vasquez" class="mw-redirect" title="Pedro Ramirez Vasquez">Pedro Ramirez Vasquez</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rafael_Mijares" class="mw-redirect" title="Rafael Mijares">Rafael Mijares</a> designed the Olympic Stadium for the 1968 Olympics, and Antoni Peyri and Candela designed the Palace of Sports. <a href="/wiki/Luis_Barragan" class="mw-redirect" title="Luis Barragan">Luis Barragan</a> was another influential figure in Mexican modernism; his raw concrete residence and studio in Mexico City looks like a blockhouse on the outside, while inside it features great simplicity in form, pure colors, abundant natural light, and, one of is signatures, a stairway without a railing. He won the <a href="/wiki/Pritzker_Architecture_Prize" title="Pritzker Architecture Prize">Pritzker Architecture Prize</a> in 1980, and the house was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2004.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBony2012166_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBony2012166-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Asia_and_Australia">Asia and Australia</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_architecture&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Asia and Australia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 303.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 301.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:House-Kunio-Maekawa-03.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="House of Kunio Maekawa in Tokyo (1935)"><img alt="House of Kunio Maekawa in Tokyo (1935)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/House-Kunio-Maekawa-03.jpg/452px-House-Kunio-Maekawa-03.jpg" decoding="async" width="302" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/House-Kunio-Maekawa-03.jpg/678px-House-Kunio-Maekawa-03.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/House-Kunio-Maekawa-03.jpg/903px-House-Kunio-Maekawa-03.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1063" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">House of <a href="/wiki/Kunio_Maekawa" title="Kunio Maekawa">Kunio Maekawa</a> in Tokyo (1935)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 302px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 300px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:International_House_of_Japan.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="International House of Japan by Kunio Maekawa, Tokyo (1955)"><img alt="International House of Japan by Kunio Maekawa, Tokyo (1955)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/International_House_of_Japan.jpg/450px-International_House_of_Japan.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/International_House_of_Japan.jpg/675px-International_House_of_Japan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/International_House_of_Japan.jpg/900px-International_House_of_Japan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="1600" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">International House of Japan by <a href="/wiki/Kunio_Maekawa" title="Kunio Maekawa">Kunio Maekawa</a>, Tokyo (1955)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 302px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 300px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Kokuritsu_Yoyogi_Ky%C5%8Dgij%C5%8D_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Yoyogi National Gymnasium by Kenzo Tange (1964)"><img alt="Yoyogi National Gymnasium by Kenzo Tange (1964)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Kokuritsu_Yoyogi_Ky%C5%8Dgij%C5%8D_1.jpg/450px-Kokuritsu_Yoyogi_Ky%C5%8Dgij%C5%8D_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Kokuritsu_Yoyogi_Ky%C5%8Dgij%C5%8D_1.jpg/675px-Kokuritsu_Yoyogi_Ky%C5%8Dgij%C5%8D_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Kokuritsu_Yoyogi_Ky%C5%8Dgij%C5%8D_1.jpg/900px-Kokuritsu_Yoyogi_Ky%C5%8Dgij%C5%8D_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4412" data-file-height="2941" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Yoyogi_National_Gymnasium" title="Yoyogi National Gymnasium">Yoyogi National Gymnasium</a> by <a href="/wiki/Kenzo_Tange" class="mw-redirect" title="Kenzo Tange">Kenzo Tange</a> (1964)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 304.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 302.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sydney_Opera_House_Sails_edit02.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Sydney Opera House in Sydney, Australia, by Jørn Utzon (1973)"><img alt="Sydney Opera House in Sydney, Australia, by Jørn Utzon (1973)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Sydney_Opera_House_Sails_edit02.jpg/454px-Sydney_Opera_House_Sails_edit02.jpg" decoding="async" width="303" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Sydney_Opera_House_Sails_edit02.jpg/681px-Sydney_Opera_House_Sails_edit02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Sydney_Opera_House_Sails_edit02.jpg/908px-Sydney_Opera_House_Sails_edit02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="846" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Sydney_Opera_House" title="Sydney Opera House">Sydney Opera House</a> in Sydney, Australia, by <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B8rn_Utzon" title="Jørn Utzon">Jørn Utzon</a> (1973)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 342px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 340px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Heydar_Aliyev_Cultural_Center.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Heydar Aliyev Cultural Center, Baku, Azerbaijan by Zaha Hadid Architects (2007)"><img alt="Heydar Aliyev Cultural Center, Baku, Azerbaijan by Zaha Hadid Architects (2007)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/d3/Heydar_Aliyev_Cultural_Center.jpg/510px-Heydar_Aliyev_Cultural_Center.jpg" decoding="async" width="340" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/d3/Heydar_Aliyev_Cultural_Center.jpg/764px-Heydar_Aliyev_Cultural_Center.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/d3/Heydar_Aliyev_Cultural_Center.jpg/1019px-Heydar_Aliyev_Cultural_Center.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3201" data-file-height="1886" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Heydar_Aliyev_Center" title="Heydar Aliyev Center">Heydar Aliyev Cultural Center</a>, <a href="/wiki/Baku" title="Baku">Baku</a>, <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan" title="Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a> by <a href="/wiki/Zaha_Hadid_Architects" title="Zaha Hadid Architects">Zaha Hadid Architects</a> (2007)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 268.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 266.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Modernist.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A modernist building in Pune, India"><img alt="A modernist building in Pune, India" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Modernist.jpg/400px-Modernist.jpg" decoding="async" width="267" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Modernist.jpg/600px-Modernist.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Modernist.jpg/800px-Modernist.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4160" data-file-height="3120" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A modernist building in <a href="/wiki/Pune" title="Pune">Pune</a>, India </div> </li> </ul> <p>Japan, like Europe, had an enormous shortage of housing after the war, due to the bombing of many cities. 4.2 million housing units needed to be replaced. Japanese architects combined both traditional and modern styles and techniques. One of the foremost Japanese modernists was <a href="/wiki/Kunio_Maekawa" title="Kunio Maekawa">Kunio Maekawa</a> (1905–1986), who had worked for Le Corbusier in Paris until 1930. His own house in Tokyo was an early landmark of Japanese modernism, combining traditional style with ideas he acquired working with Le Corbusier. His notable buildings include concert halls in Tokyo and Kyoto and the International House of Japan in Tokyo, all in the pure modernist style. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Kenzo_Tange" class="mw-redirect" title="Kenzo Tange">Kenzo Tange</a> (1913–2005) worked in the studio of Kunio Maekawa from 1938 until 1945 before opening his own architectural firm. His first major commission was the <a href="/wiki/Hiroshima_Peace_Memorial_Museum" title="Hiroshima Peace Memorial Museum">Hiroshima Peace Memorial Museum</a> . He designed many notable office buildings and cultural centers. office buildings, as well as the <a href="/wiki/Yoyogi_National_Gymnasium" title="Yoyogi National Gymnasium">Yoyogi National Gymnasium</a> for the <a href="/wiki/1964_Summer_Olympics" title="1964 Summer Olympics">1964 Summer Olympics</a> in Tokyo. The gymnasium, built of concrete, features a roof suspended over the stadium on steel cables. </p><p>The Danish architect <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B8rn_Utzon" title="Jørn Utzon">Jørn Utzon</a> (1918–2008) worked briefly with <a href="/wiki/Alvar_Aalto" title="Alvar Aalto">Alvar Aalto</a>, studied the work of Le Corbusier, and traveled to the United States to meet <a href="/wiki/Frank_Lloyd_Wright" title="Frank Lloyd Wright">Frank Lloyd Wright</a>. In 1957 he designed one of the most recognizable modernist buildings in the world; the <a href="/wiki/Sydney_Opera_House" title="Sydney Opera House">Sydney Opera House</a>. He is known for the sculptural qualities of his buildings, and their relationship with the landscape. The five concrete shells of the structure resemble seashells by the beach. Begun in 1957, the project encountered considerable technical difficulties making the shells and getting the acoustics right. Utzon resigned in 1966, and the opera house was not finished until 1973, ten years after its scheduled completion.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBony2012157_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBony2012157-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In India, modernist architecture was promoted by the postcolonial state under Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Jawaharlal_Nehru" title="Jawaharlal Nehru">Jawaharlal Nehru</a>, most notably by inviting Le Corbusier to design the city of <a href="/wiki/Chandigarh" title="Chandigarh">Chandigarh</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_85-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although Nehru advocated for young Indians to be part of Le Corbuiser's design team in order to refine their skills whilst building their city, the team included only one female Indian architect, <a href="/wiki/Eulie_Chowdhury" title="Eulie Chowdhury">Eulie Chowdhury</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_85-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Important Indian modernist architects also include <a href="/wiki/BV_Doshi" class="mw-redirect" title="BV Doshi">BV Doshi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Correa" title="Charles Correa">Charles Correa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Raj_Rewal" title="Raj Rewal">Raj Rewal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Achyut_Kanvinde" title="Achyut Kanvinde">Achyut Kanvinde</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Habib_Rahman_(architect)" title="Habib Rahman (architect)">Habib Rahman</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Much discussion around modernist architecture took place in the journal <a href="/wiki/Marg_(magazine)" title="Marg (magazine)">MARG</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In Sri Lanka, <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Bawa" title="Geoffrey Bawa">Geoffrey Bawa</a> pioneered <a href="/wiki/Tropical_Modernism" title="Tropical Modernism">Tropical Modernism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Minnette_De_Silva" class="mw-redirect" title="Minnette De Silva">Minnette De Silva</a> was an important Sri Lankan modernist architect.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Post independence architecture in Pakistan is a blend of Islamic and modern styles of architecture with influences from Mughal, indo-Islamic and international architectural designs. The 1960s and 1970s was a period of architectural Significance. <a href="/wiki/Mazar-e-Quaid" title="Mazar-e-Quaid">Jinnah's Mausoleum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Minar-e-Pakistan" title="Minar-e-Pakistan">Minar e Pakistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bab-e-Khyber" title="Bab-e-Khyber">Bab e Khyber</a>, <a href="/wiki/Summit_Minar,_Lahore" title="Summit Minar, Lahore">Islamic summit minar</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Faisal_Mosque" title="Faisal Mosque">Faisal mosque</a> date from this time. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Africa">Africa</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_architecture&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 92px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 90px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Vincent_Timsit_Workshop_(V%C3%89T%C3%89)_09.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Vincent Timsit Workshop"><img alt="Vincent Timsit Workshop" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Vincent_Timsit_Workshop_%28V%C3%89T%C3%89%29_09.jpg/135px-Vincent_Timsit_Workshop_%28V%C3%89T%C3%89%29_09.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Vincent_Timsit_Workshop_%28V%C3%89T%C3%89%29_09.jpg/202px-Vincent_Timsit_Workshop_%28V%C3%89T%C3%89%29_09.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Vincent_Timsit_Workshop_%28V%C3%89T%C3%89%29_09.jpg/270px-Vincent_Timsit_Workshop_%28V%C3%89T%C3%89%29_09.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3024" data-file-height="4032" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Vincent_Timsit_Workshop" title="Vincent Timsit Workshop">Vincent Timsit Workshop</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 162px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Vincent_Timsit_Workshop_(V%C3%89T%C3%89)_07.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Vincent_Timsit_Workshop_%28V%C3%89T%C3%89%29_07.jpg/240px-Vincent_Timsit_Workshop_%28V%C3%89T%C3%89%29_07.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Vincent_Timsit_Workshop_%28V%C3%89T%C3%89%29_07.jpg/360px-Vincent_Timsit_Workshop_%28V%C3%89T%C3%89%29_07.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Vincent_Timsit_Workshop_%28V%C3%89T%C3%89%29_07.jpg/480px-Vincent_Timsit_Workshop_%28V%C3%89T%C3%89%29_07.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4032" data-file-height="3024" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 92px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 90px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Villa_Camembert_19.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Villa_Camembert_19.jpg/135px-Villa_Camembert_19.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Villa_Camembert_19.jpg/202px-Villa_Camembert_19.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Villa_Camembert_19.jpg/270px-Villa_Camembert_19.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2448" data-file-height="3264" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 128.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 126.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tunisie_Si%C3%A8ge_du_RCD.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Tour de la nation, Tunis."><img alt="Tour de la nation, Tunis." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Tunisie_Si%C3%A8ge_du_RCD.jpg/190px-Tunisie_Si%C3%A8ge_du_RCD.jpg" decoding="async" width="127" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Tunisie_Si%C3%A8ge_du_RCD.jpg/285px-Tunisie_Si%C3%A8ge_du_RCD.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Tunisie_Si%C3%A8ge_du_RCD.jpg/380px-Tunisie_Si%C3%A8ge_du_RCD.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2200" data-file-height="2087" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Tour_de_la_nation" title="Tour de la nation">Tour de la nation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tunis" title="Tunis">Tunis</a>.</div> </li> </ul><p>Modernist architecture in Ghana is also considered part of <a href="/wiki/Tropical_Modernism" title="Tropical Modernism">Tropical Modernism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_85-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bridgeman_87-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bridgeman-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some notable modernist architects in Morocco were <a href="/wiki/Elie_Azagury" title="Elie Azagury">Elie Azagury</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Zevaco" title="Jean-François Zevaco">Jean-François Zevaco</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:822_53-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:822-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Asmara" title="Asmara">Asmara</a>, capitol of <a href="/wiki/Eritrea" title="Eritrea">Eritrea</a>, is well known for its modernist architecture dating from the period of Italian colonization.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Preservation">Preservation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_architecture&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Preservation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Several works or collections of modern architecture have been designated by <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> as <a href="/wiki/World_Heritage_Sites" class="mw-redirect" title="World Heritage Sites">World Heritage Sites</a>. In addition to the early experiments associated with Art Nouveau, these include a number of the structures mentioned above in this article: the <a href="/wiki/Rietveld_Schr%C3%B6der_House" title="Rietveld Schröder House">Rietveld Schröder House</a> in Utrecht, the <a href="/wiki/Bauhaus_World_Heritage_Site" class="mw-redirect" title="Bauhaus World Heritage Site">Bauhaus structures in Weimar, Dessau, and Bernau</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Berlin_Modernism_Housing_Estates" title="Berlin Modernism Housing Estates">Berlin Modernism Housing Estates</a>, the <a href="/wiki/White_City_(Tel_Aviv)" class="mw-redirect" title="White City (Tel Aviv)">White City of Tel Aviv</a>, the city of <a href="/wiki/Asmara" title="Asmara">Asmara</a>, the city of <a href="/wiki/Bras%C3%ADlia" title="Brasília">Brasília</a>, the <a href="/wiki/University_City_of_Mexico" class="mw-redirect" title="University City of Mexico">Ciudad Universitaria</a> of <a href="/wiki/UNAM" class="mw-redirect" title="UNAM">UNAM</a> in Mexico City and the <a href="/wiki/University_City_of_Caracas" title="University City of Caracas">University City of Caracas</a> in Venezuela, the <a href="/wiki/Sydney_Opera_House" title="Sydney Opera House">Sydney Opera House</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Hala_Stulecia_(Wroc%C5%82aw)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hala Stulecia (Wrocław)">Centennial Hall</a> in Wrocław, along with select works from <a href="/wiki/The_Architectural_Work_of_Le_Corbusier" title="The Architectural Work of Le Corbusier">Le Corbursier</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_20th-Century_Architecture_of_Frank_Lloyd_Wright" title="The 20th-Century Architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright">Frank Lloyd Wright</a>. </p><p>Private organizations such as <a href="/wiki/Docomomo_International" title="Docomomo International">Docomomo International</a>, the <a href="/wiki/World_Monuments_Fund" title="World Monuments Fund">World Monuments Fund</a>, and the Recent Past Preservation Network are working to safeguard and document imperiled Modern architecture. In 2006, the World Monuments Fund launched <a href="/wiki/World_Monuments_Fund#Modernism_at_Risk" title="World Monuments Fund"><i>Modernism at Risk</i></a>, an advocacy and conservation program. The organization <a href="/wiki/MAMMA." title="MAMMA.">MAMMA.</a> is working to document and preserve modernist architecture in Morocco.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_architecture&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output 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.references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.architecture.com/knowledge-and-resources/knowledge-landing-page/modernism">"What is Modern architecture?"</a>. Royal Institute of British Architects<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 October</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+is+Modern+architecture%3F&rft.pub=Royal+Institute+of+British+Architects&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.architecture.com%2Fknowledge-and-resources%2Fknowledge-landing-page%2Fmodernism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+architecture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFroissart2011" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Froissart, Rossella (2011). <i>Avant-garde et tradition dans les arts du décor en France. lectures critiques autour de Guillaume Janneau</i> (in French). Marseille: Université de Provence - Aix-Marseille. p. 73.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Avant-garde+et+tradition+dans+les+arts+du+d%C3%A9cor+en+France.+lectures+critiques+autour+de+Guillaume+Janneau.&rft.place=Marseille&rft.pages=73&rft.pub=Universit%C3%A9+de+Provence+-+Aix-Marseille&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Froissart&rft.aufirst=Rossella&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+architecture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://thearchitectureprofessor.com/2020/06/28/6-12-karl-friedrich-schinkel-and-the-bauakademie/">"6.12. Karl Friedrich Schinkel and the Bauakademie"</a>. 28 June 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=6.12.+Karl+Friedrich+Schinkel+and+the+Bauakademie&rft.date=2020-06-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fthearchitectureprofessor.com%2F2020%2F06%2F28%2F6-12-karl-friedrich-schinkel-and-the-bauakademie%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+architecture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/item/PCEJRWPC6XVS5PJ6TN377G3HWLPY5WLM">"Mies & Schinkel : Das Vorbild Schinkels im Werk Mies van der Rohes - Deutsche Digitale Bibliothek"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Mies+%26+Schinkel+%3A+Das+Vorbild+Schinkels+im+Werk+Mies+van+der+Rohes+-+Deutsche+Digitale+Bibliothek&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de%2Fitem%2FPCEJRWPC6XVS5PJ6TN377G3HWLPY5WLM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+architecture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETietz19996–10-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETietz19996–10_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTietz1999">Tietz 1999</a>, pp. 6–10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBony201242–43-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBony201242–43_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBony2012">Bony 2012</a>, pp. 42–43.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-britannia-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-britannia_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-britannia_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Francois-Coignet">"François Coignet | French house builder"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Fran%C3%A7ois+Coignet+%26%23124%3B+French+house+builder&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2FFrancois-Coignet&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+architecture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBony201242-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBony201242_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBony2012">Bony 2012</a>, p. 42.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBony201216-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBony201216_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBony2012">Bony 2012</a>, p. 16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Crouch, Christopher. 2000. "Modernism in Art Design and Architecture", New York: St. Martins Press.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-312-21830-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-312-21830-3">0-312-21830-3</a> (cloth) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-312-21832-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-312-21832-X">0-312-21832-X</a> (pbk)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Viollet Le-duc, <i>Entretiens sur Architecture</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBouillon198524-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBouillon198524_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBouillon1985">Bouillon 1985</a>, p. 24.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBony201227-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBony201227_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBony2012">Bony 2012</a>, p. 27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBony201233-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBony201233_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBony2012">Bony 2012</a>, p. 33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoisson2009318–319-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoisson2009318–319_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPoisson2009">Poisson 2009</a>, pp. 318–319.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoisson2009318-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoisson2009318_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPoisson2009">Poisson 2009</a>, p. 318.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?isbn=0226869393">Otto Wagner, <i>Modern Architecture: A Guidebook for His Students to this Field of Art</i></a>, 1895, translation by Harry Francis Mallgrave, Getty Publications, 1988, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0226869393" title="Special:BookSources/0226869393">0226869393</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBony201236-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBony201236_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBony2012">Bony 2012</a>, p. 36.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBony201238-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBony201238_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBony2012">Bony 2012</a>, p. 38.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lucius Burckhardt (1987). <i>The Werkbund</i>. ? : Hyperion Press. ISBN. Frederic J. Schwartz (1996). <i>The Werkbund: Design Theory and Mass Culture Before the First World War</i>. New Haven, Conn. : Yale University Press. ISBN.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Mark_Jarzombek" title="Mark Jarzombek">Mark Jarzombek</a>. "Joseph August Lux: Werkbund Promoter, Historian of a Lost Modernity", <i>Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians</i> 63/1 (June 2004): 202–219.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETietz199919-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETietz199919_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTietz1999">Tietz 1999</a>, p. 19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETietz199916-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETietz199916_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTietz1999">Tietz 1999</a>, p. 16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBony201262–63-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBony201262–63_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBony2012">Bony 2012</a>, pp. 62–63.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurchardBush-Brown196683-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurchardBush-Brown196683_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBurchardBush-Brown1966">Burchard & Bush-Brown 1966</a>, p. 83.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Le Corbusier, <i>Vers une architecture", (1923), Flammarion edition (1995), pages XVIII-XIX</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBony201283-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBony201283_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBony2012">Bony 2012</a>, p. 83.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBony201293–95-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBony201293–95_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBony201293–95_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBony2012">Bony 2012</a>, pp. 93–95.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jencks, p. 59</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sharp, p. 68</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pehnt, p. 163</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBony201295-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBony201295_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBony2012">Bony 2012</a>, p. 95.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETietz199926–27-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETietz199926–27_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTietz1999">Tietz 1999</a>, pp. 26–27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBony201286–87-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBony201286–87_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBony2012">Bony 2012</a>, pp. 86–87.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.architectural-review.com/view/reviews/reputations/alexey-shchusev-1873-1949/8660736.article">"Alexey Shchusev (1873–1949)"</a>. 29 March 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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U.S. General Services Administration. 2006 [2003]. p. 27. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gsa.gov/graphics/pbs/GEMbook.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 31 March 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 February</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Daily+Telegraph&rft.atitle=Burj+Dubai%3A+The+new+pinnacle+of+vanity&rft.date=2010-01-05&rft.aulast=Bayley&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.telegraph.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fworldnews%2Fmiddleeast%2Fdubai%2F6934603%2FBurj-Dubai-The-new-pinnacle-of-vanity.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+architecture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Remarks by the Hon. <a href="/wiki/Richard_J._Hughes" title="Richard J. Hughes">Richard J. 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University of Illinois at Chicago. pp. 169–170. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10027%2F19131">10027/19131</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Designing+Destinations%3A+Hotel+Architecture%2C+Urbanism%2C+and+American+Tourism+in+Puerto+Rico+and+Cuba&rft.degree=PhD&rft.inst=University+of+Illinois+at+Chicago&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10027%2F19131&rft.aulast=Morawski&rft.aufirst=Erica&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+architecture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames.1989" class="citation book cs1">James., Holston (1989). <i>The modernist city : an anthropological critique of Brasília</i>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780226349794" title="Special:BookSources/9780226349794"><bdi>9780226349794</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/19722338">19722338</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+modernist+city+%3A+an+anthropological+critique+of+Bras%C3%ADlia&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F19722338&rft.isbn=9780226349794&rft.aulast=James.&rft.aufirst=Holston&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+architecture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBony2012165–167-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBony2012165–167_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBony2012">Bony 2012</a>, pp. 165–167.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBony2012166-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBony2012166_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBony2012">Bony 2012</a>, p. 166.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBony2012157-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBony2012157_92-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBony2012">Bony 2012</a>, p. 157.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://communedesign.com/post/geoffrey-bawas-tropical-modernism/">"Commune Design | Commune Post"</a>. <i>communedesign.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 May</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=communedesign.com&rft.atitle=Commune+Design+%7C+Commune+Post&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcommunedesign.com%2Fpost%2Fgeoffrey-bawas-tropical-modernism%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+architecture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mark Byrnes <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.theatlanticcities.com/neighborhoods/2012/02/african-citys-unusual-preservation-legacy/1163/">An African City's Unusual Preservation Legacy</a> 8 February 2012 Atlantic Cities</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-40544406">"Eritrea capital Asmera makes World Heritage list"</a>. 8 July 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 July</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Eritrea+capital+Asmera+makes+World+Heritage+list&rft.date=2017-07-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fworld-africa-40544406&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+architecture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFinfomediaire2019" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">infomediaire (28 October 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.infomediaire.net/architecture-casablanca-tient-sa-carte-moderne/">"Architecture : Casablanca tient sa <i>carte moderne</i> – Infomédiaire"</a> (in French)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 May</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Architecture+%3A+Casablanca+tient+sa+carte+moderne+%E2%80%93+Infom%C3%A9diaire&rft.date=2019-10-28&rft.au=infomediaire&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.infomediaire.net%2Farchitecture-casablanca-tient-sa-carte-moderne%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+architecture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_architecture&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoehm2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gero_von_Boehm" title="Gero von Boehm">Boehm, Gero von</a> (2000). <i>Conversations with I.M. Pei: Light is the Key</i>. Munich: Prestel. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-7913-2176-5" title="Special:BookSources/3-7913-2176-5"><bdi>3-7913-2176-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Conversations+with+I.M.+Pei%3A+Light+is+the+Key&rft.place=Munich&rft.pub=Prestel&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=3-7913-2176-5&rft.aulast=Boehm&rft.aufirst=Gero+von&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+architecture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBony2012" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Bony, Anne (2012). <i>L'Architecture Moderne</i> (in French). Larousse. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-03-587641-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-03-587641-6"><bdi>978-2-03-587641-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=L%27Architecture+Moderne&rft.pub=Larousse&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-2-03-587641-6&rft.aulast=Bony&rft.aufirst=Anne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+architecture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBouillon1985" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Bouillon, Jean-Paul (1985). <i>Journal de L'Art Nouveau</i> (in French). Paris: Skira. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-605-00069-9" title="Special:BookSources/2-605-00069-9"><bdi>2-605-00069-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Journal+de+L%27Art+Nouveau&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Skira&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=2-605-00069-9&rft.aulast=Bouillon&rft.aufirst=Jean-Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+architecture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurchardBush-Brown1966" class="citation book cs1">Burchard, John; Bush-Brown, Albert (1966). <i>The Architecture of America- A Social and Cultural History</i>. Atlantic, Little and Brown.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Architecture+of+America-+A+Social+and+Cultural+History&rft.pub=Atlantic%2C+Little+and+Brown&rft.date=1966&rft.aulast=Burchard&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Bush-Brown%2C+Albert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+architecture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConrads1971" class="citation book cs1">Conrads, Ulrich, ed. (1971). <i>Programs and Manifestoes on 20th-Century Architecture</i>. Translated by Bullock, Michael. Boston, Mass.: The MIT Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780262530309" title="Special:BookSources/9780262530309"><bdi>9780262530309</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/959124824">959124824</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Programs+and+Manifestoes+on+20th-Century+Architecture&rft.place=Boston%2C+Mass.&rft.pub=The+MIT+Press&rft.date=1971&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F959124824&rft.isbn=9780262530309&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+architecture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?isbn=0192842269">Colquhoun, Alan, <i>Modern Architecture</i>, Oxford history of art</a>, Oxford University Press, 2002, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0192842269" title="Special:BookSources/0192842269">0192842269</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuncan1988" class="citation book cs1">Duncan, Alastair (1988). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/artdeco00dunc"><i>Art déco</i></a></span>. Thames & Hudson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-87811-003-X" title="Special:BookSources/2-87811-003-X"><bdi>2-87811-003-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Art+d%C3%A9co&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=2-87811-003-X&rft.aulast=Duncan&rft.aufirst=Alastair&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fartdeco00dunc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+architecture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDucher2014" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Ducher, Robert (2014). <i>La charactéristique des styles</i> (in French). Flammarion. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-0813-4383-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-0813-4383-2"><bdi>978-2-0813-4383-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+charact%C3%A9ristique+des+styles&rft.pub=Flammarion&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-2-0813-4383-2&rft.aulast=Ducher&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+architecture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJodidio2016" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Jodidio, Philip (2016). <i>Renzo Piano Building Workshop</i> (in French). Taschen. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-8365-3637-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-8365-3637-0"><bdi>978-3-8365-3637-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Renzo+Piano+Building+Workshop&rft.pub=Taschen&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-3-8365-3637-0&rft.aulast=Jodidio&rft.aufirst=Philip&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+architecture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJournel2015" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Journel, Guillemette Morel (2015). <i>Le Corbusier- Construire la Vie Moderne</i> (in French). Editions du Patrimoine: Centre des Monument Nationaux. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-7577-0419-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-7577-0419-6"><bdi>978-2-7577-0419-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Le+Corbusier-+Construire+la+Vie+Moderne&rft.pub=Editions+du+Patrimoine%3A+Centre+des+Monument+Nationaux&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-2-7577-0419-6&rft.aulast=Journel&rft.aufirst=Guillemette+Morel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+architecture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?isbn=1472453018">Morgenthaler, Hans Rudolf, <i>The Meaning of Modern Architecture: Its Inner Necessity and an Empathetic Reading</i></a>, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2015, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1472453018" title="Special:BookSources/1472453018">1472453018</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLe_Corbusier1925" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Le Corbusier (1925). <i>L'Art décoratif d'aujourdhui</i> (in French). G. Crés et Cie. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-700-30312-1" title="Special:BookSources/2-700-30312-1"><bdi>2-700-30312-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=L%27Art+d%C3%A9coratif+d%27aujourdhui&rft.pub=G.+Cr%C3%A9s+et+Cie&rft.date=1925&rft.isbn=2-700-30312-1&rft.au=Le+Corbusier&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+architecture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLe_Corbusier1923" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Le Corbusier (1923). <i>Vers use architecture</i> (in French). Flammarion (1995). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-0812-1744-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-0812-1744-7"><bdi>978-2-0812-1744-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vers+use+architecture&rft.pub=Flammarion+%281995%29&rft.date=1923&rft.isbn=978-2-0812-1744-7&rft.au=Le+Corbusier&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+architecture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPoisson2009" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Poisson, Michel (2009). <i>1000 Immeubles et monuments de Paris</i> (in French). Parigramme. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-84096-539-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-84096-539-8"><bdi>978-2-84096-539-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=1000+Immeubles+et+monuments+de+Paris&rft.pub=Parigramme&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-2-84096-539-8&rft.aulast=Poisson&rft.aufirst=Michel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+architecture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaschen2016" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Taschen, Aurelia and Balthazar (2016). <i>L'Architecture Moderne de A à Z</i> (in French). Bibliotheca Universalis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-8365-5630-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-8365-5630-9"><bdi>978-3-8365-5630-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=L%27Architecture+Moderne+de+A+%C3%A0+Z&rft.pub=Bibliotheca+Universalis&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-3-8365-5630-9&rft.aulast=Taschen&rft.aufirst=Aurelia+and+Balthazar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+architecture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTietz1999" class="citation book cs1">Tietz, Jürgen (1999). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/storyofarchitect0000tiet"><i>The Story of Architecture of the 20th century</i></a></span>. Konemann. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-8290-2045-7" title="Special:BookSources/3-8290-2045-7"><bdi>3-8290-2045-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Story+of+Architecture+of+the+20th+century&rft.pub=Konemann&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=3-8290-2045-7&rft.aulast=Tietz&rft.aufirst=J%C3%BCrgen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fstoryofarchitect0000tiet&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+architecture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvon_Boehm2000" class="citation book cs1">von Boehm, Gero (2000). <i><span></span></i>Conversations with I. M. Pei: Light is the Key<i><span></span></i>. Prestel. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-7913-21765" title="Special:BookSources/3-7913-21765"><bdi>3-7913-21765</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Conversations+with+I.+M.+Pei%3A+Light+is+the+Key&rft.pub=Prestel&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=3-7913-21765&rft.aulast=von+Boehm&rft.aufirst=Gero&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+architecture" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_architecture&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>USA: Modern Architectures in History <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/37722079_USA_Modern_Architectures_in_History">Request PDF</a> – <a href="/wiki/ResearchGate" title="ResearchGate">ResearchGate</a> <ul><li>The article goes in-depth about the original main contributors of modern architecture.</li></ul></li> <li>Pfeiffer, Bruce Brooks. Frank Lloyd Wright, 1867–1959: Building for Democracy. Taschen, 2021. <ul><li>This article goes into depth about Frank Lloyd Wright and his contributions to modern architecture. and what he focused on to be a part of modern architecture.</li></ul></li> <li>"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hammondhistoricdistrict.org/what-is-modern-architecture">What Is Modern Architecture?</a>" Hammond Historic District. <ul><li>The article goes through the elaborations of the origin of modern architecture and what constitutes modern architecture.</li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_architecture&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Modernist_architecture" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Modernist architecture">Modernist architecture</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarrison2019" class="citation web cs1">Harrison, Stuart (20 November 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://architectureau.com/articles/sa-modernism-exhibition-a-study-in-modesty/">"South Australian modernism exhibition a study in modesty"</a>. <i>ArchitectureAU</i>. Review of the exhibition <i>Modernism & Modernist SA Architecture: 1934–1977</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 April</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ArchitectureAU&rft.atitle=South+Australian+modernism+exhibition+a+study+in+modesty&rft.date=2019-11-20&rft.aulast=Harrison&rft.aufirst=Stuart&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchitectureau.com%2Farticles%2Fsa-modernism-exhibition-a-study-in-modesty%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+architecture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://learningenglish.voanews.com/a/six-building-designers-who-are-redefining-modern-architecture--119725454/114383.html">Six Building Designers Who Are Redefining Modern Architecture</a>, an April 2011 radio and Internet report by the <a href="/wiki/Special_English" class="mw-redirect" title="Special English">Special English</a> service of the <a href="/wiki/Voice_of_America" title="Voice of America">Voice of America</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171023231025/http://provinceituri.info/architecture-and-modernism/">Architecture and Modernism</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aia.org/aiarchitect/thisweek08/0307/0307t.cfm/">"Preservation of Modern Buildings" edition of <i>AIA Architect</i></a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.brussels50s60s.be">Brussels50s60s.be</a>, Overview of the architecture of the 1950s and 1960s in Brussels</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://omeka.tplcs.ca/virtual-exhibits/exhibits/show/torontocityhall">A Grand Design: The Toronto City Hall Design Competition</a> Modernist designs from the 1958 international competition</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Genres_of_modern_architecture" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible expanded navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar 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href="/wiki/Template:Modern_architecture" title="Template:Modern architecture"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Modern_architecture" title="Template talk:Modern architecture"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Modern_architecture" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Modern architecture"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Genres_of_modern_architecture" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Genres of <a class="mw-selflink selflink">modern architecture</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Alphabetically</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_Deco" title="Art Deco">Art Deco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_Nouveau" title="Art Nouveau">Art Nouveau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bauhaus" title="Bauhaus">Bauhaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blobitecture" title="Blobitecture">Blobitecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brutalist_architecture" title="Brutalist architecture">Brutalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bowellism" title="Bowellism">Bowellism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_architecture" title="Constructivist architecture">Constructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_architecture" title="Contemporary architecture">Contemporary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_regionalism" title="Critical regionalism">Critical regionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_Stijl" title="De Stijl">De Stijl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstructivism" title="Deconstructivism">Deconstructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressionist_architecture" title="Expressionist architecture">Expressionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(architecture)" title="Functionalism (architecture)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Futurist_architecture" title="Futurist architecture">Futurism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Googie_architecture" title="Googie architecture">Googie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-tech_architecture" title="High-tech architecture">High-tech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Style_(architecture)" class="mw-redirect" title="International Style (architecture)">International style</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolism_(architecture)" title="Metabolism (architecture)">Metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-Century_modern" class="mw-redirect" title="Mid-Century modern">Mid-Century modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernisme" title="Modernisme">Modernisme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monumentalism" title="Monumentalism">Monumentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Futurism" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Futurism">Neo-Futurism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neomodern" title="Neomodern">Neomodern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Classical_architecture" title="New Classical architecture">New Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Khmer_Architecture" title="New Khmer Architecture">New Khmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Objectivity_(architecture)" title="New Objectivity (architecture)">New Objectivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_architecture" title="Organic architecture">Organicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postconstructivism" title="Postconstructivism">Postconstructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_architecture" title="Postmodern architecture">Postmodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PWA_Moderne" class="mw-redirect" title="PWA Moderne">PWA Moderne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prairie_School" title="Prairie School">Prairie School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascist_architecture" title="Fascist architecture">Rationalist-Fascist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rondocubism" title="Rondocubism">Rondocubism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalinist_architecture" title="Stalinist architecture">Stalinist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Streamline_Moderne" title="Streamline Moderne">Streamline Moderne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stripped_Classicism" title="Stripped Classicism">Stripped Classicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(architecture)" title="Structuralism (architecture)">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_architecture" title="Sustainable architecture">Sustainable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_Modernism" title="Tropical Modernism">Tropical</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">By start year /<br />decade</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modernisme" title="Modernisme">Modernisme</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1888–1911)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_Nouveau" title="Art Nouveau">Art Nouveau</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1890–1910)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prairie_School" title="Prairie School">Prairie School</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1890s–1920s)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressionist_architecture" title="Expressionist architecture">Expressionism</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1910–)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stripped_Classicism" title="Stripped Classicism">Stripped Classicism</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1913–)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_Stijl" title="De Stijl">De Stijl</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1917–1931)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bauhaus" title="Bauhaus">Bauhaus</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1919–1933)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_architecture" title="Constructivist architecture">Constructivism</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1920–1932)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rondocubism" title="Rondocubism">Rondocubism</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1921–1929)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Objectivity_(architecture)" title="New Objectivity (architecture)">New Objectivity</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1922–1933)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Streamline_Moderne" title="Streamline Moderne">Streamline Moderne</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1925–1950)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascist_architecture" title="Fascist architecture">Rationalist-Fascist</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1920s–1930s)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Style_(architecture)" class="mw-redirect" title="International Style (architecture)">International style</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1920s–)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(architecture)" title="Functionalism (architecture)">Functionalism</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1920s–1970s)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Futurist_architecture" title="Futurist architecture">Futurism</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1920s–)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_architecture" title="Organic architecture">Organicism</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1920s–)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_Deco" title="Art Deco">Art Deco</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1910–1939)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postconstructivism" title="Postconstructivism">Postconstructivism</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1930s)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PWA_Moderne" class="mw-redirect" title="PWA Moderne">PWA Moderne</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1933–1944)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalinist_architecture" title="Stalinist architecture">Stalinist</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1930s–1950s)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Googie_architecture" title="Googie architecture">Googie</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1930s–1970)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-century_modern" title="Mid-century modern">Mid-century modern</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1933–1969)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brutalist_architecture" title="Brutalist architecture">Brutalism</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1940s–late 1970s)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_Modernism" title="Tropical Modernism">Tropical</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1958–)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Khmer_Architecture" title="New Khmer Architecture">New Khmer</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1953–1970)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(architecture)" title="Structuralism (architecture)">Structuralism</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1959–)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolism_(architecture)" title="Metabolism (architecture)">Metabolism</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1959–)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_architecture" title="Postmodern architecture">Postmodernism</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1960s–)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blobitecture" title="Blobitecture">Blobitecture</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1960s–)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-futurism" title="Neo-futurism">Neo-futurism</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1960s–)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-tech_architecture" title="High-tech architecture">High-tech</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1970s–)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_regionalism" title="Critical regionalism">Critical regionalism</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1980s–)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstructivism" title="Deconstructivism">Deconstructivism</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1980s–)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neomodern" title="Neomodern">Neomodern</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1990s–)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Classical_architecture" title="New Classical architecture">New Classical</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1990s–)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_architecture" title="Contemporary architecture">Contemporary</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2000s–)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:P_parthenon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/P_parthenon.svg/16px-P_parthenon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/P_parthenon.svg/24px-P_parthenon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/P_parthenon.svg/32px-P_parthenon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Architecture" title="Portal:Architecture">Architecture portal</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Modernism" title="Category:Modernism">Related articles</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_architecture" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_architecture" title="Template:History of architecture"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_architecture" title="Template talk:History of architecture"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_architecture" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of architecture"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_architecture" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_architecture" title="History of architecture">History of architecture</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_architectural_styles" title="Timeline of architectural styles">Architectural timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_construction" title="History of construction">History of construction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/BCE" class="mw-redirect" title="BCE">BCE</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_architecture" title="Neolithic architecture">Neolithic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Mesopotamia" title="Architecture of Mesopotamia">Mesopotamian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_architecture" title="Ancient Egyptian architecture">Ancient Egyptian</a></li> <li>Aegean <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Minoan_civilization#Architecture" title="Minoan civilization">Minoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greece#Architecture" title="Mycenaean Greece">Mycenaean</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_architecture" title="Etruscan architecture">Etruscan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_architecture" title="Classical architecture">Classical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_architecture" title="Ancient Greek architecture">Ancient Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_architecture" title="Ancient Roman architecture">Ancient Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herodian_architecture" title="Herodian architecture">Herodian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_architecture#Pre-Islamic_architecture_of_Persia" title="Iranian architecture">Pre-Islamic Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_architecture" title="Achaemenid architecture">Achaemenid</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/1st_millennium" title="1st millennium">1st millennium</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_architecture" title="Sasanian architecture">Sasanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_architecture" title="Byzantine architecture">Byzantine</a></li> <li>East Slavic <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Kievan_Rus%27" title="Architecture of Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_church_architecture" title="Russian church architecture">Muscovite</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_architecture" title="Islamic architecture">Islamic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_architecture" title="Umayyad architecture">Umayyad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moorish_architecture" title="Moorish architecture">Moorish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_architecture" title="Abbasid architecture">Abbasid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatimid_architecture" title="Fatimid architecture">Fatimid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_architecture#Islamic_architecture_of_Persia" title="Iranian architecture">Islamic Persian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Scandinavian_architecture" title="Medieval Scandinavian architecture">Medieval Scandinavian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Romanesque_art_and_architecture" title="Pre-Romanesque art and architecture">Pre-Romanesque</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carolingian_architecture" title="Carolingian architecture">Carolingian</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1000–1500</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Romanesque_architecture" title="Romanesque architecture">Romanesque</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galician_school_(architecture)" title="Galician school (architecture)">Galician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottonian_architecture" title="Ottonian architecture">Ottonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_architecture" title="Norman architecture">Norman</a></li></ul></li> <li>Indian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hoysala_architecture" title="Hoysala architecture">Hoysala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vijayanagara_architecture" title="Vijayanagara architecture">Vijayanagara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Chalukya_architecture" title="Western Chalukya architecture">Western Chalukya</a></li></ul></li> <li>Islamic <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Seljuk_architecture" title="Great Seljuk architecture">Great Seljuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatolian_Seljuk_architecture" title="Anatolian Seljuk architecture">Anatolian Seljuk architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mamluk_architecture" title="Mamluk architecture">Mamluk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timurid_architecture" title="Timurid architecture">Timurid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_architecture" title="Ottoman architecture">Ottoman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Islamic_architecture" title="Indo-Islamic architecture">Indo-Islamic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano-Gothic" title="Romano-Gothic">Romano-Gothic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_architecture" title="Gothic architecture">Gothic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sondergotik" title="Sondergotik">Sondergotik</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inca_architecture" title="Inca architecture">Incan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_architecture" title="Aztec architecture">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_architecture" title="Renaissance architecture">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plateresque" title="Plateresque">Plateresque</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1500–1750</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manueline" title="Manueline">Manueline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palladian_architecture" title="Palladian architecture">Palladian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Colonial_architecture" title="Spanish Colonial architecture">Spanish Colonial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_colonial_architecture" title="Portuguese colonial architecture">Portuguese Colonial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mughal_architecture" title="Mughal architecture">Mughal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikh_architecture" title="Sikh architecture">Sikh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1750–1900</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baroque_architecture" title="Baroque architecture">Baroque</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andean_Baroque" title="Andean Baroque">Andean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_Baroque_architecture" title="Czech Baroque architecture">Czech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Baroque_architecture" title="Dutch Baroque architecture">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Baroque" class="mw-redirect" title="English Baroque">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Baroque_architecture" title="French Baroque architecture">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Baroque_architecture" title="Italian Baroque architecture">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maltese_Baroque_architecture" title="Maltese Baroque architecture">Maltese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrine_Baroque" title="Petrine Baroque">Petrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_Baroque" title="Elizabethan Baroque">Elizabethan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naryshkin_Baroque" title="Naryshkin Baroque">Naryshkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baroque_architecture_in_Portugal" title="Baroque architecture in Portugal">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siberian_Baroque" title="Siberian Baroque">Siberian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Baroque" title="Ukrainian Baroque">Ukrainian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_architecture" title="Industrial architecture">Industrial</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_industrial_architecture" title="British industrial architecture">British</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revivalism_(architecture)" title="Revivalism (architecture)">Revivalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Revival_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Revival architecture">Byzantine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Byzantine_architecture_in_the_Russian_Empire" title="Neo-Byzantine architecture in the Russian Empire">Russo-Byzantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbo-Byzantine_Revival_architecture" title="Serbo-Byzantine Revival architecture">Serbo-Byzantine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_Revival_architecture" title="Colonial Revival architecture">Colonial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Revival_architecture" title="Egyptian Revival architecture">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_Revival_architecture" title="Gothic Revival architecture">Gothic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mayan_Revival_architecture" title="Mayan Revival architecture">Mayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Revival_architecture" title="Mediterranean Revival architecture">Mediterranean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mission_Revival_architecture" title="Mission Revival architecture">Mission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monumentalism" title="Monumentalism">Monumentalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baroque_Revival_architecture" title="Baroque Revival architecture">Baroque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rococo_architecture" title="Rococo architecture">Rococo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_architecture" title="Neoclassical architecture">Neoclassical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moorish_Revival_architecture" title="Moorish Revival architecture">Moorish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Manueline" title="Neo-Manueline">Neo-Manueline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo_Revival_architecture" title="Pueblo Revival architecture">Pueblo</a></li> <li>Queen Anne <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_Queen_Anne_Revival" class="mw-redirect" title="British Queen Anne Revival">Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_World_Queen_Anne_Revival_architecture" title="New World Queen Anne Revival architecture">America and Australia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Revival_architecture" title="Renaissance Revival architecture">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_Revival_architecture" title="Romanian Revival architecture">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revival_architecture" title="Russian Revival architecture">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Colonial_Revival_architecture" title="Spanish Colonial Revival architecture">Spanish Colonial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territorial_Revival_architecture" title="Territorial Revival architecture">Territorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tudor_Revival_architecture" title="Tudor Revival architecture">Tudor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_Nouveau" title="Art Nouveau">Art Nouveau</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jugendstil" title="Jugendstil">Jugendstil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty_style" title="Liberty style">Liberty style</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Style_(British_Art_Nouveau_style)" title="Modern Style (British Art Nouveau style)">Modern Style</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernisme" title="Modernisme">Modernisme</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1900–1950</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism_(architecture)" title="Rationalism (architecture)">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Revival_architecture" title="Mycenaean Revival architecture">Mycenaean</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prairie_School" title="Prairie School">Prairie School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressionist_architecture" title="Expressionist architecture">Expressionism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Czech_Cubism" title="Czech Cubism">Cubism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_Stijl" title="De Stijl">De Stijl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bauhaus" title="Bauhaus">Bauhaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_architecture" title="Constructivist architecture">Constructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Objectivity_(architecture)" title="New Objectivity (architecture)">New Objectivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Streamline_Moderne" title="Streamline Moderne">Streamline Moderne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarian_architecture" title="Totalitarian architecture">Totalitarianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fascist_architecture" title="Fascist architecture">Rationalist-Fascist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_architecture" title="Nazi architecture">Nazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalinist_architecture" title="Stalinist architecture">Stalinist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Style_(architecture)" class="mw-redirect" title="International Style (architecture)">International style</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(architecture)" title="Functionalism (architecture)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Futurist_architecture" title="Futurist architecture">Futurism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_architecture" title="Organic architecture">Organicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_Deco" title="Art Deco">Art Deco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stripped_Classicism" title="Stripped Classicism">Stripped Classicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postconstructivism" title="Postconstructivism">Postconstructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PWA_Moderne" class="mw-redirect" title="PWA Moderne">PWA Moderne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Googie_architecture" title="Googie architecture">Googie</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1950–2000</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brutalist_architecture" title="Brutalist architecture">Brutalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(architecture)" title="Structuralism (architecture)">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_architecture" title="Postmodern architecture">Postmodern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blobitecture" title="Blobitecture">Blobitecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-tech_architecture" title="High-tech architecture">High-tech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arcology" title="Arcology">Arcology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_regionalism" title="Critical regionalism">Critical regionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-futurism" title="Neo-futurism">Neo-futurism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2000–present</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deconstructivism" title="Deconstructivism">Deconstructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neomodern" title="Neomodern">Neomodern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Classical_architecture" title="New Classical architecture">New Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_architecture" title="Contemporary architecture">Contemporary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regional</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_architecture" title="Chinese architecture">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_architecture" title="Colonial architecture">Colonial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_India" title="Architecture of India">Indian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dravidian_architecture" title="Dravidian architecture">Dravidian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_temple_architecture" title="Hindu temple architecture">Hindu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_architecture" title="Japanese architecture">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_architecture" title="Korean architecture">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_architecture" title="Mesoamerican architecture">Mesoamerican</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maya_architecture" title="Maya architecture">Maya</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newa_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Newa architecture">Newari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Portuguese Architecture">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian architecture">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_architecture" title="Spanish architecture">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_architecture" title="Somali architecture">Somali</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Modernism" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Modernism" title="Template:Modernism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Modernism" title="Template talk:Modernism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Modernism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Modernism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Modernism" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Acmeist_poetry" title="Acmeist poetry">Acmeism</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Art_Deco" title="Art Deco">Art Deco</a></i></span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Art_Nouveau" title="Art Nouveau">Art Nouveau</a></i></span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ashcan_School" title="Ashcan School">Ashcan School</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Constructivism_(art)" title="Constructivism (art)">Constructivism</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Cubism" title="Cubism">Cubism</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Dada" title="Dada">Dada</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Expressionism" title="Expressionism">Expressionism</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Der_Blaue_Reiter" title="Der Blaue Reiter">Der Blaue Reiter</a></i></span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Die_Br%C3%BCcke" title="Die Brücke">Die Brücke</a></i></span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Expressionist_music" title="Expressionist music">Music</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Fauvism" title="Fauvism">Fauvism</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(architecture)" title="Functionalism (architecture)">Functionalism</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Bauhaus" title="Bauhaus">Bauhaus</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Futurism" title="Futurism">Futurism</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Imagism" title="Imagism">Imagism</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Lettrism" title="Lettrism">Lettrism</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Neoplasticism" title="Neoplasticism">Neoplasticism</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span title="Dutch-language text"><i lang="nl"><a href="/wiki/De_Stijl" title="De Stijl">De Stijl</a></i></span></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Orphism_(art)" title="Orphism (art)">Orphism</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Surrealism" title="Surrealism">Surrealism</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Symbolism_(arts)" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbolism (arts)">Symbolism</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Synchromism" title="Synchromism">Synchromism</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Tonalism" title="Tonalism">Tonalism</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/The_arts#Literary_arts" title="The arts">Literary arts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Literary_modernism" title="Literary modernism">Literature</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Guillaume_Apollinaire" title="Guillaume Apollinaire">Apollinaire</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Djuna_Barnes" title="Djuna Barnes">Barnes</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Beckett" title="Samuel Beckett">Beckett</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Andrei_Bely" title="Andrei Bely">Bely</a> </span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Breton" title="André Breton">Breton</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Broch" title="Hermann Broch">Broch</a> </span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Bulgakov" title="Mikhail Bulgakov">Bulgakov</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Anton_Chekhov" title="Anton Chekhov">Chekhov</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Conrad" title="Joseph Conrad">Conrad</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Alfred_D%C3%B6blin" title="Alfred Döblin">Döblin</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/E._M._Forster" title="E. M. Forster">Forster</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/William_Faulkner" title="William Faulkner">Faulkner</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Flaubert" title="Gustave Flaubert">Flaubert</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ford_Madox_Ford" title="Ford Madox Ford">Ford</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Gide" title="André Gide">Gide</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Knut_Hamsun" title="Knut Hamsun">Hamsun</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Jaroslav_Ha%C5%A1ek" title="Jaroslav Hašek">Hašek</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Hemingway" title="Ernest Hemingway">Hemingway</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Hesse" title="Hermann Hesse">Hesse</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/James_Joyce" title="James Joyce">Joyce</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Franz_Kafka" title="Franz Kafka">Kafka</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Koestler" title="Arthur Koestler">Koestler</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/D._H._Lawrence" title="D. H. Lawrence">Lawrence</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Mann" title="Thomas Mann">Mann</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Katherine_Mansfield" title="Katherine Mansfield">Mansfield</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Filippo_Tommaso_Marinetti" title="Filippo Tommaso Marinetti">Marinetti</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Musil" title="Robert Musil">Musil</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/John_Dos_Passos" title="John Dos Passos">Dos Passos</a> </span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Andrei_Platonov" title="Andrei Platonov">Platonov</a> </span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Katherine_Anne_Porter" title="Katherine Anne Porter">Porter</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Marcel_Proust" title="Marcel Proust">Proust</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Gertrude_Stein" title="Gertrude Stein">Stein</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Italo_Svevo" title="Italo Svevo">Svevo</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Miguel_de_Unamuno" title="Miguel de Unamuno">Unamuno</a> </span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Woolf" title="Virginia Woolf">Woolf</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modernist_poetry" title="Modernist poetry">Poetry</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Anna_Akhmatova" title="Anna Akhmatova">Akhmatova</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Aldington" title="Richard Aldington">Aldington</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/W._H._Auden" title="W. H. Auden">Auden</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Constantine_P._Cavafy" title="Constantine P. Cavafy">Cavafy</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Blaise_Cendrars" title="Blaise Cendrars">Cendrars</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hart_Crane" title="Hart Crane">Crane</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/H.D." title="H.D.">H.D.</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Desnos" title="Robert Desnos">Desnos</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/T._S._Eliot" title="T. S. Eliot">Eliot</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Paul_%C3%89luard" title="Paul Éluard">Éluard</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Odysseas_Elytis" title="Odysseas Elytis">Elytis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Stefan_George" title="Stefan George">George</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Max_Jacob" title="Max Jacob">Jacob</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Federico_Garc%C3%ADa_Lorca" title="Federico García Lorca">Lorca</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Amy_Lowell" title="Amy Lowell">Lowell (Amy)</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Lowell" title="Robert Lowell">Lowell (Robert)</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/St%C3%A9phane_Mallarm%C3%A9" title="Stéphane Mallarmé">Mallarmé</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Marianne_Moore" title="Marianne Moore">Moore</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Wilfred_Owen" title="Wilfred Owen">Owen</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Fernando_Pessoa" title="Fernando Pessoa">Pessoa</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ezra_Pound" title="Ezra Pound">Pound</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Rainer_Maria_Rilke" title="Rainer Maria Rilke">Rilke</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Giorgos_Seferis" title="Giorgos Seferis">Seferis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Wallace_Stevens" title="Wallace Stevens">Stevens</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Dylan_Thomas" title="Dylan Thomas">Thomas</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Tristan_Tzara" title="Tristan Tzara">Tzara</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Val%C3%A9ry" title="Paul Valéry">Valéry</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/William_Carlos_Williams" title="William Carlos Williams">Williams</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/W._B._Yeats" title="W. B. Yeats">Yeats</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/In_Search_of_Lost_Time" title="In Search of Lost Time">In Search of Lost Time</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1913–1927)</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/The_Metamorphosis" title="The Metamorphosis">The Metamorphosis</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1915)</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Ulysses_(novel)" title="Ulysses (novel)">Ulysses</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1922)</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/The_Waste_Land" title="The Waste Land">The Waste Land</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1922)</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/The_Magic_Mountain" title="The Magic Mountain">The Magic Mountain</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1924)</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Mrs_Dalloway" title="Mrs Dalloway">Mrs Dalloway</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1925)</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/The_Sun_Also_Rises" title="The Sun Also Rises">The Sun Also Rises</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1926)</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/The_Master_and_Margarita" title="The Master and Margarita">The Master and Margarita</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1928–1940)</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/The_Sound_and_the_Fury" title="The Sound and the Fury">The Sound and the Fury</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1929)</span></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Visual_arts" title="Visual arts">Visual arts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_art" title="Modern art">Painting</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Josef_Albers" title="Josef Albers">Albers</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Jean_Arp" title="Jean Arp">Arp</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Balthus" title="Balthus">Balthus</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/George_Bellows" title="George Bellows">Bellows</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Umberto_Boccioni" title="Umberto Boccioni">Boccioni</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Bonnard" title="Pierre Bonnard">Bonnard</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Constantin_Br%C3%A2ncu%C8%99i" title="Constantin Brâncuși">Brâncuși</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Georges_Braque" title="Georges Braque">Braque</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Calder" title="Alexander Calder">Calder</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Mary_Cassatt" title="Mary Cassatt">Cassatt</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Paul_C%C3%A9zanne" title="Paul Cézanne">Cézanne</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Marc_Chagall" title="Marc Chagall">Chagall</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_de_Chirico" title="Giorgio de Chirico">Chirico</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Camille_Claudel" title="Camille Claudel">Claudel</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Salvador_Dal%C3%AD" title="Salvador Dalí">Dalí</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Edgar_Degas" title="Edgar Degas">Degas</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Willem_de_Kooning" title="Willem de Kooning">Kooning</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Delaunay" title="Robert Delaunay">Delaunay</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sonia_Delaunay" title="Sonia Delaunay">Delaunay</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Demuth" title="Charles Demuth">Demuth</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Otto_Dix" title="Otto Dix">Dix</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Theo_van_Doesburg" title="Theo van Doesburg">Doesburg</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Marcel_Duchamp" title="Marcel Duchamp">Duchamp</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Raoul_Dufy" title="Raoul Dufy">Dufy</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/James_Ensor" title="James Ensor">Ensor</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Max_Ernst" title="Max Ernst">Ernst</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Gauguin" title="Paul Gauguin">Gauguin</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Alberto_Giacometti" title="Alberto Giacometti">Giacometti</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Natalia_Goncharova" title="Natalia Goncharova">Goncharova</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Juan_Gris" title="Juan Gris">Gris</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/George_Grosz" title="George Grosz">Grosz</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hannah_H%C3%B6ch" title="Hannah Höch">Höch</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Hopper" title="Edward Hopper">Hopper</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Frida_Kahlo" title="Frida Kahlo">Kahlo</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Wassily_Kandinsky" title="Wassily Kandinsky">Kandinsky</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Ludwig_Kirchner" title="Ernst Ludwig Kirchner">Kirchner</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Klee" title="Paul Klee">Klee</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Oskar_Kokoschka" title="Oskar Kokoschka">Kokoschka</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Fernand_L%C3%A9ger" title="Fernand Léger">Léger</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Magritte" title="René Magritte">Magritte</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Kazimir_Malevich" title="Kazimir Malevich">Malevich</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/%C3%89douard_Manet" title="Édouard Manet">Manet</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Franz_Marc" title="Franz Marc">Marc</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Henri_Matisse" title="Henri Matisse">Matisse</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Jean_Metzinger" title="Jean Metzinger">Metzinger</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Joan_Mir%C3%B3" title="Joan Miró">Miró</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Amedeo_Modigliani" title="Amedeo Modigliani">Modigliani</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Piet_Mondrian" title="Piet Mondrian">Mondrian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Claude_Monet" title="Claude Monet">Monet</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Henry_Moore" title="Henry Moore">Moore</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Edvard_Munch" title="Edvard Munch">Munch</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Emil_Nolde" title="Emil Nolde">Nolde</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Georgia_O%27Keeffe" title="Georgia O'Keeffe">O'Keeffe</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Francis_Picabia" title="Francis Picabia">Picabia</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Pablo_Picasso" title="Pablo Picasso">Picasso</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Camille_Pissarro" title="Camille Pissarro">Pissarro</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Man_Ray" title="Man Ray">Ray</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Odilon_Redon" title="Odilon Redon">Redon</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Pierre-Auguste_Renoir" title="Pierre-Auguste Renoir">Renoir</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Rodin" title="Auguste Rodin">Rodin</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Henri_Rousseau" title="Henri Rousseau">Rousseau</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Egon_Schiele" title="Egon Schiele">Schiele</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Georges_Seurat" title="Georges Seurat">Seurat</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Signac" title="Paul Signac">Signac</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Sisley" title="Alfred Sisley">Sisley</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Chaim_Soutine" class="mw-redirect" title="Chaim Soutine">Soutine</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Steichen" title="Edward Steichen">Steichen</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Stieglitz" title="Alfred Stieglitz">Stieglitz</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Henri_de_Toulouse-Lautrec" title="Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec">Toulouse-Lautrec</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Vincent_van_Gogh" title="Vincent van Gogh">Van Gogh</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/%C3%89douard_Vuillard" title="Édouard Vuillard">Vuillard</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Grant_Wood" title="Grant Wood">Wood</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modernist_film" title="Modernist film">Film</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Chantal_Akerman" title="Chantal Akerman">Akerman</a> </span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Aldrich" title="Robert Aldrich">Aldrich</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Michelangelo_Antonioni" title="Michelangelo Antonioni">Antonioni</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Tex_Avery" title="Tex Avery">Avery</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ingmar_Bergman" title="Ingmar Bergman">Bergman</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bresson" title="Robert Bresson">Bresson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Luis_Bu%C3%B1uel" title="Luis Buñuel">Buñuel</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Marcel_Carn%C3%A9" title="Marcel Carné">Carné</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/John_Cassavetes" title="John Cassavetes">Cassavetes</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Charlie_Chaplin" title="Charlie Chaplin">Chaplin</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Clair" title="René Clair">Clair</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Jean_Cocteau" title="Jean Cocteau">Cocteau</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Jules_Dassin" title="Jules Dassin">Dassin</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Maya_Deren" title="Maya Deren">Deren</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Dovzhenko" title="Alexander Dovzhenko">Dovzhenko</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Carl_Theodor_Dreyer" title="Carl Theodor Dreyer">Dreyer</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Blake_Edwards" title="Blake Edwards">Edwards</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sergei_Eisenstein" title="Sergei Eisenstein">Eisenstein</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Jean_Epstein" title="Jean Epstein">Epstein</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Rainer_Werner_Fassbinder" title="Rainer Werner Fassbinder">Fassbinder</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Federico_Fellini" title="Federico Fellini">Fellini</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Robert_J._Flaherty" title="Robert J. Flaherty">Flaherty</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/John_Ford" title="John Ford">Ford</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Fuller" title="Samuel Fuller">Fuller</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Abel_Gance" title="Abel Gance">Gance</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Jean-Luc_Godard" title="Jean-Luc Godard">Godard</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Hitchcock" title="Alfred Hitchcock">Hitchcock</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/John_Hubley" title="John Hubley">Hubley</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Chuck_Jones" title="Chuck Jones">Jones</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Buster_Keaton" title="Buster Keaton">Keaton</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Kubrick" title="Stanley Kubrick">Kubrick</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Lev_Kuleshov" title="Lev Kuleshov">Kuleshov</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Akira_Kurosawa" title="Akira Kurosawa">Kurosawa</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Fritz_Lang" title="Fritz Lang">Lang</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Losey" title="Joseph Losey">Losey</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ida_Lupino" title="Ida Lupino">Lupino</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Chris_Marker" title="Chris Marker">Marker</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Vincente_Minnelli" title="Vincente Minnelli">Minnelli</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/F._W._Murnau" title="F. W. Murnau">Murnau</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Yasujir%C5%8D_Ozu" title="Yasujirō Ozu">Ozu</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/G._W._Pabst" title="G. W. Pabst">Pabst</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Vsevolod_Pudovkin" title="Vsevolod Pudovkin">Pudovkin</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Ray" title="Nicholas Ray">Ray (Nicholas)</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Satyajit_Ray" title="Satyajit Ray">Ray (Satyajit)</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Alain_Resnais" title="Alain Resnais">Resnais</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Jean_Renoir" title="Jean Renoir">Renoir</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Tony_Richardson" title="Tony Richardson">Richardson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Roberto_Rossellini" title="Roberto Rossellini">Rossellini</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Douglas_Sirk" title="Douglas Sirk">Sirk</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Victor_Sj%C3%B6str%C3%B6m" title="Victor Sjöström">Sjöström</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Josef_von_Sternberg" title="Josef von Sternberg">Sternberg</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Andrei_Tarkovsky" title="Andrei Tarkovsky">Tarkovsky</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Tati" title="Jacques Tati">Tati</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ji%C5%99%C3%AD_Trnka" title="Jiří Trnka">Trnka</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Truffaut" title="François Truffaut">Truffaut</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Agn%C3%A8s_Varda" title="Agnès Varda">Varda</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Dziga_Vertov" title="Dziga Vertov">Vertov</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Jean_Vigo" title="Jean Vigo">Vigo</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Orson_Welles" title="Orson Welles">Welles</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Wiene" title="Robert Wiene">Wiene</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ed_Wood" title="Ed Wood">Wood</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Architecture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Marcel_Breuer" title="Marcel Breuer">Breuer</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Gordon_Bunshaft" title="Gordon Bunshaft">Bunshaft</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Antoni_Gaud%C3%AD" title="Antoni Gaudí">Gaudí</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Walter_Gropius" title="Walter Gropius">Gropius</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hector_Guimard" title="Hector Guimard">Guimard</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Victor_Horta" title="Victor Horta">Horta</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Friedensreich_Hundertwasser" title="Friedensreich Hundertwasser">Hundertwasser</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Philip_Johnson" title="Philip Johnson">Johnson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Louis_Kahn" title="Louis Kahn">Kahn</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Le_Corbusier" title="Le Corbusier">Le Corbusier</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Adolf_Loos" title="Adolf Loos">Loos</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Melnikov" title="Konstantin Melnikov">Melnikov</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Erich_Mendelsohn" title="Erich Mendelsohn">Mendelsohn</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Pier_Luigi_Nervi" title="Pier Luigi Nervi">Nervi</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Neutra" title="Richard Neutra">Neutra</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Oscar_Niemeyer" title="Oscar Niemeyer">Niemeyer</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Gerrit_Rietveld" title="Gerrit Rietveld">Rietveld</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Eero_Saarinen" title="Eero Saarinen">Saarinen</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Steiner" title="Rudolf Steiner">Steiner</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Louis_Sullivan" title="Louis Sullivan">Sullivan</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Tatlin" title="Vladimir Tatlin">Tatlin</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Mies_van_der_Rohe" title="Ludwig Mies van der Rohe">Mies</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Frank_Lloyd_Wright" title="Frank Lloyd Wright">Wright</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/A_Sunday_Afternoon_on_the_Island_of_La_Grande_Jatte" title="A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte">A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1886)</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Mont_Sainte-Victoire_(C%C3%A9zanne)" title="Mont Sainte-Victoire (Cézanne)">Mont Sainte-Victoir</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1887)</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/The_Starry_Night" title="The Starry Night">The Starry Night</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1889)</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Les_Demoiselles_d%27Avignon" title="Les Demoiselles d'Avignon">Les Demoiselles d'Avignon</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1907)</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Dance_(Matisse)" title="Dance (Matisse)">The Dance</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1909–1910)</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Nude_Descending_a_Staircase,_No._2" title="Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2">Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1912)</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Black_Square" title="Black Square">Black Square</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1915)</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/The_Cabinet_of_Dr._Caligari" title="The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari">The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1920)</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Ballet_M%C3%A9canique" title="Ballet Mécanique">Ballet Mécanique</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1923)</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Battleship_Potemkin" title="Battleship Potemkin">Battleship Potemkin</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1925)</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Metropolis_(1927_film)" title="Metropolis (1927 film)">Metropolis</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1927)</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Un_Chien_Andalou" title="Un Chien Andalou">Un Chien Andalou</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1929)</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Villa_Savoye" title="Villa Savoye">Villa Savoye</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1931)</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Fallingwater" title="Fallingwater">Fallingwater</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1936)</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Citizen_Kane" title="Citizen Kane">Citizen Kane</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1941)</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Meshes_of_the_Afternoon" title="Meshes of the Afternoon">Meshes of the Afternoon</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1943)</span></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Performing_arts" title="Performing arts">Performing<br />arts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modernism_(music)" title="Modernism (music)">Music</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/George_Antheil" title="George Antheil">Antheil</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/B%C3%A9la_Bart%C3%B3k" title="Béla Bartók">Bartók</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Alban_Berg" title="Alban Berg">Berg</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Luciano_Berio" title="Luciano Berio">Berio</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Nadia_Boulanger" title="Nadia Boulanger">Boulanger</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Boulez" title="Pierre Boulez">Boulez</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Aaron_Copland" title="Aaron Copland">Copland</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Claude_Debussy" title="Claude Debussy">Debussy</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Henri_Dutilleux" title="Henri Dutilleux">Dutilleux</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Manuel_de_Falla" title="Manuel de Falla">Falla</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Morton_Feldman" title="Morton Feldman">Feldman</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Henryk_G%C3%B3recki" title="Henryk Górecki">Górecki</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Hindemith" title="Paul Hindemith">Hindemith</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Honegger" title="Arthur Honegger">Honegger</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Ives" title="Charles Ives">Ives</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Leo%C5%A1_Jan%C3%A1%C4%8Dek" title="Leoš Janáček">Janáček</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Ligeti" title="György Ligeti">Ligeti</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Witold_Lutos%C5%82awski" title="Witold Lutosławski">Lutosławski</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Darius_Milhaud" title="Darius Milhaud">Milhaud</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Luigi_Nono" title="Luigi Nono">Nono</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Harry_Partch" title="Harry Partch">Partch</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Luigi_Russolo" title="Luigi Russolo">Russolo</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Erik_Satie" title="Erik Satie">Satie</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Schaeffer" title="Pierre Schaeffer">Schaeffer</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Arnold_Schoenberg" title="Arnold Schoenberg">Schoenberg</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Scriabin" title="Alexander Scriabin">Scriabin</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Karlheinz_Stockhausen" title="Karlheinz Stockhausen">Stockhausen</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Strauss" title="Richard Strauss">Strauss</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Igor_Stravinsky" title="Igor Stravinsky">Stravinsky</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Karol_Szymanowski" title="Karol Szymanowski">Szymanowski</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Edgard_Var%C3%A8se" title="Edgard Varèse">Varèse</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Heitor_Villa-Lobos" title="Heitor Villa-Lobos">Villa-Lobos</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Anton_Webern" title="Anton Webern">Webern</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Kurt_Weill" title="Kurt Weill">Weill</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modernist_theatre" title="Modernist theatre">Theatre</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Maxwell_Anderson" title="Maxwell Anderson">Anderson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Jean_Anouilh" title="Jean Anouilh">Anouilh</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Antonin_Artaud" title="Antonin Artaud">Artaud</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Beckett" title="Samuel Beckett">Beckett</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Bertolt_Brecht" title="Bertolt Brecht">Brecht</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Anton_Chekhov" title="Anton Chekhov">Chekhov</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Henrik_Ibsen" title="Henrik Ibsen">Ibsen</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Jarry" title="Alfred Jarry">Jarry</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Georg_Kaiser" title="Georg Kaiser">Kaiser</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Maeterlinck" title="Maurice Maeterlinck">Maeterlinck</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Mayakovsky" title="Vladimir Mayakovsky">Mayakovsky</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Se%C3%A1n_O%27Casey" title="Seán O'Casey">O'Casey</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Eugene_O%27Neill" title="Eugene O'Neill">O'Neill</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/John_Osborne" title="John Osborne">Osborne</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Luigi_Pirandello" title="Luigi Pirandello">Pirandello</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Erwin_Piscator" title="Erwin Piscator">Piscator</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/August_Strindberg" title="August Strindberg">Strindberg</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Toller" title="Ernst Toller">Toller</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Frank_Wedekind" title="Frank Wedekind">Wedekind</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Thornton_Wilder" title="Thornton Wilder">Wilder</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Ignacy_Witkiewicz" title="Stanisław Ignacy Witkiewicz">Witkiewicz</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_dance" title="Modern dance">Dance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/George_Balanchine" title="George Balanchine">Balanchine</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Merce_Cunningham" title="Merce Cunningham">Cunningham</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sergei_Diaghilev" title="Sergei Diaghilev">Diaghilev</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Isadora_Duncan" title="Isadora Duncan">Duncan</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Michel_Fokine" title="Michel Fokine">Fokine</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Loie_Fuller" title="Loie Fuller">Fuller</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Martha_Graham" title="Martha Graham">Graham</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hanya_Holm" title="Hanya Holm">Holm</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Laban" class="mw-redirect" title="Rudolf Laban">Laban</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9onide_Massine" title="Léonide Massine">Massine</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Vaslav_Nijinsky" title="Vaslav Nijinsky">Nijinsky</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ted_Shawn" title="Ted Shawn">Shawn</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Anna_Sokolow" title="Anna Sokolow">Sokolow</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ruth_St._Denis" title="Ruth St. Denis">St. Denis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Helen_Tamiris" title="Helen Tamiris">Tamiris</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Grete_Wiesenthal" title="Grete Wiesenthal">Wiesenthal</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Mary_Wigman" title="Mary Wigman">Wigman</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Don_Juan_(Strauss)" title="Don Juan (Strauss)">Don Juan</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1888)</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Ubu_Roi" title="Ubu Roi">Ubu Roi</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1896)</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Verkl%C3%A4rte_Nacht" title="Verklärte Nacht">Verklärte Nacht</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1899)</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Pell%C3%A9as_et_M%C3%A9lisande_(opera)" title="Pelléas et Mélisande (opera)">Pelléas et Mélisande</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1902)</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Salome_(opera)" title="Salome (opera)">Salome</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1905)</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/The_Firebird" title="The Firebird">The Firebird</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1910)</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Afternoon_of_a_Faun_(Nijinsky)" title="Afternoon of a Faun (Nijinsky)">Afternoon of a Faun</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1912)</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/The_Rite_of_Spring" title="The Rite of Spring">The Rite of Spring</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1913)</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Fountain_(Duchamp)" title="Fountain (Duchamp)">Fountain</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1917)</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Six_Characters_in_Search_of_an_Author" title="Six Characters in Search of an Author">Six Characters in Search of an Author</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1921)</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/The_Threepenny_Opera" title="The Threepenny Opera">The Threepenny Opera</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1928)</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Waiting_for_Godot" title="Waiting for Godot">Waiting for Godot</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1953)</span></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/American_modernism" title="American modernism">American modernism</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Armory_Show" title="Armory Show">Armory Show</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Avant-garde" title="Avant-garde">Avant-garde</a></i></span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Ballets_Russes" title="Ballets Russes">Ballets Russes</a></i></span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Bloomsbury_Group" title="Bloomsbury Group">Bloomsbury Group</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_modernism" title="Buddhist modernism">Buddhist modernism</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Classical_Hollywood_cinema" title="Classical Hollywood cinema">Classical Hollywood cinema</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Degenerate_art" title="Degenerate art">Degenerate art</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ecomodernism" title="Ecomodernism">Ecomodernism</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Experimental_film" title="Experimental film">Experimental film</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Film_noir" title="Film noir">Film noir</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Fourth_dimension_in_art" title="Fourth dimension in art">Fourth dimension in art</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Fourth_dimension_in_literature" title="Fourth dimension in literature">Fourth dimension in literature</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Grosvenor_School_of_Modern_Art" title="Grosvenor School of Modern Art">Grosvenor School of Modern Art</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hanshinkan_Modernism" title="Hanshinkan Modernism">Hanshinkan Modernism</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/High_modernism" title="High modernism">High modernism</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Counterculture_of_the_1960s" title="Counterculture of the 1960s">Hippie modernism</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Impressionism" title="Impressionism">Impressionism</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Impressionism_in_music" title="Impressionism in music">Music</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Impressionism_(literature)" title="Impressionism (literature)">Literature</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Post-Impressionism" title="Post-Impressionism">Post-</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Incoherents" title="Incoherents">Incoherents</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/International_Style" title="International Style">International Style</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Late_modernism" title="Late modernism">Late modernism</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Late_modernity" title="Late modernity">Late modernity</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_art_movements" title="List of art movements">List of art movements</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_avant-garde_artists" title="List of avant-garde artists">List of avant-garde artists</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/List_of_modernist_poets" title="List of modernist poets">List of modernist poets</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Maximalism" title="Maximalism">Maximalism</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">Modernity</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Neo-primitivism" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-primitivism">Neo-primitivism</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Neo-romanticism" title="Neo-romanticism">Neo-romanticism</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/New_Hollywood" title="New Hollywood">New Hollywood</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/New_Objectivity" title="New Objectivity">New Objectivity</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Poetic_realism" title="Poetic realism">Poetic realism</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Pulp_noir" title="Pulp noir">Pulp noir</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Reactionary_modernism" title="Reactionary modernism">Reactionary modernism</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Metamodernism" title="Metamodernism">Metamodernism</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Remodernism" title="Remodernism">Remodernism</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Second_Viennese_School" title="Second Viennese School">Second Viennese School</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Structural_film" title="Structural film">Structural film</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Underground_film" title="Underground film">Underground film</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Vulgar_auteurism" title="Vulgar auteurism">Vulgar modernism</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div style="position:absolute;">← <b><a href="/wiki/Template:Romanticism" title="Template:Romanticism">Romanticism</a></b></div> <div style="position:absolute;right:0;"><b><a href="/wiki/Template:Postmodernism" title="Template:Postmodernism">Postmodernism</a></b> →</div> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Modernism" title="Category:Modernism">Category</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Architecture_of_the_United_States" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Architecture_in_the_United_States" title="Template:Architecture in the United States"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Architecture_in_the_United_States" title="Template talk:Architecture in the United States"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Architecture_in_the_United_States" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Architecture in the United States"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Architecture_of_the_United_States" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Architecture of the United States">Architecture of the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Native and indigenous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mound" title="Mound">Mound</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mound_Builders" title="Mound Builders">Builders</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo_architecture" title="Pueblo architecture">Pueblo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/American_colonial_architecture" title="American colonial architecture">Colonial and post-colonial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Creole_architecture_in_the_United_States" title="Creole architecture in the United States">Creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Period" title="First Period">First Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_architecture#Colonial_Georgian_architecture" title="Georgian architecture">Colonial Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Colonial_Revival_architecture" title="Dutch Colonial Revival architecture">Dutch Colonial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Colonial" class="mw-redirect" title="French Colonial">French Colonial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_colonial_architecture#German_Colonial" title="American colonial architecture">German Colonial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Colonial_architecture" title="Spanish Colonial architecture">Spanish Colonial</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Territorial_Style" title="Territorial Style">Territorial</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early Republic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adam_style" title="Adam style">Adam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_architecture" title="Federal architecture">Federal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeffersonian_architecture" title="Jeffersonian architecture">Jeffersonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_architecture" title="Neoclassical architecture">Neoclassical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antebellum_architecture" title="Antebellum architecture">Antebellum</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mid-19th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Revival_architecture" title="Greek Revival architecture">Greek Revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italianate_architecture" title="Italianate architecture">Italianate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_Revival_architecture" title="Gothic Revival architecture">Gothic Revival</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Victorian_architecture" title="Victorian architecture">Victorian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Richardsonian_Romanesque" title="Richardsonian Romanesque">Richardsonian Romanesque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Empire_architecture_in_the_United_States_and_Canada" title="Second Empire architecture in the United States and Canada">Second Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Renaissance" title="American Renaissance">American Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_Victorian" title="Folk Victorian">Folk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stick_style" title="Stick style">Stick style</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Anne_style_architecture_in_the_United_States" title="Queen Anne style architecture in the United States">Queen Anne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shingle_style_architecture" title="Shingle style architecture">Shingle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Late-19th to<br />mid-20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_Deco" title="Art Deco">Art Deco</a> (<a href="/wiki/Streamline_Moderne" title="Streamline Moderne">Streamline Moderne</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Craftsman" title="American Craftsman">American Craftsman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Foursquare" title="American Foursquare">American Foursquare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beaux-Arts_architecture" title="Beaux-Arts architecture">Beaux-Arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_bungalow" title="California bungalow">California bungalow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_school_(architecture)" title="Chicago school (architecture)">Chicago School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_Revival_architecture" title="Colonial Revival architecture">Colonial Revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Colonial_Revival_architecture" title="Dutch Colonial Revival architecture">Dutch Colonial Revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_Revival_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Georgian Revival architecture">Georgian Revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Googie_architecture" title="Googie architecture">Googie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Style_(architecture)" class="mw-redirect" title="International Style (architecture)">International style</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mayan_Revival_architecture" title="Mayan Revival architecture">Mayan Revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Revival_architecture" title="Mediterranean Revival architecture">Mediterranean Revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mission_Revival_architecture" title="Mission Revival architecture">Mission Revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo_Revival_architecture" title="Pueblo Revival architecture">Pueblo Revival</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo_Deco_architecture" title="Pueblo Deco architecture">Deco</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prairie_School" title="Prairie School">Prairie School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-war_architecture" title="Pre-war architecture">Pre-war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PWA_Moderne" class="mw-redirect" title="PWA Moderne">PWA Moderne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarasota_School_of_Architecture" title="Sarasota School of Architecture">Sarasota School of Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Park_Service_rustic" title="National Park Service rustic">Rustic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Colonial_Revival_architecture" title="Spanish Colonial Revival architecture">Spanish Colonial Revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territorial_Revival_architecture" title="Territorial Revival architecture">Territorial Revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tudor_Revival_architecture" title="Tudor Revival architecture">Tudor Revival</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Post–World War II</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blobitecture" title="Blobitecture">Blobitecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brutalist_architecture" title="Brutalist architecture">Brutalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstructivism" title="Deconstructivism">Deconstructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dingbat_(building)" title="Dingbat (building)">Dingbat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earthship" title="Earthship">Earthship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-tech_architecture" title="High-tech architecture">High-tech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-century_modern" title="Mid-century modern">Mid-century modern</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-eclectic_architecture" title="Neo-eclectic architecture">Neo-eclectic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-futurism" title="Neo-futurism">Neo-futurism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neomodern" title="Neomodern">Neomodern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Classical_architecture" title="New Classical architecture">New Classical architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_architecture" title="Postmodern architecture">Postmodern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ranch-style_house" title="Ranch-style house">Ranch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shed_style" title="Shed style">Shed style</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiny-house_movement" title="Tiny-house movement">Tiny-house</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usonia" title="Usonia">Usonian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Building types and vernacular</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adirondack_Architecture" title="Adirondack Architecture">Adirondack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adobe" title="Adobe">Adobe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barabara" title="Barabara">Barabara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cape_Cod_(house)" title="Cape Cod (house)">Cape Cod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central-passage_house" title="Central-passage house">Central-passage house</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chickee" title="Chickee">Chickee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corn_crib" title="Corn crib">Corn crib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cowboy_church" title="Cowboy church">Cowboy church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_regionalism" title="Critical regionalism">Critical regionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dogtrot_house" title="Dogtrot house">Dogtrot house</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_lodge" title="Earth lodge">Earth lodge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hogan" title="Hogan">Hogan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hall_and_parlor_house" title="Hall and parlor house">Hall and parlor house</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I-house" title="I-house">I-house</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igloo" title="Igloo">Igloo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacal" title="Jacal">Jacal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kiva" title="Kiva">Kiva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Log_cabin" title="Log cabin">Log cabin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longhouses_of_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_North_America" title="Longhouses of the Indigenous peoples of North America">Longhouses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moki_steps" title="Moki steps">Moki steps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plank_house" title="Plank house">Plank house</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platform_mound" title="Platform mound">Platform mound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qargi" title="Qargi">Qargi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quiggly_hole" title="Quiggly hole">Quiggly hole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramada_(shelter)" title="Ramada (shelter)">Ramada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saltbox_house" title="Saltbox house">Saltbox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shotgun_house" title="Shotgun house">Shotgun house</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sipapu" title="Sipapu">Sipapu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skyscraper" title="Skyscraper">Skyscraper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sod_house" title="Sod house">Sod house</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sweat_lodge" title="Sweat lodge">Sweat lodge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temples_of_The_Church_of_Jesus_Christ_of_Latter-day_Saints" class="mw-redirect" title="Temples of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints">Temples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tipi" title="Tipi">Tipi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Town_square" title="Town square">Town square</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tupiq" title="Tupiq">Tupiq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wigwam" title="Wigwam">Wigwam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Atlanta" title="Architecture of Atlanta">Atlanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Boston" title="Architecture of Boston">Boston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Buffalo,_New_York" title="Architecture of Buffalo, New York">Buffalo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Chicago" title="Architecture of Chicago">Chicago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Columbus,_Ohio" title="Architecture of Columbus, Ohio">Columbus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_metropolitan_Detroit" title="Architecture of metropolitan Detroit">Detroit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Houston" title="Architecture of Houston">Houston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Jacksonville" title="Architecture of Jacksonville">Jacksonville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Kansas_City" title="Architecture of Kansas City">Kansas City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Las_Vegas" title="Architecture of Las Vegas">Las Vegas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Los_Angeles" class="mw-redirect" title="Architecture of Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miami_Modern_architecture" title="Miami Modern architecture">Miami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buildings_and_architecture_of_New_Orleans" title="Buildings and architecture of New Orleans">New Orleans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_New_York_City" title="Architecture of New York City">New York City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_in_Omaha,_Nebraska" title="Architecture in Omaha, Nebraska">Omaha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Philadelphia" title="Architecture of Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Portland,_Oregon" title="Architecture of Portland, Oregon">Portland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_San_Antonio" title="Architecture of San Antonio">San Antonio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_San_Francisco" title="Architecture of San Francisco">San Francisco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Seattle" title="Architecture of Seattle">Seattle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Spokane,_Washington" title="Architecture of Spokane, Washington">Spokane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_St._Louis" title="Architecture of St. Louis">St. Louis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Washington,_D.C." title="Architecture of Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">States</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_the_California_missions" title="Architecture of the California missions">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_architecture" title="Hawaiian architecture">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Texas" title="Architecture of Texas">Texas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q245188#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" 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