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class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Parasitology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Parasitology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transmission" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transmission"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Transmission </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transmission-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pregnancy_precautions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pregnancy_precautions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Pregnancy precautions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pregnancy_precautions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diagnosis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diagnosis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Diagnosis </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Diagnosis-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Diagnosis subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Diagnosis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Congenital" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Congenital"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Congenital </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Congenital-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Treatment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Treatment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Treatment </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Treatment-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Treatment subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Treatment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Acute_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Acute_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Acute </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Acute_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Latent_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Latent_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Latent </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Latent_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Congenital_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Congenital_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Congenital </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Congenital_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Epidemiology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epidemiology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Epidemiology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Epidemiology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 History </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Society_and_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society_and_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Society and culture </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Society_and_culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Society and culture subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Society_and_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-"Crazy_cat-lady"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#"Crazy_cat-lady""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 "Crazy cat-lady" </div> </a> <ul id="toc-"Crazy_cat-lady"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notable_cases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_cases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Notable cases </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notable_cases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_animals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_animals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Other animals </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Other_animals-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Other animals subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Other_animals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Livestock" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Livestock"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Livestock </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Livestock-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pigs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pigs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1.1 Pigs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pigs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sheep" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sheep"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1.2 Sheep </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sheep-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chickens" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chickens"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1.3 Chickens </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chickens-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cattle" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cattle"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1.4 Cattle </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cattle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Horses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Horses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1.5 Horses </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Horses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Domestic_cats" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Domestic_cats"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Domestic cats </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Domestic_cats-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rodents" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rodents"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 Rodents </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rodents-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marine_mammals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marine_mammals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.4 Marine mammals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marine_mammals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Giant_panda" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Giant_panda"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.5 Giant panda </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Giant_panda-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Research </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Research-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Research subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mental_health" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mental_health"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Mental health </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mental_health-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neurological_disorders" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neurological_disorders"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Neurological disorders </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neurological_disorders-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Traffic_accidents" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Traffic_accidents"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3 Traffic accidents </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Traffic_accidents-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Climate_change" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Climate_change"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.4 Climate change </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Climate_change-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Toxoplasmosis</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 52 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-52" aria-hidden="true" > 52 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toksoplasmose" title="Toksoplasmose – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Toksoplasmose" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%82%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="داء المقوسات – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="داء المقوسات" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toksoplazmoz" title="Toksoplazmoz – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Toksoplazmoz" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B7" title="Таксаплазмоз – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Таксаплазмоз" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B0" title="Токсоплазмоза – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Токсоплазмоза" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxoplasmosi" title="Toxoplasmosi – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Toxoplasmosi" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B7" title="Токсоплазмоз – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Токсоплазмоз" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxoplazm%C3%B3za" title="Toxoplazmóza – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Toxoplazmóza" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxoplasmose" title="Toxoplasmose – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Toxoplasmose" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxoplasmose" title="Toxoplasmose – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Toxoplasmose" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dv mw-list-item"><a href="https://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%93%DE%AE%DE%86%DE%B0%DE%90%DE%AF%DE%95%DE%B0%DE%8D%DE%A7%DE%92%DE%B0%DE%89%DE%AF%DE%90%DE%A8%DE%90%DE%B0" title="ޓޮކްސޯޕްލާޒްމޯސިސް – Divehi" lang="dv" hreflang="dv" data-title="ޓޮކްސޯޕްލާޒްމޯސިސް" data-language-autonym="ދިވެހިބަސް" data-language-local-name="Divehi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ދިވެހިބަސް</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toksoplasmoos" title="Toksoplasmoos – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Toksoplasmoos" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A4%CE%BF%CE%BE%CE%BF%CF%80%CE%BB%CE%AC%CF%83%CE%BC%CF%89%CF%83%CE%B7" title="Τοξοπλάσμωση – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Τοξοπλάσμωση" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxoplasmosis" title="Toxoplasmosis – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Toxoplasmosis" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toksoplasmozo" title="Toksoplasmozo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Toksoplasmozo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxoplasmosi" title="Toxoplasmosi – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Toxoplasmosi" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%88%DA%A9%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%BE%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B2" title="توکسوپلاسموز – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="توکسوپلاسموز" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxoplasmose" title="Toxoplasmose – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Toxoplasmose" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tocsaplasm%C3%B3is" title="Tocsaplasmóis – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Tocsaplasmóis" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxoplasmose" title="Toxoplasmose – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Toxoplasmose" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%86%A1%EC%86%8C%ED%94%8C%EB%9D%BC%EC%8A%A4%EB%A7%88%EC%A6%9D" title="톡소플라스마증 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="톡소플라스마증" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8F%D5%B8%D6%84%D5%BD%D5%B8%D5%BA%D5%AC%D5%A1%D5%A6%D5%B4%D5%B8%D5%A6" title="Տոքսոպլազմոզ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Տոքսոպլազմոզ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toksoplazmoza" title="Toksoplazmoza – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Toksoplazmoza" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toksoplasmosis" title="Toksoplasmosis – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Toksoplasmosis" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bogfrymlas%C3%B3tt" title="Bogfrymlasótt – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Bogfrymlasótt" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxoplasmosi" title="Toxoplasmosi – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Toxoplasmosi" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%98%D7%95%D7%A7%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%9C%D7%96%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%96%D7%99%D7%A1" title="טוקסופלזמוזיס – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="טוקסופלזמוזיס" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B7" title="Токсоплазмоз – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Токсоплазмоз" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B7" title="Токсоплазмоз – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Токсоплазмоз" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxoplazm%C3%B3zis" title="Toxoplazmózis – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Toxoplazmózis" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toksoplasmosis" title="Toksoplasmosis – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Toksoplasmosis" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxoplasmose" title="Toxoplasmose – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Toxoplasmose" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%88%E3%82%AD%E3%82%BD%E3%83%97%E3%83%A9%E3%82%BA%E3%83%9E%E7%97%87" title="トキソプラズマ症 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="トキソプラズマ症" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toksoplasmose" title="Toksoplasmose – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Toksoplasmose" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%9F%E0%AC%95%E0%AD%8D%E2%80%8C%E0%AC%B8%E0%AD%8B%E0%AC%AA%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%B2%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%9C%E0%AC%AE%E0%AD%8B%E0%AC%B8%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%B8%E0%AD%8D" title="ଟକ୍‌ସୋପ୍ଲାଜମୋସିସ୍ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ଟକ୍‌ସୋପ୍ଲାଜମୋସିସ୍" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target">ଓଡ଼ିଆ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%86%E1%9E%84%E1%9E%BA%E1%9E%8F%E1%9E%BB%E1%9E%80%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%8A%E1%9E%B8%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9B%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%98%E1%9E%BC%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%8A%E1%9E%B8%E1%9E%9F" title="ជំងឺតុកស៊ីប្លាស្មូស៊ីស – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="ជំងឺតុកស៊ីប្លាស្មូស៊ីស" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toksoplazmoza" title="Toksoplazmoza – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Toksoplazmoza" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxoplasmose" title="Toxoplasmose – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Toxoplasmose" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxoplasmoz%C4%83" title="Toxoplasmoză – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Toxoplasmoză" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B7" title="Токсоплазмоз – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Токсоплазмоз" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B7" title="Токсоплазмоз – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Токсоплазмоз" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxoplasmosis" title="Toxoplasmosis – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Toxoplasmosis" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxoplazm%C3%B3za" title="Toxoplazmóza – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Toxoplazmóza" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%DA%A9%D8%B3%DB%86%D9%BE%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%85%DB%86%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%B3" title="تاکسۆپلاسمۆسیس – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="تاکسۆپلاسمۆسیس" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B0" title="Токсоплазмоза – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Токсоплазмоза" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toksoplasmoosi" title="Toksoplasmoosi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Toksoplasmoosi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxoplasmos" title="Toxoplasmos – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Toxoplasmos" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B3%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B8%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B8%E0%AF%8D" title="டாக்சோபிளாஸ்மோசிஸ் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="டாக்சோபிளாஸ்மோசிஸ்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B7" title="Токсоплазмоз – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Токсоплазмоз" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B7" title="Токсоплазмоз – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Токсоплазмоз" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxoplasmosis" title="Toxoplasmosis – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Toxoplasmosis" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%BC%93%E8%9F%B2%E7%97%87" title="弓蟲症 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="弓蟲症" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q154878#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" 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.mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Expert_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/40px-Ambox_important.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/60px-Ambox_important.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/80px-Ambox_important.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="40" data-file-height="40" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article needs attention from an expert in medicine. The specific problem is: convoluted logic in first para of diagnosis. <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Medicine" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Medicine">WikiProject Medicine</a> may be able to help recruit an expert. (May 2023)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Medical condition</div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background:#ccc">Toxoplasmosis</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:Toxoplasma_gondii_tachy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/39/Toxoplasma_gondii_tachy.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="200" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">T. gondii <a href="/wiki/Tachyzoite" class="mw-redirect" title="Tachyzoite">tachyzoites</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Medical_specialty" title="Medical specialty">Specialty</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Infectious_disease_(medical_specialty)" class="mw-redirect" title="Infectious disease (medical specialty)">Infectious disease</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Signs_and_symptoms" title="Signs and symptoms">Symptoms</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Often none, during <a href="/wiki/Pregnancy" title="Pregnancy">pregnancy</a> (birth defects)<a href="#cite_note-CDC2015Sym-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hunter2012-2">[2]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Causes</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Toxoplasma_gondii" title="Toxoplasma gondii">Toxoplasma gondii</a><a href="#cite_note-CDC2015Epi-3">[3]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Risk_factor" title="Risk factor">Risk factors</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Eating poorly cooked food, exposure to infected cat feces<a href="#cite_note-CDC2015Epi-3">[3]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Medical_diagnosis" title="Medical diagnosis">Diagnostic method</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Blood test, <a href="/wiki/Amniotic_fluid" title="Amniotic fluid">amniotic fluid</a> test<a href="#cite_note-CDC2013Diag-4">[4]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Treatment</th><td class="infobox-data">During pregnancy <a href="/wiki/Spiramycin" title="Spiramycin">spiramycin</a> or <a href="/wiki/Pyrimethamine" title="Pyrimethamine">pyrimethamine</a>/<a href="/wiki/Sulfadiazine" title="Sulfadiazine">sulfadiazine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Folinic_acid" title="Folinic acid">folinic acid</a><a href="#cite_note-CDC2014Tx-5">[5]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Frequency</th><td class="infobox-data">Up to 50% of people, 200,000 cases of congenital toxoplasmosis a year<a href="#cite_note-TorgersonMastroiacovo2013-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-Global_threat-7">[7]</a></td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}</style> Toxoplasmosis is a <a href="/wiki/Parasitic_disease" title="Parasitic disease">parasitic disease</a> caused by <a href="/wiki/Toxoplasma_gondii" title="Toxoplasma gondii">Toxoplasma gondii</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Apicomplexan" class="mw-redirect" title="Apicomplexan">apicomplexan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-CDC2015Epi-3">[3]</a> Infections with toxoplasmosis are associated with a variety of neuropsychiatric and behavioral conditions.<a href="#cite_note-MilneEtAl2020-8">[8]</a> Occasionally, people may have a few weeks or months of mild, <a href="/wiki/Flu-like_illness" class="mw-redirect" title="Flu-like illness">flu-like illness</a> such as muscle aches and tender <a href="/wiki/Lymph_nodes" class="mw-redirect" title="Lymph nodes">lymph nodes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-CDC2015Sym-1">[1]</a> In a small number of people, eye problems may develop.<a href="#cite_note-CDC2015Sym-1">[1]</a> In those with a <a href="/wiki/Immunodeficiency" title="Immunodeficiency">weakened immune system</a>, severe symptoms such as <a href="/wiki/Seizure" title="Seizure">seizures</a> and poor coordination may occur.<a href="#cite_note-CDC2015Sym-1">[1]</a> If a person becomes infected during <a href="/wiki/Pregnancy" title="Pregnancy">pregnancy</a>, a condition known as congenital toxoplasmosis may affect the child.<a href="#cite_note-CDC2015Sym-1">[1]</a> Toxoplasmosis is usually spread by eating poorly cooked food that contains <a href="/wiki/Microbial_cyst" title="Microbial cyst">cysts</a>, by exposure to infected cat feces, or from an infected woman to her baby during pregnancy.<a href="#cite_note-CDC2015Epi-3">[3]</a> Rarely, the disease may be spread by <a href="/wiki/Blood_transfusion" title="Blood transfusion">blood transfusion</a> or other organ transplant.<a href="#cite_note-CDC2015Epi-3">[3]</a> It is not otherwise spread between people.<a href="#cite_note-CDC2015Epi-3">[3]</a> The parasite is only known to reproduce sexually in the <a href="/wiki/Felidae" title="Felidae">cat family</a>.<a href="#cite_note-CDC2015Bio-9">[9]</a> However, it can infect most types of <a href="/wiki/Warm-blooded_animals" class="mw-redirect" title="Warm-blooded animals">warm-blooded animals</a>, including humans.<a href="#cite_note-CDC2015Bio-9">[9]</a> Diagnosis is typically by testing blood for <a href="/wiki/Antibody" title="Antibody">antibodies</a> or by testing the <a href="/wiki/Amniotic_fluid" title="Amniotic fluid">amniotic fluid</a> in a pregnant patient for the parasite's <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a>.<a href="#cite_note-CDC2013Diag-4">[4]</a> Prevention is by properly preparing and cooking food.<a href="#cite_note-CDC2015Pre-10">[10]</a> Pregnant women are also recommended not to clean cat litter boxes or, if they must, to wear gloves and wash their hands afterwards.<a href="#cite_note-CDC2015Pre-10">[10]</a> Treatment of otherwise healthy people is usually not needed.<a href="#cite_note-CDC2014Tx-5">[5]</a> During pregnancy, <a href="/wiki/Spiramycin" title="Spiramycin">spiramycin</a> or <a href="/wiki/Pyrimethamine" title="Pyrimethamine">pyrimethamine</a>/<a href="/wiki/Sulfadiazine" title="Sulfadiazine">sulfadiazine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Folinic_acid" title="Folinic acid">folinic acid</a> may be used for treatment.<a href="#cite_note-CDC2014Tx-5">[5]</a> Up to half of the world's population is infected by T. gondii, but have no symptoms.<a href="#cite_note-Global_threat-7">[7]</a> In the United States, approximately 11% of people have been infected, while in some areas of the world this is more than 60%.<a href="#cite_note-CDC2015Epi-3">[3]</a> Approximately 200,000 cases of congenital toxoplasmosis occur a year.<a href="#cite_note-TorgersonMastroiacovo2013-6">[6]</a> <a href="/wiki/Charles_Nicolle" title="Charles Nicolle">Charles Nicolle</a> and <a href="/wiki/Louis_Manceaux" title="Louis Manceaux">Louis Manceaux</a> first described the organism in 1908.<a href="#cite_note-Ferguson_2009-11">[11]</a> In 1941, transmission during pregnancy from a pregnant woman to her baby was confirmed.<a href="#cite_note-Ferguson_2009-11">[11]</a> There is tentative evidence that otherwise asymptomatic infection may affect people's behavior.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Signs_and_symptoms">Signs and symptoms</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Toxoplasmosis&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Signs and symptoms">edit</a>]</div> Infection has three stages: <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Acute">Acute</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Toxoplasmosis&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Acute">edit</a>]</div> Acute toxoplasmosis is often asymptomatic in healthy adults.<a href="#cite_note-Dupont_2012-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dubey2008-14">[14]</a> However, symptoms may manifest and are often <a href="/wiki/Influenza" title="Influenza">influenza</a>-like: swollen <a href="/wiki/Lymph_node" title="Lymph node">lymph nodes</a>, headaches, fever, and fatigue,<a href="#cite_note-The_Mayo_Clinic_2015-15">[15]</a> or <a href="/wiki/Myalgia" title="Myalgia">muscle aches</a> and pains that last for a month or more. It is rare for a human with a fully functioning <a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">immune system</a> to develop severe symptoms following infection. People with weakened immune systems are likely to experience headache, confusion, poor coordination, seizures, lung problems that may resemble tuberculosis or Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia (a common opportunistic infection that occurs in people with AIDS), or chorioretinitis caused by severe inflammation of the retina (ocular toxoplasmosis).<a href="#cite_note-The_Mayo_Clinic_2015-15">[15]</a> Young children and <a href="/wiki/Immunodeficiency" title="Immunodeficiency">immunocompromised</a> people, such as those with HIV/AIDS, those taking certain types of <a href="/wiki/Chemotherapy" title="Chemotherapy">chemotherapy</a>, or those who have recently received an <a href="/wiki/Organ_transplant" class="mw-redirect" title="Organ transplant">organ transplant</a>, may develop severe toxoplasmosis. This can cause damage to the brain (<a href="/wiki/Encephalitis" title="Encephalitis">encephalitis</a>) or the eyes (<a href="/wiki/Toxoplasmic_chorioretinitis" title="Toxoplasmic chorioretinitis">necrotizing retinochoroiditis</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Jones_2001-16">[16]</a> Infants infected via <a href="/wiki/Vertically_transmitted_infection" title="Vertically transmitted infection">placental transmission</a> may be born with either of these problems, or with nasal malformations, although these complications are rare in newborns. The toxoplasmic <a href="/wiki/Trophozoite" title="Trophozoite">trophozoites</a> causing acute toxoplasmosis are referred to as <a href="/wiki/Tachyzoites" class="mw-redirect" title="Tachyzoites">tachyzoites</a>, and are typically found in various tissues and body fluids, but rarely in blood or cerebrospinal fluid.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> <a href="/wiki/Swollen_lymph_node" class="mw-redirect" title="Swollen lymph node">Swollen lymph nodes</a> are commonly found in the neck or under the chin, followed by the armpits and the groin. Swelling may occur at different times after the initial infection, persist, and recur for various times independently of antiparasitic treatment.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> It is usually found at single sites in adults, but in children, multiple sites may be more common. Enlarged lymph nodes will resolve within 1–2 months in 60% of cases. However, a quarter of those affected take 2–4 months to return to normal, and 8% take 4–6 months. A substantial number (6%) do not return to normal until much later.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Latent">Latent</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Toxoplasmosis&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Latent">edit</a>]</div> Due to the absence of obvious symptoms,<a href="#cite_note-Dupont_2012-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dubey2008-14">[14]</a> hosts easily become infected with T. gondii and develop toxoplasmosis without knowing it. Although mild, flu-like symptoms occasionally occur during the first few weeks following exposure, infection with T. gondii produces no readily observable symptoms in healthy human adults.<a href="#cite_note-Global_threat-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-CDCdisease-20">[20]</a> In most <a href="/wiki/Immunocompetent" class="mw-redirect" title="Immunocompetent">immunocompetent</a> people, the infection enters a latent phase, during which only <a href="/wiki/Bradyzoite" class="mw-redirect" title="Bradyzoite">bradyzoites</a> (<a href="/wiki/Toxoplasma_gondii#Formation_of_tissue_cysts" title="Toxoplasma gondii">in tissue cysts</a>) are present;<a href="#cite_note-Dubey_2006-21">[21]</a> these tissue cysts and even lesions can occur in the <a href="/wiki/Retina" title="Retina">retinas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_alveolus" title="Pulmonary alveolus">alveolar</a> lining of the lungs (where an acute infection may mimic a <a href="/wiki/Pneumocystis_jirovecii" title="Pneumocystis jirovecii">Pneumocystis jirovecii</a> infection), heart, skeletal muscle, and the <a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">central nervous system</a> (CNS), including the brain.<a href="#cite_note-Nawaz_Khan_2015-22">[22]</a> Cysts form in the CNS (<a href="/wiki/Nervous_tissue" title="Nervous tissue">brain tissue</a>) upon infection with T. gondii and persist for the lifetime of the host.<a href="#cite_note-TG_CNS_review-23">[23]</a> Most infants who are infected while in the womb have no symptoms at birth, but may develop symptoms later in life.<a href="#cite_note-futurepundit.com-24">[24]</a> Reviews of <a href="/wiki/Serology" title="Serology">serological</a> studies have estimated that 30–50% of the global population has been exposed to and may be chronically infected with latent toxoplasmosis, although infection rates differ significantly from country to country.<a href="#cite_note-Global_threat-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-TG_Neuronal_review-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pappas_2009-26">[26]</a> This latent state of infection has recently been associated with numerous <a href="/wiki/Disease_burden" title="Disease burden">disease burdens</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Global_threat-7">[7]</a> neural alterations,<a href="#cite_note-TG_CNS_review-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-TG_Neuronal_review-25">[25]</a> and subtle sex-dependent behavioral changes in immunocompetent humans,<a href="#cite_note-Cook2015_primary_source-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-TG_behavioral_effects_review-28">[28]</a> as well as an increased risk of motor vehicle collisions.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Skin">Skin</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Toxoplasmosis&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Skin">edit</a>]</div> While rare, skin lesions may occur in the acquired form of the disease, including <a href="/wiki/Roseola" title="Roseola">roseola</a> and <a href="/wiki/Erythema" title="Erythema">erythema</a> multiforme-like eruptions, <a href="/wiki/Prurigo" title="Prurigo">prurigo</a>-like nodules, <a href="/wiki/Urticaria" class="mw-redirect" title="Urticaria">urticaria</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Maculopapular_rash" title="Maculopapular rash">maculopapular lesions</a>. Newborns may have punctate macules, <a href="/wiki/Ecchymoses" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecchymoses">ecchymoses</a>, or "blueberry muffin" lesions. Diagnosis of cutaneous toxoplasmosis is based on the tachyzoite form of T. gondii being found in the <a href="/wiki/Epidermis_(skin)" class="mw-redirect" title="Epidermis (skin)">epidermis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> It is found in all levels of the epidermis, is about 6 by 2 μm and bow-shaped, with the nucleus being one-third of its size. It can be identified by electron microscopy or by <a href="/wiki/Giemsa_stain" title="Giemsa stain">Giemsa staining</a> tissue where the cytoplasm shows blue, the nucleus red.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cause">Cause</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Toxoplasmosis&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Cause">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Toxoplasma_gondii_Life_cycle_PHIL_3421_lores.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Toxoplasma_gondii_Life_cycle_PHIL_3421_lores.png/330px-Toxoplasma_gondii_Life_cycle_PHIL_3421_lores.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="433" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Toxoplasma_gondii_Life_cycle_PHIL_3421_lores.png/500px-Toxoplasma_gondii_Life_cycle_PHIL_3421_lores.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Toxoplasma_gondii_Life_cycle_PHIL_3421_lores.png/960px-Toxoplasma_gondii_Life_cycle_PHIL_3421_lores.png 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="3150" /></a><figcaption>Lifecycle of Toxoplasma gondii</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Parasitology">Parasitology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Toxoplasmosis&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Parasitology">edit</a>]</div> In its lifecycle, T. gondii adopts several forms.<a href="#cite_note-Robert-GangneuxDarde2012-32">[32]</a> <a href="/wiki/Tachyzoites" class="mw-redirect" title="Tachyzoites">Tachyzoites</a> are responsible for acute infection; they divide rapidly and spread through the tissues of the body. Tachyzoites are also known as "tachyzoic merozoites", a descriptive term that conveys more precisely the parasitological nature of this stage.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> After proliferating, tachyzoites convert into <a href="/wiki/Bradyzoites" class="mw-redirect" title="Bradyzoites">bradyzoites</a>, which are inside latent intracellular tissue <a href="/wiki/Cyst" title="Cyst">cysts</a> that form mainly in the muscles and brain. The formation of cysts is in part triggered by the pressure of the host immune system.<a href="#cite_note-Miller2009-34">[34]</a> The bradyzoites (also called "bradyzoic merozoites") are not responsive to antibiotics. Bradyzoites, once formed, can remain in the tissues for the lifespan of the host. In a healthy host, if some bradyzoites convert back into active tachyzoites, the immune system will quickly destroy them. However, in immunocompromised individuals, or in fetuses, which lack a developed immune system, the tachyzoites can run rampant and cause significant neurological damage.<a href="#cite_note-Robert-GangneuxDarde2012-32">[32]</a> The parasite's survival is dependent on a balance between host survival and parasite proliferation.<a href="#cite_note-Miller2009-34">[34]</a> T. gondii achieves this balance by manipulating the host's immune response, reducing the host's immune response, and enhancing the parasite's reproductive advantage.<a href="#cite_note-Miller2009-34">[34]</a> Once it infects a normal host cell, it resists damage caused by the host's immune system, and changes the host's immune processes.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> As it forces its way into the host cell, the parasite forms a <a href="/wiki/Parasitophorous_vacuole" title="Parasitophorous vacuole">parasitophorous vacuole</a> (PV) membrane from the membrane of the host cell.<a href="#cite_note-Hunter2012-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Martens2005-36">[36]</a> The PV encapsulates the parasite, and is both resistant to the activity of the endolysosomal system, and can take control of the host's <a href="/wiki/Mitochondria" class="mw-redirect" title="Mitochondria">mitochondria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Endoplasmic_reticulum" title="Endoplasmic reticulum">endoplasmic reticulum</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Hunter2012-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Martens2005-36">[36]</a> When first invading the cell, the parasite releases ROP proteins from the bulb of the <a href="/wiki/Rhoptry" title="Rhoptry">rhoptry</a> organelle.<a href="#cite_note-Hunter2012-2">[2]</a> These proteins translocate to the nucleus and the surface of the PV membrane where they can activate <a href="/wiki/STAT_protein" title="STAT protein">STAT</a> pathways to modulate the expression of <a href="/wiki/Cytokine" title="Cytokine">cytokines</a> at the transcriptional level, bind and inactivate PV membrane destroying <a href="/wiki/IRGs" title="IRGs">IRG</a> proteins, among other possible effects.<a href="#cite_note-Hunter2012-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Martens2005-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-Denkers2012-37">[37]</a> Additionally, certain strains of T. gondii can secrete a protein known as GRA15, activating the <a href="/wiki/NF-%CE%BAB" title="NF-κB">NF-κB</a> pathway, which upregulates the pro-inflammatory <a href="/wiki/Cytokine" title="Cytokine">cytokine</a> <a href="/wiki/Interleukin_12" title="Interleukin 12">IL-12</a> in the early immune response, possibly leading to the parasite's latent phase.<a href="#cite_note-Hunter2012-2">[2]</a> The parasite's ability to secrete these proteins depends on its genotype and affects its virulence.<a href="#cite_note-Hunter2012-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Denkers2012-37">[37]</a> The parasite also influences an anti-apoptotic mechanism, allowing the infected host cells to persist and replicate. One method of <a href="/wiki/Apoptosis" title="Apoptosis">apoptosis</a> resistance is by disrupting pro-apoptosis effector proteins, such as <a href="/wiki/Bcl-2-associated_X_protein" class="mw-redirect" title="Bcl-2-associated X protein">BAX</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bcl-2_homologous_antagonist_killer" title="Bcl-2 homologous antagonist killer">BAK</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Hippe_2009-38">[38]</a> To disrupt these proteins, T. gondii causes conformational changes to the proteins, which prevent the proteins from being transported to various cellular compartments where they initiate apoptosis events. T. gondii does not, however, cause downregulation of the pro-apoptosis effector proteins.<a href="#cite_note-Hippe_2009-38">[38]</a> T. gondii also has the ability to initiate <a href="/wiki/Autophagy" title="Autophagy">autophagy</a> of the host's cells.<a href="#cite_note-Wang-39">[39]</a> This leads to a decrease in healthy, uninfected cells, and consequently fewer host cells to attack the infected cells. Research by Wang et al finds that infected cells lead to higher levels of autophagosomes in normal and infected cells.<a href="#cite_note-Wang-39">[39]</a> Their research reveals that T. gondii causes host cell autophagy using a calcium-dependent pathway.<a href="#cite_note-Wang-39">[39]</a> Another study suggests that the parasite can directly affect calcium being released from calcium stores, which are important for the signalling processes of cells.<a href="#cite_note-Hippe_2009-38">[38]</a> The mechanisms above allow T. gondii to persist in a host. Some limiting factors for the toxoplasma is that its influence on the host cells is stronger in a weak immune system and is quantity-dependent, so a large number of T. gondii per host cell cause a more severe effect.<a href="#cite_note-Laliberte_2008-40">[40]</a> The effect on the host also depends on the strength of the host immune system. Immunocompetent individuals do not normally show severe symptoms or any at all, while fatality or severe complications can result in immunocompromised individuals.<a href="#cite_note-Laliberte_2008-40">[40]</a> T. gondii has been shown to produce a protein called GRA28, released by the MYR1 secretory pathway, which interferes with gene expression in infected cells and results in cells that behave like dendritic cells, becoming highly mobile in the body.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> Since the parasite can change the host's immune response, it may also have an effect, positive or negative, on the immune response to other pathogenic threats.<a href="#cite_note-Miller2009-34">[34]</a> This includes, but is not limited to, the responses to infections by <a href="/wiki/Helicobacter_felis" title="Helicobacter felis">Helicobacter felis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leishmania_major" title="Leishmania major">Leishmania major</a>, or other parasites, such as <a href="/wiki/Nippostrongylus_brasiliensis" title="Nippostrongylus brasiliensis">Nippostrongylus brasiliensis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Miller2009-34">[34]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transmission">Transmission</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Toxoplasmosis&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Transmission">edit</a>]</div> Toxoplasmosis is generally transmitted through the mouth when Toxoplasma gondii <a href="/wiki/Oocyst" class="mw-redirect" title="Oocyst">oocysts</a> or tissue cysts are accidentally eaten.<a href="#cite_note-Weiss_Dubey_2009-42">[42]</a> Congenital transmittance from mother to fetus can also occur.&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeissKim2007[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2024]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2024)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;-43">[43]</a> Transmission may also occur during the solid organ transplant process<a href="#cite_note-Der2008-44">[44]</a> or hematogenous stem cell transplants.<a href="#cite_note-Kh2016-45">[45]</a> Oral transmission may occur through: <ul><li>Ingestion of raw or partly cooked meat, especially pork, lamb, or venison containing Toxoplasma cysts: Infection prevalence in countries where undercooked meat is traditionally eaten has been related to this transmission method. Tissue cysts may also be ingested during hand-to-mouth contact after handling undercooked meat, or from using knives, utensils, or cutting boards contaminated by raw meat.<a href="#cite_note-CDC-46">[46]</a></li> <li>Ingestion of unwashed fruit or vegetables that have been in contact with contaminated soil containing infected cat feces.<a href="#cite_note-Jones2012Foodborne-47">[47]</a></li> <li>Ingestion of cat <a href="/wiki/Feces" title="Feces">feces</a> containing oocysts: This can occur through hand-to-mouth contact following gardening, cleaning a cat's <a href="/wiki/Litter_box" title="Litter box">litter box</a>, contact with children's sandpits; the parasite can survive in the environment for months.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a></li> <li>Ingestion of untreated, unfiltered water through direct consumption or utilization of water for food preparation.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a></li> <li>Ingestion of unpasteurized milk and milk products, particularly goat's milk.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a></li> <li>Ingestion of raw seafood.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a></li></ul> Cats excrete the pathogen in their feces for a number of weeks after contracting the disease, generally by eating an infected intermediate host that could include mammals (like rodents) or birds. Oocyst shedding usually starts from the third day after ingestion of infected intermediate hosts, and may continue for weeks. The oocysts are not infective when excreted. After about a day, the oocyst undergoes a process called sporulation and becomes potentially pathogenic.<a href="#cite_note-CDC2-52">[52]</a> In addition to cats, birds and mammals including human beings are also intermediate hosts of the parasite and are involved in the transmission process. However the pathogenicity varies with the age and species involved in infection and the mode of transmission of T. gondii.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> Toxoplasmosis may also be transmitted through solid organ transplants. Toxoplasma-seronegative recipients who receive organs from recently infected Toxoplasma-seropositive donors are at risk. Organ recipients who have latent toxoplasmosis are at risk of the disease reactivating in their system due to the immunosuppression occurring during solid organ transplant.<a href="#cite_note-Der2008-44">[44]</a> Recipients of hematogenous stem cell transplants may experience higher risk of infection due to longer periods of immunosuppression.<a href="#cite_note-Kh2016-45">[45]</a> Heart and lung transplants provide the highest risk for toxoplasmosis infection due to the striated muscle making up the heart,<a href="#cite_note-Der2008-44">[44]</a> which can contain cysts, and risks for other organs and tissues vary widely.<a href="#cite_note-Cos2013-54">[54]</a> Risk of transmission can be reduced by screening donors and recipients prior to the transplant procedure and providing treatment.<a href="#cite_note-Cos2013-54">[54]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pregnancy_precautions">Pregnancy precautions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Toxoplasmosis&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Pregnancy precautions">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Congenital" class="mw-redirect" title="Congenital">Congenital</a> toxoplasmosis is a specific form of toxoplasmosis in which an unborn fetus is infected via the <a href="/wiki/Placenta" title="Placenta">placenta</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Sterkers_2011-55">[55]</a> Congenital toxoplasmosis is associated with fetal death and miscarriage, and in infants, it is associated with hydrocephalus, cerebral calcifications and <a href="/wiki/Chorioretinitis" title="Chorioretinitis">chorioretinitis</a>, leading to encephalopathy and possibly blindness.<a href="#cite_note-TorgersonMastroiacovo2013-6">[6]</a> If a woman receives her first exposure to T. gondii while pregnant, the fetus is at particular risk.<a href="#cite_note-TorgersonMastroiacovo2013-6">[6]</a> A simple blood draw at the first prenatal doctor visit can determine whether or not a woman has had previous exposure and therefore whether or not she is at risk. A positive antibody <a href="/wiki/Titer" title="Titer">titer</a> indicates previous exposure and immunity, and largely ensures the unborn fetus' safety. Not much evidence exists around the effect of education before pregnancy to prevent congenital toxoplasmosis.<a href="#cite_note-Di2015-56">[56]</a> However educating parents before the baby is born has been suggested to be effective because it may improve food, personal and pet hygiene.<a href="#cite_note-Di2015-56">[56]</a> More research is needed to find whether antenatal education can reduce congenital toxoplasmosis.<a href="#cite_note-Di2015-56">[56]</a> For pregnant women with negative antibody titers, indicating no previous exposure to T. gondii, serology testing as frequent as monthly is advisable as treatment during pregnancy for those women exposed to T. gondii for the first time dramatically decreases the risk of passing the parasite to the fetus. Since a baby's immune system does not develop fully for the first year of life, and the resilient cysts that form throughout the body are very difficult to eradicate with antiprotozoans, an infection can be very serious in the young.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Despite these risks, pregnant women are not routinely screened for toxoplasmosis in most countries, for reasons of cost-effectiveness and the high number of <a href="/wiki/False_positives" class="mw-redirect" title="False positives">false positives</a> generated; <a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portugal</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Circular_DGS-57">[57]</a> <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Sukthana_2006-58">[58]</a> <a href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austria</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Sukthana_2006-58">[58]</a> <a href="/wiki/Uruguay" title="Uruguay">Uruguay</a>,<a href="#cite_note-elpais-59">[59]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a><a href="#cite_note-Paschale_2008-60">[60]</a> are notable exceptions, and some regional screening programmes operate in <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>, <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Paschale_2008-60">[60]</a> As invasive <a href="/wiki/Prenatal" class="mw-redirect" title="Prenatal">prenatal</a> testing incurs some risk to the <a href="/wiki/Fetus" title="Fetus">fetus</a> (18.5 pregnancy losses per toxoplasmosis case prevented),<a href="#cite_note-Sukthana_2006-58">[58]</a> <a href="/wiki/Postnatal" class="mw-redirect" title="Postnatal">postnatal</a> or <a href="/wiki/Neonatal" class="mw-redirect" title="Neonatal">neonatal</a> screening is preferred. The exceptions are cases where <a href="/wiki/Fetal" class="mw-redirect" title="Fetal">fetal</a> abnormalities are noted, and thus screening can be targeted.<a href="#cite_note-Sukthana_2006-58">[58]</a> Pregnant women should avoid handling <a href="/wiki/Raw_meat" title="Raw meat">raw meat</a>, drinking <a href="/wiki/Raw_milk" title="Raw milk">raw milk</a> (especially goat milk) and be advised to not eat raw or undercooked meat regardless of type.<a href="#cite_note-Kapperud_1996-61">[61]</a> Because of the obvious relationship between Toxoplasma and cats it is also often advised to avoid exposure to cat feces, and refrain from gardening (cat feces are common in garden soil) or at least wear gloves when so engaged.<a href="#cite_note-Kapperud_1996-61">[61]</a> Most cats are not actively shedding <a href="/wiki/Oocyst" class="mw-redirect" title="Oocyst">oocysts</a>, since they get infected in the first six months of their life, when they shed oocysts for a short period of time (1–2 weeks).<a href="#cite_note-Hill_2002-62">[62]</a> However, these oocysts get buried in the soil, sporulate and remain infectious for periods ranging from several months to more than a year.<a href="#cite_note-Kapperud_1996-61">[61]</a> Numerous studies have shown living in a household with a cat is not a significant risk factor for T. gondii infection,<a href="#cite_note-Kapperud_1996-61">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cook_2000-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bobic1998-64">[64]</a> though living with several kittens has some significance.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> In 2006, a Czech research team<a href="#cite_note-pmid17028886-66">[66]</a> discovered women with high levels of toxoplasmosis antibodies were significantly more likely to give birth to baby boys than baby girls. In most populations, the birth rate is around 51% boys, but people infected with T. gondii had up to a 72% chance of a boy.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Diagnosis">Diagnosis</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Toxoplasmosis&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Diagnosis">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BrainToxoplasmosis_MRI_2_09.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/BrainToxoplasmosis_MRI_2_09.png/220px-BrainToxoplasmosis_MRI_2_09.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="276" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/BrainToxoplasmosis_MRI_2_09.png/330px-BrainToxoplasmosis_MRI_2_09.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/BrainToxoplasmosis_MRI_2_09.png/440px-BrainToxoplasmosis_MRI_2_09.png 2x" data-file-width="697" data-file-height="873" /></a><figcaption>MRI: Cerebral toxoplasmosis with primary involvement in the right occipital lobe (at left and below of the image). 48-year-old woman with <a href="/wiki/AIDS" class="mw-redirect" title="AIDS">AIDS</a></figcaption></figure> Toxoplasmosis in humans is diagnosed through biological, serological, histological, or molecular methods, or by some combination of the above.<a href="#cite_note-Hill_2002-62">[62]</a> Toxoplasmosis can be difficult to distinguish from <a href="/wiki/Primary_central_nervous_system_lymphoma" title="Primary central nervous system lymphoma">primary central nervous system lymphoma</a>. Its symptoms mimic several other infectious diseases, so clinical signs are non-specific and are not sufficiently characteristic for a definite diagnosis. A failed trial of antimicrobial therapy (<a href="/wiki/Pyrimethamine" title="Pyrimethamine">pyrimethamine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sulfadiazine" title="Sulfadiazine">sulfadiazine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Folinic_acid" title="Folinic acid">folinic acid</a> (<a href="/wiki/United_States_Adopted_Name" title="United States Adopted Name">USAN</a>: leucovorin)), makes an alternative diagnosis more likely.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] T. gondii may also be detected in <a href="/wiki/Blood" title="Blood">blood</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amniotic_fluid" title="Amniotic fluid">amniotic fluid</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Cerebrospinal_fluid" title="Cerebrospinal fluid">cerebrospinal fluid</a> by using <a href="/wiki/Polymerase_chain_reaction" title="Polymerase chain reaction">polymerase chain reaction</a>.<a href="#cite_note-SwitajEtc2005-68">[68]</a> T. gondii may exist in a host as an inactive cyst that would likely evade detection.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <a href="/wiki/Serology" title="Serology">Serological</a> testing can detect T. gondii antibodies in blood serum, using methods including the <a href="/wiki/Sabin%E2%80%93Feldman_dye_test" title="Sabin–Feldman dye test">Sabin–Feldman dye test</a> (DT), the indirect <a href="/wiki/Hemagglutination_assay" title="Hemagglutination assay">hemagglutination assay</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Indirect_fluorescent_antibody" class="mw-redirect" title="Indirect fluorescent antibody">indirect fluorescent antibody assay (IFA)</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Direct_agglutination_test" title="Direct agglutination test">direct agglutination test</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Latex_agglutination_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Latex agglutination test">latex agglutination test</a> (LAT), the <a href="/wiki/ELISA" title="ELISA">enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)</a>, and the immunosorbent agglutination assay test (IAAT).<a href="#cite_note-Hill_2002-62">[62]</a> The most commonly used tests to measure <a href="/wiki/IgG" class="mw-redirect" title="IgG">IgG</a> antibody are the DT, the ELISA, the IFA, and the modified direct agglutination test.<a href="#cite_note-Montoya_2002-69">[69]</a> IgG antibodies usually appear within a week or two of infection, peak within one to two months, then decline at various rates.<a href="#cite_note-Montoya_2002-69">[69]</a> Toxoplasma IgG antibodies generally persist for life, and therefore may be present in the bloodstream as a result of either current or previous infection.<a href="#cite_note-JonesPariseFiore2014-70">[70]</a> To some extent, acute toxoplasmosis infections can be differentiated from chronic infections using an IgG <a href="/wiki/Avidity" title="Avidity">avidity</a> test, which is a variation on the ELISA. In the first response to infection, toxoplasma-specific IgG has a low affinity for the toxoplasma antigen; in the following weeks and month, IgG affinity for the antigen increases. Based on the IgG avidity test, if the IgG in the infected individual has a high affinity, it means that the infection began three to five months before testing. This is particularly useful in congenital infection, where pregnancy status and gestational age at time of infection determines treatment.<a href="#cite_note-RemingtonThulliez2004-71">[71]</a> In contrast to IgG, IgM antibodies can be used to detect acute infection but generally not chronic infection.<a href="#cite_note-JonesPariseFiore2014-70">[70]</a> The IgM antibodies appear sooner after infection than the IgG antibodies and disappear faster than IgG antibodies after recovery.<a href="#cite_note-Hill_2002-62">[62]</a> In most cases, T. gondii-specific IgM antibodies can first be detected approximately a week after acquiring primary infection and decrease within one to six months; 25% of those infected are negative for T. gondii-specific IgM within seven months.<a href="#cite_note-JonesPariseFiore2014-70">[70]</a> However, IgM may be detectable months or years after infection, during the chronic phase, and false positives for acute infection are possible.<a href="#cite_note-Montoya_2002-69">[69]</a> The most commonly used tests for the measurement of IgM antibody are <a href="/wiki/ELISA#Sandwich_ELISA" title="ELISA">double-sandwich IgM-ELISA</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Indirect_fluorescent_antibody_technique" class="mw-redirect" title="Indirect fluorescent antibody technique">IFA test</a>, and the immunosorbent agglutination assay (IgM-ISAGA). Commercial test kits often have low specificity, and the reported results are frequently misinterpreted.<a href="#cite_note-Montoya_2002-69">[69]</a> In 2021, twenty commercial anti-Toxoplasma IgG assays were evaluated in a <a href="/wiki/Systematic_review" title="Systematic review">systematic review</a>, in comparison with an accepted reference method.<a href="#cite_note-Robert-GangneuxGuegan2021-72">[72]</a> Most of them were enzyme-immunoassays, followed by agglutination tests, immunochromatographic tests, and a <a href="/wiki/Western-Blot" class="mw-redirect" title="Western-Blot">Western-Blot</a> assay. The mean sensitivity of IgG assays ranged from 89.7% to 100% for standard titers and from 13.4% to 99.2% for low IgG titers. A few studies pointed out the ability of some methods, especially WB to detect IgG early after primary infection. The specificity of IgG assays was generally high, ranging from 91.3% to 100%; and higher than 99% for most EIA assays. The <a href="/wiki/Positive_and_negative_predictive_values" title="Positive and negative predictive values">positive predictive value</a> (PPV) was not a discriminant indicator among methods, whereas significant disparities (87.5–100%) were reported among negative predictive values (NPV), a key-parameter assessing the ability to definitively rule out a Toxoplasma infection in patients at-risk for opportunistic infections.<a href="#cite_note-Robert-GangneuxGuegan2021-72">[72]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Congenital">Congenital</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Toxoplasmosis&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Congenital">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Toxoplasmosis,_Congenital.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Toxoplasmosis%2C_Congenital.jpg/220px-Toxoplasmosis%2C_Congenital.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Toxoplasmosis%2C_Congenital.jpg/330px-Toxoplasmosis%2C_Congenital.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Toxoplasmosis%2C_Congenital.jpg/440px-Toxoplasmosis%2C_Congenital.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1373" data-file-height="914" /></a><figcaption>Child with congenital toxoplasmosis</figcaption></figure> Recommendations for the diagnosis of congenital toxoplasmosis include: prenatal diagnosis based on <a href="/wiki/Amniocentesis" title="Amniocentesis">testing</a> of <a href="/wiki/Amniotic_fluid" title="Amniotic fluid">amniotic fluid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ultrasound" title="Ultrasound">ultrasound</a> examinations; neonatal diagnosis based on molecular testing of placenta and <a href="/wiki/Cord_blood" title="Cord blood">cord blood</a> and comparative mother-child serologic tests and a clinical examination at birth; and early childhood diagnosis based on <a href="/wiki/Neurologic" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurologic">neurologic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ophthalmologic" class="mw-redirect" title="Ophthalmologic">ophthalmologic</a> examinations and a serologic survey during the first year of life.<a href="#cite_note-Sterkers_2011-55">[55]</a> During pregnancy, serological testing is recommended at three week intervals.<a href="#cite_note-Sensini2006-73">[73]</a> Even though diagnosis of toxoplasmosis heavily relies on serological detection of specific anti-Toxoplasma immunoglobulin, serological testing has limitations. For example, it may fail to detect the active phase of T. gondii infection because the specific anti-Toxoplasma <a href="/wiki/Immunoglobulin_G" title="Immunoglobulin G">IgG</a> or <a href="/wiki/Immunoglobulin_M" title="Immunoglobulin M">IgM</a> may not be produced until after several weeks of infection. As a result, a pregnant woman might test negative during the active phase of T. gondii infection leading to undetected and therefore untreated congenital toxoplasmosis.<a href="#cite_note-Lin_2000-74">[74]</a> Also, the test may not detect T. gondii infections in immunocompromised patients because the titers of specific anti-Toxoplasma IgG or IgM may not rise in this type of patient.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Many PCR-based techniques have been developed to diagnose toxoplasmosis using clinical specimens that include amniotic fluid, <a href="/wiki/Blood" title="Blood">blood</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cerebrospinal_fluid" title="Cerebrospinal fluid">cerebrospinal fluid</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tissue_biopsy" class="mw-redirect" title="Tissue biopsy">tissue biopsy</a>. The most sensitive PCR-based technique is <a href="/wiki/Nested_PCR" class="mw-redirect" title="Nested PCR">nested PCR</a>, followed by hybridization of PCR products.<a href="#cite_note-Lin_2000-74">[74]</a> The major downside to these techniques is that they are time-consuming and do not provide quantitative data.<a href="#cite_note-Lin_2000-74">[74]</a> Real-time PCR is useful in pathogen detection, gene expression and regulation, and allelic discrimination. This PCR technique utilizes the 5' nuclease activity of Taq DNA polymerase to cleave a nonextendible, fluorescence-labeled hybridization probe during the extension phase of PCR.<a href="#cite_note-Lin_2000-74">[74]</a> A second fluorescent dye, e.g., 6-carboxy-tetramethyl-rhodamine, quenches the fluorescence of the intact probe.<a href="#cite_note-Lin_2000-74">[74]</a> The nuclease cleavage of the hybridization probe during the PCR releases the effect of quenching resulting in an increase of fluorescence proportional to the amount of PCR product, which can be monitored by a sequence detector.<a href="#cite_note-Lin_2000-74">[74]</a> Lymph nodes affected by Toxoplasma have characteristic changes, including poorly demarcated reactive <a href="/wiki/Germinal_centers" class="mw-redirect" title="Germinal centers">germinal centers</a>, clusters of monocytoid B cells, and scattered epithelioid <a href="/wiki/Histiocyte" title="Histiocyte">histiocytes</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The classic triad of congenital toxoplasmosis includes: <a href="/wiki/Chorioretinitis" title="Chorioretinitis">chorioretinitis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hydrocephalus" title="Hydrocephalus">hydrocephalus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Intracranial_arteriosclerosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Intracranial arteriosclerosis">intracranial arteriosclerosis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> Other consequences include sensorineural deafness, seizures, and intellectual disability.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> Congenital toxoplasmosis may also impact a child's hearing. Up to 30% of newborns have some degree of sensorineural hearing loss.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> The child's communication skills may also be affected. A study published in 2010 looked at 106 patients, all of whom received toxoplasmosis treatment prior to 2.5 months. Of this group, 26.4% presented with language disorders.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Treatment">Treatment</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Toxoplasmosis&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Treatment">edit</a>]</div> Treatment is recommended for people with serious health problems, such as people with <a href="/wiki/HIV" title="HIV">HIV</a> whose <a href="/wiki/CD4" title="CD4">CD4</a> counts are under 200 cells/mm3. <a href="/wiki/Trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole" title="Trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole">Trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole</a> is the drug of choice to prevent toxoplasmosis, but not for treating active disease. A 2012 study shows a promising new way to treat the active and latent form of this disease using two <a href="/wiki/ELQ-300" title="ELQ-300">endochin-like quinolones</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Doggett_2012-79">[79]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Acute_2">Acute</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Toxoplasmosis&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Acute">edit</a>]</div> The medications prescribed for acute toxoplasmosis are the following:[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyrimethamine" title="Pyrimethamine">Pyrimethamine</a> – an <a href="/wiki/Antimalarial_medication" title="Antimalarial medication">antimalarial medication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfadiazine" title="Sulfadiazine">Sulfadiazine</a> – an <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic" title="Antibiotic">antibiotic</a> used in combination with pyrimethamine to treat toxoplasmosis <ul><li>Combination therapy is usually given with folic acid supplements to reduce incidence of <a href="/wiki/Thrombocytopaenia" class="mw-redirect" title="Thrombocytopaenia">thrombocytopaenia</a>.</li> <li>Combination therapy is most useful in the setting of HIV.</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clindamycin" title="Clindamycin">Clindamycin</a><a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiramycin" title="Spiramycin">Spiramycin</a> – an antibiotic used most often for pregnant women to prevent the infection of their children.</li></ul> (other antibiotics, such as <a href="/wiki/Minocycline" title="Minocycline">minocycline</a>, have seen some use as a <a href="/wiki/Salvage_therapy" title="Salvage therapy">salvage therapy</a>). If infected during pregnancy, spiramycin is recommended in the first and early second trimesters while pyrimethamine/sulfadiazine and <a href="/wiki/Leucovorin" class="mw-redirect" title="Leucovorin">leucovorin</a> is recommended in the late second and third trimesters.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Latent_2">Latent</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Toxoplasmosis&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Latent">edit</a>]</div> In people with latent toxoplasmosis, the cysts are immune to these treatments, as the antibiotics do not reach the <a href="/wiki/Bradyzoite" class="mw-redirect" title="Bradyzoite">bradyzoites</a> in sufficient concentration. The medications prescribed for latent toxoplasmosis are: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atovaquone" title="Atovaquone">Atovaquone</a> – an antibiotic that has been used to kill Toxoplasma cysts inside <a href="/wiki/AIDS" class="mw-redirect" title="AIDS">AIDS</a> patients<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clindamycin" title="Clindamycin">Clindamycin</a> – an antibiotic that, in combination with <a href="/wiki/Atovaquone" title="Atovaquone">atovaquone</a>, seemed to optimally kill cysts in mice<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Congenital_2">Congenital</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Toxoplasmosis&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Congenital">edit</a>]</div> When a pregnant woman is diagnosed with acute toxoplasmosis, amniocentesis can be used to determine whether the fetus has been infected or not. When a pregnant woman develops acute toxoplasmosis, the <a href="/wiki/Tachyzoites" class="mw-redirect" title="Tachyzoites">tachyzoites</a> have approximately a 30% chance of entering the placental tissue, and from there entering and infecting the fetus. As gestational age at the time of infection increases, the chance of fetal infection also increases.<a href="#cite_note-Robert-GangneuxDarde2012-32">[32]</a> If the parasite has not yet reached the fetus, <a href="/wiki/Spiramycin" title="Spiramycin">spiramycin</a> can help to prevent placental transmission. If the fetus has been infected, the pregnant woman can be treated with <a href="/wiki/Pyrimethamine" title="Pyrimethamine">pyrimethamine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sulfadiazine" title="Sulfadiazine">sulfadiazine</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Folinic_acid" title="Folinic acid">folinic acid</a>, after the first trimester. They are treated after the first trimester because pyrimethamine has an antifolate effect, and lack of folic acid can interfere with <a href="/wiki/Neural_tube_defect" title="Neural tube defect">fetal brain formation</a> and cause <a href="/wiki/Thrombocytopaenia" class="mw-redirect" title="Thrombocytopaenia">thrombocytopaenia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-JonesLopez2003-84">[84]</a> Infection in earlier gestational stages correlates with poorer fetal and neonatal outcomes, particularly when the infection is untreated.<a href="#cite_note-McLeod2009-85">[85]</a> Newborns who undergo 12 months of postnatal anti-toxoplasmosis treatment have a low chance of sensorineural hearing loss.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> Information regarding treatment milestones for children with congenital toxoplasmosis have been created for this group.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Toxoplasmosis&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Epidemiology">edit</a>]</div> T. gondii infections occur throughout the world, although infection rates differ significantly by country.<a href="#cite_note-Pappas_2009-26">[26]</a> For women of childbearing age, a survey of 99 studies within 44 countries found the areas of highest prevalence are within <a href="/wiki/Latin_America" title="Latin America">Latin America</a> (about 50–80%), parts of <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern</a> and <a href="/wiki/Central_Europe" title="Central Europe">Central Europe</a> (about 20–60%), the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a> (about 30–50%), parts of <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a> (about 20–60%), and parts of <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a> (about 20–55%).<a href="#cite_note-Pappas_2009-26">[26]</a> In the United States, data from the <a href="/wiki/National_Health_and_Nutrition_Examination_Survey" title="National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey">National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey</a> (NHANES) from 1999 to 2004 found 9.0% of US-born persons 12–49 years of age were <a href="/wiki/Seropositive" class="mw-redirect" title="Seropositive">seropositive</a> for <a href="/wiki/IgG" class="mw-redirect" title="IgG">IgG</a> <a href="/wiki/Antibodies" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibodies">antibodies</a> against T. gondii, down from 14.1% as measured in the NHANES 1988–1994.<a href="#cite_note-Jones_2007-88">[88]</a> In the 1999–2004 survey, 7.7% of US-born and 28.1% of foreign-born women 15–44 years of age were T. gondii seropositive.<a href="#cite_note-Jones_2007-88">[88]</a> A trend of decreasing <a href="/wiki/Seroprevalence" title="Seroprevalence">seroprevalence</a> has been observed by numerous studies in the United States and many European countries.<a href="#cite_note-Pappas_2009-26">[26]</a> Toxoplasma gondii is considered the second leading cause of <a href="/wiki/Foodborne_illness" title="Foodborne illness">foodborne</a>-related deaths and the fourth leading cause of foodborne-related hospitalizations in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-Scallan-89">[89]</a> The protist responsible for toxoplasmosis is T. gondii. Three major types of T. gondii are responsible for the patterns of toxoplasmosis throughout the world, named types I, II, and III. These three types of T. gondii have differing effects on certain hosts, mainly mice and humans due to their variation in genotypes.<a href="#cite_note-Dalimi-90">[90]</a> <ul><li>Type I: virulent in mice and humans, seen in <a href="/wiki/People_with_AIDS" class="mw-redirect" title="People with AIDS">people with AIDS</a>.</li> <li>Type II: non-virulent in mice, virulent in humans (mostly Europe and North America), seen in people with AIDS.</li> <li>Type III: non-virulent in mice, virulent mainly in animals but seen to a lesser degree in humans as well.</li></ul> Current <a href="/wiki/Serotyping" class="mw-redirect" title="Serotyping">serotyping</a> techniques can only separate type I or III from type II parasites.<a href="#cite_note-Sibley2009-91">[91]</a> Because the parasite poses a particular threat to fetuses when it is contracted during pregnancy,<a href="#cite_note-CDCPregnant-92">[92]</a> much of the global <a href="/wiki/Epidemiological" class="mw-redirect" title="Epidemiological">epidemiological</a> data regarding T. gondii comes from seropositivity tests in women of childbearing age. Seropositivity tests look for the presence of antibodies against T. gondii in blood, so while seropositivity guarantees one has been exposed to the parasite, it does not necessarily guarantee one is chronically infected.<a href="#cite_note-Dubey_1998_Rats-93">[93]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Toxoplasmosis&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Toxoplasma_gondii" title="Toxoplasma gondii">Toxoplasma gondii</a> was first described in 1908 by Nicolle and Manceaux in Tunisia, and independently by Splendore in Brazil.<a href="#cite_note-Ferguson_2009-11">[11]</a> Splendore reported the <a href="/wiki/Protozoan" class="mw-redirect" title="Protozoan">protozoan</a> in a rabbit, while Nicolle and Manceaux identified it in a North African rodent, the gundi (<a href="/wiki/Ctenodactylus_gundi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ctenodactylus gundi">Ctenodactylus gundi</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Weiss_Dubey_2009-42">[42]</a> In 1909 Nicolle and Manceaux differentiated the protozoan from <a href="/wiki/Leishmania" title="Leishmania">Leishmania</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Ferguson_2009-11">[11]</a> Nicolle and Manceaux then named it Toxoplasma gondii after the curved shape of its infectious stage (Greek root toxon = bow).<a href="#cite_note-Ferguson_2009-11">[11]</a> The first recorded case of congenital toxoplasmosis was in 1923, but it was not identified as caused by T. gondii.<a href="#cite_note-Weiss_Dubey_2009-42">[42]</a> Janků (1923) described in detail the autopsy results of an 11-month-old boy who had presented to hospital with <a href="/wiki/Hydrocephalus" title="Hydrocephalus">hydrocephalus</a>. The boy had classic marks of toxoplasmosis including <a href="/wiki/Chorioretinitis" title="Chorioretinitis">chorioretinitis</a> (inflammation of the choroid and retina of the eye).<a href="#cite_note-Weiss_Dubey_2009-42">[42]</a> Histology revealed a number of "sporocytes", though Janků did not identify these as T. gondii.<a href="#cite_note-Weiss_Dubey_2009-42">[42]</a> It was not until 1937 that the first detailed scientific analysis of T. gondii took place using techniques previously developed for analyzing viruses.<a href="#cite_note-Ferguson_2009-11">[11]</a> In 1937 Sabin and Olitsky analyzed T. gondii in laboratory monkeys and mice. Sabin and Olitsky showed that T. gondii was an obligate intracellular parasite and that mice fed T. gondii-contaminated tissue also contracted the infection.<a href="#cite_note-Ferguson_2009-11">[11]</a> Thus Sabin and Olitsky demonstrated T. gondii as a <a href="/wiki/Pathogen" title="Pathogen">pathogen</a> transmissible between animals.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] T. gondii was first described as a human pathogen in 1939 at <a href="/wiki/Babies_Hospital" class="mw-redirect" title="Babies Hospital">Babies Hospital</a> in <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Ferguson_2009-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> Wolf, Cowen and Paige identified T. gondii infection in an infant girl delivered full-term by <a href="/wiki/Caesarean" class="mw-redirect" title="Caesarean">Caesarean</a> section.<a href="#cite_note-Weiss_Dubey_2009-42">[42]</a> The infant developed seizures and had chorioretinitis in both eyes at three days. The infant then developed encephalomyelitis and died at one month of age. Wolf, Cowen and Paige isolated T. gondii from brain tissue lesions. Intracranial injection of brain and spinal cord samples into mice, rabbits and rats produced encephalitis in the animals.<a href="#cite_note-Ferguson_2009-11">[11]</a> Wolf, Cowen and Page reviewed additional cases and concluded that T. gondii produced recognizable symptoms and could be transmitted from mother to child.<a href="#cite_note-Weiss_Dubey_2009-42">[42]</a> The first adult case of toxoplasmosis was reported in 1940 with no neurological signs. Pinkerton and Weinman reported the presence of Toxoplasma in a 22-year-old man from Peru who died from a subsequent bacterial infection and fever.<a href="#cite_note-Weiss_Dubey_2009-42">[42]</a> In 1948, a serological dye test was created by Sabin and Feldman based on the ability of the patient's antibodies to alter staining of Toxoplasma.<a href="#cite_note-Ferguson_2009-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> The Sabin Feldman Dye Test is now the gold standard for identifying Toxoplasma infection.<a href="#cite_note-Ferguson_2009-11">[11]</a> Transmission of Toxoplasma by eating raw or undercooked meat was demonstrated by Desmonts et al. in 1965 Paris.<a href="#cite_note-Ferguson_2009-11">[11]</a> Desmonts observed that the therapeutic consumption of raw beef or horse meat in a <a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a> hospital was associated with a 50% per year increase in Toxoplasma antibodies.<a href="#cite_note-Ferguson_2009-11">[11]</a> This means that more T. gondii was being transmitted through the raw meat. In 1974, Desmonts and Couvreur showed that infection during the first two trimesters produces most harm to the fetus, that transmission depended on when mothers were infected during pregnancy, that mothers with antibodies before pregnancy did not transmit the infection to the fetus, and that <a href="/wiki/Spiramycin" title="Spiramycin">spiramycin</a> lowered the transmission to the fetus.<a href="#cite_note-Weiss_Dubey_2009-42">[42]</a> Toxoplasma gained more attention in the 1970s with the rise of immune-suppressant treatment given after organ or bone marrow transplants and the <a href="/wiki/AIDS" class="mw-redirect" title="AIDS">AIDS</a> epidemic of the 1980s.<a href="#cite_note-Ferguson_2009-11">[11]</a> Patients with lowered immune system function are much more susceptible to disease. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Society_and_culture">Society and culture</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Toxoplasmosis&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Society and culture">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id=""Crazy_cat-lady"">"Crazy cat-lady"</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Toxoplasmosis&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: "Crazy cat-lady"">edit</a>]</div> "Crazy cat-lady syndrome" is a term coined by news organizations to describe scientific findings that link the parasite <a href="/wiki/Toxoplasma_gondii" title="Toxoplasma gondii">Toxoplasma gondii</a> to several <a href="/wiki/Mental_disorders" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental disorders">mental disorders</a> and behavioral problems.<a href="#cite_note-KMcAuliff_Atlantic-96">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-RSkloot_NYT-97">[97]</a> The suspected correlation between cat ownership in childhood and later development of <a href="/wiki/Schizophrenia" title="Schizophrenia">schizophrenia</a> suggested that further studies were needed to determine a risk factor for children;<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> however, a later study found that childhood cat ownership was not predictive of psychotic experiences at ages 13 or 18.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> Researchers also found that cat ownership does not strongly increase the risk of a T. gondii infection in pregnant women.<a href="#cite_note-Kapperud_1996-61">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> The term crazy cat-lady syndrome draws on both stereotype and popular cultural reference. It was originated as instances of the aforementioned afflictions were noted amongst the populace. A <a href="/wiki/Cat_lady" title="Cat lady">cat lady</a> is a cultural stereotype of a woman who compulsively <a href="/wiki/Hoarding" title="Hoarding">hoards</a> and dotes upon cats. The biologist <a href="/wiki/Jaroslav_Flegr" title="Jaroslav Flegr">Jaroslav Flegr</a> is a proponent of the theory that toxoplasmosis affects human behaviour.<a href="#cite_note-howyourcat-101">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notable_cases">Notable cases</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Toxoplasmosis&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Notable cases">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Tennis player <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Ashe" title="Arthur Ashe">Arthur Ashe</a> developed neurological problems from toxoplasmosis (and was later found to be <a href="/wiki/HIV" title="HIV">HIV</a>-positive).<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a></li> <li>Actor <a href="/wiki/Merritt_Butrick" title="Merritt Butrick">Merritt Butrick</a> was HIV-positive and died from toxoplasmosis as a result of his already-weakened immune system.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_Zamora" title="Pedro Zamora">Pedro Zamora</a>, reality television personality and HIV/AIDS activist, was diagnosed with toxoplasmosis as a result of his immune system being weakened by HIV.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Fran%C3%A7ois,_Count_of_Clermont" title="Prince François, Count of Clermont">Prince François, Count of Clermont</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pretender" title="Pretender">pretender</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Throne_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Throne of France">throne of France</a>, had congenital toxoplasmosis; his disability caused him to be overlooked in the line of succession.</li> <li>Actress <a href="/wiki/Leslie_Ash" title="Leslie Ash">Leslie Ash</a> contracted toxoplasmosis in the second month of pregnancy.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a></li> <li>British middle-distance runner <a href="/wiki/Sebastian_Coe" title="Sebastian Coe">Sebastian Coe</a> contracted toxoplasmosis in 1983, which was probably transmitted by a cat while he trained in Italy.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a></li> <li>Tennis player <a href="/wiki/Martina_Navratilova" title="Martina Navratilova">Martina Navratilova</a> experienced toxoplasmosis during the <a href="/wiki/1982_US_Open_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_Singles" class="mw-redirect" title="1982 US Open – Women's Singles">1982 US Open</a>.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_animals">Other animals</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Toxoplasmosis&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Other animals">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Parasite140105-fig3_Toxoplasmosis_in_a_bar-shouldered_dove_-_TEM_of_2_tachyzoites.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Parasite140105-fig3_Toxoplasmosis_in_a_bar-shouldered_dove_-_TEM_of_2_tachyzoites.tif/lossy-page1-220px-Parasite140105-fig3_Toxoplasmosis_in_a_bar-shouldered_dove_-_TEM_of_2_tachyzoites.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="269" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Parasite140105-fig3_Toxoplasmosis_in_a_bar-shouldered_dove_-_TEM_of_2_tachyzoites.tif/lossy-page1-330px-Parasite140105-fig3_Toxoplasmosis_in_a_bar-shouldered_dove_-_TEM_of_2_tachyzoites.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Parasite140105-fig3_Toxoplasmosis_in_a_bar-shouldered_dove_-_TEM_of_2_tachyzoites.tif/lossy-page1-440px-Parasite140105-fig3_Toxoplasmosis_in_a_bar-shouldered_dove_-_TEM_of_2_tachyzoites.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1378" data-file-height="1683" /></a><figcaption>Toxoplasma gondii infects virtually all warm-blooded animals; these <a href="/wiki/Tachyzoite" class="mw-redirect" title="Tachyzoite">tachyzoites</a> were found in a bird<a href="#cite_note-RigouletHennache2014-110">[110]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Parasite150075-fig1_Toxoplasma_gondii_in_Giant_panda.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Parasite150075-fig1_Toxoplasma_gondii_in_Giant_panda.tif/lossy-page1-220px-Parasite150075-fig1_Toxoplasma_gondii_in_Giant_panda.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Parasite150075-fig1_Toxoplasma_gondii_in_Giant_panda.tif/lossy-page1-330px-Parasite150075-fig1_Toxoplasma_gondii_in_Giant_panda.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Parasite150075-fig1_Toxoplasma_gondii_in_Giant_panda.tif/lossy-page1-440px-Parasite150075-fig1_Toxoplasma_gondii_in_Giant_panda.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1165" data-file-height="877" /></a><figcaption>Toxoplasma gondii in the lung of a <a href="/wiki/Giant_panda" title="Giant panda">giant panda</a>.<a href="#cite_note-MaWang2015-111">[111]</a> Arrow: <a href="/wiki/Macrophage" title="Macrophage">macrophages</a> containing <a href="/wiki/Tachyzoite" class="mw-redirect" title="Tachyzoite">tachyzoites</a>.</figcaption></figure> Although T. gondii has the capability of infecting virtually all warm-blooded animals, susceptibility and rates of infection vary widely between different <a href="/wiki/Genera" class="mw-redirect" title="Genera">genera</a> and <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDubey2016needed-112">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-RouatbiAmairia2019-113">[113]</a> Rates of infection in populations of the same species can also vary widely due to differences in location, diet, and other factors.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Although infection with T. gondii has been noted in several species of Asian primates, seroprevalence of T. gondii antibodies were found for the first time in toque macaques (<a href="/wiki/Macaca_sinica" class="mw-redirect" title="Macaca sinica">Macaca sinica</a>) that are endemic to the island of Sri Lanka.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> Australian <a href="/wiki/Marsupials" class="mw-redirect" title="Marsupials">marsupials</a> are particularly susceptible to toxoplasmosis.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> <a href="/wiki/Wallaby" title="Wallaby">Wallabies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Koalas" class="mw-redirect" title="Koalas">koalas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wombats" class="mw-redirect" title="Wombats">wombats</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pademelon" title="Pademelon">pademelons</a> and small <a href="/wiki/Dasyuromorphia" title="Dasyuromorphia">dasyurids</a> can be killed by it, with <a href="/wiki/Eastern_barred_bandicoot" title="Eastern barred bandicoot">eastern barred bandicoots</a> typically dying within about 3 weeks of infection.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> It is estimated that 23% of wild swine worldwide are seropositive for T. gondii.<a href="#cite_note-Riahi-117">[117]</a> Seroprevalence varies across the globe with the highest seroprevalence in North America (32%) and Europe (26%) and the lowest in Asia (13%) and South America (5%).<a href="#cite_note-Riahi-117">[117]</a> Geographical regions located at higher latitudes and regions that experience warmer, humid climates are associated with increased seroprevalence of T. gondii among wild boar.<a href="#cite_note-Riahi-117">[117]</a> Wild boar infected with T. gondii pose a potential health risk for humans who consume their meat.<a href="#cite_note-Riahi-117">[117]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Livestock">Livestock</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Toxoplasmosis&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Livestock">edit</a>]</div> Among <a href="/wiki/Livestock" title="Livestock">livestock</a>, pigs,<a href="#cite_note-Dubey-2009-118">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDubey2016145-119">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nissapatorn-et-al-2013-120">[120]</a> sheep<a href="#cite_note-pmid24534616-121">[121]</a> and goats have the highest rates of chronic T. gondii infection.<a href="#cite_note-Tenter2000-122">[122]</a> The prevalence of T. gondii in meat-producing animals varies widely both within and among countries,<a href="#cite_note-Tenter2000-122">[122]</a> and rates of infection have been shown to be dramatically influenced by varying farming and management practices.<a href="#cite_note-Dubey2008-14">[14]</a> For instance, animals kept outdoors or in <a href="/wiki/Free_range" title="Free range">free-ranging</a> environments are more at risk of infection than animals raised indoors or in commercial <a href="/wiki/Factory_farming" class="mw-redirect" title="Factory farming">confinement operations</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Dubey2008-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jones2012Foodborne-47">[47]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pigs">Pigs</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Toxoplasmosis&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Pigs">edit</a>]</div> Worldwide, the percentage of pigs harboring viable parasites has been measured to be 3–71.43%<a href="#cite_note-Nissapatorn-et-al-2013-120">[120]</a> and in the United States (via <a href="/wiki/Bioassay" title="Bioassay">bioassay</a> in mice or cats) to be as high as 92.7% and as low as 0%, depending on the farm or herd.<a href="#cite_note-Jones2012Foodborne-47">[47]</a> Surveys of seroprevalence (T. gondii antibodies in blood) are more common, and such measurements are indicative of the high relative seroprevalence in pigs across the world.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDubey2016145–151-123">[123]</a> Neonatal <a href="/wiki/Piglet_(animal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Piglet (animal)">piglets</a> have been found to experience the entire range of severity, including progression to <a href="/wiki/Stillbirth" title="Stillbirth">stillbirth</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDubey2016153-124">[124]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dubey-2009-118">[118]</a>: 95  This was especially demonstrated in the foundational Thiptara et al. 2006, reporting a litter birth of three stillborns and six live in Thailand. This observation has been relevant not only to that country but to toxoplasmosis control in <a href="/wiki/Porciculture" class="mw-redirect" title="Porciculture">porciculture</a> around the world.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDubey2016154-125">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dubey-2009-118">[118]</a>: 95 <a href="#cite_note-Nissapatorn-et-al-2013-120">[120]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sheep">Sheep</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Toxoplasmosis&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Sheep">edit</a>]</div> Along with pigs, sheep and goats are among the most commonly infected livestock of epidemiological significance for human infection.<a href="#cite_note-Tenter2000-122">[122]</a> Prevalence of viable T. gondii in sheep tissue has been measured (via bioassay) to be as high as 78% in the United States,<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> and a 2011 survey of goats intended for consumption in the United States found a seroprevalence of 53.4%.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> A single live attenuated vaccine, Toxovax, is currently available to mitigate the negative impacts of congenital toxoplasmosis on the sheep industry.<a href="#cite_note-pmid36090161-128">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid36310233-129">[129]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Chickens">Chickens</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Toxoplasmosis&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Chickens">edit</a>]</div> Due to a lack of exposure to the outdoors, chickens raised in large-scale indoor confinement operations are not commonly infected with T. gondii.<a href="#cite_note-Dubey2008-14">[14]</a> Free-ranging or backyard-raised chickens are much more commonly infected.<a href="#cite_note-Dubey2008-14">[14]</a> A survey of free-ranging chickens in the United States found its prevalence to be 17–100%, depending on the farm.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> Because chicken meat is generally cooked thoroughly before consumption, poultry is not generally considered to be a significant risk factor for human T. gondii infection.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeissKim2007723-131">[131]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cattle">Cattle</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Toxoplasmosis&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Cattle">edit</a>]</div> Although cattle and buffalo can be infected with T. gondii, the parasite is generally eliminated or reduced to undetectable levels within a few weeks following exposure.<a href="#cite_note-Dubey2008-14">[14]</a> Tissue cysts are rarely present in buffalo meat or beef, and meat from these animals is considered to be low-risk for harboring viable parasites.<a href="#cite_note-Jones2012Foodborne-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-Tenter2000-122">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-Blaga2019-132">[132]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Horses">Horses</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Toxoplasmosis&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Horses">edit</a>]</div> Horses are considered resistant to chronic T. gondii infection.<a href="#cite_note-Dubey2008-14">[14]</a> However, viable cells have been isolated from US horses slaughtered for export, and severe human toxoplasmosis in France has been epidemiologically linked to the consumption of <a href="/wiki/Horse_meat" title="Horse meat">horse meat</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Jones2012Foodborne-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-AroussiVignoles2015-133">[133]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Domestic_cats">Domestic cats</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Toxoplasmosis&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Domestic cats">edit</a>]</div> In 1942, the first case of feline toxoplasmosis was diagnosed and reported in a domestic cat in Middletown, New York.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> The investigators isolated oocysts from feline feces and found that the oocysts could be infectious for up to 12 months in the environment.<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a> The seroprevalence of T. gondii in <a href="/wiki/Domestic_cat" class="mw-redirect" title="Domestic cat">domestic cats</a>, worldwide has been estimated to be around 30–40%<a href="#cite_note-Elmore_2010-136">[136]</a> and exhibits significant geographical variation. In the United States, no official national estimate has been made, but local surveys have shown levels varying between 16% and 80%.<a href="#cite_note-Elmore_2010-136">[136]</a> A 2012 survey of 445 <a href="/wiki/Purebred" title="Purebred">purebred</a> pet cats and 45 shelter cats in <a href="/wiki/Finland" title="Finland">Finland</a> found an overall seroprevalence of 48.4%,<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> while a 2010 survey of feral cats from <a href="/wiki/Giza,_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Giza, Egypt">Giza, Egypt</a> found a seroprevalence rate of 97.4%.<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> Another survey from Colombia recorded seroprevalence of 89.3%,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDubey201696-139">[139]</a> whereas a Chinese (<a href="/wiki/Guangdong" title="Guangdong">Guangdong</a>) study found just a 2.1% prevalence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDubey201698-140">[140]</a> T. gondii infection rates in domestic cats vary widely depending on the cats' diets and lifestyles.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDubey201695-141">[141]</a> <a href="/wiki/Feral_cat" title="Feral cat">Feral cats</a> that hunt for their food are more likely to be infected than domestic cats, and naturally also depends on the prevalence of T. gondii-infected prey such as birds and small <a href="/wiki/Mammals" class="mw-redirect" title="Mammals">mammals</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDubey201646-142">[142]</a> Most infected cats will shed oocysts in their feces only once in their lifetime, typically for 3-10 days after infection. This shedding can release millions of oocysts, each capable of spreading and surviving for months. After infection, most cats will develop antibodies to T. gondii and will no longer shed oocysts.<a href="#cite_note-pmid23813830-143">[143]</a><a href="#cite_note-Elmore_2010-136">[136]</a> An estimated 1% of cats at any given time are actively shedding oocysts.<a href="#cite_note-Dubey2008-14">[14]</a> It is difficult to control the cat population with the infected oocysts due to the lack of an approved vaccine. This remains a challenge in most cases, and the programs that are readily available are questionable in efficacy.<a href="#cite_note-pmid36310233-129">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid31926434-145">[145]</a> Research into feline vaccines for toxoplasmosis is ongoing, with several candidates showing positive results in clinical trials.<a href="#cite_note-pmid36310233-129">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid31926434-145">[145]</a> Current methods of control of T. gondii in cats typically rely on preventing them from hunting (where they might acquire the parasite), not allowing the cat to consume raw meat, and maintaining good hygiene around litter boxes to minimize environmental oocyst contamination.<a href="#cite_note-CDC_2018-146">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid23813830-143">[143]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rodents">Rodents</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Toxoplasmosis&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Rodents">edit</a>]</div> Infection with T. gondii has been shown to <a href="/wiki/Behavior-altering_parasites_and_parasitoids" class="mw-redirect" title="Behavior-altering parasites and parasitoids">alter the behavior</a> of mice and rats in ways thought to increase the rodents' chances of being preyed upon by cats.<a href="#cite_note-Webster_2010-147">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-Webster_2007-148">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-Berdoy_2000-149">[149]</a> Infected rodents show a reduction in their innate aversion to cat odors; while uninfected mice and rats will generally avoid areas marked with cat <a href="/wiki/Urine" title="Urine">urine</a> or with cat body odor, this avoidance is reduced or eliminated in infected animals.<a href="#cite_note-Webster_2010-147">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-Berdoy_2000-149">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-Vyas2007BehavioralChanges-150">[150]</a> Moreover, some evidence suggests this loss of aversion may be specific to feline odors: when given a choice between two <a href="/wiki/Predator" class="mw-redirect" title="Predator">predator</a> odors (cat or <a href="/wiki/Mink" title="Mink">mink</a>), infected rodents show a significantly stronger preference to cat odors than do uninfected <a href="/wiki/Control_(experiment)" class="mw-redirect" title="Control (experiment)">controls</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Xiao_2012-151">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lamberton2008-152">[152]</a> In rodents, T. gondii–induced behavioral changes occur through <a href="/wiki/Chromatin_remodeling" title="Chromatin remodeling">epigenetic remodeling</a> in neurons associated with observed behaviors;<a href="#cite_note-TG_Masterpiece_review-153">[153]</a><a href="#cite_note-Masterpiece_of_epigenetic_engineering-154">[154]</a> for example, it modifies <a href="/wiki/Epigenetic_methylation" class="mw-redirect" title="Epigenetic methylation">epigenetic methylation</a> to induce hypomethylation of <a href="/wiki/Arginine_vasopressin" class="mw-redirect" title="Arginine vasopressin">arginine vasopressin</a>-related genes in the medial amygdala to greatly decrease predator aversion.<a href="#cite_note-TG_Masterpiece_review-153">[153]</a><a href="#cite_note-Masterpiece_of_epigenetic_engineering-154">[154]</a> Similar epigenetically induced behavioral changes have also been observed in mouse models of addiction, where changes in the expression of <a href="/wiki/Histone-modifying_enzyme" class="mw-redirect" title="Histone-modifying enzyme">histone-modifying enzymes</a> via <a href="/wiki/Gene_knockout" title="Gene knockout">gene knockout</a> or <a href="/wiki/Enzyme_inhibition" class="mw-redirect" title="Enzyme inhibition">enzyme inhibition</a> in specific neurons produced alterations in drug-related behaviors.<a href="#cite_note-Amphetamine_epigenetics-155">[155]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid25486626-156">[156]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid23643695-157">[157]</a> Widespread <a href="/wiki/Histone_acetylation_and_deacetylation" title="Histone acetylation and deacetylation">histone–lysine acetylation</a> in cortical <a href="/wiki/Astrocytes" class="mw-redirect" title="Astrocytes">astrocytes</a> appears to be another epigenetic mechanism employed by T. gondii.<a href="#cite_note-T._Gondii_has_a_HAT-158">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-acetylation-159">[159]</a> T. gondii-infected rodents show a number of behavioral changes beyond altered responses to cat odors. Rats infected with the parasite show increased levels of activity and decreased <a href="/wiki/Neophobic" class="mw-redirect" title="Neophobic">neophobic</a> behavior.<a href="#cite_note-McConkey_2013-160">[160]</a> Similarly, infected mice show alterations in patterns of <a href="/wiki/Animal_locomotion" title="Animal locomotion">locomotion</a> and exploratory behavior during experimental tests. These patterns include traveling greater distances, moving at higher speeds, accelerating for longer periods of time, and showing a decreased pause-time when placed in new arenas.<a href="#cite_note-Afonso_2012-161">[161]</a> Infected rodents have also been shown to have lower <a href="/wiki/Anxiety_(mood)" class="mw-redirect" title="Anxiety (mood)">anxiety</a>, using traditional models such as <a href="/wiki/Elevated_plus_maze" title="Elevated plus maze">elevated plus mazes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Open_Field_(animal_test)" class="mw-redirect" title="Open Field (animal test)">open field arenas</a>, and social interaction tests.<a href="#cite_note-Afonso_2012-161">[161]</a><a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Marine_mammals">Marine mammals</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Toxoplasmosis&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Marine mammals">edit</a>]</div> A <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Davis" title="University of California, Davis">University of California, Davis</a> study of dead <a href="/wiki/Sea_otter" title="Sea otter">sea otters</a> collected from 1998 to 2004 found toxoplasmosis was the cause of death for 13% of the animals.<a href="#cite_note-Conrad_2005-163">[163]</a> Proximity to freshwater outflows into the ocean was a major risk factor. Ingestion of <a href="/wiki/Oocysts" class="mw-redirect" title="Oocysts">oocysts</a> from cat feces is considered to be the most likely ultimate source.<a href="#cite_note-npr1-164">[164]</a> <a href="/wiki/Surface_runoff" title="Surface runoff">Surface runoff</a> containing wild cat feces and litter from domestic cats flushed down toilets are possible sources of oocysts.<a href="#cite_note-mag72-165">[165]</a><a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> These same sources may have also introduced the toxoplasmosis infection to the endangered <a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_monk_seal" title="Hawaiian monk seal">Hawaiian monk seal</a>.<a href="#cite_note-scientificamerican.com-167">[167]</a> Infection with the parasite has contributed to the death of at least four Hawaiian monk seals.<a href="#cite_note-scientificamerican.com-167">[167]</a> A Hawaiian monk seal's infection with T. gondii was first noted in 2004.<a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a> The parasite's spread threatens the recovery of this highly endangered pinniped. The parasites have been found in numerous cetacean species, such as the <a href="/wiki/Bottlenose_dolphin" title="Bottlenose dolphin">bottlenose dolphin</a>,<a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a> <a href="/wiki/Spinner_dolphin" title="Spinner dolphin">spinner dolphin</a>,<a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a> <a href="/wiki/Risso%27s_dolphin" title="Risso's dolphin">Risso's dolphin</a>,<a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a> <a href="/wiki/Indo-Pacific_humpback_dolphin" title="Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin">Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin</a>,<a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a> <a href="/wiki/Striped_dolphin" title="Striped dolphin">striped dolphin</a>,<a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Beluga_whale" title="Beluga whale">beluga whale</a>,<a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a> and the critically endangered <a href="/wiki/M%C4%81ui_dolphin" title="Māui dolphin">Māui dolphin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hector%27s_dolphin" title="Hector's dolphin">Hector's dolphin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a><a href="#cite_note-Solomon_2013-176">[176]</a><a href="#cite_note-newscientist.com-177">[177]</a> A 2011 study of 161 Pacific Northwest marine mammals ranging from a <a href="/wiki/Sperm_whale" title="Sperm whale">sperm whale</a> to <a href="/wiki/Harbor_porpoise" class="mw-redirect" title="Harbor porpoise">harbor porpoises</a> that had either become stranded or died found that 42 percent tested positive for both T. gondii and S. neurona.<a href="#cite_note-Solomon_2013-176">[176]</a> Researchers Black and Massie believe anchovies, which travel from estuaries into the open ocean, may be helping to spread the disease.<a href="#cite_note-MassieWare2010-178">[178]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Giant_panda">Giant panda</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Toxoplasmosis&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Giant panda">edit</a>]</div> Toxoplasma gondii has been reported as the cause of death of a <a href="/wiki/Giant_panda" title="Giant panda">giant panda</a> kept in a zoo in China, who died in 2014 of acute <a href="/wiki/Gastroenteritis" title="Gastroenteritis">gastroenteritis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_disease" title="Respiratory disease">respiratory disease</a>.<a href="#cite_note-MaWang2015-111">[111]</a> Although seemingly <a href="/wiki/Anecdotal" class="mw-redirect" title="Anecdotal">anecdotal</a>, this report emphasizes that all warm-blooded species are likely to be infected by T. gondii, including endangered species such as the giant panda.<a href="#cite_note-MaWang2015-111">[111]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research">Research</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Toxoplasmosis&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Research">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Toxoplasmosis_lymphadenopathy_-_intermed_mag.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Toxoplasmosis_lymphadenopathy_-_intermed_mag.jpg/220px-Toxoplasmosis_lymphadenopathy_-_intermed_mag.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Toxoplasmosis_lymphadenopathy_-_intermed_mag.jpg/330px-Toxoplasmosis_lymphadenopathy_-_intermed_mag.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Toxoplasmosis_lymphadenopathy_-_intermed_mag.jpg/440px-Toxoplasmosis_lymphadenopathy_-_intermed_mag.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2848" data-file-height="4272" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Micrograph" title="Micrograph">Micrograph</a> of a lymph node showing the characteristic changes of toxoplasmosis (scattered epithelioid histiocytes (pale cells), monocytoid cells (top-center of image), large germinal centers (left of image)) <a href="/wiki/H%26E_stain" title="H&E stain">H&E stain</a></figcaption></figure> Chronic infection with T. gondii has traditionally been considered <a href="/wiki/Asymptomatic" title="Asymptomatic">asymptomatic</a> in people with normal immune function.<a href="#cite_note-Fug2017-179">[179]</a> Some evidence suggests latent infection may subtly influence a range of human behaviors and tendencies, and infection may alter the susceptibility to or intensity of a number of <a href="/wiki/Mental_disorder" title="Mental disorder">psychiatric</a> or neurological disorders.<a href="#cite_note-Webster_2013-180">[180]</a><a href="#cite_note-Fug2017-179">[179]</a> In most of the current studies where positive correlations have been found between T. gondii antibody titers and certain behavioral traits or neurological disorders, T. gondii seropositivity tests are conducted after the onset of the examined disease or behavioral trait; that is, it is often unclear whether infection with the parasite increases the chances of having a certain trait or disorder, or if having a certain trait or disorder increases the chances of becoming infected with the parasite.<a href="#cite_note-Flegr_2013-181">[181]</a> Groups of individuals with certain behavioral traits or neurological disorders may share certain behavioral tendencies that increase the likelihood of exposure to and infection with T. gondii; as a result, it is difficult to confirm causal relationships between T. gondii infections and associated neurological disorders or behavioral traits.<a href="#cite_note-Flegr_2013-181">[181]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mental_health">Mental health</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Toxoplasmosis&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Mental health">edit</a>]</div> Some evidence links T. gondii to <a href="/wiki/Schizophrenia" title="Schizophrenia">schizophrenia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Fug2017-179">[179]</a> Two 2012 meta-analyses found that the rates of <a href="/wiki/Antibodies" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibodies">antibodies</a> to T. gondii in people with schizophrenia were 2.7 times higher than in controls.<a href="#cite_note-Torrey2012-182">[182]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ar2012-183">[183]</a> T. gondii antibody positivity was therefore considered an intermediate risk factor in relation to other known risk factors.<a href="#cite_note-Torrey2012-182">[182]</a> Cautions noted include that the antibody tests do not detect toxoplasmosis directly, most people with schizophrenia do not have antibodies for toxoplasmosis, and <a href="/wiki/Publication_bias" title="Publication bias">publication bias</a> might exist.<a href="#cite_note-Ar2012-183">[183]</a> While the majority of these studies tested people already diagnosed with schizophrenia for T. gondii antibodies, associations between T. gondii and schizophrenia have been found prior to the onset of schizophrenia symptoms.<a href="#cite_note-Webster_2010-147">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-184">[184]</a> Sex differences in the age of schizophrenia onset may be explained in part by a second peak of T. gondii infection incidence during ages 25–30 in females only.<a href="#cite_note-Flegr2013-185">[185]</a> Although a mechanism supporting the association between schizophrenia and T. gondii infection is unclear, studies have investigated a molecular basis of this correlation.<a href="#cite_note-Flegr2013-185">[185]</a> <a href="/wiki/Antipsychotic" title="Antipsychotic">Antipsychotic drugs</a> used in schizophrenia appear to inhibit the replication of T. gondii tachyzoites in cell culture.<a href="#cite_note-Webster_2010-147">[147]</a> Supposing a causal link exists between T. gondii and schizophrenia, studies have yet to determine why only some individuals with latent toxoplasmosis develop schizophrenia; some plausible explanations include differing genetic susceptibility, parasite strain differences, and differences in the route of the acquired T. gondii infection.<a href="#cite_note-Torrey_2007-186">[186]</a> Correlations have also been found between antibody <a href="/wiki/Titer" title="Titer">titers</a> to T. gondii and <a href="/wiki/OCD" class="mw-redirect" title="OCD">OCD</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Suicide" title="Suicide">suicide</a> among people with mood disorders including <a href="/wiki/Bipolar_disorder" title="Bipolar disorder">bipolar disorder</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Webster_2013-180">[180]</a><a href="#cite_note-187">[187]</a> Positive antibody titers to T. gondii appear to be uncorrelated with <a href="/wiki/Major_depression" class="mw-redirect" title="Major depression">major depression</a> or <a href="/wiki/Dysthymia" title="Dysthymia">dysthymia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Pearce_2012-188">[188]</a> Although there is a correlation between T. gondii and many psychological disorders, the underlying mechanism is unclear. A 2016 study of 236 persons with high levels of toxoplasmosis antibodies found that "there was little evidence that T. gondii was related to increased risk of psychiatric disorder, poor impulse control, personality aberrations or neurocognitive impairment".<a href="#cite_note-189">[189]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neurological_disorders">Neurological disorders</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Toxoplasmosis&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Neurological disorders">edit</a>]</div> Latent infection has been linked to <a href="/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease" title="Parkinson's disease">Parkinson's disease</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease" title="Alzheimer's disease">Alzheimer's disease</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Webster_2013-180">[180]</a> Individuals with <a href="/wiki/Multiple_sclerosis" title="Multiple sclerosis">multiple sclerosis</a> show infection rates around 15% lower than the general public.<a href="#cite_note-Stascheit_et._al_2015-190">[190]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Traffic_accidents">Traffic accidents</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Toxoplasmosis&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Traffic accidents">edit</a>]</div> Latent T. gondii infection in humans has been associated with a higher risk of <a href="/wiki/Automobile_accidents" class="mw-redirect" title="Automobile accidents">automobile accidents</a>,<a href="#cite_note-191">[191]</a> potentially due to impaired <a href="/wiki/Psychomotor_learning" title="Psychomotor learning">psychomotor</a> performance or enhanced risk-taking personality profiles.<a href="#cite_note-Webster_2013-180">[180]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Climate_change">Climate change</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Toxoplasmosis&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Climate change">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a> has been reported to affect the occurrence, survival, distribution and transmission of T. gondii.<a href="#cite_note-Yan-192">[192]</a> T. gondii has been identified in the Canadian arctic, a location that was once too cold for its survival.<a href="#cite_note-Dolgin-193">[193]</a> Higher temperatures increase the survival time of T. gondii.<a href="#cite_note-Yan-192">[192]</a> More snowmelt and precipitation can increase the amount of T. gondii oocysts that are transported via river flow.<a href="#cite_note-Yan-192">[192]</a> Shifts in bird, rodent, and insect populations and migration patterns can impact the distribution of T. gondii due to their role as reservoir and vector.<a href="#cite_note-Yan-192">[192]</a> Urbanization and natural environmental degradation are also suggested to affect T. gondii transmission and increase risk of infection.<a href="#cite_note-Yan-192">[192]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Toxoplasmosis&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/TORCH_complex" class="mw-redirect" title="TORCH complex">TORCH infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxoplasmic_chorioretinitis" title="Toxoplasmic chorioretinitis">Toxoplasmic chorioretinitis</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Toxoplasmosis&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output 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Retrieved 2016-04-12.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Lymphadenopathy&rft.pub=UK+Neqas+Micro&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fukneqasmicro.org.uk%2Fparasitology%2Fimages%2Fpdf%2FToxoplasmaSerology%2FImmunocompetent%2FLymphadenopathy.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AToxoplasmosis" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-CDCdisease-20"><a href="#cite_ref-CDCdisease_20-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cdc.gov/parasites/toxoplasmosis/disease.html">"CDC Parasites – Toxoplasmosis (Toxoplasma infection) – Disease"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130307193139/http://www.cdc.gov/parasites/toxoplasmosis/disease.html">Archived</a> from the original on 7 March 2013. 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Parasite Immunology. 37 (3): 150–158. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fpim.12173">10.1111/pim.12173</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25573476">25573476</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1711188">1711188</a>. <q>The seroprevalence of T. gondii in humans varies between 10 and 70% worldwide, depending on the region and increases significantly with age. Upon infection, the parasites persist as intraneuronal cysts in the central nervous system (CNS) for the lifetime of the host (1, Figure 1). Until recently, parasite persistence in healthy individuals was regarded as clinically asymptomatic. However, in the last decade, several reports have indicated that chronic cerebral toxoplasmosis may impact on the behaviour of its host (2).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Parasite+Immunology&rft.atitle=Persistence+of+Toxoplasma+gondii+in+the+central+nervous+system%3A+a+fine-tuned+balance+between+the+parasite%2C+the+brain+and+the+immune+system&rft.volume=37&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E150-%3C%2Fspan%3E158&rft.date=2015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A1711188%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25573476&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fpim.12173&rft.aulast=Blanchard&rft.aufirst=N&rft.au=Dunay%2C+IR&rft.au=Schl%C3%BCter%2C+D&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1111%252Fpim.12173&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AToxoplasmosis" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-futurepundit.com-24"><a href="#cite_ref-futurepundit.com_24-0">^</a> Randall Parker: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.futurepundit.com/archives/001675.html">Humans Get Personality Altering Infections From Cats</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051217220821/http://www.futurepundit.com/archives/001675.html">Archived</a> 2005-12-17 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. September 30, 2003 </li> <li id="cite_note-TG_Neuronal_review-25">^ <a href="#cite_ref-TG_Neuronal_review_25-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-TG_Neuronal_review_25-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFParlogSchlüterDunay2015" class="citation journal cs1">Parlog A, Schlüter D, Dunay IR (March 2015). "Toxoplasma gondii-induced neuronal alterations". Parasite Immunology. 37 (3): 159–170. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fpim.12157">10.1111/pim.12157</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10033%2F346575">10033/346575</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25376390">25376390</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:17132378">17132378</a>. <q>The zoonotic pathogen Toxoplasma gondii infects over 30% of the human population. The intracellular parasite can persist lifelong in the CNS within neurons modifying their function and structure, thus leading to specific behavioural changes of the host. ... Furthermore, investigations of the human population have correlated Toxoplasma seropositivity with changes in neurological functions; however, the complex underlying mechanisms of the subtle behavioural alteration are still not fully understood. The parasites are able to induce direct modifications in the infected cells, for example by altering dopamine metabolism, by functionally silencing neurons as well as by hindering apoptosis.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Parasite+Immunology&rft.atitle=Toxoplasma+gondii-induced+neuronal+alterations&rft.volume=37&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E159-%3C%2Fspan%3E170&rft.date=2015-03&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10033%2F346575&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A17132378%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25376390&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fpim.12157&rft.aulast=Parlog&rft.aufirst=A&rft.au=Schl%C3%BCter%2C+D&rft.au=Dunay%2C+IR&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AToxoplasmosis" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pappas_2009-26">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pappas_2009_26-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pappas_2009_26-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pappas_2009_26-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pappas_2009_26-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPappasRoussosFalagas2009" class="citation journal cs1">Pappas G, Roussos N, Falagas ME (October 2009). 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Molecular Ecology. 23 (24): 6114–6122. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014MolEc..23.6114H">2014MolEc..23.6114H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fmec.12888">10.1111/mec.12888</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25142402">25142402</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:45290208">45290208</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Molecular+Ecology&rft.atitle=Toxoplasma+gondii+infection+reduces+predator+aversion+in+rats+through+epigenetic+modulation+in+the+host+medial+amygdala&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=24&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E6114-%3C%2Fspan%3E6122&rft.date=2014-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fmec.12888&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A45290208%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25142402&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014MolEc..23.6114H&rft.aulast=Hari+Dass&rft.aufirst=SA&rft.au=Vyas%2C+A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AToxoplasmosis" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Masterpiece_of_epigenetic_engineering-154">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Masterpiece_of_epigenetic_engineering_154-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Masterpiece_of_epigenetic_engineering_154-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFlegrMarkoš2014" class="citation journal cs1">Flegr J, Markoš A (December 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fmec.13006">"Masterpiece of epigenetic engineering – how Toxoplasma gondii reprogrammes host brains to change fear to sexual attraction"</a>. Molecular Ecology. 23 (24): 5934–5936. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014MolEc..23.5934F">2014MolEc..23.5934F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fmec.13006">10.1111/mec.13006</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25532868">25532868</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:17253786">17253786</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Molecular+Ecology&rft.atitle=Masterpiece+of+epigenetic+engineering+%E2%80%93+how+Toxoplasma+gondii+reprogrammes+host+brains+to+change+fear+to+sexual+attraction&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=24&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E5934-%3C%2Fspan%3E5936&rft.date=2014-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fmec.13006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A17253786%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25532868&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014MolEc..23.5934F&rft.aulast=Flegr&rft.aufirst=J&rft.au=Marko%C5%A1%2C+A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1111%252Fmec.13006&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AToxoplasmosis" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Amphetamine_epigenetics-155"><a href="#cite_ref-Amphetamine_epigenetics_155-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMcCowanDhasarathyCarvelli2015" class="citation journal cs1">McCowan TJ, Dhasarathy A, Carvelli L (February 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4955852">"The Epigenetic Mechanisms of Amphetamine"</a>. Journal of Addiction and Prevention. 2015 (S1): 1–7. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4955852">4955852</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27453897">27453897</a>. <q>Epigenetic modifications caused by addictive drugs play an important role in neuronal plasticity and in drug-induced behavioral responses. Although few studies have investigated the effects of AMPH on gene regulation (Table 1), current data suggest that AMPH acts at multiple levels to alter histone/DNA interaction and to recruit transcription factors which ultimately cause repression of some genes and activation of other genes. Importantly, some studies have also correlated the epigenetic regulation induced by AMPH with the behavioral outcomes caused by this drug, suggesting therefore that epigenetics remodeling underlies the behavioral changes induced by AMPH. If this proves to be true, the use of specific drugs that inhibit histone acetylation, methylation or DNA methylation might be an important therapeutic alternative to prevent and/or reverse AMPH addiction and mitigate the side effects generate by AMPH when used to treat ADHD.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Addiction+and+Prevention&rft.atitle=The+Epigenetic+Mechanisms+of+Amphetamine&rft.volume=2015&rft.issue=S1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E7&rft.date=2015-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4955852%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27453897&rft.aulast=McCowan&rft.aufirst=TJ&rft.au=Dhasarathy%2C+A&rft.au=Carvelli%2C+L&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4955852&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AToxoplasmosis" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid25486626-156"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid25486626_156-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWalkerCatesHellerNestler2015" class="citation journal cs1">Walker DM, Cates HM, Heller EA, Nestler EJ (February 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4293340">"Regulation of chromatin states by drugs of abuse"</a>. Current Opinion in Neurobiology. 30: 112–121. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.conb.2014.11.002">10.1016/j.conb.2014.11.002</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4293340">4293340</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25486626">25486626</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Opinion+in+Neurobiology&rft.atitle=Regulation+of+chromatin+states+by+drugs+of+abuse&rft.volume=30&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E112-%3C%2Fspan%3E121&rft.date=2015-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4293340%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25486626&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.conb.2014.11.002&rft.aulast=Walker&rft.aufirst=DM&rft.au=Cates%2C+HM&rft.au=Heller%2C+EA&rft.au=Nestler%2C+EJ&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4293340&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AToxoplasmosis" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid23643695-157"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid23643695_157-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNestler2014" class="citation journal cs1">Nestler EJ (January 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3766384">"Epigenetic mechanisms of drug addiction"</a>. Neuropharmacology. 76 (Pt B): 259–268. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.neuropharm.2013.04.004">10.1016/j.neuropharm.2013.04.004</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3766384">3766384</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23643695">23643695</a>. <q>Short-term increases in histone acetylation generally promote behavioral responses to the drugs, while sustained increases oppose cocaine's effects, based on the actions of systemic or intra-NAc administration of HDAC inhibitors. ... Genetic or pharmacological blockade of G9a in the NAc potentiates behavioral responses to cocaine and opiates, whereas increasing G9a function exerts the opposite effect (Maze et al., 2010; Sun et al., 2012a). Such drug-induced downregulation of G9a and H3K9me2 also sensitizes animals to the deleterious effects of subsequent chronic stress (Covington et al., 2011). Downregulation of G9a increases the dendritic arborization of NAc neurons, and is associated with increased expression of numerous proteins implicated in synaptic function, which directly connects altered G9a/H3K9me2 in the synaptic plasticity associated with addiction (Maze et al., 2010)."G9a appears to be a critical control point for epigenetic regulation in NAc, as we know it functions in two negative feedback loops. It opposes the induction of ΔFosB, a long-lasting transcription factor important for drug addiction (Robison and Nestler, 2011), while ΔFosB in turn suppresses G9a expression (Maze et al., 2010; Sun et al., 2012a). ... Also, G9a is induced in NAc upon prolonged HDAC inhibition, which explains the paradoxical attenuation of cocaine's behavioral effects seen under these conditions, as noted above (Kennedy et al., 2013). GABAA receptor subunit genes are among those that are controlled by this feedback loop. Thus, chronic cocaine, or prolonged HDAC inhibition, induces several GABAA receptor subunits in NAc, which is associated with increased frequency of inhibitory postsynaptic currents (IPSCs). In striking contrast, combined exposure to cocaine and HDAC inhibition, which triggers the induction of G9a and increased global levels of H3K9me2, leads to blockade of GABAA receptor and IPSC regulation.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Neuropharmacology&rft.atitle=Epigenetic+mechanisms+of+drug+addiction&rft.volume=76&rft.issue=Pt+B&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E259-%3C%2Fspan%3E268&rft.date=2014-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3766384%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23643695&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.neuropharm.2013.04.004&rft.aulast=Nestler&rft.aufirst=EJ&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3766384&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AToxoplasmosis" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-T._Gondii_has_a_HAT-158"><a href="#cite_ref-T._Gondii_has_a_HAT_158-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFVanagasJeffersBogadoDalmasso2012" class="citation journal cs1">Vanagas, Laura; Jeffers, Victoria; Bogado, Silvina S; Dalmasso, Maria C; Sullivan, William J; Angel, Sergio O (October 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3581047">"Toxoplasma histone acetylation remodelers as novel drug targets"</a>. Expert Review of Anti-infective Therapy. 10 (10): 1189–1201. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1586%2Feri.12.100">10.1586/eri.12.100</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3581047">3581047</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23199404">23199404</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Expert+Review+of+Anti-infective+Therapy&rft.atitle=Toxoplasma+histone+acetylation+remodelers+as+novel+drug+targets&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1189-%3C%2Fspan%3E1201&rft.date=2012-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3581047%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23199404&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1586%2Feri.12.100&rft.aulast=Vanagas&rft.aufirst=Laura&rft.au=Jeffers%2C+Victoria&rft.au=Bogado%2C+Silvina+S&rft.au=Dalmasso%2C+Maria+C&rft.au=Sullivan%2C+William+J&rft.au=Angel%2C+Sergio+O&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3581047&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AToxoplasmosis" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-acetylation-159"><a href="#cite_ref-acetylation_159-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBouchutChawlaJeffersHudmon2015" class="citation journal cs1">Bouchut A, Chawla AR, Jeffers V, Hudmon A, Sullivan WJ (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4364782">"Proteome-wide lysine acetylation in cortical astrocytes and alterations that occur during infection with brain parasite Toxoplasma gondii"</a>. PLOS ONE. 10 (3): e0117966. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015PLoSO..1017966B">2015PLoSO..1017966B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0117966">10.1371/journal.pone.0117966</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4364782">4364782</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25786129">25786129</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+ONE&rft.atitle=Proteome-wide+lysine+acetylation+in+cortical+astrocytes+and+alterations+that+occur+during+infection+with+brain+parasite+Toxoplasma+gondii&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=e0117966&rft.date=2015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4364782%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25786129&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0117966&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015PLoSO..1017966B&rft.aulast=Bouchut&rft.aufirst=A&rft.au=Chawla%2C+AR&rft.au=Jeffers%2C+V&rft.au=Hudmon%2C+A&rft.au=Sullivan%2C+WJ&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4364782&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AToxoplasmosis" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-McConkey_2013-160"><a href="#cite_ref-McConkey_2013_160-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMcConkeyMartinBristowWebster2013" class="citation journal cs1">McConkey GA, Martin HL, Bristow GC, Webster JP (January 1, 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3515035">"Toxoplasma gondii infection and behaviour – location, location, location?"</a>. 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Nature. 543 (7647): S54 – S55. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017Natur.543S..54D">2017Natur.543S..54D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F543S54a">10.1038/543S54a</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28355191">28355191</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4448339">4448339</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Climate+change%3A+As+the+ice+melts&rft.volume=543&rft.issue=7647&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3ES54+-%3C%2Fspan%3E+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3ES55%3C%2Fspan%3E&rft.date=2017-03-30&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F543S54a&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4448339%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28355191&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2017Natur.543S..54D&rft.aulast=Dolgin&rft.aufirst=Elie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AToxoplasmosis" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <dl><dd><ul><li>Parts of this article are taken from the public domain <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cdc.gov/toxoplasmosis/">CDC factsheet: Toxoplasmosis</a></li></ul></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Toxoplasmosis&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWeissKim2007" class="citation book cs1">Weiss, Louis M.; Kim, Kami, eds. (2007). Toxoplasma gondii: The Model Apicomplexan: Perspectives and Methods. Elsevier. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-0-12-369542-0.X5000-4">10.1016/B978-0-12-369542-0.X5000-4</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-369542-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-369542-0"><bdi>978-0-12-369542-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Toxoplasma+gondii%3A+The+Model+Apicomplexan%3A+Perspectives+and+Methods&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FB978-0-12-369542-0.X5000-4&rft.isbn=978-0-12-369542-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AToxoplasmosis" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDubey2016" class="citation book cs1">Dubey, J. P. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5Nm7t5p9APAC">Toxoplasmosis of Animals and Humans</a> (2nd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Boca_Raton" class="mw-redirect" title="Boca Raton">Boca Raton</a>: <a href="/wiki/CRC_Press" title="CRC Press">CRC Press</a>. pp. xvii+313. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4200-9237-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4200-9237-0"><bdi>978-1-4200-9237-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/423572366">423572366</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Toxoplasmosis+of+Animals+and+Humans&rft.place=Boca+Raton&rft.pages=xvii%2B313&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F423572366&rft.isbn=978-1-4200-9237-0&rft.aulast=Dubey&rft.aufirst=J.+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5Nm7t5p9APAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AToxoplasmosis" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4200-9236-7" title="Special:BookSources/1-4200-9236-7">1-4200-9236-7</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781420092363" title="Special:BookSources/9781420092363">9781420092363</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDubeyLindsaySpeer1998" class="citation journal cs1">Dubey JP, Lindsay DS, Speer CA (April 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC106833">"Structures of Toxoplasma gondii tachyzoites, bradyzoites, and sporozoites and biology and development of tissue cysts"</a>. Clinical Microbiology Reviews. 11 (2): 267–299. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1128%2FCMR.11.2.267">10.1128/CMR.11.2.267</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC106833">106833</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9564564">9564564</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Clinical+Microbiology+Reviews&rft.atitle=Structures+of+Toxoplasma+gondii+tachyzoites%2C+bradyzoites%2C+and+sporozoites+and+biology+and+development+of+tissue+cysts&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E267-%3C%2Fspan%3E299&rft.date=1998-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC106833%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9564564&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1128%2FCMR.11.2.267&rft.aulast=Dubey&rft.aufirst=JP&rft.au=Lindsay%2C+DS&rft.au=Speer%2C+CA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC106833&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AToxoplasmosis" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJaroslav_Flegr2011" class="citation book cs1">Jaroslav Flegr (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170721113714/http://academia.cz/pozor-toxo.html">Pozor, Toxo!</a>. Academia, Prague, Czech Republic. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-80-200-2022-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-80-200-2022-2"><bdi>978-80-200-2022-2</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.academia.cz/pozor-toxo.html">the original</a> on 2017-07-21. Retrieved 2014-10-04.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pozor%2C+Toxo%21&rft.pub=Academia%2C+Prague%2C+Czech+Republic&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-80-200-2022-2&rft.au=Jaroslav+Flegr&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.cz%2Fpozor-toxo.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AToxoplasmosis" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Toxoplasmosis&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130125121449/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2013/01/220113-sneaky-cat-parasite-takes-over-human-brains-science/">How a cat-borne parasite infects humans</a> (National Geographic)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.merck.com/mmpe/sec14/ch186/ch186h.html">Toxoplasmosis</a> at <a href="/wiki/The_Merck_Manual_of_Diagnosis_and_Therapy" class="mw-redirect" title="The Merck Manual of Diagnosis and Therapy">The Merck Manual of Diagnosis and Therapy</a> Professional Edition</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gov.uk/guidance/toxoplasmosis">Toxoplasmosis</a> at Health Protection Agency (HPA), United Kingdom</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130113220407/http://rad.usuhs.edu/medpix/medpix.html?mode=image_finder&action=search&srchstr=toxoplasmosis#top">Pictures of Toxoplasmosis</a> Medical Image Database</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m3x3TMdkGdQ">Video-Interview</a> with Professor <a href="/wiki/Robert_Sapolsky" title="Robert Sapolsky">Robert Sapolsky</a> on Toxoplasmosis and its effect on human behavior (24:27 min)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://medlineplus.gov/toxoplasmosis.html">"Toxoplasmosis"</a>. MedlinePlus. U.S. National Library of Medicine.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=MedlinePlus&rft.atitle=Toxoplasmosis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmedlineplus.gov%2Ftoxoplasmosis.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AToxoplasmosis" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output 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/></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-label="Navbox32" style="width:100%; margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 0;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #EAECF0;color:black;">Classification</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:0.8em;"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q154878" class="extiw" title="d:Q154878">D</a></div><div class="hlist" style="text-align:left;"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Statistical_Classification_of_Diseases_and_Related_Health_Problems" class="mw-redirect" title="International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems">ICD</a>-<a href="/wiki/ICD-10" title="ICD-10">10</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://icd.who.int/browse10/2019/en#/B58">B58</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/International_Statistical_Classification_of_Diseases_and_Related_Health_Problems" class="mw-redirect" title="International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems">ICD</a>-<a href="/wiki/List_of_ICD-9_codes" title="List of ICD-9 codes">9-CM</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icd9data.com/getICD9Code.ashx?icd9=130">130</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Medical_Subject_Headings" title="Medical Subject Headings">MeSH</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014123">D014123</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Diseases_Database" title="Diseases Database">DiseasesDB</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.diseasesdatabase.com/ddb13208.htm">13208</a></li></ul></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #EAECF0;color:black;">External resources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="hlist" style="text-align:left;"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/MedlinePlus" title="MedlinePlus">MedlinePlus</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000637.htm">000637</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/EMedicine" title="EMedicine">eMedicine</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://emedicine.medscape.com/med/2294-overview">med/2294</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Patient_UK" title="Patient UK">Patient UK</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://patient.info/doctor/toxoplasmosis">Toxoplasmosis</a></li></ul></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" 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title="Alveolate">Alveolate</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Apicomplexa" title="Apicomplexa">Apicomplexa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Conoidasida" title="Conoidasida">Conoidasida</a>/ <a href="/wiki/Coccidia" title="Coccidia">Coccidia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coccidia" title="Coccidia">Coccidia</a>: <a href="/wiki/Cryptosporidium_hominis" title="Cryptosporidium hominis">Cryptosporidium hominis</a>/<a href="/wiki/Cryptosporidium_parvum" title="Cryptosporidium parvum">Cryptosporidium parvum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cryptosporidiosis" title="Cryptosporidiosis">Cryptosporidiosis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cystoisospora_belli" title="Cystoisospora belli">Cystoisospora belli</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isosporiasis" title="Isosporiasis">Isosporiasis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclospora_cayetanensis" title="Cyclospora cayetanensis">Cyclospora cayetanensis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyclosporiasis" title="Cyclosporiasis">Cyclosporiasis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxoplasma_gondii" title="Toxoplasma gondii">Toxoplasma gondii</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Toxoplasmosis</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aconoidasida" title="Aconoidasida">Aconoidasida</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plasmodium_falciparum" title="Plasmodium falciparum">Plasmodium falciparum</a>/<a href="/wiki/Plasmodium_vivax" title="Plasmodium vivax">vivax</a>/<a href="/wiki/Plasmodium_ovale" title="Plasmodium ovale">ovale</a>/<a href="/wiki/Plasmodium_malariae" title="Plasmodium malariae">malariae</a>/<a href="/wiki/Plasmodium_knowlesi" title="Plasmodium knowlesi">knowlesi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">Malaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackwater_fever" title="Blackwater fever">Blackwater fever</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Babesia" title="Babesia">Babesia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Babesiosis" title="Babesiosis">Babesiosis</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ciliate" title="Ciliate">Ciliophora</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balantidium_coli" title="Balantidium coli">Balantidium coli</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balantidiasis" title="Balantidiasis">Balantidiasis</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Stramenopile" title="Stramenopile">Stramenopile</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blastocystis" title="Blastocystis">Blastocystis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blastocystosis" title="Blastocystosis">Blastocystosis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pythium_insidiosum" title="Pythium insidiosum">Pythium insidiosum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pythiosis" title="Pythiosis">Pythiosis</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Archaeplastida" title="Archaeplastida">Archaeplastida</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algaemia" title="Algaemia">Algaemia</a>: <a href="/wiki/Prototheca_wickerhamii" title="Prototheca wickerhamii">Prototheca wickerhamii</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Protothecosis" title="Protothecosis">Protothecosis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlorella" title="Chlorella">Chlorella</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chlorellosis" title="Chlorellosis">Chlorellosis</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Domestic_cats497" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Domestic_cat" title="Template:Domestic cat"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Domestic_cat" title="Template talk:Domestic cat"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Domestic_cat" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Domestic cat"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Domestic_cats497" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Cat" title="Cat">Domestic cats</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Felinology" title="Felinology">Felinology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cat_anatomy" title="Cat anatomy">Anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cat_genetics" title="Cat genetics">Genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dwarf_cat" title="Dwarf cat">Dwarf cat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kitten" title="Kitten">Kitten</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odd-eyed_cat" title="Odd-eyed cat">Odd-eyed cat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squitten" title="Squitten">Squitten</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cat_coat_genetics" title="Cat coat genetics">Coat genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bicolor_cat" title="Bicolor cat">Bicolor cat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_cat" title="Black cat">Black cat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calico_cat" title="Calico cat">Calico cat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabby_cat" title="Tabby cat">Tabby cat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tortoiseshell_cat" title="Tortoiseshell cat">Tortoiseshell cat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cat_health" title="Cat health">Health</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aging_in_cats" title="Aging in cats">Aging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onychectomy" title="Onychectomy">Declawing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cat_food" title="Cat food">Diet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dental_health_diets_for_cats" title="Dental health diets for cats">dental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senior_cat_diet" title="Senior cat diet">senior</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feline_vaccination" title="Feline vaccination">Vaccination</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cat_behavior" title="Cat behavior">Behavior</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cat%E2%80%93dog_relationship" title="Cat–dog relationship">Cat–dog relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cat_communication" title="Cat communication">Catfight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catnip" title="Catnip">Catnip</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Valerian_(herb)" title="Valerian (herb)">valerian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cat_communication" title="Cat communication">Communication</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Meow" title="Meow">Meow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purr" title="Purr">Purr</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kneading_(cats)" title="Kneading (cats)">Kneading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cat_intelligence" title="Cat intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cat_play_and_toys" title="Cat play and toys">Play and toys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cat_righting_reflex" title="Cat righting reflex">Righting reflex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cat_senses" title="Cat senses">Senses</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_interaction_with_cats" title="Human interaction with cats">Human–cat interaction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ailurophobia" title="Ailurophobia">Ailurophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cat_caf%C3%A9" title="Cat café">Cat cafés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Cat_killers" title="Category:Cat killers">Cat killers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cat_massage" title="Cat massage">Cat massage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cat_meat" title="Cat meat">Cat meat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cat-scratch_disease" title="Cat-scratch disease">Cat-scratch disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cat_show" title="Cat show">Cat show</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cats_in_ancient_Egypt" title="Cats in ancient Egypt">Cats in ancient Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_depictions_of_cats" title="Cultural depictions of cats">Cultural depictions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fictional_felines" title="List of fictional felines">fictional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cats_and_the_Internet" title="Cats and the Internet">Internet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dog-like_cat" title="Dog-like cat">Dog-like cat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feral_cat" title="Feral cat">Feral cat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_cats" title="Islam and cats">Cats and Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lolcat" title="Lolcat">Lolcat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Cat_Day" title="National Cat Day">National Cat Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pet" title="Pet">Pet cat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Working_cat" title="Working cat">Working cat</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bodega_cat" title="Bodega cat">Bodega cat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farm_cat" title="Farm cat">Farm cat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Library_cat" title="Library cat">Library cat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ship%27s_cat" title="Ship's cat">Ship's cat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feline_zoonosis" title="Feline zoonosis">Zoonosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cat_registry" title="Cat registry">Registries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Cat_Fanciers_Association" title="American Cat Fanciers Association">American Cat Fanciers Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Associazione_Nazionale_Felina_Italiana" title="Associazione Nazionale Felina Italiana">Associazione Nazionale Felina Italiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Cat_Federation" title="Australian Cat Federation">Australian Cat Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Cat_Association" title="Canadian Cat Association">Canadian Cat Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cat_Aficionado_Association" title="Cat Aficionado Association">Cat Aficionado Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cat_Fanciers%27_Association" title="Cat Fanciers' Association">Cat Fanciers' Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_Internationale_F%C3%A9line" title="Fédération Internationale Féline">Fédération Internationale Féline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governing_Council_of_the_Cat_Fancy" title="Governing Council of the Cat Fancy">Governing Council of the Cat Fancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_Cat_Fancy" title="New Zealand Cat Fancy">New Zealand Cat Fancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Africa_Cat_Council" title="Southern Africa Cat Council">Southern Africa Cat Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_International_Cat_Association" title="The International Cat Association">The International Cat Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Cat_Congress" title="World Cat Congress">World Cat Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Cat_Federation" title="World Cat Federation">World Cat Federation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Breeds (<a href="/wiki/List_of_cat_breeds" title="List of cat breeds">full list</a>) (<a href="/wiki/List_of_experimental_cat_breeds" title="List of experimental cat breeds">experimental</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fully domestic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abyssinian_cat" title="Abyssinian cat">Abyssinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Curl" title="American Curl">American Curl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Shorthair" title="American Shorthair">American Shorthair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balinese_cat" title="Balinese cat">Balinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brazilian_Shorthair" title="Brazilian Shorthair">Brazilian Shorthair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Shorthair" title="British Shorthair">British Shorthair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birman" title="Birman">Birman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombay_cat" title="Bombay cat">Bombay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_cat" title="Burmese cat">Burmese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmilla" title="Burmilla">Burmilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_Spangled" title="California Spangled">California Spangled</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chartreux" title="Chartreux">Chartreux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dragon_Li" title="Dragon Li">Chinese Li Hua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colorpoint_Shorthair" title="Colorpoint Shorthair">Colorpoint Shorthair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_Rex" title="Cornish Rex">Cornish Rex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cymric_cat" title="Cymric cat">Cymric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devon_Rex" title="Devon Rex">Devon Rex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donskoy_cat" title="Donskoy cat">Donskoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Mau" title="Egyptian Mau">Egyptian Mau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Shorthair" title="European Shorthair">European Shorthair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exotic_Shorthair" title="Exotic Shorthair">Exotic Shorthair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foldex_cat" title="Foldex cat">Foldex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Rex" title="German Rex">German Rex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Himalayan_cat" title="Himalayan cat">Himalayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Bobtail" title="Japanese Bobtail">Japanese Bobtail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Javanese_cat" title="Javanese cat">Javanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khao_Manee" title="Khao Manee">Khao Manee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korat" title="Korat">Korat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurilian_Bobtail" title="Kurilian Bobtail">Kurilian Bobtail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lykoi" title="Lykoi">Lykoi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maine_Coon" title="Maine Coon">Maine Coon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manx_cat" title="Manx cat">Manx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Munchkin_cat" title="Munchkin cat">Munchkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neva_Masquerade" title="Neva Masquerade">Neva Masquerade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_Forest_cat" class="mw-redirect" title="Norwegian Forest cat">Norwegian Forest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocicat" title="Ocicat">Ocicat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ojos_Azules" title="Ojos Azules">Ojos Azules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oriental_Shorthair" title="Oriental Shorthair">Oriental Shorthair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_cat" title="Persian cat">Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peterbald" title="Peterbald">Peterbald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pixie-bob" title="Pixie-bob">Pixie-bob</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ragdoll" title="Ragdoll">Ragdoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ragamuffin_cat" title="Ragamuffin cat">Ragamuffin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Blue" title="Russian Blue">Russian Blue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Fold" title="Scottish Fold">Scottish Fold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selkirk_Rex" title="Selkirk Rex">Selkirk Rex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siamese_cat" title="Siamese cat">Siamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siberian_cat" title="Siberian cat">Siberian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singapura_cat" title="Singapura cat">Singapura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snowshoe_cat" title="Snowshoe cat">Snowshoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_cat" title="Somali cat">Somali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sphynx_cat" title="Sphynx cat">Sphynx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thai_cat" title="Thai cat">Thai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Persian" title="Traditional Persian">Traditional Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonkinese_cat" title="Tonkinese cat">Tonkinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toyger" title="Toyger">Toyger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Angora" title="Turkish Angora">Turkish Angora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Van" title="Turkish Van">Turkish Van</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Hybrid</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bengal_cat" title="Bengal cat">Bengal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chausie" title="Chausie">Chausie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highlander_cat" title="Highlander cat">Highlander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Savannah_cat" title="Savannah cat">Savannah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serengeti_cat" title="Serengeti cat">Serengeti</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Landrace" 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[\"CITEREFBowater2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrasilFreire-de-LimaMorrotVetö_Arnholdt2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrody1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurgdorfTrabjergPedersenNissen2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChessaChisuPorcuMasala2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClark-Dow2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFConradMillerKreuderJames2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCook2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCookBrennerCloningerLangenberg2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCookGilbertBuffolanoZufferey2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCorrêaMaximinoWeber2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCosta-Silva2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCoster2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDalimiAbdoli2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDawson\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDe_PaschaleAgrappiClericiMirri2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDe_ResendeAndradeAzevedoPerissinoto2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDenkersSchneiderCohenButcher2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDerouinPellouxESCMID_Study_Group_on_Clinical2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDi_Guardo2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDi_MarioBaseviGagliottiSpettoli2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDiep2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDjurković-DjakovićMilenkovićNikolićBobić2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDoggettNilsenForquerWegmann2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDolgin2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDubey,_J.P.\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDubey2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDubey2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDubey2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDubeyFrenkel1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDubeyHodginHamir2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDubeyJones2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDubeyLindsaySpeer1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDubeyRajendranFerreiraMartins2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDubeySundarHillVelmurugan2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDubey_JP2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDupontChristianHunter2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEkanayakeRajapakseDubeyDittus2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFElmoreJonesConradPatton2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFancourt2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFerguson_DJ2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlegr2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlegrMarkoš2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlegrPrandotaSovičkováIsraili2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlegr_J2013\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFFuglewiczPiotrowskiStodolak2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGohardehiSharifSarviMoosazadeh2018\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFGonzalezRojnikUrreaUrdaneta2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHari_DassVyas2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHartmannAddieBelákBoucraut-Baralon2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHasanNishikawa2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHillDubey2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHippeWeberZhouChang2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHollingsJonesMooneyMcCallum2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHonnoldBraunScottSreekumar2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHunterSibley2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHurleyTaber2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHutchison1965\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJaroslav_Flegr2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJokelainenSimolaRantanenNäreaho2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJonesDargelasRobertsPress2009\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFJonesDubey2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJonesKruszon-MoranSanders-LewisWilson2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJonesKruszon-MoranWilsonMcQuillan2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJonesLopezWilson2003\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFJonesPariseFiore2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKankováSulcNouzováFajfrlík2007\"] = 1,\n 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[\"CITEREFPaul_M1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPearceKruszon-MoranJones2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRemingtonThulliezMontoya2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFResendes2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRiahiFakhriHanifehpourValizadeh2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRigouletHennacheLagouretteGeorge2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobert-GangneuxDardé2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobert-GangneuxGuegan2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRolstonHoy1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRouatbiAmairiaAmdouniBoussaadoun2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSample2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScallanHoekstraAnguloTauxe2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchwartzmanMaguire2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSensini2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSibley_LDKhan_AAjioka_JWRosenthal_BM2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSignori_PereiraFrancoLeal2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSolmiHayesLewisKirkbride2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSolomon2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStascheitPaulHarmsRosche2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSterkersRibotAlbabaIssert2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSugdenMoffittPintoPoulton2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSukthana_Y2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSwitajMasterSkrzypczakZaborowski2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTenterHeckerothWeiss2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTorgersonMastroiacovo2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTorreyBartkoYolken2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTorreySimmonsYolken2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTorreyYolken2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTucker2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTyebjiSeizovaHannanTonkin2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVanagasJeffersBogadoDalmasso2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVyasKimGiacominiBoothroyd2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWalkerCatesHellerNestler2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWangWeissOrlofsky2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWebster2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWebsterKaushikBristowMcConkey2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWebsterMcConkey2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeissDubey2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeissKim2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFXiaoKannanJones-BrandoBrannock2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYanLiangZhengZhu2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhangLiLuZheng2022\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFZimmermannHadaschikDalpkeHassel2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFde_BarrosBarbosaSalemRocha2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFten_HoeveBraunRodriguezOlivera2022\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Chromalveolate diseases\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 7,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 136,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 10,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 25,\n [\"Cn\"] = 5,\n [\"Domestic cat\"] = 1,\n [\"EMedicine\"] = 1,\n [\"Expert needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Fitzpatrick 6\"] = 1,\n [\"ICD10\"] = 1,\n [\"ICD9\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox medical condition (new)\"] = 1,\n [\"Isbn\"] = 2,\n [\"Lang\"] = 1,\n [\"Medical condition classification and resources\"] = 1,\n [\"MedlinePlusEncyclopedia\"] = 1,\n [\"MerckManual\"] = 1,\n [\"Open access\"] = 1,\n [\"Openaccess\"] = 1,\n [\"Pn\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Rp\"] = 2,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 2,\n [\"Sfnp\"] = 9,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"TOC limit\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 3,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 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