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American Civil Liberties Union - Wikipedia
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<li id="toc-Leadership" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Leadership"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Leadership</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Leadership-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Funding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Funding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Funding</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Funding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-State_affiliates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#State_affiliates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>State affiliates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-State_affiliates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Positions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Positions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Positions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Positions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Support_and_opposition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Support_and_opposition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Support and opposition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Support_and_opposition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_years" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_years"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Early years</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_years-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Free_speech_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Free_speech_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Free speech era</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Free_speech_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Public_schools" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Public_schools"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Public schools</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Public_schools-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Free_speech_expansion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Free_speech_expansion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Free speech expansion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Free_speech_expansion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1930s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1930s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>1930s</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1930s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Communism_and_totalitarianism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Communism_and_totalitarianism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.1</span> <span>Communism and totalitarianism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Communism_and_totalitarianism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-World_War_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_War_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>World War II</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-World_War_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cold_War_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cold_War_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Cold War era</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cold_War_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-McCarthy_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#McCarthy_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>McCarthy era</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-McCarthy_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1960s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1960s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8</span> <span>1960s</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1960s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Racial_discrimination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Racial_discrimination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8.1</span> <span>Racial discrimination</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Racial_discrimination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Police_misconduct" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Police_misconduct"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8.2</span> <span>Police misconduct</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Police_misconduct-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Civil_liberties_revolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Civil_liberties_revolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8.3</span> <span>Civil liberties revolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Civil_liberties_revolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vietnam_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vietnam_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.9</span> <span>Vietnam War</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vietnam_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Watergate_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Watergate_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.10</span> <span>Watergate era</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Watergate_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Enclaves_and_new_civil_liberties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Enclaves_and_new_civil_liberties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.11</span> <span>Enclaves and new civil liberties</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Enclaves_and_new_civil_liberties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Victim_groups" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Victim_groups"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.12</span> <span>Victim groups</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Victim_groups-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reproductive_Freedom_Project" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reproductive_Freedom_Project"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.13</span> <span>Reproductive Freedom Project</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reproductive_Freedom_Project-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Privacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Privacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.14</span> <span>Privacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Privacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Allegations_of_bias" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Allegations_of_bias"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.15</span> <span>Allegations of bias</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Allegations_of_bias-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Skokie_case" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Skokie_case"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.16</span> <span>Skokie case</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Skokie_case-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reagan_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reagan_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.17</span> <span>Reagan era</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reagan_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Free_speech" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Free_speech"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.18</span> <span>Free speech</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Free_speech-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Move_towards_identity_politics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Move_towards_identity_politics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.19</span> <span>Move towards identity politics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Move_towards_identity_politics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-LGBTQ_issues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#LGBTQ_issues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.20</span> <span>LGBTQ issues</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-LGBTQ_issues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anti-terrorism_issues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anti-terrorism_issues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.21</span> <span>Anti-terrorism issues</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anti-terrorism_issues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trump_administration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trump_administration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.22</span> <span>Trump administration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trump_administration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Israel–Palestine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Israel–Palestine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.23</span> <span>Israel–Palestine</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Israel–Palestine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-General_and_cited_references" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_and_cited_references"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>General and cited references</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_and_cited_references-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Archives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Archives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Archives</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Archives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Selected_works_sponsored_or_published_by_the_ACLU" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Selected_works_sponsored_or_published_by_the_ACLU"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Selected works sponsored or published by the ACLU</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Selected_works_sponsored_or_published_by_the_ACLU-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">American Civil Liberties Union</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 28 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-28" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">28 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%85%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%83%D9%8A_%D9%84%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AF%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="الاتحاد الأمريكي للحريات المدنية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الاتحاد الأمريكي للحريات المدنية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uni%C3%B3_Americana_per_les_Llibertats_Civils" title="Unió Americana per les Llibertats Civils – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Unió Americana per les Llibertats Civils" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Civil_Liberties_Union" title="American Civil Liberties Union – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="American Civil Liberties Union" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Civil_Liberties_Union" title="American Civil Liberties Union – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="American Civil Liberties Union" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uni%C3%B3n_Estadounidense_por_las_Libertades_Civiles" title="Unión Estadounidense por las Libertades Civiles – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Unión Estadounidense por las Libertades Civiles" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usona_Unio_de_Civilaj_Liberecoj" title="Usona Unio de Civilaj Liberecoj – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Usona Unio de Civilaj Liberecoj" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Civil_Liberties_Union" title="American Civil Liberties Union – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="American Civil Liberties Union" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%87_%D8%A2%D8%B2%D8%A7%D8%AF%DB%8C%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D9%85%D8%AF%D9%86%DB%8C_%D8%A2%D9%85%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%A7" title="اتحادیه آزادیهای مدنی آمریکا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="اتحادیه آزادیهای مدنی آمریکا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_am%C3%A9ricaine_pour_les_libert%C3%A9s_civiles" title="Union américaine pour les libertés civiles – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Union américaine pour les libertés civiles" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amerikaanske_Uny_foar_Boargerlike_Frijheden" title="Amerikaanske Uny foar Boargerlike Frijheden – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Amerikaanske Uny foar Boargerlike Frijheden" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%AF%B8%EA%B5%AD_%EC%8B%9C%EB%AF%BC_%EC%9E%90%EC%9C%A0_%EC%97%B0%EB%A7%B9" title="미국 시민 자유 연맹 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="미국 시민 자유 연맹" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Civil_Liberties_Union" title="American Civil Liberties Union – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="American Civil Liberties Union" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Civil_Liberties_Union" title="American Civil Liberties Union – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="American Civil Liberties Union" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%90%D7%99%D7%92%D7%95%D7%93_%D7%94%D7%90%D7%9E%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%90%D7%99_%D7%9C%D7%97%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%99%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%90%D7%96%D7%A8%D7%97%D7%99%D7%95%D7%AA" title="האיגוד האמריקאי לחירויות אזרחיות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="האיגוד האמריקאי לחירויות אזרחיות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Civil_Liberties_Union" title="American Civil Liberties Union – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="American Civil Liberties Union" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A2%E3%83%A1%E3%83%AA%E3%82%AB%E8%87%AA%E7%94%B1%E4%BA%BA%E6%A8%A9%E5%8D%94%E4%BC%9A" title="アメリカ自由人権協会 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="アメリカ自由人権協会" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Civil_Liberties_Union" title="American Civil Liberties Union – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="American Civil Liberties Union" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B1%D9%8A%DA%A9%D8%A7_%D8%AF_%D9%85%D8%AF%D9%86%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D8%B2%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%88_%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%87" title="د امريکا د مدني ازاديو اتحاديه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د امريکا د مدني ازاديو اتحاديه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Civil_Liberties_Union" title="American Civil Liberties Union – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="American Civil Liberties Union" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uni%C3%A3o_Americana_pelas_Liberdades_Civis" title="União Americana pelas Liberdades Civis – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="União Americana pelas Liberdades Civis" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%8E%D0%B7_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%89%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%8B_%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%85_%D1%81%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%B4" title="Американский союз защиты гражданских свобод – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Американский союз защиты гражданских свобод" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Civil_Liberties_Union" title="American Civil Liberties Union – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="American Civil Liberties Union" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Civil_Liberties_Union" title="American Civil Liberties Union – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="American Civil Liberties Union" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Civil_Liberties_Union" title="American Civil Liberties Union – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="American Civil Liberties Union" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%9E%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%A5%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B7%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%AD%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%99" title="สหภาพเสรีภาพพลเมืองอเมริกัน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="สหภาพเสรีภาพพลเมืองอเมริกัน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D1%83_%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%8F%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%85_%D1%81%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%B4" title="Американська спілка захисту громадянських свобод – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Американська спілка захисту громадянських свобод" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li%C3%AAn_%C4%91o%C3%A0n_T%E1%BB%B1_do_D%C3%A2n_s%E1%BB%B1_M%E1%BB%B9" title="Liên đoàn Tự do Dân sự Mỹ – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Liên đoàn Tự do Dân sự Mỹ" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%9C%8B%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91%E8%87%AA%E7%94%B1%E8%81%AF%E7%9B%9F" title="美國公民自由聯盟 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="美國公民自由聯盟" data-language-autonym="中文" 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Click here for more information."><img alt="This is a good article. Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=ACLU&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="ACLU">ACLU</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Legal advocacy organization in the United States</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the conservative legal aid group founded in the 1990s, see <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_Rights_Union" title="American Civil Rights Union">American Civil Rights Union</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"ACLU" redirects here. For the Australian organisation (1980–2004), see <a href="/wiki/Australian_Civil_Liberties_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian Civil Liberties Union">Australian Civil Liberties Union</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><caption class="infobox-title fn org">American Civil Liberties Union</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image logo"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:New_ACLU_Logo_2017.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/New_ACLU_Logo_2017.svg/220px-New_ACLU_Logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/New_ACLU_Logo_2017.svg/330px-New_ACLU_Logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/New_ACLU_Logo_2017.svg/440px-New_ACLU_Logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="181" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;">Predecessor</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/National_Civil_Liberties_Bureau" title="National Civil Liberties Bureau">National Civil Liberties Bureau</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;">Formation</th><td class="infobox-data note">January 19, 1920<span class="noprint">; 104 years ago</span><span style="display:none"> (<span class="bday dtstart published updated">1920-01-19</span>)</span><sup id="cite_ref-W47_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W47-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;">Founders</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jeannette_Rankin" title="Jeannette Rankin">Jeannette Rankin</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Nash_Baldwin" title="Roger Nash Baldwin">Roger Nash Baldwin</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crystal_Eastman" title="Crystal Eastman">Crystal Eastman</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Helen_Keller" title="Helen Keller">Helen Keller</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Nelles" title="Walter Nelles">Walter Nelles</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Morris_Ernst" title="Morris Ernst">Morris Ernst</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Albert_DeSilver" title="Albert DeSilver">Albert DeSilver</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Garfield_Hays" title="Arthur Garfield Hays">Arthur Garfield Hays</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Jane_Addams" title="Jane Addams">Jane Addams</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Felix_Frankfurter" title="Felix Frankfurter">Felix Frankfurter</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Gurley_Flynn" title="Elizabeth Gurley Flynn">Elizabeth Gurley Flynn</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;">Type</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/501(c)(4)" class="mw-redirect" title="501(c)(4)">501(c)(4)</a> nonprofit organization</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Taxpayer_Identification_Number" title="Taxpayer Identification Number">Tax ID no.</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">13-3871360</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;">Purpose</th><td class="infobox-data">Civil liberties advocacy</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;">Headquarters</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/125_Broad_Street" class="mw-redirect" title="125 Broad Street">125 Broad Street</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>, U.S.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Region served </div></th><td class="infobox-data">United States</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Membership </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1.7<span class="nowrap"> </span>million (2024)<sup id="cite_ref-WeigelResistance_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WeigelResistance-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/President_(corporation)" class="mw-redirect" title="President (corporation)">President</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Deborah_Archer" title="Deborah Archer">Deborah Archer</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Executive Director</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Romero" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthony Romero">Anthony Romero</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Budget </div></th><td class="infobox-data">$309<span class="nowrap"> </span>million (2019; excludes affiliates)<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;">Staff</th><td class="infobox-data">500 staff attorneys<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Volunteers </div></th><td class="infobox-data">Several thousand attorneys<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;">Website</th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="url"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aclu.org">www<wbr />.aclu<wbr />.org</a></span> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21637#P856" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>American Civil Liberties Union</b> (<b>ACLU</b>) is an American nonprofit <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil rights">civil rights</a> organization founded in 1920. ACLU affiliates are active in all 50 states, <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rico" title="Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a>. The ACLU provides legal assistance in cases where it considers <a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">civil liberties</a> at risk. Legal support from the ACLU can take the form of direct legal representation or preparation of <i><a href="/wiki/Amicus_curiae" title="Amicus curiae">amicus curiae</a></i> <a href="/wiki/Brief_(law)" title="Brief (law)">briefs</a> expressing legal arguments when another law firm is already providing representation. </p><p>In addition to representing persons and organizations in lawsuits, the ACLU lobbies for policy positions established by its board of directors. The ACLU's current positions include opposing the <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_in_the_United_States" title="Capital punishment in the United States">death penalty</a>; supporting <a href="/wiki/Same-sex_marriage_in_the_United_States" title="Same-sex marriage in the United States">same-sex marriage</a> and the <a href="/wiki/LGBT_adoption_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT adoption in the United States">right of LGBT people to adopt</a>; supporting <a href="/wiki/Reproductive_rights" title="Reproductive rights">reproductive rights</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Birth_control_in_the_United_States" title="Birth control in the United States">birth control</a> and <a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_the_United_States" title="Abortion in the United States">abortion rights</a>; eliminating <a href="/wiki/Discrimination_in_the_United_States" title="Discrimination in the United States">discrimination</a> against women, <a href="/wiki/Minority_group" title="Minority group">minorities</a>, and <a href="/wiki/LGBT" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT">LGBT</a> people; <a href="/wiki/Decarceration_in_the_United_States" title="Decarceration in the United States">decarceration in the United States</a>; protecting <a href="/wiki/Housing" title="Housing">housing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Employment" title="Employment">employment</a> rights of <a href="/wiki/Veteran" title="Veteran">veterans</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> reforming <a href="/wiki/Sex_offender_registry" title="Sex offender registry">sex offender registries</a><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and protecting housing and employment rights of convicted first-time offenders; supporting the <a href="/wiki/Prisoners%27_rights_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Prisoners' rights in the United States">rights of prisoners</a> and opposing <a href="/wiki/Torture_and_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Torture and the United States">torture</a>; upholding the <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States" title="Separation of church and state in the United States">separation of church and state</a> by opposing government preference for religion over non-religion or for particular faiths over others; and supporting the legality of gender-affirming treatments, including those that are government funded, for trans youth.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Legally, the ACLU consists of two separate but closely affiliated nonprofit organizations, namely the American Civil Liberties Union, a <a href="/wiki/501(c)(4)" class="mw-redirect" title="501(c)(4)">501(c)(4)</a> social welfare group; and the ACLU Foundation, a <a href="/wiki/501(c)(3)" class="mw-redirect" title="501(c)(3)">501(c)(3)</a> <a href="/wiki/Public_charity" class="mw-redirect" title="Public charity">public charity</a>. Both organizations engage in <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil rights">civil rights</a> litigation, advocacy, and education, but only donations to the 501(c)(3) foundation are tax deductible, and only the 501(c)(4) group can engage in unlimited political <a href="/wiki/Lobbying" title="Lobbying">lobbying</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-nonprofit_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nonprofit-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Organization">Organization</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=American_Civil_Liberties_Union&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Organization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Leadership">Leadership</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=American_Civil_Liberties_Union&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Leadership"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The ACLU is led by a president and an executive director, <a href="/wiki/Deborah_Archer" title="Deborah Archer">Deborah Archer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anthony_D._Romero" title="Anthony D. Romero">Anthony D. Romero</a>, respectively, as of March 2024.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The president acts as chair of the ACLU's board of directors, leads fundraising, and facilitates policy-setting. The executive director manages the day-to-day operations of the organization.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The board of directors consists of 80 persons, including representatives from each state affiliate and at-large delegates. The organization has its headquarters in <a href="/wiki/125_Broad_Street" class="mw-redirect" title="125 Broad Street">125 Broad Street</a>, a 40-story skyscraper located in <a href="/wiki/Lower_Manhattan" title="Lower Manhattan">Lower Manhattan</a>, New York City.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The leadership of the ACLU does not always agree on policy decisions; differences of opinion within the ACLU leadership have sometimes grown into major debates. In 1937, an internal debate erupted over whether to defend <a href="/wiki/Henry_Ford" title="Henry Ford">Henry Ford</a>'s right to distribute anti-union literature.<sup id="cite_ref-W102_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W102-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1939, a heated debate took place over whether to prohibit <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communists</a> from serving in ACLU leadership roles.<sup id="cite_ref-W1323_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W1323-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the early 1950s and <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> <a href="/wiki/McCarthyism" title="McCarthyism">McCarthyism</a>, the board was divided on whether to defend communists.<sup id="cite_ref-W176201_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W176201-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1968, a schism formed over whether to represent <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Spock" title="Benjamin Spock">Benjamin Spock</a>'s anti-war activism.<sup id="cite_ref-W2845_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W2845-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1973, as the <a href="/wiki/Watergate_Scandal" class="mw-redirect" title="Watergate Scandal">Watergate Scandal</a> continued to unfold, leadership was initially divided over whether to call for President <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Nixon</a>'s impeachment and removal from office.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2005, there was internal conflict about whether or not a <a href="/wiki/Gag_rule" title="Gag rule">gag rule</a> should be imposed on ACLU employees to prevent the publication of internal disputes.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Funding">Funding</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=American_Civil_Liberties_Union&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Funding"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2012-_ACLU_ACLUF_donations.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/2012-_ACLU_ACLUF_donations.png/300px-2012-_ACLU_ACLUF_donations.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/2012-_ACLU_ACLUF_donations.png/450px-2012-_ACLU_ACLUF_donations.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/2012-_ACLU_ACLUF_donations.png/600px-2012-_ACLU_ACLUF_donations.png 2x" data-file-width="2510" data-file-height="1810" /></a><figcaption> Amounts reported to IRS as "Contributions, Gifts, Grants and Other Similar Amounts" by ACLU and ACLU Foundation.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Graph reflects an increase in donations following U.S. President Trump's January 2017 executive order barring millions of refugees and citizens of seven Muslim-majority countries.<sup id="cite_ref-NYTimes20170130_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYTimes20170130-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>In the year ending March 31, 2014, the ACLU and the ACLU Foundation had a combined income from support and revenue of $100.4 million, originating from grants (50.0%), membership donations (25.4%), donated legal services (7.6%), bequests (16.2%), and revenue (0.9%).<sup id="cite_ref-2014-FinancialStatement_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2014-FinancialStatement-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Membership dues are treated as donations; members choose the amount they pay annually, averaging approximately $50 per member.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the year ending March 31, 2014, the combined expenses of the ACLU and ACLU Foundation were $133.4 million, spent on programs (86.2%), management (7.4%), and fundraising (8.2%).<sup id="cite_ref-2014-FinancialStatement_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2014-FinancialStatement-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (After factoring in other changes in net assets of +$30.9 million, from sources such as investment income, the organization had an overall decrease in net assets of $2.1 million.)<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over the period from 2011 to 2014, the ACLU Foundation, on average, has accounted for roughly 70% of the combined budget, and the ACLU roughly 30%.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ACLU solicits donations to its charitable foundation. The local affiliates solicit their own funding; however, some also receive funds from the national ACLU, with the distribution and amount of such assistance varying from state to state. At its discretion, the national organization provides subsidies to smaller affiliates that lack sufficient resources to be self-sustaining; for example, the Wyoming ACLU chapter received such subsidies until April 2015, when, as part of a round of layoffs at the national ACLU, the Wyoming office was closed.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In October 2004, the ACLU rejected $1.5 million from both the <a href="/wiki/Ford_Foundation" title="Ford Foundation">Ford Foundation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rockefeller_Foundation" title="Rockefeller Foundation">Rockefeller Foundation</a> because the foundations had adopted language from the USA PATRIOT Act in their donation agreements, including a clause stipulating that none of the money would go to "underwriting terrorism or other unacceptable activities". The ACLU views this clause, both in federal law and in the donors' agreements, as a threat to civil liberties, saying it is overly broad and ambiguous.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Due to the nature of its legal work, the ACLU is often involved in litigation against governmental bodies, which are generally protected from adverse monetary judgments; a town, state, or federal agency may be required to change its laws or behave differently, but not to pay monetary damages except by an explicit statutory waiver. In some cases, the law permits plaintiffs who successfully sue government agencies to collect money damages or other monetary relief. In particular, the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Attorney%27s_Fees_Award_Act_of_1976" title="Civil Rights Attorney's Fees Award Act of 1976">Civil Rights Attorney's Fees Award Act of 1976</a> leaves the government liable in some civil rights cases. Fee awards under this civil rights statute are considered "equitable relief" rather than damages, and government entities are not immune from equitable relief.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under laws such as this, the ACLU and its state affiliates sometimes share in monetary judgments against government agencies. In 2006, the <a href="/wiki/Veterans%27_Memorials,_Boy_Scouts,_Public_Seals,_and_Other_Public_Expressions_of_Religion_Protection_Act_of_2006" title="Veterans' Memorials, Boy Scouts, Public Seals, and Other Public Expressions of Religion Protection Act of 2006">Public Expressions of Religion Protection Act</a> sought to prevent monetary judgments in the particular case of violations of church-state separation.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ACLU has received court-awarded fees from opponents; for example, the Georgia affiliate was awarded $150,000 in fees after suing a county demanding the removal of a <a href="/wiki/Ten_Commandments" title="Ten Commandments">Ten Commandments</a> display from its courthouse;<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a second Ten Commandments case in the state, in a different county, led to a $74,462 judgment.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/State_of_Tennessee" class="mw-redirect" title="State of Tennessee">State of Tennessee</a> was required to pay $50,000, the State of Alabama $175,000, and the State of Kentucky $121,500, in similar Ten Commandments cases.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="State_affiliates">State affiliates</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=American_Civil_Liberties_Union&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: State affiliates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Howard-simon-ed-aclu-fl.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Howard-simon-ed-aclu-fl.jpg/220px-Howard-simon-ed-aclu-fl.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Howard-simon-ed-aclu-fl.jpg/330px-Howard-simon-ed-aclu-fl.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Howard-simon-ed-aclu-fl.jpg/440px-Howard-simon-ed-aclu-fl.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption>Howard Simon, executive director of the ACLU of Florida, joins in a protest of the <a href="/wiki/Guantanamo_Bay_detention_camp" title="Guantanamo Bay detention camp">Guantanamo Bay detentions</a> with <a href="/wiki/Amnesty_International" title="Amnesty International">Amnesty International</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Most of the organization's workload is performed by its local affiliates. There is at least one affiliate organization in each state, as well as one in <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a>, and in <a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rico" title="Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a>. <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a> has three affiliates.<sup id="cite_ref-affiliates_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-affiliates-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The affiliates operate autonomously from the national organization; each affiliate has its own staff, executive director, board of directors, and budget. Each affiliate consists of two non-profit corporations: a <a href="/wiki/501(c)(3)" class="mw-redirect" title="501(c)(3)">501(c)(3)</a> corporation–called the ACLU Foundation–that does not perform lobbying, and a <a href="/wiki/501(c)(4)" class="mw-redirect" title="501(c)(4)">501(c)(4)</a> corporation–called ACLU–which is entitled to lobby. Both organizations share staff and offices.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>ACLU affiliates are the basic unit of the ACLU's organization and engage in litigation, lobbying, and public education. For example, in 2020, the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_Liberties_Union_of_New_Jersey" title="American Civil Liberties Union of New Jersey">ACLU's New Jersey chapter</a> argued 26 cases before the <a href="/wiki/New_Jersey_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="New Jersey Supreme Court">New Jersey Supreme Court</a>, about one-third of the total cases heard in that court. They sent over 50,000 emails to officials or agencies and had 28 full-time staff.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible collapsible mw-collapsed" style="margin:1em auto;"> <caption> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2" style="text-align:center;">ACLU state affiliates </th></tr> <tr> <th>State </th> <th>ACLU state affiliate </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Alabama" title="Alabama">Alabama</a> </td> <td>ACLU of Alabama </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Alaska" title="Alaska">Alaska</a> </td> <td>ACLU of Alaska </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Arizona" title="Arizona">Arizona</a> </td> <td>ACLU of Arizona </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Arkansas" title="Arkansas">Arkansas</a> </td> <td>ACLU of Arkansas </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a> </td> <td>ACLU of Northern California<br />ACLU of Southern California<br />ACLU of San Diego & Imperial Counties </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Colorado" title="Colorado">Colorado</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/ACLU_of_Colorado" title="ACLU of Colorado">ACLU of Colorado</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Connecticut" title="Connecticut">Connecticut</a> </td> <td>ACLU of Connecticut </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Delaware" title="Delaware">Delaware</a> </td> <td>ACLU of Delaware </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">District of Columbia</a> </td> <td>ACLU of the District of Columbia </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Florida" title="Florida">Florida</a> </td> <td>ACLU of Florida </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a> </td> <td>ACLU of Georgia </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Hawaii" title="Hawaii">Hawaii</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/ACLU_of_Hawai%CA%BBi" title="ACLU of Hawaiʻi">ACLU of Hawai'i</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Idaho" title="Idaho">Idaho</a> </td> <td>ACLU of Idaho </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Illinois" title="Illinois">Illinois</a> </td> <td>ACLU of Illinois </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Indiana" title="Indiana">Indiana</a> </td> <td>ACLU of Indiana </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Iowa" title="Iowa">Iowa</a> </td> <td>ACLU of Iowa </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Kansas" title="Kansas">Kansas</a> </td> <td>ACLU of Kansas </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Kentucky" title="Kentucky">Kentucky</a> </td> <td>ACLU of Kentucky </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Louisiana" title="Louisiana">Louisiana</a> </td> <td>ACLU of Louisiana </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Maine" title="Maine">Maine</a> </td> <td>ACLU of Maine </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Maryland" title="Maryland">Maryland</a> </td> <td>ACLU of Maryland </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts" title="Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/ACLU_of_Massachusetts" class="mw-redirect" title="ACLU of Massachusetts">ACLU of Massachusetts</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Michigan" title="Michigan">Michigan</a> </td> <td>ACLU of Michigan </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Minnesota" title="Minnesota">Minnesota</a> </td> <td>ACLU of Minnesota </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Mississippi" title="Mississippi">Mississippi</a> </td> <td>ACLU of Mississippi </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Missouri" title="Missouri">Missouri</a> </td> <td>ACLU of Missouri </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Montana" title="Montana">Montana</a> </td> <td>ACLU of Montana </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Nebraska" title="Nebraska">Nebraska</a> </td> <td>ACLU of Nebraska </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Nevada" title="Nevada">Nevada</a> </td> <td>ACLU of Nevada </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/New_Hampshire" title="New Hampshire">New Hampshire</a> </td> <td>ACLU of New Hampshire </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/New_Jersey" title="New Jersey">New Jersey</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_Liberties_Union_of_New_Jersey" title="American Civil Liberties Union of New Jersey">American Civil Liberties Union of New Jersey</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/New_Mexico" title="New Mexico">New Mexico</a> </td> <td>ACLU of New Mexico </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/New_York_(state)" title="New York (state)">New York</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/New_York_Civil_Liberties_Union" title="New York Civil Liberties Union">New York Civil Liberties Union</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/North_Carolina" title="North Carolina">North Carolina</a> </td> <td>ACLU of North Carolina </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/North_Dakota" title="North Dakota">North Dakota</a> </td> <td>ACLU of North Dakota </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Ohio" title="Ohio">Ohio</a> </td> <td>ACLU of Ohio </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Oklahoma" title="Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a> </td> <td>ACLU of Oklahoma </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Oregon" title="Oregon">Oregon</a> </td> <td>ACLU of Oregon </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania" title="Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a> </td> <td>ACLU of Pennsylvania </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rico" title="Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a> </td> <td>ACLU of Puerto Rico National Chapter </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Rhode_Island" title="Rhode Island">Rhode Island</a> </td> <td>ACLU of Rhode Island </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina" title="South Carolina">South Carolina</a> </td> <td>ACLU of South Carolina </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/South_Dakota" title="South Dakota">South Dakota</a> </td> <td>ACLU of South Dakota </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Tennessee" title="Tennessee">Tennessee</a> </td> <td>ACLU of Tennessee </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Texas" title="Texas">Texas</a> </td> <td>ACLU of Texas<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Utah" title="Utah">Utah</a> </td> <td>ACLU of Utah </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Vermont" title="Vermont">Vermont</a> </td> <td>ACLU of Vermont </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Virginia" title="Virginia">Virginia</a> </td> <td>ACLU of Virginia<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Washington_(state)" title="Washington (state)">Washington</a> </td> <td>ACLU of Washington </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/West_Virginia" title="West Virginia">West Virginia</a> </td> <td>ACLU of West Virginia </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Wisconsin" title="Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a> </td> <td>ACLU of Wisconsin </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Wyoming" title="Wyoming">Wyoming</a> </td> <td>ACLU of Wyoming </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Positions">Positions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=American_Civil_Liberties_Union&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Positions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A leaked ACLU memo from June 2018 said that speech that can "inflict serious harms" and "impede progress toward equality" may be a lower priority for the organization.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sykes_2018_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sykes_2018-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ACLU opposes any effort to create a national registry of gun owners and has worked with the <a href="/wiki/National_Rifle_Association_of_America" class="mw-redirect" title="National Rifle Association of America">National Rifle Association of America</a> to prevent a registry from being created, and it has favored protecting the right to carry guns under the 4th Amendment.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ACLU opposes state censorship of the <a href="/wiki/Confederate_flag" class="mw-redirect" title="Confederate flag">Confederate flag</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Support_and_opposition">Support and opposition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=American_Civil_Liberties_Union&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Support and opposition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A variety of persons and organizations support the ACLU. The ACLU receives thousands of grants from hundreds of charitable foundations annually.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Allies of the ACLU in legal actions have included the <a href="/wiki/National_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Colored_People" class="mw-redirect" title="National Association for the Advancement of Colored People">National Association for the Advancement of Colored People</a>, the <a href="/wiki/American_Jewish_Congress" title="American Jewish Congress">American Jewish Congress</a>, <a href="/wiki/People_for_the_American_Way" title="People for the American Way">People for the American Way</a>, the <a href="/wiki/National_Rifle_Association_of_America" class="mw-redirect" title="National Rifle Association of America">National Rifle Association of America</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Electronic_Frontier_Foundation" title="Electronic Frontier Foundation">Electronic Frontier Foundation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Americans_United_for_Separation_of_Church_and_State" title="Americans United for Separation of Church and State">Americans United for Separation of Church and State</a> and the <a href="/wiki/National_Organization_for_Women" title="National Organization for Women">National Organization for Women</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The ACLU has been criticized by <a href="/wiki/Modern_liberalism_in_the_United_States" title="Modern liberalism in the United States">liberals</a> such as when it excluded <a href="/wiki/Communists" class="mw-redirect" title="Communists">communists</a> from its leadership ranks, when it defended <a href="/wiki/Neo-Nazis" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Nazis">Neo-Nazis</a>, when it declined to defend <a href="/wiki/Paul_Robeson" title="Paul Robeson">Paul Robeson</a>, or when it opposed the passage of the <a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="National Labor Relations Act">National Labor Relations Act</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Skokie_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Skokie-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2014, an ACLU affiliate supported anti-Islam protesters,<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in 2018 the ACLU was criticized when it supported the NRA.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Conversely, it has been criticized by <a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Conservatism in the United States">conservatives</a> such as when it argued against official prayer in public schools or when it opposed the <a href="/wiki/Patriot_Act" title="Patriot Act">Patriot Act</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ACLU has supported conservative figures such as <a href="/wiki/Rush_Limbaugh" title="Rush Limbaugh">Rush Limbaugh</a>, <a href="/wiki/George_Wallace" title="George Wallace">George Wallace</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henry_Ford" title="Henry Ford">Henry Ford</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oliver_North" title="Oliver North">Oliver North</a> as well as liberal figures such as <a href="/wiki/Dick_Gregory" title="Dick Gregory">Dick Gregory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rockwell_Kent" title="Rockwell Kent">Rockwell Kent</a> and <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Spock" title="Benjamin Spock">Benjamin Spock</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-W2845_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W2845-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOXRush_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOXRush-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-W82_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W82-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Major sources of criticism are legal cases in which the ACLU represents an individual or organization that promotes offensive or unpopular viewpoints, such as the <a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a>, neo-Nazis, the <a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a>, the <a href="/wiki/North_American_Man/Boy_Love_Association" title="North American Man/Boy Love Association">North American Man/Boy Love Association</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Westboro_Baptist_Church" title="Westboro Baptist Church">Westboro Baptist Church</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Unite_the_Right_rally" title="Unite the Right rally">Unite the Right rally</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ACLU's official policy is "... [we have] represented or defended individuals engaged in some truly offensive speech. We have defended the speech rights of communists, Nazis, Ku Klux Klan members, accused terrorists, pornographers, anti-LGBT activists, and flag burners. That's because the defense of freedom of speech is most necessary when the message is one most people find repulsive. Constitutional rights must apply to even the most unpopular groups if they're going to be preserved for everyone."<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=American_Civil_Liberties_Union&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_American_Civil_Liberties_Union" title="History of the American Civil Liberties Union">History of the American Civil Liberties Union</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_years">Early years</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=American_Civil_Liberties_Union&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Early years"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CrystalEastman.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/CrystalEastman.jpeg/220px-CrystalEastman.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="268" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/CrystalEastman.jpeg/330px-CrystalEastman.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/CrystalEastman.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="337" data-file-height="411" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Crystal_Eastman" title="Crystal Eastman">Crystal Eastman</a> was one of the co-founders of the CLB, the predecessor to the ACLU.</figcaption></figure> <p>The ACLU developed from the <a href="/wiki/National_Civil_Liberties_Bureau" title="National Civil Liberties Bureau">National Civil Liberties Bureau</a> (CLB), co-founded in 1917 during <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> by <a href="/wiki/Crystal_Eastman" title="Crystal Eastman">Crystal Eastman</a>, an attorney activist, and <a href="/wiki/Roger_Nash_Baldwin" title="Roger Nash Baldwin">Roger Nash Baldwin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The focus of the CLB was on <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">freedom of speech</a>, primarily anti-war speech, and on supporting <a href="/wiki/Conscientious_objector" title="Conscientious objector">conscientious objectors</a> who did not want to serve in World War I.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1918, Crystal Eastman resigned from the organization due to health issues.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After assuming sole leadership of the CLB, Baldwin insisted that the organization be reorganized. He wanted to change its focus from litigation to direct action and public education.<sup id="cite_ref-W47_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W47-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The CLB directors concurred, and on January 19, 1920, they formed an organization under a new name, the American Civil Liberties Union.<sup id="cite_ref-W47_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W47-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although a handful of other organizations in the United States at that time focused on civil rights, such as the <a href="/wiki/National_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Colored_People" class="mw-redirect" title="National Association for the Advancement of Colored People">National Association for the Advancement of Colored People</a> (<a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">NAACP</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Anti-Defamation_League" title="Anti-Defamation League">Anti-Defamation League</a> (ADL), the ACLU was the first that did not represent a particular group of persons or a single theme.<sup id="cite_ref-W47_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W47-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Like the CLB, the NAACP pursued litigation to work on civil rights, including efforts to overturn the <a href="/wiki/Disfranchisement_after_Reconstruction_era_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Disfranchisement after Reconstruction era (United States)">disfranchisement</a> of African Americans in the South that had taken place since the turn of the century. </p><p>During the first decades of the ACLU, Baldwin continued as its leader. His charisma and energy attracted many supporters to the ACLU board and leadership ranks.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ACLU was directed by an executive committee and was not particularly democratic or egalitarian. New Yorkers dominated the ACLU's headquarters.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most ACLU funding came from philanthropies, such as the <a href="/wiki/Garland_Fund" title="Garland Fund">Garland Fund</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Walker_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Walker-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Lucille_Bernheimer_Milner" title="Lucille Bernheimer Milner">Lucille Bernheimer Milner</a> was cofounder of the American Civil Liberties Union. She also served for a time as Executive Secretary.<sup id="cite_ref-The_New_York_Times_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_New_York_Times-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Free_speech_era">Free speech era</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=American_Civil_Liberties_Union&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Free speech era"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Norman_Thomas_1937.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Norman_Thomas_1937.jpg/170px-Norman_Thomas_1937.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Norman_Thomas_1937.jpg/255px-Norman_Thomas_1937.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Norman_Thomas_1937.jpg/340px-Norman_Thomas_1937.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1003" data-file-height="1293" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Norman_Thomas" title="Norman Thomas">Norman Thomas</a> was one of the early leaders of the ACLU.</figcaption></figure> <p>During the 1920s, the ACLU's primary focus was on freedom of speech in general and speech within the labor movement particularly.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because most of the ACLU's efforts were associated with the labor movement, the ACLU itself came under heavy attack from conservative groups, such as the <a href="/wiki/American_Legion" title="American Legion">American Legion</a>, the <a href="/wiki/National_Civic_Federation" title="National Civic Federation">National Civic Federation</a>, and Industrial Defense Association and the Allied Patriotic Societies.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ACLU leadership was divided on how to challenge civil rights violations. One faction, including Baldwin, <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Garfield_Hays" title="Arthur Garfield Hays">Arthur Garfield Hays</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Norman_Thomas" title="Norman Thomas">Norman Thomas</a>, believed that direct, militant action was the best path.<sup id="cite_ref-Walker_b_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Walker_b-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another group, including <a href="/wiki/Walter_Nelles" title="Walter Nelles">Walter Nelles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Walter_Pollak" title="Walter Pollak">Walter Pollak</a>, felt that lawsuits taken to the Supreme Court were the best way to achieve change.<sup id="cite_ref-W53_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W53-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition to labor, the ACLU also led efforts in non-labor arenas, for example, promoting free speech in public schools.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ACLU was banned from speaking in New York public schools in 1921.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ACLU, working with the <a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">NAACP</a>, also supported racial discrimination cases.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ACLU defended free speech regardless of espoused opinions. For example, the reactionary, anti-Catholic, anti-black <a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a> (KKK) was a frequent target of ACLU efforts, but the ACLU defended the KKK's right to hold meetings in 1923.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were some civil rights that the ACLU did not make an effort to defend in the 1920s, including censorship of the arts, <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">government search and seizure</a> issues, <a href="/wiki/Privacy_laws_of_the_United_States" title="Privacy laws of the United States">right to privacy</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Wiretapping" title="Wiretapping">wiretapping</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Government officials routinely hounded the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_USA" title="Communist Party USA">Communist Party USA</a>, leading it to be the primary client of the ACLU.<sup id="cite_ref-W63_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W63-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the same time, the Communists were very aggressive in their tactics, often engaging in illegal conduct such as denying their party membership under oath. This led to frequent conflicts between the Communists and ACLU.<sup id="cite_ref-W63_87-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W63-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Communist leaders sometimes attacked the ACLU, particularly when the ACLU defended the free speech rights of conservatives, whereas Communists tried to disrupt speeches by critics of the USSR.<sup id="cite_ref-W63_87-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W63-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This uneasy relationship between the two groups continued for decades.<sup id="cite_ref-W63_87-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W63-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Public_schools">Public schools</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=American_Civil_Liberties_Union&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Public schools"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Five years after the ACLU was formed, the organization had virtually no success to show for its efforts.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That changed in 1925, when the ACLU persuaded <a href="/wiki/John_T._Scopes" title="John T. Scopes">John T. Scopes</a> to defy Tennessee's anti-<a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a> law in <i><a href="/wiki/Scopes_Trial" class="mw-redirect" title="Scopes Trial">The State of Tennessee v. John Thomas Scopes</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Clarence_Darrow" title="Clarence Darrow">Clarence Darrow</a>, a member of the ACLU National Committee, headed Scopes' legal team. The prosecution, led by <a href="/wiki/William_Jennings_Bryan" title="William Jennings Bryan">William Jennings Bryan</a>, contended that the Bible should be interpreted literally in teaching <a href="/wiki/Creationism" title="Creationism">creationism</a> in school. The ACLU lost the case, and Scopes was fined $100. The Tennessee Supreme Court later upheld the law. Still, it overturned the conviction on a technicality.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Scopes trial was a phenomenal public relations success for the ACLU.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ACLU became well known across America, and the case led to the first endorsement of the ACLU by a major US newspaper.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ACLU continued to fight for the separation of church and state in schoolrooms, decade after decade, including the 1982 case <i><a href="/wiki/McLean_v._Arkansas" title="McLean v. Arkansas">McLean v. Arkansas</a></i> and the 2005 case <i><a href="/wiki/Kitzmiller_v._Dover_Area_School_District" title="Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District">Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Baldwin was involved in a significant free speech victory of the 1920s after he was arrested for attempting to speak at a rally of striking mill workers in New Jersey. Although the decision was limited to the state of New Jersey, the appeals court's judgment in 1928 declared that constitutional guarantees of free speech must be given "liberal and comprehensive construction", and it marked a major turning point in the <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">civil rights movement</a>, signaling the shift of judicial opinion in favor of civil rights.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The most important ACLU case of the 1920s was <i><a href="/wiki/Gitlow_v._New_York" title="Gitlow v. New York">Gitlow v. New York</a></i>, in which <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Gitlow" title="Benjamin Gitlow">Benjamin Gitlow</a> was arrested for violating a state law against inciting anarchy and violence when he distributed literature promoting communism.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the Supreme Court did not overturn Gitlow's conviction, it adopted the ACLU's stance (later termed the <a href="/wiki/Incorporation_doctrine" class="mw-redirect" title="Incorporation doctrine">incorporation doctrine</a>) that the First Amendment freedom of speech applied to state laws, as well as federal laws.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Oregon_Compulsory_Education_Act" title="Oregon Compulsory Education Act">Oregon Compulsory Education Act</a> required almost all children in Oregon between eight and sixteen years of age to attend <a href="/wiki/Public_school_(government_funded)" class="mw-redirect" title="Public school (government funded)">public school</a> by 1926.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKauffman1982282_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKauffman1982282-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Associate Director <a href="/wiki/Roger_Nash_Baldwin" title="Roger Nash Baldwin">Roger Nash Baldwin</a>, a personal friend of <a href="/wiki/Luke_E._Hart" title="Luke E. Hart">Luke E. Hart</a>, the then–Supreme Advocate and future <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Knight_of_the_Knights_of_Columbus" title="Supreme Knight of the Knights of Columbus">Supreme Knight</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Knights_of_Columbus" title="Knights of Columbus">Knights of Columbus</a>, offered to join forces with the Knights to challenge the law. The Knights of Columbus pledged an immediate $10,000 to fight the law and any additional funds necessary to defeat it.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKauffman1982283_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKauffman1982283-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The case became known as <i><a href="/wiki/Pierce_v._Society_of_Sisters" title="Pierce v. Society of Sisters">Pierce v. Society of Sisters</a></i>, a <a href="/wiki/United_States_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Supreme Court">United States Supreme Court</a> decision that significantly expanded coverage of the <a href="/wiki/Due_Process_Clause" title="Due Process Clause">Due Process Clause</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</a>. In a unanimous decision, the court held that the act was unconstitutional and that parents, not the state, had the authority to educate children as they thought best.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlley199941–44_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlley199941–44-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It upheld the religious freedom of parents to educate their children in religious schools. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Free_speech_expansion">Free speech expansion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=American_Civil_Liberties_Union&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Free speech expansion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Leaders of the ACLU were divided on the best tactics to use to promote civil liberties. Felix Frankfurter felt that legislation was the best long-term solution because the Supreme Court could not mandate liberal interpretations of the Bill of Rights. But <a href="/wiki/Walter_Pollak" title="Walter Pollak">Walter Pollak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Morris_Ernst" title="Morris Ernst">Morris Ernst</a>, and other leaders felt that Supreme Court decisions were the best path to guarantee civil liberties.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A series of Supreme Court decisions in the 1920s foretold a changing national atmosphere; anti-radical emotions were diminishing, and there was a growing willingness to protect freedom of speech and assembly via court decisions.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:H_l_mencken.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d2/H_l_mencken.jpg" decoding="async" width="191" height="263" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="191" data-file-height="263" /></a><figcaption>The ACLU defended <a href="/wiki/H._L._Mencken" title="H. L. Mencken">H. L. Mencken</a> when he was arrested for distributing banned literature.</figcaption></figure> <p>Starting in 1926, the ACLU expanded its free speech activities to encompass censorship of art and literature.<sup id="cite_ref-W82_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W82-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In that year, <a href="/wiki/H._L._Mencken" title="H. L. Mencken">H. L. Mencken</a> deliberately broke Boston law by distributing copies of his banned <i><a href="/wiki/American_Mercury" class="mw-redirect" title="American Mercury">American Mercury</a></i> magazine; the ACLU defended him and won an acquittal.<sup id="cite_ref-W82_64-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W82-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ACLU went on to win additional victories, including the landmark case <i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._One_Book_Called_Ulysses" title="United States v. One Book Called Ulysses">United States v. One Book Called Ulysses</a></i> in 1933, which reversed a ban by the Customs Department against the book <i><a href="/wiki/Ulysses_(novel)" title="Ulysses (novel)">Ulysses</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/James_Joyce" title="James Joyce">James Joyce</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-W86_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W86-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ACLU only achieved mixed results in the early years, and it was not until 1966 that the Supreme Court finally clarified the obscenity laws in the <i><a href="/wiki/Roth_v._United_States" title="Roth v. United States">Roth v. United States</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Memoirs_v._Massachusetts" title="Memoirs v. Massachusetts">Memoirs v. Massachusetts</a></i> cases. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Comstock_laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Comstock laws">Comstock laws</a> banned the distribution of sex education information based on the premise that it was obscene and led to promiscuous behavior.<sup id="cite_ref-W85_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W85-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Mary_Ware_Dennett" class="mw-redirect" title="Mary Ware Dennett">Mary Ware Dennett</a> was fined $300 in 1928 for distributing a pamphlet containing sex education material. The ACLU, led by Morris Ernst, appealed her conviction and won a reversal, in which judge <a href="/wiki/Learned_Hand" title="Learned Hand">Learned Hand</a> ruled that the pamphlet's primary purpose was to "promote understanding".<sup id="cite_ref-W85_103-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W85-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The success prompted the ACLU to broaden their freedom of speech efforts beyond labor and political speech to encompass movies, press, radio, and literature.<sup id="cite_ref-W85_103-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W85-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ACLU formed the National Committee on Freedom from Censorship in 1931 to coordinate this effort.<sup id="cite_ref-W85_103-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W85-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the early 1930s, <a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_the_United_States" title="Censorship in the United States">censorship in the United States</a> was diminishing.<sup id="cite_ref-W86_102-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W86-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Two major victories in the 1930s cemented the ACLU's campaign to promote free speech. In <i><a href="/wiki/Stromberg_v._California" title="Stromberg v. California">Stromberg v. California</a></i>, decided in 1931, the Supreme Court sided with the ACLU and affirmed the right of a communist party member to salute a communist flag. The result was the first time the Supreme Court used the <a href="/wiki/Due_Process_Clause" title="Due Process Clause">Due Process Clause</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">14th amendment</a> to subject states to the requirements of the <a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <i><a href="/wiki/Near_v._Minnesota" title="Near v. Minnesota">Near v. Minnesota</a></i>, also decided in 1931, the Supreme Court ruled that states may not exercise <a href="/wiki/Prior_restraint" title="Prior restraint">prior restraint</a> and prevent a newspaper from publishing, simply because the newspaper had a reputation for being scandalous.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1930s">1930s</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=American_Civil_Liberties_Union&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: 1930s"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The late 1930s saw the emergence of a new era of tolerance in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-W112_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W112-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> National leaders hailed the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a>, particularly as it protected minorities, as the essence of democracy.<sup id="cite_ref-W112_106-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W112-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 1939 Supreme Court decision in <i><a href="/wiki/Hague_v._Committee_for_Industrial_Organization" title="Hague v. Committee for Industrial Organization">Hague v. Committee for Industrial Organization</a></i> affirmed the right of communists to promote their cause.<sup id="cite_ref-W112_106-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W112-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even conservative elements, such as the <a href="/wiki/American_Bar_Association" title="American Bar Association">American Bar Association</a>, began to campaign for civil liberties, which were long considered to be the domain of left-leaning organizations. By 1940, the ACLU had achieved many of the goals it set in the 1920s, and many of its policies were the law of the land.<sup id="cite_ref-W112_106-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W112-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1929, after the Scopes and Dennett victories, Baldwin perceived that there was vast, untapped support for civil liberties in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-W86_102-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W86-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Baldwin proposed an expansion program for the ACLU, focusing on police brutality, Native American rights, African American rights, censorship in the arts, and international civil liberties.<sup id="cite_ref-W86_102-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W86-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The board of directors approved Baldwin's expansion plan, except for the international efforts.<sup id="cite_ref-W87_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W87-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ACLU played a significant role in passing the 1932 <a href="/wiki/Norris%E2%80%93La_Guardia_Act" title="Norris–La Guardia Act">Norris–La Guardia Act</a>, a federal law that prohibited employers from preventing employees from joining unions and stopped the practice of outlawing strikes, marriages, and labor organizing activities with the use of injunctions.<sup id="cite_ref-W87_107-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W87-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ACLU also played a key role in initiating a nationwide effort to reduce misconduct (such as extracting false confessions) within police departments by publishing the report <i>Lawlessness in Law Enforcement</i> in 1931, under the auspices of <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Hoover" title="Herbert Hoover">Herbert Hoover</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Wickersham_Commission" title="Wickersham Commission">Wickersham Commission</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-W87_107-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W87-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1934, the ACLU lobbied for the passage of the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Reorganization_Act" title="Indian Reorganization Act">Indian Reorganization Act</a>, which restored some autonomy to Native American tribes, and established penalties for kidnapping Native American children.<sup id="cite_ref-W87_107-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W87-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although the ACLU deferred to the NAACP for litigation promoting civil liberties for African Americans, the ACLU engaged in educational efforts and published <i>Black Justice</i> in 1931, a report which documented <a href="/wiki/Institutional_racism" title="Institutional racism">institutional racism</a> throughout the South, including lack of voting rights, segregation, and discrimination in the justice system.<sup id="cite_ref-W88_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W88-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Funded by the <a href="/wiki/Garland_Fund" title="Garland Fund">Garland Fund</a>, the ACLU also participated in producing the influential <a href="/wiki/Margold_Report" class="mw-redirect" title="Margold Report">Margold Report</a>, which outlined a strategy to fight for civil rights for blacks.<sup id="cite_ref-W89_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W89-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ACLU planned to demonstrate that the "<a href="/wiki/Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal">separate but equal</a>" policies governing the Southern discrimination were illegal because blacks were never, in fact, treated equally.<sup id="cite_ref-W89_109-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W89-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1932 – twelve years after the ACLU was founded – it had achieved significant success; the Supreme Court had embraced the free speech principles espoused by the ACLU, and the general public was becoming more supportive of civil rights in general.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a> brought new assaults on civil liberties; the year 1930 saw a large increase in the number of free speech prosecutions, a doubling of the number of lynchings, and all meetings of unemployed persons were banned in Philadelphia.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> administration proposed the <a href="/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal">New Deal</a> to combat the depression. ACLU leaders were of mixed opinions about the New Deal since many felt that it represented an increase in government intervention into personal affairs and because the <a href="/wiki/National_Recovery_Administration" title="National Recovery Administration">National Recovery Administration</a> suspended antitrust legislation.<sup id="cite_ref-W96_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W96-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The economic policies of the New Deal leaders were often aligned with ACLU goals, but social goals were not.<sup id="cite_ref-W97_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W97-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In particular, movies were subject to a barrage of local ordinances that banned screenings deemed immoral or obscene.<sup id="cite_ref-W100_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W100-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even public health films portraying pregnancy and birth were banned, as was <i><a href="/wiki/Life_(magazine)" title="Life (magazine)">Life</a></i> magazine's April 11, 1938, issue, which included photos of the birth process. The ACLU fought these bans but did not prevail.<sup id="cite_ref-W99_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W99-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Catholic Church attained increasing political influence in the 1930s; it used its influence to promote the censorship of movies and to discourage the publication of birth control information. This conflict between the ACLU and the Catholic Church led to the resignation of the last Catholic priest from ACLU leadership in 1934; a Catholic priest would not be represented again until the 1970s.<sup id="cite_ref-W98_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W98-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first decision that marked the Supreme Court's <a href="/wiki/The_switch_in_time_that_saved_nine" title="The switch in time that saved nine">major shift in policy</a>—no longer applying strict constitutional limits to government programs, and taking a more active role in protecting civil liberties—was <i><a href="/wiki/De_Jonge_v._Oregon" title="De Jonge v. Oregon">De Jonge v. Oregon</a></i>, in which a communist labor organizer was arrested for calling a meeting to discuss unionization.<sup id="cite_ref-W106_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W106-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ACLU attorney <a href="/wiki/Osmond_Fraenkel" title="Osmond Fraenkel">Osmond Fraenkel</a>, working with <a href="/wiki/International_Labor_Defense" title="International Labor Defense">International Labor Defense</a>, defended De Jonge in 1937 and won a major victory when the Supreme Court ruled that "peaceable assembly for lawful discussion cannot be made a crime."<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The De Jonge case marked the start of an era lasting for a dozen years, during which Roosevelt appointees (led by <a href="/wiki/Hugo_Black" title="Hugo Black">Hugo Black</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_O._Douglas" title="William O. Douglas">William O. Douglas</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Frank_Murphy" title="Frank Murphy">Frank Murphy</a>) established a body of civil liberties law.<sup id="cite_ref-W106_118-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W106-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1938, Justice <a href="/wiki/Harlan_F._Stone" title="Harlan F. Stone">Harlan F. Stone</a> wrote the famous "footnote four" in <i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Carolene_Products_Co." title="United States v. Carolene Products Co.">United States v. Carolene Products Co.</a></i> in which he suggested that state laws which impede civil liberties would – henceforth – require compelling justification.<sup id="cite_ref-W107_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W107-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Senator <a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Wagner" title="Robert F. Wagner">Robert F. Wagner</a> proposed the <a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="National Labor Relations Act">National Labor Relations Act</a> in 1935, which empowered workers to unionize. Ironically, after 15 years of fighting for workers' rights, the ACLU initially opposed the act (it later took no stand on the legislation) because some ACLU leaders feared the increased power the bill gave to the government.<sup id="cite_ref-W101_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W101-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The newly formed <a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Board" title="National Labor Relations Board">National Labor Relations Board</a> (NLRB) posed a dilemma for the ACLU because, in 1937, it issued an order to <a href="/wiki/Henry_Ford" title="Henry Ford">Henry Ford</a>, prohibiting Ford from disseminating anti-union literature.<sup id="cite_ref-W102_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W102-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Part of the ACLU leadership habitually took the side of labor, and that faction supported the NLRB's action.<sup id="cite_ref-W102_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W102-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But part of the ACLU supported Ford's right to free speech.<sup id="cite_ref-W102_17-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W102-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ACLU leader <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Garfield_Hays" title="Arthur Garfield Hays">Arthur Garfield Hays</a> proposed a compromise (supporting the auto workers union, yet also endorsing Ford's right to express personal opinions), but the schism highlighted a deeper divide that would become more prominent in the years to come.<sup id="cite_ref-W102_17-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W102-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ACLU's support of the NLRB was a significant development for the ACLU because it marked the first time it accepted that a government agency could be responsible for upholding civil liberties.<sup id="cite_ref-W103_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W103-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Until 1937, the ACLU felt that citizens and private organizations best upheld civil rights.<sup id="cite_ref-W103_122-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W103-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some factions in the ACLU proposed new directions for the organization. In the late 1930s, some local affiliates proposed shifting their emphasis from civil liberties appellate actions to becoming a legal aid society centered on store front offices in low-income neighborhoods. The ACLU directors rejected that proposal.<sup id="cite_ref-W104_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W104-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other ACLU members wanted the ACLU to shift focus into the political arena and be more willing to compromise their ideals to strike deals with politicians. The ACLU leadership also rejected this initiative.<sup id="cite_ref-W104_123-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W104-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ACLU's support of defendants with unpopular, sometimes extreme, viewpoints has produced many landmark court cases and established new civil liberties.<sup id="cite_ref-W107_120-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W107-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One such defendant was the <a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a>, who were involved in a <a href="/wiki/United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_involving_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Supreme Court cases involving Jehovah's Witnesses">large number of Supreme Court cases</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-W107_120-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W107-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most important cases involved statutes requiring flag salutes.<sup id="cite_ref-W108_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W108-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Jehovah's Witnesses felt that saluting a flag was contrary to their religious beliefs. Two children were convicted in 1938 of not saluting the flag.<sup id="cite_ref-W108_125-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W108-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ACLU supported their appeal to the Supreme Court, but the court affirmed the conviction in 1940.<sup id="cite_ref-W109_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W109-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But three years later, in <i><a href="/wiki/West_Virginia_State_Board_of_Education_v._Barnette" title="West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette">West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette</a></i>, the Supreme court reversed itself.<sup id="cite_ref-W109_126-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W109-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Communism_and_totalitarianism">Communism and totalitarianism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=American_Civil_Liberties_Union&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Communism and totalitarianism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Elizabeth_Gurley_Flynn_point.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Elizabeth_Gurley_Flynn_point.jpg/170px-Elizabeth_Gurley_Flynn_point.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="297" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Elizabeth_Gurley_Flynn_point.jpg/255px-Elizabeth_Gurley_Flynn_point.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Elizabeth_Gurley_Flynn_point.jpg/340px-Elizabeth_Gurley_Flynn_point.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="1398" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Gurley_Flynn" title="Elizabeth Gurley Flynn">Elizabeth Gurley Flynn</a> was voted off the ACLU board in 1940 because of her Communist Party membership but reinstated posthumously in 1970.</figcaption></figure> <p>The rise of <a href="/wiki/Totalitarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Totalitarian">totalitarian</a> regimes in Germany, Russia, and other countries that rejected freedom of speech and association greatly impacted the civil liberties movement in the US; anti-Communist sentiment rose, and civil liberties were curtailed.<sup id="cite_ref-W115_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W115-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ACLU leadership was divided over whether or not to defend pro-<a href="/wiki/Nazi" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi">Nazi</a> speech in the United States; pro-labor elements within the ACLU were hostile towards Nazism and fascism and objected when the ACLU defended Nazis.<sup id="cite_ref-W116_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W116-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ACLU defended numerous pro-Nazi groups, defending their rights to free speech and free association.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the late 1930s, the ACLU allied itself with the <a href="/wiki/Popular_Front#United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Popular Front">Popular Front</a>, a coalition of liberal organizations coordinated by the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_USA" title="Communist Party USA">United States Communist Party</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-W118_131-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W118-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ACLU benefited because affiliates from the Popular Front could often fight local civil rights battles much more effectively than the New York-based ACLU.<sup id="cite_ref-W118_131-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W118-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The association with the Communist Party led to accusations that the ACLU was a "Communist front", particularly because <a href="/wiki/Harry_F._Ward" title="Harry F. Ward">Harry F. Ward</a> was both chairman of the ACLU and chairman of the <a href="/wiki/American_League_Against_War_and_Fascism" title="American League Against War and Fascism">American League Against War and Fascism</a>, a Communist organization.<sup id="cite_ref-W119_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W119-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/House_Un-American_Activities_Committee" title="House Un-American Activities Committee">House Un-American Activities Committee</a> (HUAC) was created in 1938 to uncover sedition and treason within the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-W120_133-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W120-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When witnesses testified at its hearings, the ACLU was mentioned several times, leading the HUAC to mention the ACLU prominently in its 1939 report.<sup id="cite_ref-W121_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W121-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This damaged the ACLU's reputation severely, even though the report said that it could not "definitely state whether or not" the ACLU was a Communist organization.<sup id="cite_ref-W121_134-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W121-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the ACLU rushed to defend its image against allegations of being a Communist front, it also protected witnesses harassed by the HUAC.<sup id="cite_ref-W122_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W122-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ACLU was one of the few organizations to protest (unsuccessfully) against the passage of the <a href="/wiki/Smith_Act" title="Smith Act">Smith Act</a> in 1940, which would later be used to imprison many persons who supported Communism.<sup id="cite_ref-W123_136-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W123-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ACLU defended many persons who were prosecuted under the Smith Act, including labor leader <a href="/wiki/Harry_Bridges" title="Harry Bridges">Harry Bridges</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-W133_138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W133-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>ACLU leadership was split on whether to purge its leadership of Communists. <a href="/wiki/Norman_Thomas" title="Norman Thomas">Norman Thomas</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Haynes_Holmes" title="John Haynes Holmes">John Haynes Holmes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Morris_Ernst" title="Morris Ernst">Morris Ernst</a> were anti-Communists who wanted to distance the ACLU from Communism; opposing them were Harry F. Ward, <a href="/wiki/Corliss_Lamont" title="Corliss Lamont">Corliss Lamont</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Gurley_Flynn" title="Elizabeth Gurley Flynn">Elizabeth Gurley Flynn</a>, who rejected any political test for ACLU leadership.<sup id="cite_ref-W128_139-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W128-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A bitter struggle ensued throughout 1939, and the anti-Communists prevailed in February 1940 when the board voted to prohibit anyone who supported totalitarianism from ACLU leadership roles. Ward immediately resigned, and – following a contentious six-hour debate – Flynn was voted off the ACLU's board.<sup id="cite_ref-W1323_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W1323-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 1940 resolution was considered by many to be a betrayal of its fundamental principles. The resolution was rescinded in 1968, and Flynn was posthumously reinstated to the ACLU in 1970.<sup id="cite_ref-W133_138-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W133-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="World_War_II">World War II</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=American_Civil_Liberties_Union&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: World War II"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The ACLU had a decidedly mixed civil liberties record during World War II. While there were far fewer sedition prosecutions than in World War I, this did not mean that President Roosevelt was more tolerant of dissent than Wilson had been. The primary explanation was that prosecutors, working under similar laws, had fewer plausible targets because almost everyone rallied to the war effort after the attack on Pearl Harbor.<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Roosevelt put constant pressure on Attorney General <a href="/wiki/Francis_Biddle" title="Francis Biddle">Francis Biddle</a> to take legal action against his prominent pre-war critics.<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Partly to appease the president, Biddle finally charged thirty lesser-known individuals for violating the <a href="/wiki/Smith_Act" title="Smith Act">Smith Act</a>. Although many of the defendants did not know each other, and most lived in scattered locations in the U.S., they were all tried at once in Washington, D.C., in the Sedition Trial of 1944 Despite efforts by Roger N. Baldwin, <a href="/wiki/Norman_Thomas" title="Norman Thomas">Norman Thomas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</a>, and others in the leadership to get the ACLU to go on record condemning the trial (Baldwin called it "monstrous,") the board of directors overruled them.<sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ACLU also had a mixed record on fighting wartime restrictions on the press. It was silent when the U.S. Post Office revoked the second class mailing privileges of <i><a href="/wiki/Social_Justice_(periodical)" title="Social Justice (periodical)">Social Justice</a></i>, the magazine of Father <a href="/wiki/Charles_E._Coughlin" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles E. Coughlin">Charles E. Coughlin</a>. On the other hand, it extended legal aid to the publishers of <a href="/wiki/The_Militant" title="The Militant">the Militant</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Socialist_Workers_Party_(United_States)" title="Socialist Workers Party (United States)">Socialist Workers Party</a> and the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Boise_Valley_Herald&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Boise Valley Herald (page does not exist)">Boise Valley Herald</a> when their mailing rights were revoked. The ACLU was unable to prevent extensive extralegal harassment of the black press by the FBI and other agencies. The ACLU's shortcomings in defending civil liberties inspired the contemporary saying "born in World War I and died in World War II."<sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Photograph_of_Members_of_the_Mochida_Family_Awaiting_Evacuation_-_NARA_-_537505_-_Restoration.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Photograph_of_Members_of_the_Mochida_Family_Awaiting_Evacuation_-_NARA_-_537505_-_Restoration.jpg/220px-Photograph_of_Members_of_the_Mochida_Family_Awaiting_Evacuation_-_NARA_-_537505_-_Restoration.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Photograph_of_Members_of_the_Mochida_Family_Awaiting_Evacuation_-_NARA_-_537505_-_Restoration.jpg/330px-Photograph_of_Members_of_the_Mochida_Family_Awaiting_Evacuation_-_NARA_-_537505_-_Restoration.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Photograph_of_Members_of_the_Mochida_Family_Awaiting_Evacuation_-_NARA_-_537505_-_Restoration.jpg/440px-Photograph_of_Members_of_the_Mochida_Family_Awaiting_Evacuation_-_NARA_-_537505_-_Restoration.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2958" data-file-height="2316" /></a><figcaption>The ACLU was internally divided when it came to defending the rights of Japanese Americans who had been forcibly relocated to <a href="/wiki/Internment_camps" class="mw-redirect" title="Internment camps">internment camps</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Two months after the <a href="/wiki/Japanese_attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor">Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor</a>, Roosevelt authorized the creation of military "exclusion zones" with <a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_9066" title="Executive Order 9066">Executive Order 9066</a>, paving the way for the detention of all West Coast <a href="/wiki/Japanese_American" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese American">Japanese Americans</a> in inland camps. In addition to the non-citizen <a href="/wiki/Issei" title="Issei">Issei</a> (prohibited from <a href="/wiki/Naturalization" title="Naturalization">naturalization</a> as members of an "unassimilable" race), over two-thirds of those swept up were American-born citizens.<sup id="cite_ref-W137_144-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W137-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Opinions within the organization became increasingly divided as the Army began the "evacuation" of the West Coast. The board decided not to challenge the eviction of Japanese American citizens; on June 22, instructions were sent to West Coast branches not to support cases that argued the government had no constitutional right to do so.<sup id="cite_ref-Niiya-ACLU_145-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Niiya-ACLU-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ACLU offices on the West Coast had been more directly involved in addressing the tide of anti-Japanese prejudice from the start, as they were geographically closer to the issue and were already working on cases challenging the exclusion by this time. The Seattle office, assisting in <a href="/wiki/Gordon_Hirabayashi" title="Gordon Hirabayashi">Gordon Hirabayashi</a>'s lawsuit, created an unaffiliated committee to continue the work the ACLU had started, while in Los Angeles, attorney <a href="/w/index.php?title=A.L._Wirin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="A.L. Wirin (page does not exist)">A.L. Wirin</a> continued to represent <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernest_Kinzo_Wakayama&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ernest Kinzo Wakayama (page does not exist)">Ernest Kinzo Wakayama</a> but without addressing the case's constitutional questions.<sup id="cite_ref-Niiya-ACLU_145-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Niiya-ACLU-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wirin would lose private clients because of his defense of Wakayama and other Japanese Americans;<sup id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> however, the San Francisco branch, led by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernest_Besig&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ernest Besig (page does not exist)">Ernest Besig</a>, refused to discontinue its support for <a href="/wiki/Fred_Korematsu" title="Fred Korematsu">Fred Korematsu</a>, whose case had been taken on before the June 22 directive, and attorney <a href="/wiki/Wayne_M._Collins" title="Wayne M. Collins">Wayne Collins</a>, with Besig's full support, centered his defense on the illegality of Korematsu's exclusion.<sup id="cite_ref-Niiya-ACLU_145-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Niiya-ACLU-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The West Coast offices had wanted a test case to take to court. However, they had a difficult time finding a Japanese American who was both willing to violate the internment orders and able to meet the ACLU's desired criteria of a sympathetic, Americanized plaintiff. Of the 120,000 Japanese Americans affected by the order, only 12 disobeyed, and Korematsu, Hirabayashi, and two others were the only resisters whose cases eventually made it to the Supreme Court.<sup id="cite_ref-W138_147-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W138-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Hirabayashi_v._United_States" title="Hirabayashi v. United States">Hirabayashi v. United States</a></i> came before the Court in May 1943, and the justices upheld the government's right to exclude Japanese Americans from the West Coast;<sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although it had earlier forced its local office in L.A. to stop aiding Hirabayashi, the ACLU donated $1,000 to the case (over a third of the legal team's total budget) and submitted an <a href="/wiki/Amicus_brief" class="mw-redirect" title="Amicus brief"><i>amicus</i> brief</a>. Besig, dissatisfied with <a href="/wiki/Osmond_Fraenkel" title="Osmond Fraenkel">Osmond Fraenkel</a>'s tamer defense, filed an additional <i>amicus</i> brief that directly addressed Hirabayashi's constitutional rights. In the meantime, A.L. Wirin served as one of the attorneys in <i><a href="/wiki/Yasui_v._United_States" title="Yasui v. United States">Yasui v. United States</a></i> (decided the same day as the Hirabayashi case and with the same results). Still, he kept his arguments within the national office's parameters. The only case to receive a favorable ruling, <i><a href="/wiki/Ex_parte_Endo" title="Ex parte Endo">ex parte Endo</a></i>, was also aided by two <i>amicus</i> briefs from the ACLU, one from the more conservative Fraenkel and another from the more putative Wayne Collins.<sup id="cite_ref-Niiya-ACLU_145-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Niiya-ACLU-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i><a href="/wiki/Korematsu_v._United_States" title="Korematsu v. United States">Korematsu v. United States</a></i> proved to be the most controversial of these cases, as Besig and Collins refused to bow to the national ACLU office's pressure to pursue the case without challenging the government's right to remove citizens from their homes. The ACLU board threatened to revoke the San Francisco branch's national affiliation. At the same time, Baldwin tried unsuccessfully to convince Collins to step down so he could replace him as lead attorney in the case. Eventually, Collins agreed to present the case alongside <a href="/wiki/Charles_Antone_Horsky" title="Charles Antone Horsky">Charles Horsky</a>; however, their arguments before the Supreme Court remained based on the unconstitutionality of the exclusion order Korematsu had disobeyed.<sup id="cite_ref-Niiya-ACLU_145-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Niiya-ACLU-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The case was decided in December 1944, when the Court once again upheld the government's right to relocate Japanese Americans,<sup id="cite_ref-149" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although Korematsu's, Hirabayashi's and Yasui's convictions were later overturned in <i><a href="/wiki/Coram_nobis" title="Coram nobis">coram nobis</a></i> proceedings in the 1980s.<sup id="cite_ref-150" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Legal scholar <a href="/wiki/Peter_Irons" title="Peter Irons">Peter Irons</a> later asserted that the national office of the ACLU's decision not to challenge the constitutionality of Executive Order 9066 directly had "crippled the effective presentation of these appeals to the Supreme Court".<sup id="cite_ref-Niiya-ACLU_145-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Niiya-ACLU-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The national office of the ACLU was even more reluctant to defend anti-war protesters. A majority of the board passed a resolution in 1942 that declared the ACLU unwilling to defend anyone who interfered with the United States' war effort.<sup id="cite_ref-151" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Included in this group were the thousands of Nisei who <a href="/wiki/Renunciation_Act_of_1944" title="Renunciation Act of 1944">renounced their US citizenship</a> during the war but later regretted the decision and tried to revoke their applications for "repatriation". (A significant number of those slated to "go back" to Japan had never actually been to the country and were being deported rather than repatriated.) Ernest Besig had in 1944 visited the <a href="/wiki/Tule_Lake_Unit,_World_War_II_Valor_in_the_Pacific_National_Monument" class="mw-redirect" title="Tule Lake Unit, World War II Valor in the Pacific National Monument">Tule Lake Segregation Center</a>, where the majority of these "renunciants" were concentrated, and subsequently enlisted Wayne Collins' help to file a lawsuit on their behalf, arguing the renunciations had been given under duress. The national organization prohibited local branches from representing the renunciants, forcing Collins to pursue the case independently, although Besig and the Northern California office provided some support.<sup id="cite_ref-152" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cold_War_era">Cold War era</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=American_Civil_Liberties_Union&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Cold War era"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Anti-Communist sentiment gripped the United States during the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> beginning in 1946. Federal investigations caused many persons with Communist or left-leaning affiliations to lose jobs, become blocklisted, or be jailed.<sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ACLU was internally divided when it purged Communists from its leadership in 1940, and that ambivalence continued as it decided whether to defend alleged Communists during the late 1940s. Some ACLU leaders were anti-Communist and felt that the ACLU should not defend any victims. Some ACLU leaders felt that Communists were entitled to free speech protections and that the ACLU should defend them. Other ACLU leaders were uncertain about the threat posed by Communists and tried to establish a compromise between the two extremes.<sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This ambivalent state of affairs would last until 1954, when the civil liberties faction prevailed, leading to most anti-Communist leaders' resignations.<sup id="cite_ref-W176201_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W176201-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1947, President Truman issued <a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_9835" title="Executive Order 9835">Executive Order 9835</a>, which created the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Loyalty_Program" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal Loyalty Program">Federal Loyalty Program</a>. This program authorized the Attorney General to create a list of organizations that were deemed to be subversive.<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Listed organizations were not notified that they were being considered for the list, nor did they have an opportunity to present counterarguments; nor did the government divulge any factual basis for inclusion in the list.<sup id="cite_ref-W179_156-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W179-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although ACLU leadership was divided on whether to challenge the Federal Loyalty Program, some challenges were successfully made.<sup id="cite_ref-W179_156-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W179-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Also in 1947, the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) subpoenaed ten Hollywood directors and writers, the <i><a href="/wiki/Hollywood_Ten" class="mw-redirect" title="Hollywood Ten">Hollywood Ten</a></i>, intending to ask them to identify Communists, but the witnesses refused to testify. All were imprisoned for <a href="/wiki/Contempt_of_Congress" title="Contempt of Congress">contempt of Congress</a>. The ACLU supported several artists' appeals but lost on appeal.<sup id="cite_ref-W181_157-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W181-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Hollywood establishment panicked after the HUAC hearings and created a <a href="/wiki/Blacklist" class="mw-redirect" title="Blacklist">blacklist</a> that prohibited anyone with leftist associations from working. The ACLU supported legal challenges to the blocklist, but those challenges failed.<sup id="cite_ref-W181_157-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W181-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ACLU was more successful with an education effort; the 1952 report <i>The Judges and the Judged</i>, prepared at the ACLU's direction in response to the blocklisting of actress <a href="/wiki/Jean_Muir_(actress)" title="Jean Muir (actress)">Jean Muir</a>, described the unfair and unethical actions behind the blocklisting process, and it helped gradually turn public opinion against McCarthyism.<sup id="cite_ref-158" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DennisEugene.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/DennisEugene.jpg/220px-DennisEugene.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="259" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/12/DennisEugene.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="307" data-file-height="361" /></a><figcaption>The ACLU chose not to support <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Dennis" title="Eugene Dennis">Eugene Dennis</a> or other leaders of the US Communist Party, and they were all imprisoned, along with their attorneys.</figcaption></figure> <p>The federal government took direct aim at the US Communist Party in 1948 when it indicted its top twelve leaders in the <a href="/wiki/Foley_Square_trial" class="mw-redirect" title="Foley Square trial">Foley Square trial</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-W185_159-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W185-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The case hinged on whether or not mere membership in a totalitarian political party was sufficient to conclude that members advocated the overthrow of the United States government.<sup id="cite_ref-W185_159-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W185-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ACLU chose not to represent any of the defendants, and they were all found guilty.<sup id="cite_ref-W185_159-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W185-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a change of heart, the ACLU supported the party leaders during their appeal process. The Supreme Court upheld the convictions in the <i><a href="/wiki/Dennis_v._United_States" title="Dennis v. United States">Dennis v. United States</a></i> decision by softening the free speech requirements from a "clear and present danger" test to a "grave and probable" test.<sup id="cite_ref-W187_160-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W187-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ACLU issued a public condemnation of the <i>Dennis</i> decision, and resolved to fight it.<sup id="cite_ref-W187_160-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W187-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One reason for the Supreme Court's support of Cold War legislation was the 1949 deaths of Supreme Court justices <a href="/wiki/Frank_Murphy" title="Frank Murphy">Frank Murphy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wiley_Rutledge" title="Wiley Rutledge">Wiley Rutledge</a>, leaving <a href="/wiki/Hugo_Black" title="Hugo Black">Hugo Black</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_O._Douglas" title="William O. Douglas">William O. Douglas</a> as the only remaining civil libertarians on the Court.<sup id="cite_ref-Walker_c_161-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Walker_c-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <i>Dennis</i> decision paved the way for the prosecution of hundreds of other Communist party members.<sup id="cite_ref-W188_162-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W188-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ACLU supported many Communists during their appeals (although most of the initiative originated with local ACLU affiliates, not the national headquarters), but most convictions were upheld.<sup id="cite_ref-W188_162-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W188-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The two California affiliates, in particular, felt the national ACLU headquarters was not supporting civil liberties strongly enough, and they initiated more cold war cases than the national headquarters did.<sup id="cite_ref-Walker_c_161-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Walker_c-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ACLU challenged many loyalty oath requirements across the country, but the courts upheld most loyalty oath laws.<sup id="cite_ref-163" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Supreme Court, until 1957, upheld nearly every law which restricted the liberties of Communists.<sup id="cite_ref-164" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ACLU, even though it scaled back its defense of Communists during the Cold War, still came under heavy criticism as a "front" for Communism. Critics included the <a href="/wiki/American_Legion" title="American Legion">American Legion</a>, Senator <a href="/wiki/Joseph_McCarthy" title="Joseph McCarthy">Joseph McCarthy</a>, the HUAC, and the FBI.<sup id="cite_ref-165" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several ACLU leaders were sympathetic to the FBI, and as a consequence, the ACLU rarely investigated any of the many complaints alleging abuse of power by the FBI during the Cold War.<sup id="cite_ref-166" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1950, the ACLU board of directors asked executive director Baldwin to resign, feeling he lacked the organizational skills to lead the 9,000 (and growing) member organization. Baldwin objected, but a majority of the board elected to remove him from the position, and he was replaced by <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Murphy_Malin" title="Patrick Murphy Malin">Patrick Murphy Malin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-167" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under Malin's guidance, membership tripled to 30,000 by 1955 – the start of 24 years of continual growth leading to 275,000 members in 1974.<sup id="cite_ref-W207_168-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W207-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Malin also presided over an expansion of local ACLU affiliates.<sup id="cite_ref-W207_168-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W207-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ACLU, controlled by an elite of a few dozen New Yorkers, became more democratic in the 1950s. In 1951, the ACLU amended its bylaws to permit the local affiliates to participate directly in voting on ACLU policy decisions.<sup id="cite_ref-W208_169-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W208-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A bi-annual conference, open to the entire membership, was instituted in the same year; in later decades, it became a pulpit for activist members, who suggested new directions for the ACLU, including abortion rights, death penalty, and rights of the poor.<sup id="cite_ref-W208_169-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W208-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="McCarthy_era">McCarthy era</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=American_Civil_Liberties_Union&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: McCarthy era"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Paul_Robeson_1942_crop.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Paul_Robeson_1942_crop.jpg/170px-Paul_Robeson_1942_crop.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Paul_Robeson_1942_crop.jpg/255px-Paul_Robeson_1942_crop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Paul_Robeson_1942_crop.jpg/340px-Paul_Robeson_1942_crop.jpg 2x" data-file-width="9300" data-file-height="11591" /></a><figcaption>In the 1950s, the ACLU chose not to support <a href="/wiki/Paul_Robeson" title="Paul Robeson">Paul Robeson</a> and other leftist defendants, a decision that would be heavily criticized in the future.</figcaption></figure> <p>During the early 1950s, the ACLU continued to steer a moderate course through the Cold War. When singer <a href="/wiki/Paul_Robeson" title="Paul Robeson">Paul Robeson</a> was denied a passport in 1950, even though he was not accused of any illegal acts, the ACLU chose not to defend him.<sup id="cite_ref-170" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ACLU later reversed their stance and supported <a href="/wiki/William_Worthy" title="William Worthy">William Worthy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rockwell_Kent" title="Rockwell Kent">Rockwell Kent</a> in their passport confiscation cases, which resulted in legal victories in the late 1950s.<sup id="cite_ref-171" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In response to communist witch-hunts, many witnesses and employees chose to use the <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">fifth amendment</a> protection against <a href="/wiki/Self-incrimination" title="Self-incrimination">self-incrimination</a> to avoid divulging information about their political beliefs.<sup id="cite_ref-172" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Government agencies and private organizations, in response, established policies which inferred communist party membership for anyone who invoked the fifth amendment.<sup id="cite_ref-173" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The national ACLU was divided on whether to defend employees who had been fired merely for pleading the fifth amendment, but the New York affiliate successfully assisted teacher <a href="/wiki/Harry_Slochower" title="Harry Slochower">Harry Slochower</a> in his Supreme Court case, which reversed his termination.<sup id="cite_ref-174" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The fifth amendment issue became the catalyst for a watershed event in 1954, which finally resolved the ACLU's ambivalence by ousting the anti-communists from ACLU leadership.<sup id="cite_ref-175" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1953, the anti-communists, led by <a href="/wiki/Norman_Thomas" title="Norman Thomas">Norman Thomas</a> and <a href="/wiki/James_Fly" class="mw-redirect" title="James Fly">James Fly</a>, proposed a set of resolutions that inferred guilt of persons that invoked the fifth amendment.<sup id="cite_ref-W208_169-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W208-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These resolutions were the first that fell under the ACLU's new organizational rules permitting local affiliates to participate in the vote; the affiliates outvoted the national headquarters and rejected the anti-communist resolutions.<sup id="cite_ref-176" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>176<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Anti-communist leaders refused to accept the results of the vote and brought the issue up for discussion again at the 1954 bi-annual convention.<sup id="cite_ref-W210_177-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W210-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ACLU member <a href="/wiki/Frank_Porter_Graham" title="Frank Porter Graham">Frank Graham</a>, president of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_North_Carolina" title="University of North Carolina">University of North Carolina</a>, attacked the anti-communists with a counter-proposal, which stated that the ACLU "stand[s] against guilt by association, judgment by accusation, the invasion of privacy of personal opinions and beliefs, and the confusion of dissent with disloyalty".<sup id="cite_ref-W210_177-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W210-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-178" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>178<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The anti-communists continued to battle Graham's proposal but were outnumbered by the affiliates. The anti-communists finally gave up and departed the board of directors in late 1954 and 1955, ending an eight-year ambivalence within the ACLU leadership ranks.<sup id="cite_ref-179" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After that, the ACLU proceeded with firmer resolve against Cold War anti-communist legislation.<sup id="cite_ref-W211_180-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W211-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The period from the 1940 resolution (and the purge of Elizabeth Flynn) to the 1954 resignation of the anti-communist leaders is considered by many to be an era in which the ACLU abandoned its core principles.<sup id="cite_ref-W211_180-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W211-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-181" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-181"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>181<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>McCarthyism declined in late 1954 after television journalist <a href="/wiki/Edward_R._Murrow" title="Edward R. Murrow">Edward R. Murrow</a> and others publicly chastised McCarthy.<sup id="cite_ref-W212_182-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W212-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The controversies over the Bill of Rights that the Cold War generated ushered in a new era in American Civil liberties. In 1954, in <i><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a></i>, the Supreme Court unanimously overturned state-sanctioned school segregation, and after that, a flood of civil rights victories dominated the legal landscape.<sup id="cite_ref-183" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Supreme Court handed the ACLU two key victories in 1957, in <i><a href="/wiki/Watkins_v._United_States" title="Watkins v. United States">Watkins v. United States</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Yates_v._United_States" title="Yates v. United States">Yates v. United States</a></i>, both of which undermined the <a href="/wiki/Smith_Act" title="Smith Act">Smith Act</a> and marked the beginning of the end of communist party membership inquiries.<sup id="cite_ref-184" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1965, the Supreme Court produced some decisions, including <i><a href="/wiki/Lamont_v._Postmaster_General" title="Lamont v. Postmaster General">Lamont v. Postmaster General</a></i> (in which the plaintiff was <a href="/wiki/Corliss_Lamont" title="Corliss Lamont">Corliss Lamont</a>, a former ACLU board member), which upheld fifth amendment protections and brought an end to restrictions on political activity.<sup id="cite_ref-Walker,_p._246_185-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Walker,_p._246-185"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>185<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1960s">1960s</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=American_Civil_Liberties_Union&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: 1960s"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The decade from 1954 to 1964 was the most successful period in the ACLU's history.<sup id="cite_ref-W217_186-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W217-186"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Membership rose from 30,000 to 80,000, and by 1965 it had affiliates in seventeen states.<sup id="cite_ref-W217_186-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W217-186"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-187" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the ACLU's bi-annual conference in Colorado in 1964, the Supreme Court issued rulings on eight cases involving the ACLU; the ACLU prevailed on seven of the eight.<sup id="cite_ref-Walker_d_188-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Walker_d-188"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>188<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ACLU played a role in Supreme Court decisions reducing censorship of literature and arts, protecting freedom of association, prohibiting racial segregation, excluding religion from public schools, and providing due process protection to criminal suspects.<sup id="cite_ref-W217_186-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W217-186"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ACLU's success arose from changing public attitudes; the American populace was more educated, tolerant, and willing to accept unorthodox behavior.<sup id="cite_ref-W217_186-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W217-186"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HugoLaFayetteBlack.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/HugoLaFayetteBlack.jpg/170px-HugoLaFayetteBlack.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="214" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/HugoLaFayetteBlack.jpg/255px-HugoLaFayetteBlack.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/HugoLaFayetteBlack.jpg/340px-HugoLaFayetteBlack.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1219" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Supreme Court justice <a href="/wiki/Hugo_Black" title="Hugo Black">Hugo Black</a> often endorsed the ACLU's position on the separation of church and state.</figcaption></figure> <p>Legal battles concerning the separation of church and state originated in laws dating to 1938, which required religious instruction in school or provided state funding for religious schools.<sup id="cite_ref-W219_189-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W219-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Catholic church was a leading proponent of such laws, and the primary opponents (the "separationists") were the ACLU, <a href="/wiki/Americans_United_for_Separation_of_Church_and_State" title="Americans United for Separation of Church and State">Americans United for Separation of Church and State</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/American_Jewish_Congress" title="American Jewish Congress">American Jewish Congress</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-W219_189-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W219-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ACLU led the challenge in the 1947 <i><a href="/wiki/Everson_v._Board_of_Education" title="Everson v. Board of Education">Everson v. Board of Education</a></i> case, in which Justice Hugo Black wrote "[t]he First Amendment has erected a wall between church and state.... That wall must be kept high and impregnable."<sup id="cite_ref-W219_189-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W219-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-190" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-190"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>190<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-191" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-191"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>191<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was not clear that the Bill of Rights forbid state governments from supporting religious education, and strong legal arguments were made by religious proponents, arguing that the Supreme Court should not act as a "national school board", and that the Constitution did not govern social issues.<sup id="cite_ref-W221_192-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W221-192"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>192<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the ACLU and other advocates of church/state separation persuaded the Court to declare such activities unconstitutional.<sup id="cite_ref-W221_192-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W221-192"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>192<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historian <a href="/w/index.php?title=Samuel_Walker_(historian)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Samuel Walker (historian) (page does not exist)">Samuel Walker</a> writes that the ACLU's "greatest impact on American life" was its role in persuading the Supreme Court to "constitutionalize" so many public controversies.<sup id="cite_ref-W221_192-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W221-192"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>192<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1948, the ACLU prevailed in the <i><a href="/wiki/McCollum_v._Board_of_Education" title="McCollum v. Board of Education">McCollum v. Board of Education</a></i> case, which challenged public school religious classes taught by clergy paid for by private funds.<sup id="cite_ref-W221_192-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W221-192"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>192<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ACLU also won cases challenging schools in New Mexico that were taught by clergy and had crucifixes hanging in the classrooms.<sup id="cite_ref-W222_193-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W222-193"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>193<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 1960s, the ACLU, in response to member insistence, turned its attention to the in-class promotion of religion.<sup id="cite_ref-W223_194-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W223-194"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>194<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1960, 42 percent of American schools included Bible reading.<sup id="cite_ref-W223_194-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W223-194"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>194<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1962, the ACLU published a policy statement condemning in-school prayers, observation of religious holidays, and Bible reading.<sup id="cite_ref-W223_194-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W223-194"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>194<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Supreme Court concurred with the ACLU's position when it prohibited New York's in-school prayers in the 1962 <i><a href="/wiki/Engel_v._Vitale" title="Engel v. Vitale">Engel v. Vitale</a></i> decision.<sup id="cite_ref-195" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-195"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>195<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Religious factions across the country rebelled against the anti-prayer decisions, leading them to propose the <a href="/wiki/School_Prayer_Amendment" title="School Prayer Amendment">School Prayer Constitutional Amendment</a>, which declared in-school prayer legal.<sup id="cite_ref-W225_196-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W225-196"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>196<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ACLU participated in a lobbying effort against the amendment, and the 1966 congressional vote failed to obtain the required two-thirds majority.<sup id="cite_ref-W225_196-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W225-196"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>196<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, not all cases were victories; ACLU lost cases in 1949 and 1961 which challenged state laws requiring commercial businesses to close on Sunday, the Christian Sabbath.<sup id="cite_ref-W222_193-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W222-193"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>193<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Supreme Court has never overturned such laws, although some states subsequently revoked many of the laws under pressure from commercial interests.<sup id="cite_ref-W222_193-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W222-193"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>193<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cities across America routinely banned movies because they were deemed to be "harmful", "offensive", or "immoral" – censorship which was validated by the 1915 <i><a href="/wiki/Mutual_Film_Corp._v._Industrial_Commission_of_Ohio" title="Mutual Film Corp. v. Industrial Commission of Ohio">Mutual v. Ohio</a></i> Supreme Court decision which held movies to be mere commerce, undeserving of first amendment protection.<sup id="cite_ref-W231_197-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W231-197"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>197<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The film <i><a href="/wiki/L%27Amore_(film)" title="L'Amore (film)">The Miracle</a></i> was banned in New York in 1951 at the behest of the Catholic Church, but the ACLU supported the film's distributor in an appeal of the ban, and won a major victory in the 1952 decision <i><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Burstyn,_Inc._v._Wilson" title="Joseph Burstyn, Inc. v. Wilson">Joseph Burstyn, Inc. v. Wilson</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-W231_197-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W231-197"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>197<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further legal actions by the ACLU successfully defended films such as <i><a href="/wiki/M_(1951_film)" title="M (1951 film)">M</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/La_Ronde_(1950_film)" title="La Ronde (1950 film)">la Ronde</a></i>, leading the eventual dismantling of movie censorship.<sup id="cite_ref-W231_197-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W231-197"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>197<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-198" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-198"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>198<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hollywood continued employing self-censorship with its own <a href="/wiki/Production_Code" class="mw-redirect" title="Production Code">Production Code</a>, but in 1956 the ACLU called on Hollywood to abolish the Code.<sup id="cite_ref-W233_199-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W233-199"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>199<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ACLU lost an <a href="/wiki/Roth_v._United_States" title="Roth v. United States">important press censorship case</a> when, in 1957, the Supreme Court upheld the obscenity conviction of publisher <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Roth" title="Samuel Roth">Samuel Roth</a> for distributing adult magazines.<sup id="cite_ref-200" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-200"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>200<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As late as 1953, books such as <i><a href="/wiki/Tropic_of_Cancer_(novel)" title="Tropic of Cancer (novel)">Tropic of Cancer</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/From_Here_to_Eternity_(novel)" title="From Here to Eternity (novel)">From Here to Eternity</a></i> were still banned.<sup id="cite_ref-W227_201-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W227-201"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>201<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But public standards rapidly became more liberal through the 1960s, and obscenity was notoriously difficult to define, so by 1971, obscenity prosecutions had halted.<sup id="cite_ref-Walker_d_188-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Walker_d-188"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>188<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-W227_201-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W227-201"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>201<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Racial_discrimination">Racial discrimination</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=American_Civil_Liberties_Union&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Racial discrimination"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Several civil liberties organizations worked together for progress on the <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">civil rights movement</a>, including the <a href="/wiki/National_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Colored_People" class="mw-redirect" title="National Association for the Advancement of Colored People">National Association for the Advancement of Colored People</a> (NAACP), the ACLU, and the <a href="/wiki/American_Jewish_Congress" title="American Jewish Congress">American Jewish Congress</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-W238_202-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W238-202"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>202<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The NAACP took primary responsibility for Supreme Court cases (often led by lead NAACP attorney <a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</a>), with the ACLU focusing on police misconduct, and supporting the NAACP with <a href="/wiki/Amicus_brief" class="mw-redirect" title="Amicus brief">amicus briefs</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-W238_202-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W238-202"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>202<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1954, the ACLU filed an <a href="/wiki/Amicus_brief" class="mw-redirect" title="Amicus brief">amicus brief</a> in the case of <i><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a></i>, which led to the ban on racial segregation in US <a href="/wiki/Public_school_(government_funded)#United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Public school (government funded)">public schools</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-203" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-203"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>203<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Southern states instituted a McCarthyism-style witch-hunt against the NAACP, attempting to force it to disclose membership lists. The ACLU's fight against racism was not limited to segregation; in 1964, the ACLU provided key support to plaintiffs, primarily lower-income urban residents, in <i><a href="/wiki/Reynolds_v._Sims" title="Reynolds v. Sims">Reynolds v. Sims</a></i>, which required states to establish the voting districts following the "one person, one vote" principle.<sup id="cite_ref-204" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-204"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>204<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Police_misconduct">Police misconduct</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=American_Civil_Liberties_Union&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Police misconduct"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The ACLU regularly tackled police misconduct issues, starting with the 1932 case <i><a href="/wiki/Powell_v._Alabama" title="Powell v. Alabama">Powell v. Alabama</a></i> (right to an attorney), and including 1942's <i><a href="/wiki/Betts_v._Brady" title="Betts v. Brady">Betts v. Brady</a></i> (right to an attorney), and 1951's <i><a href="/wiki/Rochin_v._California" title="Rochin v. California">Rochin v. California</a></i> (involuntary stomach pumping).<sup id="cite_ref-Walker,_p._246_185-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Walker,_p._246-185"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>185<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the late 1940s, several ACLU local affiliates established permanent committees to address policing issues.<sup id="cite_ref-205" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-205"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>205<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the 1950s and 1960s, the ACLU was responsible for substantially advancing the legal protections against police misconduct.<sup id="cite_ref-206" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-206"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>206<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1958, the Philadelphia affiliate was responsible for causing the City of Philadelphia to create the nation's first civilian police review board.<sup id="cite_ref-207" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-207"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>207<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1959, the Illinois affiliate published the first report in the nation, <i>Secret Detention by the Chicago Police</i> which documented unlawful detention by police.<sup id="cite_ref-208" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-208"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>208<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some of the most notable ACLU successes came in the 1960s when the ACLU prevailed in a string of cases limiting the power of police to gather evidence; in 1961's <i><a href="/wiki/Mapp_v._Ohio" title="Mapp v. Ohio">Mapp v. Ohio</a></i>, the Supreme court required states to obtain a warrant before searching a person's home.<sup id="cite_ref-209" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-209"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>209<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i><a href="/wiki/Gideon_v._Wainwright" title="Gideon v. Wainwright">Gideon v. Wainwright</a></i> decision in 1963 provided legal representation to indigents.<sup id="cite_ref-210" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-210"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>210<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1964, the ACLU persuaded the Court, in <i><a href="/wiki/Escobedo_v._Illinois" title="Escobedo v. Illinois">Escobedo v. Illinois</a></i>, to permit suspects to have an attorney present during questioning.<sup id="cite_ref-211" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-211"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>211<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> And, in 1966, <i><a href="/wiki/Miranda_v._Arizona" title="Miranda v. Arizona">Miranda v. Arizona</a></i> federal decision required police to notify suspects of their constitutional rights, which was later extended to <a href="/wiki/Minor_(law)" title="Minor (law)">juveniles</a> in the following year's <i><a href="/wiki/In_re_Gault" title="In re Gault">in re Gault</a></i> (1967) federal ruling.<sup id="cite_ref-212" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-212"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>212<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although many law enforcement officials criticized the ACLU for expanding the rights of suspects, police officers also used the services of the ACLU. For example, when the ACLU represented New York City policemen in their lawsuit, which objected to searches of their workplace lockers.<sup id="cite_ref-213" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-213"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>213<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the late 1960s, civilian review boards in New York City and Philadelphia were abolished, over the ACLU's objection.<sup id="cite_ref-214" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-214"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>214<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Civil_liberties_revolution">Civil liberties revolution</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=American_Civil_Liberties_Union&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Civil liberties revolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The 1960s was a tumultuous era in the United States, and public interest in civil liberties underwent explosive growth.<sup id="cite_ref-Walkerpp_215-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Walkerpp-215"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>215<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Civil liberties actions in the 1960s were often led by young people and often employed tactics such as <a href="/wiki/Sit_in" class="mw-redirect" title="Sit in">sit ins</a> and marches. Protests were often peaceful but sometimes employed militant tactics.<sup id="cite_ref-216" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-216"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>216<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ACLU played a central role in all major civil liberties debates of the 1960s, including new fields such as <a href="/wiki/Gay_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Gay rights">gay rights</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prisoner%27s_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Prisoner's rights">prisoner's rights</a>, abortion, rights of the poor, and the death penalty.<sup id="cite_ref-Walkerpp_215-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Walkerpp-215"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>215<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Membership in the ACLU increased from 52,000 at the beginning of the decade to 104,000 in 1970.<sup id="cite_ref-W262_217-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W262-217"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>217<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1960, there were affiliates in seven states, and by 1974 there were affiliates in 46 states.<sup id="cite_ref-W262_217-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W262-217"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>217<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-218" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-218"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>218<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the 1960s, the ACLU underwent a major transformation in tactics; it shifted emphasis from legal appeals (generally involving <a href="/wiki/Amicus_briefs" class="mw-redirect" title="Amicus briefs">amicus briefs</a> submitted to the Supreme Court) to direct representation of defendants when they were initially arrested.<sup id="cite_ref-W262_217-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W262-217"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>217<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the same time, the ACLU transformed its style from "disengaged and elitist" to "emotionally engaged".<sup id="cite_ref-219" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-219"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>219<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ACLU published a breakthrough document in 1963, titled <i>How Americans Protest</i>, which was borne of frustration with the slow progress in battling racism, and which endorsed aggressive, even militant protest techniques.<sup id="cite_ref-220" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-220"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>220<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After four African-American college students <a href="/wiki/Greensboro_sit-ins" title="Greensboro sit-ins">staged a sit-in</a> in a segregated North Carolina department store, the <a href="/wiki/Sit-in_movement" title="Sit-in movement">sit-in movement</a> gained momentum across the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-221" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-221"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>221<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During 1960–61, the ACLU defended black students arrested for demonstrating in North Carolina, Florida, and Louisiana.<sup id="cite_ref-W263_222-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W263-222"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>222<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ACLU also provided legal help for the <a href="/wiki/Freedom_Riders" title="Freedom Riders">Freedom Rides</a> in 1961, the <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement#Integration_of_Mississippi_universities,_1956–1965" title="Civil rights movement">integration of the University of Mississippi</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Birmingham_campaign" title="Birmingham campaign">Birmingham campaign</a> in 1963, and the 1964 <a href="/wiki/Freedom_Summer" title="Freedom Summer">Freedom Summer</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-W263_222-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W263-222"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>222<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The NAACP was responsible for managing most sit-in related cases that made it to the Supreme Court, winning nearly every decision.<sup id="cite_ref-W264_223-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W264-223"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>223<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But it fell to the ACLU and other legal volunteer efforts to provide legal representation to hundreds of protestors – white and black – who were arrested while protesting in the South.<sup id="cite_ref-W264_223-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W264-223"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>223<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ACLU joined with other civil liberties groups to form the Lawyers Constitutional Defense Committee (LCDC), which provided legal representation to many protesters.<sup id="cite_ref-224" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-224"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>224<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ACLU provided the majority of the funding for the LCDC.<sup id="cite_ref-225" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-225"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>225<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1964, the ACLU opened up a major office in Atlanta, Georgia, dedicated to serving Southern issues.<sup id="cite_ref-226" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-226"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>226<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Much of the ACLU's progress in the South was due to <a href="/wiki/Charles_Morgan_Jr." title="Charles Morgan Jr.">Charles Morgan Jr.</a>, the charismatic leader of the Atlanta office. Morgan was responsible for desegregating juries (<i><a href="/wiki/Whitus_v._Georgia" title="Whitus v. Georgia">Whitus v. Georgia</a></i>), desegregating prisons (<i><a href="/wiki/Lee_v._Washington" title="Lee v. Washington">Lee v. Washington</a></i>), and <a href="/wiki/Disenfranchisement_after_the_Reconstruction_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Disenfranchisement after the Reconstruction era">reforming election laws</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-227" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-227"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>227<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1966, the southern office successfully represented African-American congressman <a href="/wiki/Julian_Bond" title="Julian Bond">Julian Bond</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/Bond_v._Floyd" title="Bond v. Floyd">Bond v. Floyd</a></i>, after the <a href="/wiki/Georgia_House_of_Representatives" title="Georgia House of Representatives">Georgia House of Representatives</a> refused to admit Bond into the legislature on the basis that he was an admitted pacifist opposed to the ongoing Vietnam War.<sup id="cite_ref-228" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-228"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>228<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another widely publicized case defended by Morgan was that of Army doctor Howard Levy, who was convicted of refusing to train <a href="/wiki/Green_Berets" class="mw-redirect" title="Green Berets">Green Berets</a>. Despite raising the defense that the Green Berets were committing war crimes in Vietnam, Levy lost on appeal in <i>Parker v. Levy</i>, 417 US 733 (1974).<sup id="cite_ref-229" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-229"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>229<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1969, the ACLU won a significant victory for free speech when it defended <a href="/wiki/Dick_Gregory" title="Dick Gregory">Dick Gregory</a> after he was arrested for peacefully protesting against the mayor of Chicago. The court ruled in <i><a href="/wiki/Gregory_v._Chicago" class="mw-redirect" title="Gregory v. Chicago">Gregory v. Chicago</a></i> that a speaker cannot be arrested for disturbing the peace when hostility is initiated by someone in the audience, as that would amount to a "heckler's veto".<sup id="cite_ref-230" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-230"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>230<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vietnam_War">Vietnam War</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=American_Civil_Liberties_Union&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Vietnam War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The ACLU was at the center of several legal aspects of the Vietnam war: defending <a href="/wiki/Draft_resister" class="mw-redirect" title="Draft resister">draft resisters</a>, challenging the constitutionality of the war, the <a href="/wiki/Watergate_scandal" title="Watergate scandal">potential impeachment of Richard Nixon</a>, and the use of national security concerns to preemptively <a href="/wiki/Censorship" title="Censorship">censor</a> newspapers. </p><p>David J. Miller was the first person prosecuted for burning his <a href="/wiki/Draft_card" class="mw-redirect" title="Draft card">draft card</a>. The New York affiliate of the ACLU appealed his 1965 conviction (367 F.2d 72: <i>United States of America v. David J. Miller</i>, 1966), but the Supreme Court refused to hear the appeal. Two years later, the Massachusetts affiliate took the card-burning case of David O'Brien to the Supreme Court, arguing that the act of burning was a form of symbolic speech, but the Supreme Court upheld the conviction in <i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._O%27Brien" title="United States v. O'Brien">United States v. O'Brien</a></i>, 391 US 367 (1968).<sup id="cite_ref-Walker_e_231-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Walker_e-231"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>231<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thirteen-year-old Junior High student Mary Tinker wore a black armband to school in 1965 to object to the war and was suspended from school. The ACLU appealed her case to the Supreme Court and won a victory in <i><a href="/wiki/Tinker_v._Des_Moines_Independent_Community_School_District" title="Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District">Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District</a></i>. This critical case established that the government may not establish "enclaves" such as schools or prisons where all rights are forfeited.<sup id="cite_ref-Walker_e_231-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Walker_e-231"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>231<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:US_Flag_Burn.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/US_Flag_Burn.jpg/220px-US_Flag_Burn.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="302" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/US_Flag_Burn.jpg/330px-US_Flag_Burn.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/US_Flag_Burn.jpg/440px-US_Flag_Burn.jpg 2x" data-file-width="729" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption>The ACLU contends that the Bill of Rights protects individuals who burn the U.S. flag as a form of expression.</figcaption></figure> <p>The ACLU defended Sydney Street, who was arrested for burning an American flag to protest the reported assassination of civil rights leader <a href="/wiki/James_Meredith" title="James Meredith">James Meredith</a>. In the <i><a href="/wiki/Street_v._New_York" title="Street v. New York">Street v. New York</a></i> decision, the court agreed with the ACLU that encouraging the country to abandon one of its national symbols was a constitutionally protected form of expression.<sup id="cite_ref-232" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-232"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>232<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ACLU successfully defended Paul Cohen, who was arrested for wearing a jacket with the words "fuck the draft" on its back while he walked through the Los Angeles courthouse. The Supreme Court, in <i><a href="/wiki/Cohen_v._California" title="Cohen v. California">Cohen v. California</a></i>, held that the vulgarity of the wording was essential to convey the intensity of the message.<sup id="cite_ref-W281_233-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W281-233"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>233<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Non-war-related free speech rights were also advanced during the Vietnam war era; in 1969, the ACLU defended a <a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a> member who advocated long-term violence against the government, and the Supreme Court concurred with the ACLU's argument in the landmark decision <i><a href="/wiki/Brandenburg_v._Ohio" title="Brandenburg v. Ohio">Brandenburg v. Ohio</a></i>, which held that only speech which advocated <i>imminent</i> violence could be outlawed.<sup id="cite_ref-W281_233-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W281-233"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>233<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A major crisis gripped the ACLU in 1968 when a debate erupted over whether to defend <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Spock" title="Benjamin Spock">Benjamin Spock</a> and the Boston Five against federal charges that they encouraged draftees to avoid the draft. The ACLU board was deeply split over whether to defend the activists; half the board harbored anti-war sentiments and felt that the ACLU should lend its resources to the cause of the Boston Five. The other half of the board believed that civil liberties were not at stake and the ACLU would be taking a political stance. Behind the debate was the longstanding ACLU tradition that it was politically impartial and provided legal advice without regard to the defendants' political views. The board finally agreed to a compromise solution that permitted the ACLU to defend the anti-war activists without endorsing the activist's political views. Some critics of the ACLU suggest that the ACLU became a partisan political organization following the Spock case.<sup id="cite_ref-W2845_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W2845-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the <a href="/wiki/Kent_State_shootings" title="Kent State shootings">Kent State shootings</a> in 1970, ACLU leaders took another step toward politics by passing a resolution condemning the Vietnam War. The resolution was based on various legal arguments, including civil liberties violations and claiming that the war was illegal.<sup id="cite_ref-234" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-234"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>234<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Also in 1968, the ACLU held an internal symposium to discuss its dual roles: providing "direct" legal support (defense for accused in their initial trial, benefiting only the individual defendant) and appellate support (providing amicus briefs during the appeal process, to establish widespread legal precedent).<sup id="cite_ref-W285_235-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W285-235"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>235<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historically, the ACLU was known for its appellate work, which led to landmark Supreme Court decisions, but by 1968, 90% of the ACLU's legal activities involved direct representation. The symposium concluded that both roles were valid for the ACLU.<sup id="cite_ref-W285_235-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W285-235"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>235<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Watergate_era">Watergate era</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=American_Civil_Liberties_Union&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Watergate era"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Richard_M._Nixon,_ca._1935_-_1982_-_NARA_-_530679.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Richard_M._Nixon%2C_ca._1935_-_1982_-_NARA_-_530679.jpg/220px-Richard_M._Nixon%2C_ca._1935_-_1982_-_NARA_-_530679.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="260" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Richard_M._Nixon%2C_ca._1935_-_1982_-_NARA_-_530679.jpg/330px-Richard_M._Nixon%2C_ca._1935_-_1982_-_NARA_-_530679.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Richard_M._Nixon%2C_ca._1935_-_1982_-_NARA_-_530679.jpg/440px-Richard_M._Nixon%2C_ca._1935_-_1982_-_NARA_-_530679.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2539" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>The ACLU was the first national organization to call for the impeachment of <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The ACLU supported <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i> in its 1971 suit against the government, requesting permission to publish the <a href="/wiki/Pentagon_Papers" title="Pentagon Papers">Pentagon Papers</a>. The court upheld the <i>Times</i> and ACLU in the <i><a href="/wiki/New_York_Times_Co._v._United_States" title="New York Times Co. v. United States">New York Times Co. v. United States</a></i> ruling, which held that the government could not preemptively prohibit the publication of classified information and had to wait until after it was published to take action.<sup id="cite_ref-236" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-236"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>236<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On September 30, 1973, the ACLU became first national organization to publicly call for the impeachment and removal from office of President <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-237" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-237"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>237<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Six civil liberties violations were cited as grounds: "specific proved violations of the rights of political dissent; usurpation of Congressional war-making powers; establishment of a personal secret police which committed crimes; attempted interference in the trial of Daniel Ellsberg; distortion of the system of justice and perversion of other Federal agencies".<sup id="cite_ref-238" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-238"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>238<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One month later, after the House of Representatives began an <a href="/wiki/Impeachment_process_against_Richard_Nixon" title="Impeachment process against Richard Nixon">impeachment inquiry against him</a>, the organization released a 56-page handbook detailing "17 things citizens could do to bring about the impeachment of President Nixon".<sup id="cite_ref-239" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-239"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>239<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This resolution, when placed beside the earlier resolution opposing the Vietnam war, convinced many ACLU critics, particularly conservatives, that the organization had transformed into a liberal political organization.<sup id="cite_ref-240" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-240"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>240<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Enclaves_and_new_civil_liberties">Enclaves and new civil liberties</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=American_Civil_Liberties_Union&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Enclaves and new civil liberties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The decade from 1965 to 1975 saw an expansion of civil liberties. Administratively, the ACLU responded by appointing <a href="/wiki/Aryeh_Neier" title="Aryeh Neier">Aryeh Neier</a> to take over from Pemberton as executive director in 1970. Neier embarked on an ambitious program to expand the ACLU; he created the ACLU Foundation to raise funds and created several new programs to focus the ACLU's legal efforts. By 1974, ACLU membership had reached 275,000.<sup id="cite_ref-241" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-241"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>241<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During those years, the ACLU worked to expand legal rights in three directions: new rights for persons within government-run "enclaves", new rights for members of what it called "victim groups", and privacy rights for citizens in general.<sup id="cite_ref-242" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-242"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>242<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the same time, the organization grew substantially. The ACLU helped develop the field of constitutional law that governs "enclaves", which are groups of persons that live in conditions under government control. Enclaves include mental hospital patients, military members, prisoners, and students (while at school). The term enclave originated with Supreme Court justice <a href="/wiki/Abe_Fortas" title="Abe Fortas">Abe Fortas</a>'s use of the phrase "schools may not be enclaves of totalitarianism" in the <i><a href="/wiki/Tinker_v._Des_Moines" class="mw-redirect" title="Tinker v. Des Moines">Tinker v. Des Moines</a></i> decision.<sup id="cite_ref-243" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-243"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>243<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ACLU initiated the legal field of student's rights with the <i>Tinker v. Des Moines</i> case and expanded it with cases such as <i><a href="/wiki/Goss_v._Lopez" title="Goss v. Lopez">Goss v. Lopez</a></i>, which required schools to provide students an opportunity to appeal suspensions.<sup id="cite_ref-244" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-244"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>244<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As early as 1945, the ACLU had taken a stand to protect the rights of the mentally ill when it drafted a model statute governing mental commitments.<sup id="cite_ref-W309_245-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W309-245"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>245<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 1960s, the ACLU opposed involuntary commitments unless it could be demonstrated that the person was a danger to himself or the community.<sup id="cite_ref-W309_245-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W309-245"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>245<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the landmark 1975 <i><a href="/wiki/O%27Connor_v._Donaldson" title="O'Connor v. Donaldson">O'Connor v. Donaldson</a></i> decision, the ACLU represented a non-violent mental health patient who had been confined against his will for 15 years and persuaded the Supreme Court to rule such involuntary confinements illegal.<sup id="cite_ref-W309_245-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W309-245"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>245<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ACLU has also defended the rights of mentally ill individuals who are not dangerous but create disturbances. The New York chapter of the ACLU defended <a href="/wiki/Billie_Boggs" class="mw-redirect" title="Billie Boggs">Billie Boggs</a>, a woman with mental illness who exposed herself and defecated and urinated in public.<sup id="cite_ref-google_246-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-google-246"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>246<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Before 1960, prisoners had virtually no recourse to the court system because courts considered prisoners to have no civil rights.<sup id="cite_ref-247" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-247"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>247<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That changed in the late 1950s, when the ACLU began representing prisoners subject to <a href="/wiki/Police_brutality" title="Police brutality">police brutality</a> or deprived of religious reading material.<sup id="cite_ref-W310_248-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W310-248"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>248<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1968, the ACLU successfully sued to desegregate the Alabama prison system; in 1969, the New York affiliate adopted a project to represent prisoners in New York prisons. Private attorney <a href="/w/index.php?title=Phil_Hirschkop&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Phil Hirschkop (page does not exist)">Phil Hirschkop</a> discovered degrading conditions in Virginia prisons following the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Virginia_State_Penitentiary_strike&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Virginia State Penitentiary strike (page does not exist)">Virginia State Penitentiary strike</a> and won an important victory in 1971's <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Landman_v._Royster&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Landman v. Royster (page does not exist)">Landman v. Royster</a></i> which prohibited Virginia from treating prisoners in inhumane ways.<sup id="cite_ref-249" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-249"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>249<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1972, the ACLU consolidated several prison rights efforts across the nation and created the <a href="/w/index.php?title=National_Prison_Project&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="National Prison Project (page does not exist)">National Prison Project</a>. The ACLU's efforts led to landmark cases such as <i><a href="/wiki/Ruiz_v._Estelle" title="Ruiz v. Estelle">Ruiz v. Estelle</a></i> (requiring reform of the Texas prison system), and in 1996 <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">US Congress</a> enacted the <a href="/wiki/Prison_Litigation_Reform_Act" title="Prison Litigation Reform Act">Prison Litigation Reform Act</a> (PLRA) which codified prisoners' rights. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Victim_groups">Victim groups</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=American_Civil_Liberties_Union&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Victim groups"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ruth_Bader_Ginsburg_official_SCOTUS_portrait.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Ruth_Bader_Ginsburg_official_SCOTUS_portrait.jpg/170px-Ruth_Bader_Ginsburg_official_SCOTUS_portrait.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Ruth_Bader_Ginsburg_official_SCOTUS_portrait.jpg/255px-Ruth_Bader_Ginsburg_official_SCOTUS_portrait.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Ruth_Bader_Ginsburg_official_SCOTUS_portrait.jpg/340px-Ruth_Bader_Ginsburg_official_SCOTUS_portrait.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="3600" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ruth_Bader_Ginsburg" title="Ruth Bader Ginsburg">Ruth Bader Ginsburg</a> co-founded the ACLU's Women's Rights Project in 1971.<sup id="cite_ref-250" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-250"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>250<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She was later appointed to the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court of the United States</a> by President <a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>During the 1960s and 1970s, the ACLU expanded its scope to include what it referred to as "victim groups", namely women, the poor, and homosexuals.<sup id="cite_ref-251" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-251"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>251<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Heeding the call of female members, the ACLU endorsed the <a href="/wiki/Equal_Rights_Amendment" title="Equal Rights Amendment">Equal Rights Amendment</a> in 1970<sup id="cite_ref-252" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-252"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>252<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and created the Women's Rights Project in 1971. The Women's Rights Project dominated the legal field, handling more than twice as many cases as the <a href="/wiki/National_Organization_for_Women" title="National Organization for Women">National Organization for Women</a>, including breakthrough cases such as <i><a href="/wiki/Reed_v._Reed" title="Reed v. Reed">Reed v. Reed</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Frontiero_v._Richardson" title="Frontiero v. Richardson">Frontiero v. Richardson</a></i>, and <i> <a href="/wiki/Taylor_v._Louisiana" title="Taylor v. Louisiana">Taylor v. Louisiana</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-253" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-253"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>253<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>ACLU leader <a href="/wiki/Harriet_Pilpel" title="Harriet Pilpel">Harriet Pilpel</a> raised the issue of the rights of homosexuals in 1964, and two years later, the ACLU formally endorsed <a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in the United States">gay rights</a>. In 1972, ACLU cooperating attorneys in Oregon filed the first federal civil rights case involving a claim of unconstitutional discrimination against a gay or lesbian public school teacher. The US District Court held that a state statute that authorized school districts to fire teachers for "immorality" was unconstitutionally vague, and awarded monetary damages to the teacher. The court refused to reinstate the teacher, and the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals affirmed that refusal by a 2-to-1 vote. In 1973, the ACLU created the Sexual Privacy Project (later the Gay and Lesbian Rights Project), which combated discrimination against homosexuals.<sup id="cite_ref-254" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-254"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>254<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This support continued into the 2000s. For example, after then-Senator <a href="/wiki/Larry_Craig" title="Larry Craig">Larry Craig</a> was arrested for soliciting sex in a public restroom in 2007, the ACLU wrote an amicus brief for Craig, saying that sex between consenting adults in public places was protected under privacy rights.<sup id="cite_ref-255" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-255"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>255<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The rights of the poor were another area that the ACLU expanded. In 1966 and again in 1968, activists within the ACLU encouraged the organization to adopt a policy overhauling the welfare system and guaranteeing low-income families a baseline income; but the ACLU board did not approve the proposals.<sup id="cite_ref-W313_256-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W313-256"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>256<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the ACLU played a key role in the 1968 <i><a href="/wiki/King_v._Smith" title="King v. Smith">King v. Smith</a></i> decision, where the Supreme Court ruled that welfare benefits for children could not be denied by a state simply because the mother cohabited with a boyfriend.<sup id="cite_ref-W313_256-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W313-256"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>256<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reproductive_Freedom_Project">Reproductive Freedom Project</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=American_Civil_Liberties_Union&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Reproductive Freedom Project"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The ACLU founded the Reproductive Freedom Project in 1974 to defend individuals the government obstructs in cases involving access to abortions, birth control, or sexual education. According to its mission statement, the project works to provide access to reproductive health care for individuals.<sup id="cite_ref-257" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-257"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>257<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The project also opposes <a href="/wiki/Abstinence-only_sex_education" title="Abstinence-only sex education">abstinence-only sex education</a>, arguing that it promotes an unwillingness to use contraceptives.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_258-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-258"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>258<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-259" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-259"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>259<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-260" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-260"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>260<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1980, the Project filed <i><a href="/wiki/Poe_v._Lynchburg_Training_School_%26_Hospital" title="Poe v. Lynchburg Training School & Hospital">Poe v. Lynchburg Training School & Hospital</a></i> which attempted to overturn <i><a href="/wiki/Buck_v._Bell" title="Buck v. Bell">Buck v. Bell</a></i>, the 1927 US Supreme Court decision which had allowed the Commonwealth of Virginia to legally sterilize persons it deemed to be mentally defective without their permission. Though the Court did not overturn <i>Buck v.Bell</i>, in 1985, the state agreed to provide counseling and medical treatment to the survivors among the 7,200 to 8,300 people sterilized between 1927 and 1979.<sup id="cite_ref-261" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-261"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>261<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1977, the ACLU took part in and litigated <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Walker_v._Pierce&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Walker v. Pierce (page does not exist)">Walker v. Pierce</a></i>, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_courts_of_appeals" title="United States courts of appeals">federal circuit court case</a> that led to federal regulations to prevent <a href="/wiki/Medicaid" title="Medicaid">Medicaid</a> patients from being sterilized without their knowledge or consent.<sup id="cite_ref-262" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-262"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>262<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1981–1990, the Project litigated <i><a href="/wiki/Hodgson_v._Minnesota" title="Hodgson v. Minnesota">Hodgson v. Minnesota</a></i>, which resulted in the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a> overturning a state law requiring both parents to be notified before a minor could legally have an abortion.<sup id="cite_ref-263" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-263"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>263<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 1990s, the Project provided legal assistance and resource kits to those who were being challenged for educating about sexuality and <a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS" title="HIV/AIDS">AIDS</a>. In 1995, the Project filed an <a href="/wiki/Amicus_curiae" title="Amicus curiae">amicus brief</a> in <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Curtis_v._School_Committee_of_Falmouth&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Curtis v. School Committee of Falmouth (page does not exist)">Curtis v. School Committee of Falmouth</a></i>, which allowed for the distribution of condoms in a public school.<sup id="cite_ref-264" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-264"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>264<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Reproductive Freedom Project focuses on three ideas: (1) to "reverse the shortage of trained abortion providers throughout the country" (2) to "block state and federal welfare "reform" proposals that cut off benefits for children who are born to women already receiving welfare, unmarried women, or teenagers"<sup id="cite_ref-265" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-265"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>265<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and (3) to "stop the elimination of vital reproductive health services as a result of hospital mergers and health care networks".<sup id="cite_ref-266" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-266"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>266<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Project proposes to achieve these goals through legal action and litigation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Privacy">Privacy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=American_Civil_Liberties_Union&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Privacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Privacy_laws_of_the_United_States" title="Privacy laws of the United States">right to privacy</a> is not explicitly identified in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">US Constitution</a>, but the ACLU led the charge to establish such rights in the indecisive <i><a href="/wiki/Poe_v._Ullman" title="Poe v. Ullman">Poe v. Ullman</a></i> (1961) case, which addressed a state statute outlawing contraception. The issue arose again in <i><a href="/wiki/Griswold_v._Connecticut" title="Griswold v. Connecticut">Griswold v. Connecticut</a></i> (1965), and this time the Supreme Court adopted the ACLU's position and formally declared a right to privacy.<sup id="cite_ref-267" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-267"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>267<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The New York affiliate of the ACLU pushed to eliminate <a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_the_legalization_of_abortion" class="mw-redirect" title="Opposition to the legalization of abortion">anti-abortion laws</a> starting in 1964, a year before <i>Griswold</i> was decided; in 1967 the ACLU itself formally adopted the <a href="/wiki/Support_for_the_legalization_of_abortion" class="mw-redirect" title="Support for the legalization of abortion">right to abortion</a> as a policy.<sup id="cite_ref-268" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-268"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>268<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ACLU led the defense in <i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Vuitch" title="United States v. Vuitch">United States v. Vuitch</a></i> (1971), which expanded the right of physicians to determine when abortions were necessary.<sup id="cite_ref-269" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-269"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>269<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These efforts culminated in one of the most controversial Supreme Court decisions, <i><a href="/wiki/Roe_v._Wade" title="Roe v. Wade">Roe v. Wade</a></i> (1973), which legalized abortion throughout the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-270" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-270"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>270<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ACLU successfully argued against state bans on <a href="/wiki/Interracial_marriage" title="Interracial marriage">interracial marriage</a>, in the case of <i><a href="/wiki/Loving_v._Virginia" title="Loving v. Virginia">Loving v. Virginia</a></i> (1967). </p><p>Related to privacy, the ACLU engaged in several battles to ensure that government records about individuals were kept private and to give individuals the right to review their records. The ACLU supported several measures, including the 1970 <a href="/wiki/Fair_Credit_Reporting_Act" title="Fair Credit Reporting Act">Fair Credit Reporting Act</a>, which required credit agencies to divulge credit information to individuals; the 1973 <a href="/wiki/Family_Educational_Rights_and_Privacy_Act" title="Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act">Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act</a>, which provided students the right to access their records; and the <a href="/wiki/Privacy_Act_of_1974" title="Privacy Act of 1974">1974 Privacy Act</a>, which prevented the federal government from disclosing personal information without good cause.<sup id="cite_ref-271" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-271"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>271<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Allegations_of_bias">Allegations of bias</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=American_Civil_Liberties_Union&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Allegations of bias"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the early 1970s, conservatives and <a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">libertarians</a> began to criticize the ACLU for being too political and too liberal.<sup id="cite_ref-272" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-272"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>272<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Legal scholar Joseph W. Bishop wrote that the ACLU's trend to partisanship started with its defense of Spock's anti-war protests.<sup id="cite_ref-273" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-273"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>273<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Critics also blamed the ACLU for encouraging the Supreme Court to embrace <a href="/wiki/Judicial_activism" title="Judicial activism">judicial activism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-W318_274-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W318-274"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>274<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Critics claimed that the ACLU's support of controversial decisions like <i><a href="/wiki/Roe_v._Wade" title="Roe v. Wade">Roe v. Wade</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Griswold_v._Connecticut" title="Griswold v. Connecticut">Griswold v. Connecticut</a></i> violated the <a href="/wiki/Original_intent" title="Original intent">intention of the authors</a> of the Bill of Rights.<sup id="cite_ref-W318_274-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W318-274"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>274<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ACLU became an issue in the <a href="/wiki/1988_United_States_presidential_election" title="1988 United States presidential election">1988 presidential campaign</a>, when Republican candidate <a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">George H. W. Bush</a> accused Democratic candidate <a href="/wiki/Michael_Dukakis" title="Michael Dukakis">Michael Dukakis</a> (a member of the ACLU) of being a "card carrying member of the ACLU".<sup id="cite_ref-275" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-275"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>275<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Skokie_case">Skokie case</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=American_Civil_Liberties_Union&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Skokie case"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/National_Socialist_Party_of_America_v._Village_of_Skokie" title="National Socialist Party of America v. Village of Skokie">National Socialist Party of America v. Village of Skokie</a></div> <p>In 1977, the <a href="/wiki/National_Socialist_Party_of_America" title="National Socialist Party of America">National Socialist Party of America</a>, led by <a href="/wiki/Frank_Collin" title="Frank Collin">Frank Collin</a>, applied to the town of <a href="/wiki/Skokie,_Illinois" title="Skokie, Illinois">Skokie, Illinois</a>, for a permit to hold a demonstration in the town park. Skokie at the time had a majority population of Jews, totaling 40,000 of 70,000 citizens, some of whom were survivors of <a href="/wiki/Nazi_concentration_camp" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi concentration camp">Nazi concentration camps</a>. Skokie refused to grant the NSPA a permit and passed ordinances against hate speech and military wear, in addition to requiring an insurance bond. Skokie's Village Council ordered <a href="/wiki/Village_attorney" class="mw-redirect" title="Village attorney">village attorney</a>, Harvey Schwartz, to seek an injunction to stop the demonstration. The ACLU assisted Collin and appealed to federal court, eventually prevailing in <a href="/wiki/National_Socialist_Party_of_America_v._Village_of_Skokie" title="National Socialist Party of America v. Village of Skokie">NSPA v. Village of Skokie</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-276" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-276"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>276<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Skokie case was heavily publicized across America, partially because Jewish groups such as the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Defense_League" title="Jewish Defense League">Jewish Defense League</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anti_Defamation_League" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti Defamation League">Anti Defamation League</a> strenuously objected to the demonstration, leading many members of the ACLU to cancel their memberships.<sup id="cite_ref-Skokie_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Skokie-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Illinois affiliate of the ACLU lost about 25% of its membership and nearly one-third of its budget.<sup id="cite_ref-277" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-277"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>277<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-278" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-278"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>278<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-279" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-279"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>279<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-280" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-280"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>280<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The financial strain from the controversy led to layoffs at local chapters.<sup id="cite_ref-281" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-281"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>281<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the membership crisis died down, the ACLU sent out a fund-raising appeal which explained their rationale for the Skokie case and raised over $500,000 ($2,514,003 in 2023 dollars).<sup id="cite_ref-inflation-US_282-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-inflation-US-282"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>282<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-283" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-283"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>283<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reagan_era">Reagan era</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=American_Civil_Liberties_Union&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Reagan era"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oliver_North_mug_shot.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Oliver_North_mug_shot.jpg/170px-Oliver_North_mug_shot.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Oliver_North_mug_shot.jpg/255px-Oliver_North_mug_shot.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Oliver_North_mug_shot.jpg/340px-Oliver_North_mug_shot.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="1016" /></a><figcaption>The ACLU defended <a href="/wiki/Oliver_North" title="Oliver North">Oliver North</a> in 1990, arguing that his conviction was tainted by coerced testimony.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Ronald_Reagan" title="First inauguration of Ronald Reagan">inauguration of Ronald Reagan</a> as president in 1981 ushered in an <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Ronald_Reagan" title="Presidency of Ronald Reagan">eight-year period of conservative leadership</a> in the US government. Under <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Reagan</a>'s leadership, the government pushed a conservative social agenda. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Arkansas" title="Arkansas">Arkansas</a> 1981 creationism statute, which required schools to teach the biblical account of creation as a scientific alternative to evolution. The ACLU won the case in the <i><a href="/wiki/McLean_v._Arkansas" title="McLean v. Arkansas">McLean v. Arkansas</a></i> decision.<sup id="cite_ref-284" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-284"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>284<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1982, the ACLU became involved in a case involving the distribution of <a href="/wiki/Child_pornography" title="Child pornography">child pornography</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/New_York_v._Ferber" title="New York v. Ferber">New York v. Ferber</a></i>). In an amicus brief, the ACLU argued that child pornography that violates the <a href="/wiki/Three_prong_obscenity_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Three prong obscenity test">three prong obscenity test</a> should be outlawed. However, the law was overly restrictive because it banned artistic displays and non-obscene material. The court did not adopt the ACLU's position.<sup id="cite_ref-285" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-285"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>285<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/1988_United_States_presidential_election" title="1988 United States presidential election">1988 presidential election</a>, Vice President <a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">George H. W. Bush</a> noted that his opponent <a href="/wiki/Governor_of_Massachusetts" title="Governor of Massachusetts">Massachusetts Governor</a> <a href="/wiki/Michael_Dukakis" title="Michael Dukakis">Michael Dukakis</a> had described himself as a "card-carrying member of the ACLU" and used that as evidence that Dukakis was "a strong, passionate liberal" and "out of the mainstream".<sup id="cite_ref-286" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-286"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>286<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The phrase subsequently was used by the organization in an advertising campaign.<sup id="cite_ref-287" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-287"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>287<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Free_speech">Free speech</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=American_Civil_Liberties_Union&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Free speech"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1997, ruling unanimously in the case of <i><a href="/wiki/Reno_v._American_Civil_Liberties_Union" title="Reno v. American Civil Liberties Union">Reno v. American Civil Liberties Union</a></i>, the Supreme Court voided the anti-<a href="/wiki/Indecency" class="mw-redirect" title="Indecency">indecency</a> provisions of the <a href="/wiki/Communications_Decency_Act" title="Communications Decency Act">Communications Decency Act</a> (the CDA), finding they violated the freedom of speech provisions of the <a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment</a>. In their decision, the Supreme Court held that the CDA's "use of the undefined terms 'indecent' and 'patently offensive' will provoke uncertainty among speakers about how the two standards relate to each other and just what they mean."<sup id="cite_ref-288" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-288"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>288<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2000, Marvin Johnson, a legislative counsel for the ACLU, stated that proposed anti-<a href="/wiki/Spamming" title="Spamming">spam</a> legislation infringed on free speech by denying anonymity and by forcing spam to be labeled as such, "Standardized labeling is <a href="/wiki/Compelled_speech" title="Compelled speech">compelled speech</a>." He also stated, "It's relatively simple to click and delete."<sup id="cite_ref-289" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-289"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>289<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The debate found the ACLU joining with the <a href="/wiki/Direct_Marketing_Association_(USA)" class="mw-redirect" title="Direct Marketing Association (USA)">Direct Marketing Association</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Center_for_Democracy_and_Technology" title="Center for Democracy and Technology">Center for Democracy and Technology</a> in 2000 in criticizing a bipartisan bill in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">House of Representatives</a>. As early as 1997, the ACLU had taken a strong position that nearly all spam legislation was improper, although it has supported "<a href="/wiki/Opt-out" title="Opt-out">opt-out</a>" requirements in some cases. The ACLU opposed the 2003 <a href="/wiki/CAN-SPAM_Act_of_2003" title="CAN-SPAM Act of 2003">CAN-SPAM</a> act<sup id="cite_ref-290" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-290"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>290<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> suggesting that it could have a <a href="/wiki/Chilling_effect_(term)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chilling effect (term)">chilling effect</a> on speech in cyberspace. It has been criticized for this position. </p><p>In 2006, the ACLU of Washington State joined with a pro-gun rights organization, the <a href="/wiki/Second_Amendment_Foundation" title="Second Amendment Foundation">Second Amendment Foundation</a>, and prevailed in a lawsuit against the North Central Regional Library District (NCRL) in Washington for its policy of refusing to disable restrictions upon an adult patron's request. Library patrons attempting to access pro-gun web sites were blocked, and the library refused to remove the blocks.<sup id="cite_ref-291" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-291"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>291<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2012, the ACLU sued the same library system for refusing to disable temporarily, at the request of an adult patron, Internet filters which blocked access to <a href="/wiki/Google_Images" title="Google Images">Google Images</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-292" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-292"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>292<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2006, the ACLU challenged a Missouri law prohibiting picketing outside veterans' funerals. The ACLU filed the suit in support of the <a href="/wiki/Westboro_Baptist_Church" title="Westboro Baptist Church">Westboro Baptist Church</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shirley_Phelps-Roper" title="Shirley Phelps-Roper">Shirley Phelps-Roper</a>, who were threatened with arrest.<sup id="cite_ref-293" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-293"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>293<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-294" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-294"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>294<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Westboro Baptist Church is well known for its picket signs that contain messages such as "God Hates Fags", "Thank God for Dead Soldiers", and "Thank God for 9/11". The ACLU issued a statement calling the legislation a "law that infringes on Shirley Phelps-Roper's rights to religious liberty and free speech."<sup id="cite_ref-295" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-295"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>295<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ACLU prevailed in the lawsuit.<sup id="cite_ref-296" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-296"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>296<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ACLU argued in an amicus brief to the Supreme Court that a decision on the constitutionality of a Massachusetts law required the consideration of additional evidence because lower courts have undervalued the right to engage in sidewalk counseling.<sup id="cite_ref-297" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-297"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>297<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The law prohibited sidewalk counselors from approaching women outside abortion facilities and offering them alternatives to abortion but allowed escorts to speak with them and accompany them into the building.<sup id="cite_ref-298" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-298"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>298<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In overturning the law in <i><a href="/wiki/McCullen_v._Coakley" title="McCullen v. Coakley">McCullen v. Coakley</a></i>, the Supreme Court unanimously ruled that it violated the counselors' freedom of speech and constituted <a href="/wiki/Viewpoint_discrimination" title="Viewpoint discrimination">viewpoint discrimination</a>. </p><p>In 2009, the ACLU filed an <a href="/wiki/Amicus_brief" class="mw-redirect" title="Amicus brief">amicus brief</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/Citizens_United_v._FEC" title="Citizens United v. FEC">Citizens United v. FEC</a></i>, arguing that the <a href="/wiki/Bipartisan_Campaign_Reform_Act" title="Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act">Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act</a> of 2002 violated the First Amendment right to free speech by curtailing political speech.<sup id="cite_ref-299" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-299"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>299<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This stance on the landmark <i>Citizens United</i> case caused considerable disagreement within the organization, resulting in a discussion about its future stance during a quarterly board meeting in 2010.<sup id="cite_ref-300" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-300"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>300<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On March 27, 2012, the ACLU reaffirmed its stance in support of the Supreme Court's <i>Citizens United</i> ruling, at the same time voicing support for expanded public financing of election campaigns and stating the organization would firmly oppose any future constitutional amendment limiting free speech.<sup id="cite_ref-301" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-301"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>301<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2012, the ACLU filed suit on behalf of the <a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a> of Georgia, claiming that the KKK was unfairly rejected from the state's "<a href="/wiki/Adopt-a-Highway" title="Adopt-a-Highway">Adopt-a-Highway</a>" program. The ACLU prevailed in the lawsuit.<sup id="cite_ref-302" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-302"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>302<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Move_towards_identity_politics">Move towards identity politics<span class="anchor" id="Lost_impartiality_accusations"></span></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=American_Civil_Liberties_Union&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Move towards identity politics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some have claimed the ACLU is reducing its support of unpopular free speech (specifically by declining to defend speech made by <a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Conservatism in the United States">conservatives</a>) in favor of <a href="/wiki/Identity_politics" title="Identity politics">identity politics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Political_correctness" title="Political correctness">political correctness</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Progressivism" title="Progressivism">progressivism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-303" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-303"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>303<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Instead, critics contend that the organization has instead become a progressive advocacy organization intensely focused on <a href="/wiki/Identity_politics" title="Identity politics">identity politics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-tropes_304-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tropes-304"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>304<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One basis of these allegations was a 2017 statement the ACLU president made to a reporter after the death of a counter-protester during the <a href="/wiki/Unite_the_Right_rally" title="Unite the Right rally">2017 Unite the Right rally in Virginia</a>, where Romero told a reporter that the ACLU would no longer support legal cases of activists that wish to carry guns at their protests.<sup id="cite_ref-305" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-305"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>305<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another basis for these claims was an internal ACLU memo dated June 2018, discussing factors to evaluate when deciding whether to take a case. The memo listed several factors to consider, including "the extent to which the speech may assist in advancing the goals of white supremacists or others whose views are contrary to our values." </p><p>Some analysts viewed this as a retreat from the ACLU's historically strong support of First Amendment rights, regardless of whether minorities were negatively impacted by the speech, citing the ACLU's past support for certain KKK and Nazi legal cases.<sup id="cite_ref-Kaminer_306-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kaminer-306"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>306<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-307" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-307"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>307<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-308" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-308"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>308<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-309" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-309"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>309<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sykes_2018_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sykes_2018-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The memo's authors stated that the memo did not define a change in official ACLU policy, but was intended as a guideline to assist ACLU affiliates in deciding which cases to take.<sup id="cite_ref-310" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-310"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>310<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2021, the ACLU responded to the criticisms by denying that they are reducing their support for unpopular First Amendment causes and listing 27 cases from 2017 to 2021 where the ACLU supported a party holding an unpopular or repugnant viewpoint. The cases included one which challenged college restrictions on hate speech; a case defending a Catholic school's right to discriminate in hiring; and a case that defended antisemitic protesters who marched outside a synagogue.<sup id="cite_ref-311" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-311"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>311<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2024, the <a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Board" title="National Labor Relations Board">National Labor Relations Board</a> sued the ACLU in an unfair labor practice case after the ACLU fired an Asian attorney for criticizing her Black bosses. The ACLU contended that the employee's use of phrases like "the beatings will continue until morale improves" was racially coded and that it "caused serious harm to Black members of the ACLU community." According to <a href="/wiki/Jeremy_W._Peters" title="Jeremy W. Peters">Jeremy W. Peters</a> of <i>The New York Times</i>, critics of the ACLU saw the firing as "a sign of how far the group has strayed from its core mission — defending free speech — and has instead aligned itself with a progressive politics that is intensely focused on identity."<sup id="cite_ref-tropes_304-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tropes-304"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>304<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="LGBTQ_issues">LGBTQ issues</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=American_Civil_Liberties_Union&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: LGBTQ issues"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 2000, the ACLU lost the <i><a href="/wiki/Boy_Scouts_of_America_v._Dale" title="Boy Scouts of America v. Dale">Boy Scouts of America v. Dale</a></i> case, which had asked the Supreme Court to require the <a href="/wiki/Boy_Scouts_of_America" title="Boy Scouts of America">Boy Scouts of America</a> to drop their policy of prohibiting homosexuals from becoming Boy Scout leaders.<sup id="cite_ref-312" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-312"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>312<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In March 2004, the ACLU, along with <a href="/wiki/Lambda_Legal" title="Lambda Legal">Lambda Legal</a> and the <a href="/wiki/National_Center_for_Lesbian_Rights" title="National Center for Lesbian Rights">National Center for Lesbian Rights</a>, sued the state of California on behalf of six same-sex couples who were denied marriage licenses. That case, <i>Woo v. Lockyer</i>, was eventually consolidated into <i><a href="/wiki/In_re_Marriage_Cases" title="In re Marriage Cases">In re Marriage Cases</a></i>, the <a href="/wiki/California_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="California Supreme Court">California Supreme Court</a> case which led to same-sex marriage being available in that state from June 16, 2008, until <a href="/wiki/California_Proposition_8_(2008)" class="mw-redirect" title="California Proposition 8 (2008)">Proposition 8</a> was passed on November 4, 2008.<sup id="cite_ref-313" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-313"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>313<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ACLU, <a href="/wiki/Lambda_Legal" title="Lambda Legal">Lambda Legal</a> and the <a href="/wiki/National_Center_for_Lesbian_Rights" title="National Center for Lesbian Rights">National Center for Lesbian Rights</a> then challenged <a href="/wiki/California_Proposition_8_(2008)" class="mw-redirect" title="California Proposition 8 (2008)">Proposition 8</a><sup id="cite_ref-314" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-314"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>314<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and won.<sup id="cite_ref-315" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-315"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>315<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2011, the ACLU started its <a href="/wiki/Don%27t_Filter_Me" title="Don't Filter Me">Don't Filter Me</a> project, countering <a href="/wiki/LGBT" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT">LGBT</a>-related <a href="/wiki/Internet_censorship" title="Internet censorship">Internet censorship</a> in <a href="/wiki/American_public_schools" class="mw-redirect" title="American public schools">public schools</a> in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-ars_316-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ars-316"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>316<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On January 7, 2013, the ACLU settled with the federal government in <i><a href="/wiki/Collins_v._United_States" title="Collins v. United States">Collins v. United States</a></i> that provided for the payment of full separation pay to servicemembers discharged under "<a href="/wiki/Don%27t_ask,_don%27t_tell" title="Don't ask, don't tell">don't ask, don't tell</a>" since November 10, 2004, who had previously been granted only half that.<sup id="cite_ref-317" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-317"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>317<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2021, the ACLU filed a brief siding with a school district that had a policy of using preferred pronouns for transgender students. Some analysts felt this was a retreat from the ACLU's historical defense of the First Amendment because the ACLU was opposing the teachers who were disciplined for refusing to use the preferred pronouns.<sup id="cite_ref-318" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-318"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>318<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-319" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-319"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>319<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anti-terrorism_issues">Anti-terrorism issues</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=American_Civil_Liberties_Union&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Anti-terrorism issues"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nicholas_Merrill_27C3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Nicholas_Merrill_27C3.jpg/170px-Nicholas_Merrill_27C3.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Nicholas_Merrill_27C3.jpg/255px-Nicholas_Merrill_27C3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Nicholas_Merrill_27C3.jpg/340px-Nicholas_Merrill_27C3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2517" data-file-height="3779" /></a><figcaption>The ACLU represented <a href="/wiki/Internet_service_provider" title="Internet service provider">Internet service provider</a> <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Merrill" title="Nicholas Merrill">Nicholas Merrill</a> in <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_Liberties_Union_v._Ashcroft" title="American Civil Liberties Union v. Ashcroft">a 2004 lawsuit</a> which challenged the government's right to gather information about Internet access secretly.</figcaption></figure> <p>After the <a href="/wiki/September_11_attacks" title="September 11 attacks">September 11 attacks</a>, the federal government instituted a broad range of new measures to combat <a href="/wiki/Terrorism" title="Terrorism">terrorism</a>, including the passage of the <a href="/wiki/Patriot_Act" title="Patriot Act">Patriot Act</a>. The ACLU challenged many of the measures, claiming that they violated rights regarding <a href="/wiki/Due_process" title="Due process">due process</a>, privacy, illegal searches, and <a href="/wiki/Cruel_and_unusual_punishment" title="Cruel and unusual punishment">cruel and unusual punishment</a>. An ACLU policy statement states: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Our way forward lies in decisively turning our backs on the policies and practices that violate our greatest strength: our Constitution and the commitment it embodies to the rule of law. Liberty and security do not compete in a zero-sum game; our freedoms are the very foundation of our strength and security. The ACLU's National Security Project advocates for national security policies that are consistent with the Constitution, the rule of law, and fundamental human rights. The Project litigates cases relating to detention, torture, discrimination, surveillance, censorship, and secrecy.<sup id="cite_ref-320" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-320"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>320<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>During the ensuing debate regarding the proper balance of civil liberties and security, the membership of the ACLU increased by 20%, bringing the group's total enrollment to 330,000.<sup id="cite_ref-321" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-321"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>321<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The growth continued, and by August 2008 ACLU membership was greater than 500,000. It remained at that level through 2011.<sup id="cite_ref-322" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-322"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>322<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ACLU has been a vocal opponent of the <a href="/wiki/Patriot_Act" title="Patriot Act">Patriot Act</a> of 2001, the <a href="/wiki/Domestic_Security_Enhancement_Act_of_2003" title="Domestic Security Enhancement Act of 2003">PATRIOT 2</a> Act of 2003, and associated legislation made in response to the threat of domestic terrorism. In response to a requirement of the USA PATRIOT Act, the ACLU withdrew from the <a href="/wiki/Combined_Federal_Campaign" title="Combined Federal Campaign">Combined Federal Campaign</a> charity drive.<sup id="cite_ref-cfc_323-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cfc-323"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>323<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The campaign required ACLU employees to be checked against a federal anti-terrorism watch list. The ACLU has stated that it would "reject $500,000 in contributions from private individuals rather than submit to a government 'blacklist' policy".<sup id="cite_ref-cfc_323-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cfc-323"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>323<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2004, the ACLU sued the federal government in <i><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_Liberties_Union_v._Ashcroft" title="American Civil Liberties Union v. Ashcroft">American Civil Liberties Union v. Ashcroft</a></i> on behalf of <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Merrill" title="Nicholas Merrill">Nicholas Merrill</a>, owner of an <a href="/wiki/Internet_service_provider" title="Internet service provider">Internet service provider</a>. Under the provisions of the Patriot Act, the government had issued <a href="/wiki/National_security_letter" title="National security letter">national security letters</a> to Merrill to compel him to provide private Internet access information from some of his customers. In addition, the government placed a <a href="/wiki/Gag_order" title="Gag order">gag order</a> on Merrill, forbidding him from discussing the matter with anyone.<sup id="cite_ref-324" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-324"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>324<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-325" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-325"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>325<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-326" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-326"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>326<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In January 2006, the ACLU filed a lawsuit, <i><a href="/wiki/ACLU_v._NSA" class="mw-redirect" title="ACLU v. NSA">ACLU v. NSA</a></i>, in a federal district court in Michigan, challenging government spying in the <a href="/wiki/NSA_warrantless_surveillance_(2001%E2%80%932007)" title="NSA warrantless surveillance (2001–2007)">NSA warrantless surveillance (2001–2007)</a> controversy.<sup id="cite_ref-327" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-327"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>327<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On August 17, 2006, that court ruled that the warrantless wiretapping program was unconstitutional and ordered it ended immediately.<sup id="cite_ref-328" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-328"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>328<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the order was stayed pending an appeal. The <a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">Bush</a> administration did suspend the program while the appeal was being heard.<sup id="cite_ref-fisaappeal_329-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fisaappeal-329"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>329<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In February 2008, the US Supreme Court turned down an appeal from the ACLU to let it pursue a lawsuit against the program that began shortly after the September 11 terror attacks.<sup id="cite_ref-330" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-330"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>330<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ACLU and other organizations also filed separate lawsuits against telecommunications companies. The ACLU filed a lawsuit in Illinois (<i>Terkel v. AT&T</i>), which was dismissed because of the <a href="/wiki/State_secrets_privilege" title="State secrets privilege">state secrets privilege</a><sup id="cite_ref-331" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-331"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>331<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and two others in California requesting injunctions against <a href="/wiki/AT%26T" title="AT&T">AT&T</a> and <a href="/wiki/Verizon_Communications" class="mw-redirect" title="Verizon Communications">Verizon</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-332" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-332"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>332<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On August 10, 2006, the lawsuits against the telecommunications companies were transferred to a federal judge in San Francisco.<sup id="cite_ref-333" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-333"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>333<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ACLU represents a <a href="/wiki/Muslim-American" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim-American">Muslim-American</a> who was detained but never accused of a crime in <i><a href="/wiki/Ashcroft_v._al-Kidd" title="Ashcroft v. al-Kidd">Ashcroft v. al-Kidd</a></i>, a civil suit against former Attorney General <a href="/wiki/John_Ashcroft" title="John Ashcroft">John Ashcroft</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-wp_334-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wp-334"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>334<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In January 2010, the <a href="/wiki/American_military" class="mw-redirect" title="American military">American military</a> released the names of 645 detainees held at the <a href="/wiki/Bagram_Theater_Internment_Facility" class="mw-redirect" title="Bagram Theater Internment Facility">Bagram Theater Internment Facility</a> in Afghanistan, modifying its long-held position against publicizing such information. This list was prompted by a <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_Information_Act_(United_States)" title="Freedom of Information Act (United States)">Freedom of Information Act</a> lawsuit filed in September 2009 by the ACLU, whose lawyers had also requested detailed information about conditions, rules, and regulations.<sup id="cite_ref-335" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-335"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>335<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-336" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-336"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>336<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On August 10, 2020, in an opinion article for <i><a href="/wiki/USA_Today" title="USA Today">USA Today</a></i> by Anthony D. Romero, the ACLU called for the dismantling of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Homeland_Security" title="United States Department of Homeland Security">United States Department of Homeland Security</a> over the <a href="/wiki/2020_deployment_of_federal_forces_in_the_United_States" title="2020 deployment of federal forces in the United States">deployment of federal forces</a> in July 2020 during the <a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests" title="George Floyd protests">George Floyd protests</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-337" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-337"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>337<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On August 26, 2020, the ACLU filed a lawsuit on behalf of seven protesters and three veterans following the <a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests_in_Portland,_Oregon" title="George Floyd protests in Portland, Oregon">protests in Portland, Oregon</a>, which accused the Trump Administration of using excessive force and unlawful arrests with federal officers.<sup id="cite_ref-338" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-338"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>338<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trump_administration">Trump administration</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=American_Civil_Liberties_Union&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Trump administration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NoBanNoWall_SF_20170204-1945_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/NoBanNoWall_SF_20170204-1945_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-NoBanNoWall_SF_20170204-1945_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="243" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/NoBanNoWall_SF_20170204-1945_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-NoBanNoWall_SF_20170204-1945_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/NoBanNoWall_SF_20170204-1945_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-NoBanNoWall_SF_20170204-1945_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1612" data-file-height="1779" /></a><figcaption>Abdi Soltani, executive director of Northern California ACLU, speaks at a San Francisco protest of the U.S. immigration ban.</figcaption></figure> <p>Following <a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump_presidential_campaign,_2016" class="mw-redirect" title="Donald Trump presidential campaign, 2016">Donald Trump</a>'s election as president on November 8, 2016, the ACLU responded on Twitter by saying: "Should President-elect Donald Trump attempt to implement his unconstitutional campaign promises, we'll see him in court."<sup id="cite_ref-339" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-339"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>339<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On January 27, 2017, President Trump signed an <a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_13769" title="Executive Order 13769">executive order</a> indefinitely barring "Syrian refugees from entering the United States, suspended all refugee admissions for 120 days and blocked citizens of seven Muslim-majority countries, refugees or otherwise, from entering the United States for 90 days: Iran, Iraq, Libya, Somalia, Sudan, Syria and Yemen".<sup id="cite_ref-340" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-340"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>340<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ACLU responded by filing a lawsuit against the ban on behalf of Hameed Khalid Darweesh and Haider Sameer Abdulkhaleq Alshawi, who had been detained at JFK International Airport. On January 28, 2017, District Court Judge <a href="/wiki/Ann_Donnelly" title="Ann Donnelly">Ann Donnelly</a> granted a temporary injunction against the immigration order,<sup id="cite_ref-341" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-341"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>341<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> saying it was difficult to see any harm from allowing the newly arrived immigrants to remain in the country.<sup id="cite_ref-342" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-342"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>342<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In response to Trump's order, the ACLU raised more than $24 million from more than 350,000 individual online donations in two days. This amounted to six times what the ACLU normally receives in online donations in a year. Celebrities donating included <a href="/wiki/Chris_Sacca" title="Chris Sacca">Chris Sacca</a> (who offered to match other people's donations and ultimately gave $150,000), <a href="/wiki/Rosie_O%27Donnell" title="Rosie O'Donnell">Rosie O'Donnell</a>, <a href="/wiki/Judd_Apatow" title="Judd Apatow">Judd Apatow</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sia" title="Sia">Sia</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Legend" title="John Legend">John Legend</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Adele" title="Adele">Adele</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Stelter_343-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stelter-343"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>343<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_344-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-344"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>344<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The number of members of the ACLU doubled in the time from the election to end of January to 1 million.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_344-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-344"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>344<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Grants and contributions increased from US$106 million reported by the 2016 year-end <a href="/wiki/Income_statement" title="Income statement">income statement</a> to $274 million by the 2017 year-end statement. The segment's primary revenue source came from individual contributions in response to the Trump presidency's infringements on <a href="/wiki/Civil_liberty" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil liberty">civil liberties</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-345" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-345"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>345<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable secondary sources. (August 2024)">non-primary source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Besides filing more lawsuits than during previous presidential administrations, the ACLU has spent more money on advertisements and messaging as well, weighing in on elections and pressing political concerns. This increased public profile has drawn some accusations that the organization has become more politically partisan than in previous decades.<sup id="cite_ref-346" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-346"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>346<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="Video sources are difficult to fact-check (August 2024)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Israel–Palestine"><span id="Israel.E2.80.93Palestine"></span>Israel–Palestine</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=American_Civil_Liberties_Union&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Israel–Palestine"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 2022, the ACLU petitioned the US supreme court to overturn an Arkansas law mandating that companies pledge not to boycott Israel in order to do business with the state.<sup id="cite_ref-347" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-347"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>347<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Israel%E2%80%93Hamas_war" title="Israel–Hamas war">Israel–Hamas war</a>, the New York chapter of the ACLU sued <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a> for banning its campus chapters of <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Voice_for_Peace" title="Jewish Voice for Peace">Jewish Voice for Peace</a> and <a href="/wiki/Students_for_Justice_in_Palestine" title="Students for Justice in Palestine">Students for Justice in Palestine</a> on the grounds of First Amendment violations.<sup id="cite_ref-348" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-348"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>348<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In February 2024, the ACLU signed a letter to US Secretary of Education <a href="/wiki/Miguel_Cardona" title="Miguel Cardona">Miguel Cardona</a> calling on him to reject <a href="/wiki/Working_definition_of_antisemitism" title="Working definition of antisemitism">redefining antisemitism</a> to include political criticism of the government of the state of Israel, saying it would lead to <a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment</a> violations.<sup id="cite_ref-349" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-349"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>349<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-350" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-350"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>350<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ACLU also rejected a staff petition urging the organization to oppose U.S. military aid to Israel and divest from potential financial ties to the country.<sup id="cite_ref-351" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-351"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>351<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a 50-4 vote, with one abstention, the board stated that their mission focuses on U.S. civil rights, as an ACLU spokesperson stated "it is not the ACLU’s practice to take positions on overseas conflicts."<sup id="cite_ref-ACLU_rejects_staff_petition_352-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ACLU_rejects_staff_petition-352"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>352<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nearly 700 staff members stated that the ACLU had previously taken stances on global issues like the Vietnam War and South African apartheid.<sup id="cite_ref-ACLU_rejects_staff_petition_352-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ACLU_rejects_staff_petition-352"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>352<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=American_Civil_Liberties_Union&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_Rights_Union" title="American Civil Rights Union">American Civil Rights Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Columbia_Civil_Liberties_Association" title="British Columbia Civil Liberties Association">British Columbia Civil Liberties Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Civil_Liberties_Association" title="Canadian Civil Liberties Association">Canadian Civil Liberties Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_Cause" title="Common Cause">Common Cause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundation_for_Individual_Rights_and_Expression" title="Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression">Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression</a> (FIRE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institute_for_Justice" title="Institute for Justice">Institute for Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty_(advocacy_group)" title="Liberty (advocacy group)">Liberty</a>, a British equivalent<sup id="cite_ref-353" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-353"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>353<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_court_cases_involving_the_American_Civil_Liberties_Union" title="List of court cases involving the American Civil Liberties Union">List of court cases involving the American Civil Liberties Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Emergency_Civil_Liberties_Committee" title="National Emergency Civil Liberties Committee">National Emergency Civil Liberties Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_freedom" title="Political freedom">Political freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Poverty_Law_Center" title="Southern Poverty Law Center">Southern Poverty Law Center</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Citations">Citations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=American_Civil_Liberties_Union&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-W47-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-W47_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W47_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W47_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W47_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 47.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WeigelResistance-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-WeigelResistance_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 23,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=American+Civil+Liberties+Union&rft.atitle=Officers+%26+Board+of+Directors&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aclu.org%2Fofficers-board-directors&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+Liberties+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aclu.org/files/pdfs/about/aclu_bylaws.pdf">Bylaws of ACLU, Inc.</a></i>, Organizational Policy No. 501 (undated). Article V. Officers, Section 5 (President) and Section 15 (Executive Director). American Civil Liberties Union website (www.aclu.org/financials, "Related Information"). Retrieved May 9, 2015.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCroghan2005" class="citation news cs1">Croghan, Lore (February 28, 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nydailynews.com/archives/money/aclu-high-manhattan-article-1.583550">"ACLU is high on Lower Manhattan"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/New_York_Daily_News" title="New York Daily News">New York Daily News</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 10,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+York+Daily+News&rft.atitle=ACLU+is+high+on+Lower+Manhattan&rft.date=2005-02-28&rft.aulast=Croghan&rft.aufirst=Lore&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nydailynews.com%2Farchives%2Fmoney%2Faclu-high-manhattan-article-1.583550&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+Liberties+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W102-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-W102_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W102_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W102_17-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W102_17-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W102_17-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, pp. 102–03.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W1323-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-W1323_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W1323_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, pp. 132–33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W176201-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-W176201_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W176201_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, pp. 176, 210.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W2845-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-W2845_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W2845_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W2845_20-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, pp. 284–85.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, pp. 292–94</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sherman, Scott, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thenation.com/article/aclu-v-aclu">"ACLU v. ACLU"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181204031044/http://www.thenation.com/article/aclu-v-aclu">Archived</a> December 4, 2018, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i>The Nation</i>, January 18, 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">IRS Forms 990, part VIII, Line 1 – "Contributions, Gifts, Grants and Other Similar Amounts" <br /><span class="nowrap">   </span> — for ACLU for periods ending March 31 of <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180824024623/https://www.aclu.org/files/pdfs/about/aclu_fy12_990_public_disclosure_copy_for_website.pdf">2012</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180824024611/https://www.aclu.org/files/pdfs/about/ACLU%20FY13%20IRS%20990%20(public%20version).pdf">2013</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180824024601/https://www.aclu.org/files/pdfs/about/ACLU%20Form%20990%20Public%20Disclosure%20Copy.pdf">2014</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180824024549/https://www.aclu.org/files/pdfs/about/ACLU%20Form%20990%20FY15%20public%20disclosure.pdf">2015</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180824024539/https://www.aclu.org/files/pdfs/about/ACLU_Form_990_FY16_public_disclosure.pdf">2016</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180824024528/https://www.aclu.org/files/pdfs/about/ACLU_Form_990_FY17_Public_Disclosure.pdf">2017</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181205185929/https://www.aclu.org/files/pdfs/about/American_Civil_Liberties_Union_Inc_3-31-2018_Tax_Return.pdf">2018</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220202231648/https://www.aclu.org/sites/default/files/field_document/fy2019_990_aclu_public_disclosure.pdf">2019</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201202044826/https://www.aclu.org/sites/default/files/field_document/2019_aclu_form_990_public_disclosure_copy.pdf">2020</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220224223625/https://www.aclu.org/sites/default/files/field_document/2020_aclu_form_990_public_disclosure_copy.pdf">2021</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230213045925/https://www.aclu.org/sites/default/files/field_document/aclu_form_990_signed_public_disclosure_copy_1.pdf">2022</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240621045644/https://assets.aclu.org/live/uploads/2024/06/990-ACLU-FY23-3.31.23.pdf">2023</a> <br /><span class="nowrap">   </span> — for ACLU <i>Foundation</i> for periods ending March 31 of <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180824024726/https://www.aclu.org/files/pdfs/about/acluf_fy12_990_public_disclosure_copy_for_website.pdf">2012</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180824024716/https://www.aclu.org/files/pdfs/about/ACLUF%20FY13%20IRS%20990%20(public%20version).pdf">2013</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180824024705/https://www.aclu.org/files/pdfs/about/ACLUF%20Form%20990%20Public%20Disclosure%20Copy.pdf">2014</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180824024654/https://www.aclu.org/files/pdfs/about/ACLU%20Foundation%20Form%20990%20FY15%20public%20disclosure.pdf">2015</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180824024644/https://www.aclu.org/files/pdfs/about/ACLU_Foundation_Form_990_FY16_public_disclosure.PDF">2016</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180824024633/https://www.aclu.org/files/pdfs/about/ACLUF_Form_990_FY17_Public_Disclosure.pdf">2017</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181205190404/https://www.aclu.org/files/pdfs/about/American_Civil_Liberties_Union_Foundation_Inc_3-31-2018_Tax_Return.pdf">2018</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220202231650/https://www.aclu.org/sites/default/files/field_document/fy2019_990_aclu_foundation_public_disclosure.pdf">2019</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201202044854/https://www.aclu.org/sites/default/files/field_document/2019_acluf_form_990_public_disclosure_copy.pdf">2020</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220224223619/https://www.aclu.org/sites/default/files/field_document/2020_acluf_form_990_public_disclosure_copy.pdf">2021</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230213050034/https://www.aclu.org/sites/default/files/field_document/acluf_signed_form_990_public_disclosure_copy.pdf">2022</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240621045821/https://assets.aclu.org/live/uploads/2024/06/990-ACLUF-FY23-3.31.23.pdf">2023</a> <br /><span class="nowrap">   </span>—(text labels in graph rounded to nearest million).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NYTimes20170130-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NYTimes20170130_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStack2017" class="citation news cs1">Stack, Liam (January 30, 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/30/us/aclu-fund-raising-trump-travel-ban.html">"Donations to A.C.L.U. and Other Organizations Surge After Trump's Order"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170131085621/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/30/us/aclu-fund-raising-trump-travel-ban.html">Archived</a> from the original on January 31, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 18,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Donations+to+A.C.L.U.+and+Other+Organizations+Surge+After+Trump%27s+Order&rft.date=2017-01-30&rft.aulast=Stack&rft.aufirst=Liam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2017%2F01%2F30%2Fus%2Faclu-fund-raising-trump-travel-ban.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+Liberties+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2014-FinancialStatement-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-2014-FinancialStatement_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-2014-FinancialStatement_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aclu.org/files/pdfs/about/American%20Civil%20Liberties%202014%20FINAL.pdf">American Civil Liberties Union ... Consolidated Financial Report, March 31, 2014</a></i>. American Civil Liberties Union website, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aclu.org/financials">Financials</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160910200026/https://www.aclu.org/financials">Archived</a> September 10, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>" section, under: "Audited Financial Statements." See also pie chart on ACLU "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aclu.org/finances">Finances</a>" page. Retrieved May 9, 2015.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Membership income for the year ending March 31, 2014, was 5.5 million (25.4% of the total ,0.4 million). On its website, under "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aclu.org/about/aclu-history">History</a>," and on <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aclu.org/financials">990 Forms, 2010–2013</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160910200026/https://www.aclu.org/financials">Archived</a> September 10, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (part III, 4b, on p. 2; retrieved May 10, 2015) the ACLU states only a rough membership figure of 500,000. Using this rounded figure, the average donation per member for 2014 comes to ,1. Membership fee is not fixed – members donate an amount of their choosing.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aclu.org/files/pdfs/about/American%20Civil%20Liberties%202014%20FINAL.pdf">American Civil Liberties Union ... Consolidated Financial Report, March 31, 2014</a></i>, p. 4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aclu.org/sites/default/files/assets/aclu_annual_report_2014_v2.pdf">American Civil Liberties Union Annual Report 2014</a></i>, p. 30. Retrieved May 10, 2015.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Based on total expenses reported on the 990 forms of the Foundation and the Union, respectively; see <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aclu.org/financials">990 Forms, 2010–2013</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160910200026/https://www.aclu.org/financials">Archived</a> September 10, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, American Civil Liberties Union website, "Financials" section.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nickerson, Gregory (April 1, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wyofile.com/blog/national-office-closes-wyoming-aclu-chapter/">National office closes Wyoming ACLU chapter</a>. <i>Wyofile: People, Places & Policy</i> [Wyoming news service]. See paragraph 5. Nickerson mentions the Puerto Rico office, and a single office for North and South Dakota, as other examples of smaller offices receiving subsidies. Retrieved May 10, 2015.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aclu.org/files/pdfs/about/American%20Civil%20Liberties%202014%20FINAL.pdf">American Civil Liberties Union ... Consolidated Financial Report, March 31, 2014</a></i>, p. 10, Note 1. Organization: "Although the ACLU plays no direct role in the governance of ... the affiliates, the organizations jointly fund-raise and work together on certain programs and the ACLU, through either the Union or Foundation, as appropriate, at its sole discretion provides targeted financial and other support to the affiliates."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStephanie_Strom2004" class="citation news cs1">Stephanie Strom (October 19, 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2004/10/19/national/19aclu.html">"A.C.L.U. Rejects Foundation Grants Over Terror Language"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=A.C.L.U.+Rejects+Foundation+Grants+Over+Terror+Language&rft.date=2004-10-19&rft.au=Stephanie+Strom&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2004%2F10%2F19%2Fnational%2F19aclu.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+Liberties+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Kaminer, pp. 68–70, for a discussion of an internal scandal in which Romero was accused of attempting to accept the funds without disclosing the terms to the ACLU board.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/42/1988-">"Title 42, Chapter 21, Subchapter I, § 1988. Proceedings in vindication of civil rights"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Title+42%2C+Chapter+21%2C+Subchapter+I%2C+%C2%A7+1988.+Proceedings+in+vindication+of+civil+rights&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.cornell.edu%2Fuscode%2Ftext%2F42%2F1988-&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+Liberties+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Report No. 109-657, H.R. 2679, available at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=109_cong_bills&docid=f:h2679rh.txt.pdf">GPO</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">ACLU Georgia Press Release, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.acluga.org/press.releases/0507/barrow.county.html">"Barrow County to Remove 10 Commandments Display"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051222050743/http://www.acluga.org/press.releases/0507/barrow.county.html">Archived</a> December 22, 2005, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, July 19, 2007 (last visited January 6, 2008).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">ACLU Georgia, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.acluga.org/docket.html">"2007 Litigation & Advocacy Docket"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051226043221/http://www.acluga.org/docket.html">Archived</a> December 26, 2005, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (last visited January 6, 2008).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.enquirer.com/editions/2003/07/09/loc_kytencommandments09.html">"State pays ACLU $121,500 in Ten Commandments fight"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=State+pays+ACLU+%24121%2C500+in+Ten+Commandments+fight&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.enquirer.com%2Feditions%2F2003%2F07%2F09%2Floc_kytencommandments09.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+Liberties+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.religioustolerance.org/chr_10cb.htm">The Ten Commandments: Developments: Year 2002</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060102152946/http://www.religioustolerance.org/chr_10cb.htm">Archived</a> January 2, 2006, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, ReligiousTolerance.org</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-affiliates-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-affiliates_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aclu.org/affiliates">"State Affiliates"</a>. ACLU<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 17,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=State+Affiliates&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aclu.org%2Faffiliates&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+Liberties+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://action.aclu.org/content/giving-american-civil-liberties-union-and-american-civil-liberties-union-foundation-what">"Giving to the American Civil Liberties Union and the American Civil Liberties Union Foundation: What Is the Difference? | American Civil Liberties Union"</a>. <i>action.aclu.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 19,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.acluva.org&rft.atitle=ACLU+of+Virginia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.acluva.org%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+Liberties+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:1_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaminer2018" class="citation news cs1">Kaminer, Wendy (June 20, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/the-aclu-retreats-from-free-expression-1529533065">"The ACLU Retreats From Free Expression"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal" title="The Wall Street Journal">The Wall Street Journal</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0099-9660">0099-9660</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180621022728/https://www.wsj.com/articles/the-aclu-retreats-from-free-expression-1529533065">Archived</a> from the original on June 21, 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 21,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Wall+Street+Journal&rft.atitle=The+ACLU+Retreats+From+Free+Expression&rft.date=2018-06-20&rft.issn=0099-9660&rft.aulast=Kaminer&rft.aufirst=Wendy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wsj.com%2Farticles%2Fthe-aclu-retreats-from-free-expression-1529533065&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+Liberties+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sykes_2018-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sykes_2018_48-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sykes_2018_48-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSykes2018" class="citation web cs1">Sykes, Michael (June 21, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180622123345/https://www.axios.com/aclu-leaked-memo-free-speech-civil-rights-1108e489-d79f-4d51-ac22-877b14546b76.html">"Leaked memo reveals ACLU debate on defense of free speech"</a>. <i>Axios</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.axios.com/aclu-leaked-memo-free-speech-civil-rights-1108e489-d79f-4d51-ac22-877b14546b76.html">the original</a> on June 22, 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 22,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Axios&rft.atitle=Leaked+memo+reveals+ACLU+debate+on+defense+of+free+speech&rft.date=2018-06-21&rft.aulast=Sykes&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.axios.com%2Faclu-leaked-memo-free-speech-civil-rights-1108e489-d79f-4d51-ac22-877b14546b76.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+Liberties+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlumenthal2007" class="citation news cs1">Blumenthal, Ralph (April 5, 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2007/04/05/us/politics/05guns.html">"Unusual Allies in a Legal Battle Over Texas Drivers' Gun Rights"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070408165308/https://www.nytimes.com/2007/04/05/us/politics/05guns.html">Archived</a> from the original on April 8, 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Unusual+Allies+in+a+Legal+Battle+Over+Texas+Drivers%27+Gun+Rights&rft.date=2007-04-05&rft.aulast=Blumenthal&rft.aufirst=Ralph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2007%2F04%2F05%2Fus%2Fpolitics%2F05guns.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+Liberties+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/plum-line/wp/2013/04/15/aclu-toomey-manchin-bill-would-make-national-gun-registry-less-likely/">"The Plum Line"</a>. <i>The Washington Post</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130421083726/https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/plum-line/wp/2013/04/15/aclu-toomey-manchin-bill-would-make-national-gun-registry-less-likely">Archived</a> from the original on April 21, 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=The+Plum+Line&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fblogs%2Fplum-line%2Fwp%2F2013%2F04%2F15%2Faclu-toomey-manchin-bill-would-make-national-gun-registry-less-likely%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+Liberties+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/23/us/a-test-of-free-speech-and-bias-served-on-a-plate-from-texas.html">A Test of Free Speech and Bias, Served on a Plate From Texas</a>, New York Times, March 22, 2015</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Finan, Christopher M. (2007), <i>From the Palmer Raids to the Patriot Act: a history of the fight for free speech in America</i>, Beacon Press, pp. 158–59. (Robeson)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Skokie-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Skokie_53-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Skokie_53-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, pp. 323–31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aclumich.org/en/cases/hecklers-veto">"The Heckler's Veto"</a>. December 26, 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Heckler%27s+Veto&rft.date=2014-12-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aclumich.org%2Fen%2Fcases%2Fhecklers-veto&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+Liberties+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMark_Joseph_Stern2018" class="citation web cs1">Mark Joseph Stern (August 27, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2018/08/the-aclus-decision-to-defend-the-nra-is-under-attack-internally.html">"Who Does the ACLU Fight For?"</a>. <i>Slate</i>. The Slate Group. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180828035136/https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2018/08/the-aclus-decision-to-defend-the-nra-is-under-attack-internally.html">Archived</a> from the original on August 28, 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 23,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Slate&rft.atitle=Who+Does+the+ACLU+Fight+For%3F&rft.date=2018-08-27&rft.au=Mark+Joseph+Stern&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fslate.com%2Fnews-and-politics%2F2018%2F08%2Fthe-aclus-decision-to-defend-the-nra-is-under-attack-internally.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+Liberties+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_Cole2018" class="citation web cs1">David Cole (August 24, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aclu.org/news/free-speech/new-york-state-cant-be-allowed-stifle-nras-political-speech">"New York State Can't Be Allowed to Stifle the NRA's Political Speech"</a>. <i>ACLU</i>. American Civil Liberties Union. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220904162950/https://www.aclu.org/news/free-speech/new-york-state-cant-be-allowed-stifle-nras-political-speech">Archived</a> from the original on September 4, 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 23,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ACLU&rft.atitle=New+York+State+Can%27t+Be+Allowed+to+Stifle+the+NRA%27s+Political+Speech&rft.date=2018-08-24&rft.au=David+Cole&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aclu.org%2Fnews%2Ffree-speech%2Fnew-york-state-cant-be-allowed-stifle-nras-political-speech&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+Liberties+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, pp. 219–20 (prayer in school).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKittle" class="citation news cs1">Kittle, M.D. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.watchdog.org/issues/accountability/survey-highlights-nonpartisan-aclu-s-liberal-biases/article_8489a54a-0798-58bf-a075-f413a54f6c96.html">"Survey highlights 'nonpartisan' ACLU's liberal biases"</a>. <i>Watchdog.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 10,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Watchdog.org&rft.atitle=Survey+highlights+%27nonpartisan%27+ACLU%27s+liberal+biases&rft.aulast=Kittle&rft.aufirst=M.D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.watchdog.org%2Fissues%2Faccountability%2Fsurvey-highlights-nonpartisan-aclu-s-liberal-biases%2Farticle_8489a54a-0798-58bf-a075-f413a54f6c96.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+Liberties+Union" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged July 2019">dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOXRush-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOXRush_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Donaldson-Evans, Catherine (January 12, 2004), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.foxnews.com/story/aclu-comes-to-rush-limbaughs-defense">"ACLU Comes to Rush Limbaugh's Defense"</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fox_News" title="Fox News">Fox News</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 242 (Wallace).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 103 (Ford).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 375 (North).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aclu.org/successes-american-civil-liberties-union">ACLU list of successes</a> (Gregory).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W82-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-W82_64-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W82_64-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W82_64-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 82.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 200 (Kent).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aclu.org/news/aclu-statement-charlottesville-violence-and-demonstrations">"ACLU Statement on Charlottesville Violence and Demonstrations"</a>. <i>American Civil Liberties Union</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 25,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Civil+Liberties+Union&rft.atitle=ACLU+Statement+on+Charlottesville+Violence+and+Demonstrations&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aclu.org%2Fnews%2Faclu-statement-charlottesville-violence-and-demonstrations&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+Liberties+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBiskupic" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Joan_Biskupic" title="Joan Biskupic">Biskupic, Joan</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://edition.cnn.com/2017/08/16/politics/aclu-free-speech-white-supremacy/index.html">"ACLU takes heat for its free-speech defense"</a>. <i>CNN</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 25,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CNN&rft.atitle=ACLU+takes+heat+for+its+free-speech+defense&rft.aulast=Biskupic&rft.aufirst=Joan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fedition.cnn.com%2F2017%2F08%2F16%2Fpolitics%2Faclu-free-speech-white-supremacy%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+Liberties+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldstein2017" class="citation news cs1">Goldstein, Joseph (August 17, 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/17/nyregion/aclu-free-speech-rights-charlottesville-skokie-rally.html">"After Backing Alt-Right in Charlottesville, A.C.L.U. Wrestles With Its Role"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a>. Archived from <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/17/nyregion/aclu-free-speech-rights-charlottesville-skokie-rally.html">the original</a></span> on January 1, 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 25,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=After+Backing+Alt-Right+in+Charlottesville%2C+A.C.L.U.+Wrestles+With+Its+Role&rft.date=2017-08-17&rft.issn=0362-4331&rft.aulast=Goldstein&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2017%2F08%2F17%2Fnyregion%2Faclu-free-speech-rights-charlottesville-skokie-rally.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+Liberties+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220803123908/https://www.aclu.org/issues/free-speech">"Free Speech"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aclu.org/issues/free-speech">the original</a> on August 3, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Free+Speech&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aclu.org%2Fissues%2Ffree-speech&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+Liberties+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In 2000, the ACLU responded to such criticism by stating "[i]t is easy to defend freedom of speech when the message is something many people find at least reasonable. But the defense of freedom of speech is most critical when the message is one most people find repulsive." from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aclu.org/free-speech/aclu-statement-defending-free-speech-unpopular-organizations">ACLU Statement on Defending Free Speech of Unpopular Organizations</a>, August 31, 2000. Retrieved January 19, 2012.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, pp. 17, 20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, pp. 23–24, 30.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 30.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 66.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 67.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Walker-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Walker_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 70.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_New_York_Times-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-The_New_York_Times_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1975/08/18/archives/lucille-milner-87-a-founder-of-aclu.html">"Lucille Milner, 87, A Founder of A.C.L.U"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. August 18, 1975<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 6,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Lucille+Milner%2C+87%2C+A+Founder+of+A.C.L.U&rft.date=1975-08-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1975%2F08%2F18%2Farchives%2Flucille-milner-87-a-founder-of-aclu.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+Liberties+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 55</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 57.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Walker_b-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Walker_b_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 52.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W53-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-W53_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 53.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p, 58.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 59.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 60.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 61.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 68.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W63-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-W63_87-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W63_87-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W63_87-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W63_87-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 63.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 71.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">University of Missouri-Kansas City School of Law, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/scopes/scopes.htm">"<i>Tennessee v. John Scopes</i>: The 'Monkey Trial' (1925)"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150209210437/http://law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/scopes/scopes.htm">Archived</a> February 9, 2015, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i>Famous Trials in American History</i>, last updated April 25, 2005 (last visited January 7, 2008).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040409145806/http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/scopes/scopeschrono.html">"The Evolution-Creationism Controversy: A Chronology"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/scopes/scopeschrono.html">the original</a> on April 9, 2004.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Evolution-Creationism+Controversy%3A+A+Chronology&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.umkc.edu%2Ffaculty%2Fprojects%2Fftrials%2Fscopes%2Fscopeschrono.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+Liberties+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 73.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 75. The newspaper was the <i>St. Louis Post Dispatch</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Berkman, Michael (2010), <i>Evolution, Creationism, and the Battle to Control America's Classrooms</i>, Cambridge University Press, pp. 100–01.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, pp. 78–79. The case was in New Jersey, <i>State v. Butterworth</i>. Decision quoted by Walker.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 79.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 80.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKauffman1982282-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKauffman1982282_97-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKauffman1982">Kauffman 1982</a>, p. 282.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKauffman1982283-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKauffman1982283_98-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKauffman1982">Kauffman 1982</a>, p. 283.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlley199941–44-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlley199941–44_99-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAlley1999">Alley 1999</a>, pp. 41–44.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 81</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 82. The cases included Gitlow (1925), Whitney (1927), Powell (1932), and Patterson (1935).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W86-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-W86_102-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W86_102-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W86_102-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W86_102-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 86.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W85-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-W85_103-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W85_103-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W85_103-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W85_103-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 85.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 90</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 91.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W112-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-W112_106-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W112_106-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W112_106-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W112_106-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 112</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W87-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-W87_107-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W87_107-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W87_107-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W87_107-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 87.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W88-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-W88_108-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 88.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W89-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-W89_109-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W89_109-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 89.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Margold Report was named after its principal author, <a href="/wiki/Nathan_Ross_Margold" title="Nathan Ross Margold">Nathan Ross Margold</a>, a white attorney.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 92.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 95.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W96-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-W96_113-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 96.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W97-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-W97_114-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 97</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W100-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-W100_115-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 100.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W99-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-W99_116-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, pp. 99–100.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W98-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-W98_117-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 98.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W106-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-W106_118-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W106_118-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 106.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Court decision quoted by Walker, p. 106.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W107-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-W107_120-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W107_120-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W107_120-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 107.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W101-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-W101_121-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wagner, p. 101.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W103-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-W103_122-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W103_122-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 103.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W104-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-W104_123-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W104_123-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 104.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The ACLU was not the primary legal representative; the Witnesses had their own legal team, led by <a href="/wiki/Hayden_C._Covington" title="Hayden C. Covington">Hayden C. Covington</a> during this era.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W108-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-W108_125-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W108_125-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 108.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W109-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-W109_126-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W109_126-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 109.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Justice Robert Jackson quoted by Walker, p. 109.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W115-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-W115_128-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 115.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W116-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-W116_129-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, pp. 116–17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, pp. 117–18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W118-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-W118_131-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W118_131-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 118.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W119-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-W119_132-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 119.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W120-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-W120_133-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 120.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W121-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-W121_134-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W121_134-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 121.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W122-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-W122_135-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 122.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W123-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-W123_136-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 123.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Smith Act was ruled unconstitutional in 1957.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W133-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-W133_138-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W133_138-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 133.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W128-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-W128_139-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 128.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeito2023" class="citation book cs1">Beito, David T. (2023). <i>The New Deal's War on the Bill of Rights: The Untold Story of FDR's Concentration Camps, Censorship, and Mass Surveillance</i> (First ed.). Oakland: Independent Institute. pp. 201–212. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1598133561" title="Special:BookSources/978-1598133561"><bdi>978-1598133561</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+Deal%27s+War+on+the+Bill+of+Rights%3A+The+Untold+Story+of+FDR%27s+Concentration+Camps%2C+Censorship%2C+and+Mass+Surveillance&rft.place=Oakland&rft.pages=201-212&rft.edition=First&rft.pub=Independent+Institute&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-1598133561&rft.aulast=Beito&rft.aufirst=David+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+Liberties+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Beito, p. 211-213.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Beito, p. 244-250.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Beito, p. 215-234.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W137-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-W137_144-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 137.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Niiya-ACLU-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Niiya-ACLU_145-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Niiya-ACLU_145-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Niiya-ACLU_145-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Niiya-ACLU_145-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Niiya-ACLU_145-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Niiya-ACLU_145-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNiiya" class="citation web cs1">Niiya, Brian. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://encyclopedia.densho.org/American_Civil_Liberties_Union/">"American Civil Liberties Union"</a>. Densho Encyclopedia<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 24,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=American+Civil+Liberties+Union&rft.pub=Densho+Encyclopedia&rft.aulast=Niiya&rft.aufirst=Brian&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fencyclopedia.densho.org%2FAmerican_Civil_Liberties_Union%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+Liberties+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 142.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W138-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-W138_147-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 138.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 145.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, pp. 146–47</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chin, Steven A. <i>When Justice Failed: The Fred Korematsu Story</i>, Raintree, 1992, p. 95.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 157.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNiiya" class="citation web cs1">Niiya, Brian. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://encyclopedia.densho.org/Ernest%20Besig/">"Ernest Besig"</a>. Densho Encyclopedia<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 26,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ernest+Besig&rft.pub=Densho+Encyclopedia&rft.aulast=Niiya&rft.aufirst=Brian&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fencyclopedia.densho.org%2FErnest%2520Besig%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+Liberties+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, pp. 173–75.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, pp. 175–76.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">walker, p. 176.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W179-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-W179_156-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W179_156-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 179</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W181-157"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-W181_157-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W181_157-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 181.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 183.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W185-159"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-W185_159-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W185_159-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W185_159-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 185.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W187-160"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-W187_160-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W187_160-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p 187.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Walker_c-161"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Walker_c_161-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Walker_c_161-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 195.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W188-162"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-W188_162-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W188_162-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 188.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walter, pp. 188–89.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, photo caption of Flynn, page following 214.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, pp. 193, 195–96.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, pp. 191–93.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, pp. 205–06.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W207-168"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-W207_168-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W207_168-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 207.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W208-169"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-W208_169-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W208_169-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W208_169-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 208.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 199.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 200.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 201.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, pp. 201–02.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 202. The case was <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slochower_v._Board_of_Higher_Education_of_New_York_City&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slochower v. Board of Higher Education of New York City (page does not exist)">Slochower v. Board of Higher Education of New York City</a></i>, 350 US 551 (1956).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, pp. 208–11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 209.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W210-177"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-W210_177-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W210_177-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 210.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Graham's proposal quoted in Walker</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, pp. 210–11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W211-180"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-W211_180-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W211_180-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 211.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Corliss_Lamont" title="Corliss Lamont">Corliss Lamont</a>, in particular, portrayed that era as a major lapse of principle.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W212-182"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-W212_182-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 212.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, pp. 213–14, 217–18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, pp. 240–42.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Walker,_p._246-185"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Walker,_p._246_185-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Walker,_p._246_185-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 246.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W217-186"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-W217_186-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W217_186-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W217_186-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W217_186-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 217</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Membership numbers are from 1955 and 1965.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Walker_d-188"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Walker_d_188-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Walker_d_188-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 236.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W219-189"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-W219_189-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W219_189-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W219_189-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 219</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Black quoted by Walker.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Black was paraphrasing Thomas Jefferson, who first employed the metaphor of a wall. Urofsky, Melvin, "Church and State", in Bodenhamer, p. 67.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W221-192"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-W221_192-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W221_192-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W221_192-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W221_192-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 221.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W222-193"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-W222_193-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W222_193-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W222_193-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 222.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W223-194"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-W223_194-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W223_194-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W223_194-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 223</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-195"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-195">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 224</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W225-196"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-W225_196-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W225_196-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 225.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W231-197"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-W231_197-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W231_197-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W231_197-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 231.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-198"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 235.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W233-199"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-W233_199-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 233.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-200"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-200">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 234.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W227-201"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-W227_201-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W227_201-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 227.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W238-202"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-W238_202-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W238_202-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 238.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-203"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-203">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">ACLU, <i>ACLU Amicus Brief in Brown v. Board of Education</i>, October 11, 1952 (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aclu.org/racialjustice/gen/15901lgl19521011.html">PDF brief</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080423220108/http://www.aclu.org/racialjustice/gen/15901lgl19521011.html">Archived</a> April 23, 2008, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-204"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-204">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, pp. 255–57.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-205"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-205">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 247.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-206"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-206">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, pp. 246–50.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-207"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-207">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, pp. 246–48.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-208"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, pp. 248–49.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-209"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, pp. 249–51.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-210"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-210">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, pp. 252–53.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-211"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-211">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 250.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-212"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-212">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, pp. 250–51.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-213"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-213">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 252.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-214"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-214">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 274.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Walkerpp-215"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Walkerpp_215-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Walkerpp_215-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, pp. 257, 261–62.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-216"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-216">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, pp. 262–64.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W262-217"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-W262_217-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W262_217-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W262_217-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 262</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-218"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-218">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The count of affiliates is of affiliates with permanent staff.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-219"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-219">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 263. Characterizations by Samuel Walker.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-220"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-220">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, pp. 263–64.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-221"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-221">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 261.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W263-222"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-W263_222-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W263_222-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 263.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W264-223"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-W264_223-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W264_223-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 264.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-224"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-224">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, pp. 264–65.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-225"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-225">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 266.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-226"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-226">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 267.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-227"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-227">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, pp. 268–69.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-228"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-228">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, pp. 270–71.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-229"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-229">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 271.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-230"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-230">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aclu.org/successes-american-civil-liberties-union">ACLU list of successes</a>; the case was <i>Gregory v. Chicago</i>, 394 US 111.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Walker_e-231"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Walker_e_231-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Walker_e_231-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 280.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-232"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-232">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 280. Meredith, in fact, was not assassinated.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W281-233"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-W281_233-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W281_233-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 281.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-234"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-234">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 286.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W285-235"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-W285_235-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W285_235-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 285.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-236"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-236">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, pp. 289–90.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-237"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-237">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones1973" class="citation web cs1">Jones, Glyn (November 10, 1973). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191201015708/http://www.americancenturies.mass.edu/collection/itempage.jsp?itemid=18506&img=0&level=advanced&transcription=1">"ACLU Would Impeach Nixon"</a>. <i>Greenfield Recorder</i>. Deerfield, Massachusetts: Pocumtuck Valley Memorial Association. #L06.052. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.americancenturies.mass.edu/collection/itempage.jsp?itemid=18506&img=0&level=advanced&transcription=1">the original</a> on December 1, 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 16,</span> 2019</span> – via Online Collection – Memorial Hall Museum.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Greenfield+Recorder&rft.atitle=ACLU+Would+Impeach+Nixon&rft.date=1973-11-10&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Glyn&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.americancenturies.mass.edu%2Fcollection%2Fitempage.jsp%3Fitemid%3D18506%26img%3D0%26level%3Dadvanced%26transcription%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+Liberties+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-238"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-238">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClack1973" class="citation news cs1">Clack, Alfred E. (October 5, 1973). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1973/10/05/archives/aclu-asks-impeachment-of-nixon.html">"A.C.L.U. Asks Impeachment of Nixon"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 15,</span> 2019</span> – via Times's print archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=A.C.L.U.+Asks+Impeachment+of+Nixon&rft.date=1973-10-05&rft.aulast=Clack&rft.aufirst=Alfred+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1973%2F10%2F05%2Farchives%2Faclu-asks-impeachment-of-nixon.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+Liberties+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-239"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-239">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1973/11/25/archives/impeachment-book-offered-by-aclu.html">"Impeachment Book Offered By A.C.L.U."</a> <i>The New York Times</i>. November 25, 1973<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 15,</span> 2019</span> – via Times's print archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Impeachment+Book+Offered+By+A.C.L.U.&rft.date=1973-11-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1973%2F11%2F25%2Farchives%2Fimpeachment-book-offered-by-aclu.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+Liberties+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-240"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-240">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 294</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-241"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-241">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, pp. 314–16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-242"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-242">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 299. Key ACLU leaders in this effort were <a href="/wiki/Ira_Glasser" title="Ira Glasser">Ira Glasser</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aryeh_Neier" title="Aryeh Neier">Aryeh Neier</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-243"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-243">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Raskin, James B. (2009), "No Enclaves of Totalitarianism", American University Law Review, Vol. 58:1193.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-244"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-244">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 307.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W309-245"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-W309_245-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W309_245-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W309_245-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 309.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-google-246"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-google_246-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSiegel,_F.2013" class="citation book cs1">Siegel, F. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0l73QSrSIcwC"><i>The Future Once Happened Here: New York, D.C., L.A., and the Fate of America's Big Cities</i></a>. Encounter Books. p. 205. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1594035555" title="Special:BookSources/978-1594035555"><bdi>978-1594035555</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 3,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Future+Once+Happened+Here%3A+New+York%2C+D.C.%2C+L.A.%2C+and+the+Fate+of+America%27s+Big+Cities&rft.pages=205&rft.pub=Encounter+Books&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1594035555&rft.au=Siegel%2C+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0l73QSrSIcwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+Liberties+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-247"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-247">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Note, "Beyond the Ken of Courts", <i>Yale Law Journal</i> 72 (1963):506. Cited by Walker, p. 310.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W310-248"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-W310_248-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 310.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-249"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-249">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, pp. 310–11. The ACLU was not involved in the <i>Landman</i> case.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-250"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-250">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pullman, Sandra (March 7, 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aclu.org/womens-rights/tribute-legacy-ruth-bader-ginsburg-and-wrp-staff">"Tribute: The Legacy of Ruth Bader Ginsburg and WRP Staff"</a>. <i>ACLU.org</i>. Accessed November 18, 2010.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-251"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-251">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 299.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-252"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-252">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The ERA was passed by congress in 1972 but failed to be ratified by the states.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-253"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-253">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, pp. 304–05.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-254"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-254">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 312.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-255"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-255">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aclu.org/sites/default/files/pdfs/freespeech/craig_v_minnesota_acluamicus.pdf">State Of Minnesota</a>. (PDF). Retrieved on May 24, 2014.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W313-256"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-W313_256-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W313_256-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 313.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-257"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-257">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHartmann1998" class="citation book cs1">Hartmann, Susan M. (January 1, 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/otherfeministsac0000hart/page/53">"Litigating Feminist Principles"</a>. In Hartmann, Susan M. (ed.). <i>The Other Feminists</i>. Activists in the Liberal Establishment. Yale University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/otherfeministsac0000hart/page/53">53–91</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0300074642" title="Special:BookSources/978-0300074642"><bdi>978-0300074642</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt32bqj0.7">j.ctt32bqj0.7</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Litigating+Feminist+Principles&rft.btitle=The+Other+Feminists&rft.series=Activists+in+the+Liberal+Establishment&rft.pages=53-91&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1998-01-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctt32bqj0.7%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=978-0300074642&rft.aulast=Hartmann&rft.aufirst=Susan+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fotherfeministsac0000hart%2Fpage%2F53&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+Liberties+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:02-258"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:02_258-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170709115230/https://www.reproductiverights.org/press-room/center-planned-parenthood-aclu-file-challenges-to-abortion-restrictions-in-three-states">"Center for Reproductive Rights, Planned Parenthood, ACLU File Challenges to Abortion Restrictions in Three States"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Center_for_Reproductive_Rights" title="Center for Reproductive Rights">Center for Reproductive Rights</a></i>. September 27, 2013. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reproductiverights.org/press-room/center-planned-parenthood-aclu-file-challenges-to-abortion-restrictions-in-three-states">the original</a> on July 9, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 1,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Center+for+Reproductive+Rights&rft.atitle=Center+for+Reproductive+Rights%2C+Planned+Parenthood%2C+ACLU+File+Challenges+to+Abortion+Restrictions+in+Three+States&rft.date=2013-09-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reproductiverights.org%2Fpress-room%2Fcenter-planned-parenthood-aclu-file-challenges-to-abortion-restrictions-in-three-states&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+Liberties+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-259"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-259">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170502005651/http://prospect.org/article/women%E2%80%99s-reproductive-freedom-chill-wind-blows">"For Women's Reproductive Freedom, a Chill Wind Blows"</a>. <i>The American Prospect</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://prospect.org/article/women%E2%80%99s-reproductive-freedom-chill-wind-blows">the original</a> on May 2, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 1,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Prospect&rft.atitle=For+Women%27s+Reproductive+Freedom%2C+a+Chill+Wind+Blows&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fprospect.org%2Farticle%2Fwomen%25E2%2580%2599s-reproductive-freedom-chill-wind-blows&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+Liberties+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-260"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-260">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.proquest.com/openview/b2e15d5d2875ce26854147fecd6f12f1/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=35312">"Abstinence-Only Education in the Courts"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 2,</span> 2017</span> – via ProQuest.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Abstinence-Only+Education+in+the+Courts&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.proquest.com%2Fopenview%2Fb2e15d5d2875ce26854147fecd6f12f1%2F1%3Fpq-origsite%3Dgscholar%26cbl%3D35312&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+Liberties+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-261"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-261">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWong2013" class="citation web cs1">Wong, Elizabeth (January 11, 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://acluva.org/en/news/shameful-history-eugenics-virginia">"A Shameful History: Eugenics in Virginia"</a>. <i>ACLUVA</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 16,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ACLUVA&rft.atitle=A+Shameful+History%3A+Eugenics+in+Virginia&rft.date=2013-01-11&rft.aulast=Wong&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facluva.org%2Fen%2Fnews%2Fshameful-history-eugenics-virginia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+Liberties+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-262"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-262">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aclu.org/other/about-aclu-reproductive-freedom-project">"About the ACLU reproductive freedom project"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 23,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=About+the+ACLU+reproductive+freedom+project&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aclu.org%2Fother%2Fabout-aclu-reproductive-freedom-project&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+Liberties+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-263"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-263">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/497/417/">"Hodgson v. Minnesota, 497 U.S. 417 (1990)"</a>. <i>Justia Law</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 23,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Justia+Law&rft.atitle=Hodgson+v.+Minnesota%2C+497+U.S.+417+%281990%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsupreme.justia.com%2Fcases%2Ffederal%2Fus%2F497%2F417%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+Liberties+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-264"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-264">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBiskupic1996" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Joan_Biskupic" title="Joan Biskupic">Biskupic, Joan</a> (January 9, 1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1996/01/09/court-spurns-challenge-to-condom-policy/f6f037d2-79b4-4291-9f31-980aab2db152/">"Court Spurns Challenge to Condom Policy"</a>. <i>washingtonpost.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 21,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=washingtonpost.com&rft.atitle=Court+Spurns+Challenge+to+Condom+Policy&rft.date=1996-01-09&rft.aulast=Biskupic&rft.aufirst=Joan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Farchive%2Fpolitics%2F1996%2F01%2F09%2Fcourt-spurns-challenge-to-condom-policy%2Ff6f037d2-79b4-4291-9f31-980aab2db152%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+Liberties+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-265"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-265">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDejanikus1982" class="citation journal cs1">Dejanikus, Tacie (January 1, 1982). "spousal notification upheld in florida suit". <i>Off Our Backs</i>. <b>12</b> (2): 9. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25774248">25774248</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Off+Our+Backs&rft.atitle=spousal+notification+upheld+in+florida+suit&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=9&rft.date=1982-01-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25774248%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Dejanikus&rft.aufirst=Tacie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+Liberties+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-266"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-266">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180228161542/http://philadelphia.pa.networkofcare.org/ps/services/agency.aspx?pid=ACLUofPAClaraBellDuvallReproductiveFreedomProject_1147_12_0">"ACLU of PA: Clara Bell Duvall Reproductive Freedom Project – Philadelphia"</a>. <i>Philadelphia.pa</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://philadelphia.pa.networkofcare.org/ps/services/agency.aspx?pid=ACLUofPAClaraBellDuvallReproductiveFreedomProject_1147_12_0">the original</a> on February 28, 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 1,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Philadelphia.pa&rft.atitle=ACLU+of+PA%3A+Clara+Bell+Duvall+Reproductive+Freedom+Project+%E2%80%93+Philadelphia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fphiladelphia.pa.networkofcare.org%2Fps%2Fservices%2Fagency.aspx%3Fpid%3DACLUofPAClaraBellDuvallReproductiveFreedomProject_1147_12_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+Liberties+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-267"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-267">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, pp. 300–01</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-268"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-268">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 302.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-269"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-269">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 303.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-270"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-270">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 303. The ACLU did not participate directly in <i>Roe v. Wade</i>, but did lead the effort in the companion case <i><a href="/wiki/Doe_v._Bolton" title="Doe v. Bolton">Doe v. Bolton</a></i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-271"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-271">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 308.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-272"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-272">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 317.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-273"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-273">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bishop, Joseph W., "Politics and the ACLU", <i>Commentary</i> 52 (December 1971): 50–58. Bishop cited by Walker. Bishop was a professor of law at Yale.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W318-274"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-W318_274-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-W318_274-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 318.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-275"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-275">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, pp. 319, 363. Bush quoted by Walker.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-276"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-276">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ed McManus, "Nazi March: What's It All About?", <i>Illinois Issues</i>, v.13, Nov. 1978 (available at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lib.niu.edu/ipo/1978/ii781111.html">Illinois Periodicals Online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060908083411/http://www.lib.niu.edu/ipo/1978/ii781111.html">Archived</a> September 8, 2006, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>).<br />The federal appeal case was <i>Smith v. Collin</i> 447 F. Supp. 676. See also Supreme Court: <i>Smith v. Collin</i>, 439 US 916 (1978), and <i>National Socialist Party v. Skokie</i>, 432 US 43 (1977).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-277"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-277">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">30,000 ACLU members resigned in protest.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-278"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-278">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Philippa Strum, <i>When the Nazis Came to Skokie: Freedom for Speech We Hate</i> (University Press of Kansas) (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kansaspress.ku.edu/strwhe.html">University of Kansas Press publisher's catalog description</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070827110841/http://www.kansaspress.ku.edu/strwhe.html">Archived</a> August 27, 2007, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-279"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-279">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070927081913/http://cdm.digitalpast.org/cgi-bin/showfile.exe?CISOROOT=%2Fskokiepo001&CISOPTR=36">"Membership woes hurt ACLU while others gain"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cdm.digitalpast.org/cgi-bin/showfile.exe?CISOROOT=/skokiepo001&CISOPTR=36">the original</a> on September 27, 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 7,</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Membership+woes+hurt+ACLU+while+others+gain&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcdm.digitalpast.org%2Fcgi-bin%2Fshowfile.exe%3FCISOROOT%3D%2Fskokiepo001%26CISOPTR%3D36&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+Liberties+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-280"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-280">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070927081811/http://cdm.digitalpast.org/cgi-bin/showfile.exe?CISOROOT=%2Fskokiepo001&CISOPTR=0">"2d suit to block Nazis from Skokie march fails"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cdm.digitalpast.org/cgi-bin/showfile.exe?CISOROOT=/skokiepo001&CISOPTR=0">the original</a> on September 27, 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 7,</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=2d+suit+to+block+Nazis+from+Skokie+march+fails&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcdm.digitalpast.org%2Fcgi-bin%2Fshowfile.exe%3FCISOROOT%3D%2Fskokiepo001%26CISOPTR%3D0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+Liberties+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-281"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-281">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090624045022/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0%2C9171%2C916244-1%2C00.html">"The High Cost of Free Speech: A.C.L.U. dilemma: defending "hateful and heinous" ideas"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">Time</a></i>. June 28, 1978. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,916244-1,00.html">the original</a> on June 24, 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 18,</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Time&rft.atitle=The+High+Cost+of+Free+Speech%3A+A.C.L.U.+dilemma%3A+defending+%22hateful+and+heinous%22+ideas&rft.date=1978-06-28&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.time.com%2Ftime%2Fmagazine%2Farticle%2F0%2C9171%2C916244-1%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+Liberties+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-inflation-US-282"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-inflation-US_282-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">1634–1699: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCusker1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_J._McCusker" title="John J. McCusker">McCusker, J. J.</a> (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.americanantiquarian.org/proceedings/44525121.pdf"><i>How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States: Addenda et Corrigenda</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/American_Antiquarian_Society" title="American Antiquarian Society">American Antiquarian Society</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+Much+Is+That+in+Real+Money%3F+A+Historical+Price+Index+for+Use+as+a+Deflator+of+Money+Values+in+the+Economy+of+the+United+States%3A+Addenda+et+Corrigenda&rft.pub=American+Antiquarian+Society&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=McCusker&rft.aufirst=J.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.americanantiquarian.org%2Fproceedings%2F44525121.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+Liberties+Union" class="Z3988"></span> 1700–1799: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCusker1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_J._McCusker" title="John J. McCusker">McCusker, J. J.</a> (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.americanantiquarian.org/proceedings/44517778.pdf"><i>How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/American_Antiquarian_Society" title="American Antiquarian Society">American Antiquarian Society</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+Much+Is+That+in+Real+Money%3F+A+Historical+Price+Index+for+Use+as+a+Deflator+of+Money+Values+in+the+Economy+of+the+United+States&rft.pub=American+Antiquarian+Society&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=McCusker&rft.aufirst=J.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.americanantiquarian.org%2Fproceedings%2F44517778.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+Liberties+Union" class="Z3988"></span> 1800–present: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFederal_Reserve_Bank_of_Minneapolis" class="citation web cs1">Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.minneapolisfed.org/about-us/monetary-policy/inflation-calculator/consumer-price-index-1800-">"Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 29,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Consumer+Price+Index+%28estimate%29+1800%E2%80%93&rft.au=Federal+Reserve+Bank+of+Minneapolis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.minneapolisfed.org%2Fabout-us%2Fmonetary-policy%2Finflation-calculator%2Fconsumer-price-index-1800-&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+Liberties+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-283"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-283">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, p. 239.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-284"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-284">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, pp. 342–43.<br /><i><a href="/wiki/McLean_v._Arkansas" title="McLean v. Arkansas">McLean v. Arkansas Board of Education</a></i>, 529 F. Supp. 1255 (E.D. Ark. 1982) (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/mclean-v-arkansas.html">"transcription" by Clark Dorman</a>, January 30, 1996, at TalkOrigins).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-285"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-285">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aclu.org/privacy/speech/14793leg20020508.html">"Letter to Reps. Smith and Scott on H.R. 4623, the "Child Obscenity and Pornography Prevention Act of 2002"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>ACLU.org</i>. May 8, 2002. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071214213745/http://www.aclu.org/privacy/speech/14793leg20020508.html">Archived</a> from the original on December 14, 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 20,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ACLU.org&rft.atitle=Letter+to+Reps.+Smith+and+Scott+on+H.R.+4623%2C+the+%22Child+Obscenity+and+Pornography+Prevention+Act+of+2002%22&rft.date=2002-05-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aclu.org%2Fprivacy%2Fspeech%2F14793leg20020508.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+Liberties+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-286"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-286">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131231042713/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/debatingourdestiny/dod/1988-broadcast.html">"Debating Our Destiny: The 1988 Debates"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/PBS" title="PBS">PBS</a></i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/newshour/debatingourdestiny/dod/1988-broadcast.html">the original</a> on December 31, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 24,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=PBS&rft.atitle=Debating+Our+Destiny%3A+The+1988+Debates&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fnewshour%2Fdebatingourdestiny%2Fdod%2F1988-broadcast.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+Liberties+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-287"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-287">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRandall_Rothenburg1988" class="citation news cs1">Randall Rothenburg (September 28, 1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1988/09/28/us/aclu-goes-hollywood-in-countering-bush-s-campaign-of-derision.html">"A.C.L.U. Goes Hollywood in Countering Bush's Campaign of Derision"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 28,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=A.C.L.U.+Goes+Hollywood+in+Countering+Bush%27s+Campaign+of+Derision&rft.date=1988-09-28&rft.au=Randall+Rothenburg&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1988%2F09%2F28%2Fus%2Faclu-goes-hollywood-in-countering-bush-s-campaign-of-derision.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+Liberties+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-288"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-288">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171114160842/https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/boundvolumes/521bv.pdf">"521 U. S. 844 (1997)"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/boundvolumes/521bv.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on November 14, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 27,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=521+U.+S.+844+%281997%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.supremecourt.gov%2Fopinions%2Fboundvolumes%2F521bv.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+Liberties+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-289"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-289">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Adam S. Marlin, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archives.cnn.com/2000/TECH/computing/06/09/amend.spam.idg/">"First Amendment is obstacle to spam legislation"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130826223627/http://archives.cnn.com/2000/TECH/computing/06/09/amend.spam.idg/">Archived</a> August 26, 2013, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, CNN, June 9, 2000.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-290"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-290">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">ACLU, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aclu.org/freespeech/commercial/10953leg20030730.html">"Letter to the Senate Urging Opposition to S.877, the "Controlling the Assault of Non-Solicited Pornography and Marketing Act of 2003""</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091017223137/http://www.aclu.org/freespeech/commercial/10953leg20030730.html">Archived</a> October 17, 2009, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, July 30, 2003 (last visited January 7, 2008).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-291"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-291">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://law.justia.com/cases/federal/district-courts/washington/waedce/2:2006cv00327/41160/53/"><i>Bradburn et al. v. North Central Regional Library District</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131025190751/http://law.justia.com/cases/federal/district-courts/washington/waedce/2:2006cv00327/41160/53/">Archived</a> October 25, 2013, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (US District Court, Eastern District of Washington), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aclu.org/technology-and-liberty/aclu-lawsuit-seeks-access-lawful-information-internet-library-patrons-eastern">"ACLU Lawsuit Seeks Access to Lawful Information on Internet for Library Patrons in Eastern Washington"</a>. November 16, 2006. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110107005129/http://www.aclu.org/technology-and-liberty/aclu-lawsuit-seeks-access-lawful-information-internet-library-patrons-eastern">Archived</a> from the original on January 7, 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 7,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=ACLU+Lawsuit+Seeks+Access+to+Lawful+Information+on+Internet+for+Library+Patrons+in+Eastern+Washington&rft.date=2006-11-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aclu.org%2Ftechnology-and-liberty%2Faclu-lawsuit-seeks-access-lawful-information-internet-library-patrons-eastern&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+Liberties+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-292"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-292">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibtimes.com/articles/292757/20120203/library-porn-washington-aclu-lawsuit-wenatchee.htm">"Internet Porn is Subject of ACLU lawsuit"</a>, <i>International Business Times</i>, February 3, 2012.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-293"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-293">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Garance Burke, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/07/22/AR2006072200643.html">"ACLU Sues for Anti-Gay Group That Pickets at Troops' Burials"</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a></i>, July 23, 2006.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-294"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-294">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The ACLU challenged the Missouri law, which was similar to the federal <a href="/wiki/Respect_for_America%27s_Fallen_Heroes_Act" title="Respect for America's Fallen Heroes Act">Respect for America's Fallen Heroes Act</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-295"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-295">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aclu.org/freespeech/protest/26265prs20060721.html">"ACLU of Eastern Missouri Challenges Law Banning Pickets and Protests One Hour Before or After a Funeral"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091021074659/http://www.aclu.org/freespeech/protest/26265prs20060721.html">Archived</a> October 21, 2009, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, ACLU, July 21, 2006.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-296"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-296">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091031220515/http://www.aclu.org/freespeech/gen/33239prs20071206.html">"ACLU of Eastern Missouri Applauds Decision in Free Speech Case"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aclu.org/freespeech/gen/33239prs20071206.html">the original</a> on October 31, 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 3,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=ACLU+of+Eastern+Missouri+Applauds+Decision+in+Free+Speech+Case&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aclu.org%2Ffreespeech%2Fgen%2F33239prs20071206.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+Liberties+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-297"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-297">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aclu.org/cases/mccullen-v-coakley">"McCullen v. Coakley"</a>. <i>American Civil Liberties Union</i>. September 18, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 21,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=American+Civil+Liberties+Union&rft.atitle=McCullen+v.+Coakley&rft.date=2013-09-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aclu.org%2Fcases%2Fmccullen-v-coakley&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+Liberties+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-298"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-298">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/12-1168">"McCullen v. Coakley"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=McCullen+v.+Coakley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.cornell.edu%2Fsupremecourt%2Ftext%2F12-1168&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+Liberties+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-299"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-299">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aclu.org/files/pdfs/scotus/citizensunited_v_fec_acluamicus.pdf">"<i>Amicus Curiae</i> Brief of the American Civil Liberties Union in Support of Appellant on Supplemental Question"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Citizens United V. Federal Election Commission</i>: 24. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.buzzfeed.com/chrisgeidner/servicemembers-kicked-out-under-militarys-gay-ban">the original</a> on January 9, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 7,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Buzz+Feed&rft.atitle=Servicemembers+Kicked+Out+Under+Military%27s+Gay+Ban+Since+%2704+To+Receive+Full+Separation+Pay&rft.date=2013-01-07&rft.aulast=Geidner&rft.aufirst=Chris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.buzzfeed.com%2Fchrisgeidner%2Fservicemembers-kicked-out-under-militarys-gay-ban&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+Liberties+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-318"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-318">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaminer2021" class="citation web cs1">Kaminer, Wendy (October 25, 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.spiked-online.com/2021/10/25/the-aclu-is-now-siding-with-the-censors/">"The ACLU is now siding with the censors"</a>. <i>Spiked Online</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 15,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=American+Civil+Liberties+Union&rft.atitle=National+Security+%E2%80%93+Recent+Court+Cases%2C+Issues+and+Articles&rft.date=2001-09-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aclu.org%2Fnational-security&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+Liberties+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-321"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-321">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRon_Kampeas2002" class="citation news cs1">Ron Kampeas (December 2, 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.post-gazette.com/localnews/20021202aclusidebarp8.asp">"ACLU has new constituency after 9/11"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Associated_Press" title="Associated Press">Associated Press</a> via <a href="/wiki/Pittsburgh_Post-Gazette" title="Pittsburgh Post-Gazette">Pittsburgh Post-Gazette</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071208095437/http://www.post-gazette.com/localnews/20021202aclusidebarp8.asp">Archived</a> from the original on December 8, 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 20,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Associated+Press+via+Pittsburgh+Post-Gazette&rft.atitle=ACLU+has+new+constituency+after+9%2F11&rft.date=2002-12-02&rft.au=Ron+Kampeas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.post-gazette.com%2Flocalnews%2F20021202aclusidebarp8.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+Liberties+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-322"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-322">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">ACLU, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aclu.org/about/index.html">"About Us"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091031134423/https://www.aclu.org/about/index.html">Archived</a> October 31, 2009, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cfc-323"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cfc_323-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cfc_323-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">ACLU, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aclu.org/safefree/general/18526prs20040731.html">"Citing Government "Blacklist"; Policy, ACLU Rejects $500,000 from Funding Program "</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091017010806/http://www.aclu.org/safefree/general/18526prs20040731.html">Archived</a> October 17, 2009, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, July 31, 2004 (last visited January 7, 2008).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-324"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-324">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHamblett2008" class="citation web cs1">Hamblett, Mark (December 16, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.law.com/jsp/article.jsp?id=1202426792619">"2nd Circuit Requires Judicial Review Before Security Letter Gag Order"</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 8,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=2nd+Circuit+Requires+Judicial+Review+Before+Security+Letter+Gag+Order&rft.pub=New+York+Law+Journal&rft.date=2008-12-16&rft.aulast=Hamblett&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.com%2Fjsp%2Farticle.jsp%3Fid%3D1202426792619&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+Liberties+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-325"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-325">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZetter2010" class="citation web cs1">Zetter, Kim (August 10, 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2010/08/nsl-gag-order-lifted/">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'John Doe' Who Fought FBI Spying Freed From Gag Order After 6 Years"</a>. <i>Wired.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101018162650/http://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2010/08/nsl-gag-order-lifted/">Archived</a> from the original on October 18, 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 8,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Wired.com&rft.atitle=%27John+Doe%27+Who+Fought+FBI+Spying+Freed+From+Gag+Order+After+6+Years&rft.date=2010-08-10&rft.aulast=Zetter&rft.aufirst=Kim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wired.com%2Fthreatlevel%2F2010%2F08%2Fnsl-gag-order-lifted%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+Liberties+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-326"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-326">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoe2007" class="citation news cs1">Doe, John (March 23, 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/03/22/AR2007032201882.html">"My National Security Letter Gag Order"</a>. <i>Washington Post</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 19,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.cbsnews.com&rft.atitle=The+ACLU%27s+surprising+new+political+strategy%2C+modeled+in+part+after+the+NRA+-+60+Minutes+-+CBS+News&rft.date=2019-03-10&rft.aulast=Stahl&rft.aufirst=Lesley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cbsnews.com%2Famp%2Fnews%2Fthe-aclu-surprising-new-political-strategy-modeled-in-part-after-the-national-rifle-association-60-minutes%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+Liberties+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-347"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-347">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcGreal" class="citation web cs1">McGreal, Chris. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2022/oct/20/aclu-arkansas-anti-boycott-law-israel">"ACLU asks supreme court to overturn Arkansas' anti-boycott law against Israel"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 29,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=ACLU+asks+supreme+court+to+overturn+Arkansas%E2%80%99+anti-boycott+law+against+Israel&rft.aulast=McGreal&rft.aufirst=Chris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fus-news%2F2022%2Foct%2F20%2Faclu-arkansas-anti-boycott-law-israel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+Liberties+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-348"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-348">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTouré" class="citation web cs1">Touré, Madina. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.politico.com/news/2024/03/12/civil-liberties-organizations-columbia-lawsuit-pro-palestinian-groups-00146458">"Civil liberties organizations sue Columbia over suspension of pro-Palestinian groups"</a>. <i>Politico</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 14,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Politico&rft.atitle=Civil+liberties+organizations+sue+Columbia+over+suspension+of+pro-Palestinian+groups&rft.aulast=Tour%C3%A9&rft.aufirst=Madina&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.politico.com%2Fnews%2F2024%2F03%2F12%2Fcivil-liberties-organizations-columbia-lawsuit-pro-palestinian-groups-00146458&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+Liberties+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-349"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-349">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlonso" class="citation web cs1">Alonso, Johanna. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.insidehighered.com/news/quick-takes/2024/02/08/aclu-urges-education-dept-reject-antisemitism-definition">"ACLU Warns Against Adopting Antisemitism Definition"</a>. <i>Inside Higher Ed</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 29,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Inside+Higher+Ed&rft.atitle=ACLU+Warns+Against+Adopting+Antisemitism+Definition&rft.aulast=Alonso&rft.aufirst=Johanna&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.insidehighered.com%2Fnews%2Fquick-takes%2F2024%2F02%2F08%2Faclu-urges-education-dept-reject-antisemitism-definition&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+Liberties+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-350"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-350">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/liveblog/2024/2/7/israels-war-on-gaza-live-israel-pounds-gaza-as-truce-diplomacy-continues?update=2689390">"US civil liberties group asks Education Department to reject IHRA definition of antisemitism"</a>. <i>Al Jazeera</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 8,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Al+Jazeera&rft.atitle=US+civil+liberties+group+asks+Education+Department+to+reject+IHRA+definition+of+antisemitism&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aljazeera.com%2Fnews%2Fliveblog%2F2024%2F2%2F7%2Fisraels-war-on-gaza-live-israel-pounds-gaza-as-truce-diplomacy-continues%3Fupdate%3D2689390&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+Liberties+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-351"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-351">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFValdez" class="citation web cs1">Valdez, Jonah. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://theintercept.com/2024/10/22/aclu-israel-gaza-war-divest/">"ACLU Leadership Rejects Staff Demands to Condemn U.S. Role in Israel's Gaza War"</a>. <i>The Intercept</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 29,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Intercept&rft.atitle=ACLU+Leadership+Rejects+Staff+Demands+to+Condemn+U.S.+Role+in+Israel%E2%80%99s+Gaza+War&rft.aulast=Valdez&rft.aufirst=Jonah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftheintercept.com%2F2024%2F10%2F22%2Faclu-israel-gaza-war-divest%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+Liberties+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ACLU_rejects_staff_petition-352"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ACLU_rejects_staff_petition_352-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ACLU_rejects_staff_petition_352-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarcus" class="citation web cs1">Marcus, Josh. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.the-independent.com/news/world/americas/us-politics/aclu-israel-gaza-us-support-b2633850.html">"ACLU rejects staff petition to divest from Israel and condemn war in Gaza"</a>. <i>The Independent</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 29,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Independent&rft.atitle=ACLU+rejects+staff+petition+to+divest+from+Israel+and+condemn+war+in+Gaza&rft.aulast=Marcus&rft.aufirst=Josh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.the-independent.com%2Fnews%2Fworld%2Famericas%2Fus-politics%2Faclu-israel-gaza-us-support-b2633850.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+Liberties+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-353"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-353">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1454&dat=19751215&id=SapOAAAAIBAJ&pg=1376,3049726">"Victims suffer double indignity"</a>. <i>Wilmington Morning Star</i>. Vol. 109, no. 47. Wilmington, N.C. December 15, 1975. p. 3<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 24,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wilmington+Morning+Star&rft.atitle=Victims+suffer+double+indignity&rft.volume=109&rft.issue=47&rft.pages=3&rft.date=1975-12-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.google.com%2Fnewspapers%3Fnid%3D1454%26dat%3D19751215%26id%3DSapOAAAAIBAJ%26pg%3D1376%2C3049726&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+Liberties+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="General_and_cited_references">General and cited references</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=American_Civil_Liberties_Union&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: General and cited references"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlley1999" class="citation book cs1">Alley, Robert S. (1999). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/constitutionreli0000unse"><i>The Constitution & Religion: Leading Supreme Court Cases on Church and State</i></a></span>. Amherst, New York: <a href="/wiki/Prometheus_Books" title="Prometheus Books">Prometheus Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57392-703-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57392-703-1"><bdi>978-1-57392-703-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Constitution+%26+Religion%3A+Leading+Supreme+Court+Cases+on+Church+and+State&rft.place=Amherst%2C+New+York&rft.pub=Prometheus+Books&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-1-57392-703-1&rft.aulast=Alley&rft.aufirst=Robert+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fconstitutionreli0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+Liberties+Union" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeito2023" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_T._Beito" title="David T. Beito">Beito, David T.</a> (2023). <i>The New Deal's War on the Bill of Rights: The Untold Story of FDR's Concentration Camps, Censorship, and Mass Surveillance</i> (First ed.). Oakland: Independent Institute. pp. 4–7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1598133561" title="Special:BookSources/978-1598133561"><bdi>978-1598133561</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+Deal%27s+War+on+the+Bill+of+Rights%3A+The+Untold+Story+of+FDR%27s+Concentration+Camps%2C+Censorship%2C+and+Mass+Surveillance&rft.place=Oakland&rft.pages=4-7&rft.edition=First&rft.pub=Independent+Institute&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-1598133561&rft.aulast=Beito&rft.aufirst=David+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+Liberties+Union" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Bodenhamer, David, and Ely, James, Editors (2008). <i>The Bill of Rights in Modern America</i>, second edition. Indiana University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-21991-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-21991-6">978-0-253-21991-6</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_A._Donohue" class="mw-redirect" title="William A. Donohue">Donohue, William</a> (1985). <i>The Politics of the American Civil Liberties Union</i>. Transaction Books. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88738-021-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-88738-021-2">0-88738-021-2</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wendy_Kaminer" title="Wendy Kaminer">Kaminer, Wendy</a> (2009). <i>Worst Instincts: Cowardice, Conformity, and the ACLU</i>. Beacon Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8070-4430-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8070-4430-8">978-0-8070-4430-8</a>. A dissident member of the ACLU criticizes its post-9/11 actions as betraying the core principles of its founders.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKauffman1982" class="citation book cs1">Kauffman, Christopher J. (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/faithfraternalis00kauf"><i>Faith and Fraternalism: The History of the Knights of Columbus, 1882–1982</i></a>. Harper and Row. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-014940-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-014940-6"><bdi>978-0-06-014940-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Faith+and+Fraternalism%3A+The+History+of+the+Knights+of+Columbus%2C+1882%E2%80%931982&rft.pub=Harper+and+Row&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-0-06-014940-6&rft.aulast=Kauffman&rft.aufirst=Christopher+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffaithfraternalis00kauf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmerican+Civil+Liberties+Union" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Lamson, Peggy (1976). <i>Roger Baldwin: Founder of the American Civil Liberties Union</i>. Houghton Mifflin Company. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-395-24761-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-395-24761-6">0-395-24761-6</a>.</li> <li>Walker, Samuel (1990). <i>In Defense of American Liberties: A History of the ACLU</i>. Oxford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-504539-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-504539-4">0-19-504539-4</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=American_Civil_Liberties_Union&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Klein Woody, and Baldwin, Roger Nash (2006). <i>Liberties lost: the endangered legacy of the ACLU</i>. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006. A collection of essays by Baldwin, each accompanied by commentary from a modern analyst.</li> <li>Krannawitter, Thomas L. and Palm, Daniel C. (2005). <i>A Nation Under God?: The ACLU and religion in American politics</i>. Rowman & Littlefield.</li> <li>Sears, Alan, and Osten, Craig (2005). <i>The ACLU vs America: Exposing the Agenda to Redefine Moral Values</i>. B&H Publishing Group.</li> <li>Smith, Frank LaGard (1996). <i>ACLU: The Devil's Advocate: The Seduction of Civil Liberties in America</i>. Marcon Publishers.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Archives">Archives</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=American_Civil_Liberties_Union&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Archives"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/kt9c60151m/">American Civil Liberties Union of Southern California records</a>. 754 boxes. UCLA Library Special Collections.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archiveswest.orbiscascade.org/ark:80444/xv75164">American Civil Liberties Union of Washington.</a> 1917–2019. 188.31 cubic feet (including 13 microfilm reels and 1 videocassette) plus 62 cartons and 2 rolled posters. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lib.washington.edu/specialcollections/laws/"><i>Labor Archives of Washington</i>. University of Washington Special Collections.</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151117022142/http://reuther.wayne.edu/node/2181">American Civil Liberties Union of Michigan: Detroit Branch Records</a> 1952–1966. This collection documents the early years of the Detroit ACLU branch. The collection contains documents related to academic freedom; censorship; church and state; civil liberties; police brutality; HUAC; and legal assistance to prisoners. <a href="/wiki/Walter_P._Reuther_Library" title="Walter P. Reuther Library">Walter P. Reuther Library</a>, Detroit, Michigan.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151117014756/http://reuther.wayne.edu/node/2180">American Civil Liberties Union of Oakland County, Michigan</a> 1970–1984. This collection illustrates that the branch was formed to address Oakland County jail conditions, lie detector use, senior housing rights, and attempts to reinstate the death penalty. <a href="/wiki/Walter_P._Reuther_Library" title="Walter P. Reuther Library">Walter P. Reuther Library</a>, Detroit, Michigan.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20121215000319/http://findingaids.princeton.edu/getEad?eadid=MC001.01&kw">American Civil Liberties Union Records</a>, Princeton University. Document archive 1917–1950, including the history of the ACLU.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://library.indstate.edu/about/units/rbsc/debs/pamphlet.html">Debs Pamphlet Collection</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200812185849/http://library.indstate.edu/about/units/rbsc/debs/pamphlet.html">Archived</a> August 12, 2020, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Indiana State University Library. An array of annual ACLU reports in PDF.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120701045320/http://www.nhclu.org/ACLU-greatest-hits.php">List of 100 most important ACLU victories (through 2002)</a> by New Hampshire Civil Liberties Union</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://vault.fbi.gov/ACLU">De-classified records on the ACLU</a>, <a href="/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation" title="Federal Bureau of Investigation">FBI</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Selected_works_sponsored_or_published_by_the_ACLU">Selected works sponsored or published by the ACLU</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=American_Civil_Liberties_Union&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Selected works sponsored or published by the ACLU"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i>Annual Report – American Civil Liberties Union</i>, American Civil Liberties Union, 1921.</li> <li><i>Black Justice</i>, ACLU, 1931.</li> <li><i>How Americans Protest</i>, American Civil Liberties Union, 1963.</li> <li><i>Secret detention by the Chicago police: a report</i>, American Civil Liberties Union, 1959.</li> <li><i>Report on lawlessness in law enforcement</i>, Wickersham Commission, Patterson Smith, 1931. This report was written by the ACLU but published under the auspices of the Wickersham Commission.</li> <li>Miller, Merle, (1952), <i> The Judges and the Judged</i>, Doubleday.</li> <li><i> ACLU organization records, 1947–1995</i>. Princeton University Library, Mudd Manuscript Library.</li> <li><i>The Dangers of Domestic Spying by Federal Law Enforcement</i>, American Civil Liberties Union, 2002.</li> <li><i>Engines of Liberty: The Power of Citizen Activists to Make Constitutional Law</i>, David D. Cole, 2016</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=American_Civil_Liberties_Union&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:American_Civil_Liberties_Union" title="Template:American Civil Liberties Union"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:American_Civil_Liberties_Union" title="Template talk:American Civil Liberties Union"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:American_Civil_Liberties_Union" title="Special:EditPage/Template:American Civil Liberties Union"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="American_Civil_Liberties_Union" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">American Civil Liberties Union</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Co-founders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jane_Addams" title="Jane Addams">Jane Addams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Nash_Baldwin" title="Roger Nash Baldwin">Roger Nash Baldwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_DeSilver" title="Albert DeSilver">Albert DeSilver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystal_Eastman" title="Crystal Eastman">Crystal Eastman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morris_Ernst" title="Morris Ernst">Morris Ernst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Gurley_Flynn" title="Elizabeth Gurley Flynn">Elizabeth Gurley Flynn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felix_Frankfurter" title="Felix Frankfurter">Felix Frankfurter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Garfield_Hays" title="Arthur Garfield Hays">Arthur Garfield Hays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helen_Keller" title="Helen Keller">Helen Keller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Nelles" title="Walter Nelles">Walter Nelles</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National leaders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Presidents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harry_F._Ward" title="Harry F. Ward">Harry F. Ward</a> (1920–1940)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Haynes_Holmes" title="John Haynes Holmes">John Haynes Holmes</a> (1940–1950)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Angell" title="Ernest Angell">Ernest Angell</a> (1950–1969)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Ennis" title="Edward Ennis">Edward Ennis</a> (1969–1977)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Dorsen" title="Norman Dorsen">Norman Dorsen</a> (1977–1991)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nadine_Strossen" title="Nadine Strossen">Nadine Strossen</a> (1991–2008)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_N._Herman" title="Susan N. Herman">Susan N. Herman</a> (2008–2021)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deborah_Archer" title="Deborah Archer">Deborah Archer</a> (2021–present)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Directors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Nash_Baldwin" title="Roger Nash Baldwin">Roger Nash Baldwin</a> (1917–1950)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Murphy_Malin" title="Patrick Murphy Malin">Patrick Murphy Malin</a> (1950–1962)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jack_Pemberton_(ACLU)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jack Pemberton (ACLU) (page does not exist)">Jack Pemberton</a> (1962–1970)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aryeh_Neier" title="Aryeh Neier">Aryeh Neier</a> (1970–1978)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ira_Glasser" title="Ira Glasser">Ira Glasser</a> (1978–2001)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_D._Romero" title="Anthony D. Romero">Anthony D. Romero</a> (2001–present)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ruth_Bader_Ginsburg" title="Ruth Bader Ginsburg">Ruth Bader Ginsburg</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Franklyn_Haiman&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Franklyn Haiman (page does not exist)">Franklyn Haiman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chris_Hansen_(attorney)" title="Chris Hansen (attorney)">Chris Hansen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucille_Milner" class="mw-redirect" title="Lucille Milner">Lucille Milner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Alsworth_Ross" title="Edward Alsworth Ross">Edward A. Ross</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regional branches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ACLU_of_Hawai%E2%80%98i" class="mw-redirect" title="ACLU of Hawai‘i">ACLU of Hawai‘i</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_Liberties_Union_of_New_Jersey" title="American Civil Liberties Union of New Jersey">American Civil Liberties Union of New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_Civil_Liberties_Union" title="New York Civil Liberties Union">New York Civil Liberties Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Civil_Liberties_Bureau" title="National Civil Liberties Bureau">National Civil Liberties Bureau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Union_Against_Militarism" title="American Union Against Militarism">American Union Against Militarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workers_Defense_Union" title="Workers Defense Union">Workers Defense Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_court_cases_involving_the_American_Civil_Liberties_Union" title="List of court cases involving the American Civil Liberties Union">List of court cases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ACLU_Mobile_Justice" title="ACLU Mobile Justice">ACLU Mobile Justice</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Patriot_Act" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Patriot_Act" title="Template:Patriot Act"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Patriot_Act" title="Template talk:Patriot Act"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Patriot_Act" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Patriot Act"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Patriot_Act" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Patriot_Act" title="Patriot Act">Patriot Act</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><b>Titles</b> <a href="/wiki/Title_I_of_the_Patriot_Act" title="Title I of the Patriot Act">I</a> · <a href="/wiki/Title_II_of_the_Patriot_Act" title="Title II of the Patriot Act">II</a> · <a href="/wiki/Title_III_of_the_Patriot_Act" title="Title III of the Patriot Act">III</a> · <a href="/wiki/Title_IV_of_the_Patriot_Act" title="Title IV of the Patriot Act">IV</a> · <a href="/wiki/Title_V_of_the_Patriot_Act" title="Title V of the Patriot Act">V</a> · <a href="/wiki/Title_VI_of_the_Patriot_Act" title="Title VI of the Patriot Act">VI</a> · <a href="/wiki/Title_VII_of_the_Patriot_Act" title="Title VII of the Patriot Act">VII</a> · <a href="/wiki/Title_VIII_of_the_Patriot_Act" title="Title VIII of the Patriot Act">VIII</a> · <a href="/wiki/Title_IX_of_the_Patriot_Act" title="Title IX of the Patriot Act">IX</a> · <a href="/wiki/Title_X_of_the_Patriot_Act" title="Title X of the Patriot Act">X</a> · <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Patriot_Act" title="History of the Patriot Act">History</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Acts modified</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Omnibus_Crime_Control_and_Safe_Streets_Act_of_1968" title="Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968">Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Electronic_Communications_Privacy_Act" title="Electronic Communications Privacy Act">Electronic Communications Privacy Act</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Computer_Fraud_and_Abuse_Act" title="Computer Fraud and Abuse Act">Computer Fraud and Abuse Act</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Foreign_Intelligence_Surveillance_Act" title="Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act">Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Family_Educational_Rights_and_Privacy_Act" title="Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act">Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Money_Laundering_Control_Act" title="Money Laundering Control Act">Money Laundering Control Act</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bank_Secrecy_Act" title="Bank Secrecy Act">Bank Secrecy Act</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Right_to_Financial_Privacy_Act" title="Right to Financial Privacy Act">Right to Financial Privacy Act</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fair_Credit_Reporting_Act" title="Fair Credit Reporting Act">Fair Credit Reporting Act</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Immigration_and_Nationality_Act_of_1952" title="Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952">Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Victims_of_Crime_Act_of_1984" title="Victims of Crime Act of 1984">Victims of Crime Act of 1984</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Telemarketing_and_Consumer_Fraud_and_Abuse_Prevention_Act" title="Telemarketing and Consumer Fraud and Abuse Prevention Act">Telemarketing and Consumer Fraud and Abuse Prevention Act</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ashcroft" title="John Ashcroft">John Ashcroft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alberto_Gonzales" title="Alberto Gonzales">Alberto Gonzales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Leahy" title="Patrick Leahy">Patrick Leahy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orrin_Hatch" title="Orrin Hatch">Orrin Hatch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jon_Kyl" title="Jon Kyl">Jon Kyl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dianne_Feinstein" title="Dianne Feinstein">Dianne Feinstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viet_D._Dinh" title="Viet D. Dinh">Viet D. Dinh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_Biden" title="Joe Biden">Joe Biden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Chertoff" title="Michael Chertoff">Michael Chertoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Holder" title="Eric Holder">Eric Holder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuck_Schumer" title="Chuck Schumer">Chuck Schumer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamar_Smith" title="Lamar Smith">Lamar Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Graham" title="Bob Graham">Bob Graham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jay_Rockefeller" title="Jay Rockefeller">Jay Rockefeller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arlen_Specter" title="Arlen Specter">Arlen Specter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mike_Oxley" title="Mike Oxley">Mike Oxley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dick_Armey" title="Dick Armey">Dick Armey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Sarbanes" title="Paul Sarbanes">Paul Sarbanes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trent_Lott" title="Trent Lott">Trent Lott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Daschle" title="Tom Daschle">Tom Daschle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russ_Feingold" title="Russ Feingold">Russ Feingold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ellen_Segal_Huvelle" title="Ellen Segal Huvelle">Ellen Huvelle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ron_Paul" title="Ron Paul">Ron Paul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lisa_Murkowski" title="Lisa Murkowski">Lisa Murkowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ron_Wyden" title="Ron Wyden">Ron Wyden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dennis_Kucinich" title="Dennis Kucinich">Dennis Kucinich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larry_Craig" title="Larry Craig">Larry Craig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_E._Sununu" title="John E. Sununu">John E. Sununu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dick_Durbin" title="Dick Durbin">Richard Durbin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernie_Sanders" title="Bernie Sanders">Bernie Sanders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerry_Nadler" title="Jerry Nadler">Jerry Nadler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Conyers" title="John Conyers">John Conyers Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Butch_Otter" title="Butch Otter">Butch Otter</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Government<br />organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation" title="Federal Bureau of Investigation">Federal Bureau of Investigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Justice" title="United States Department of Justice">Department of Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_House_Permanent_Select_Committee_on_Intelligence" title="United States House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence">Select Committee on Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_the_Treasury" title="United States Department of the Treasury">Department of the Treasury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_Crimes_Enforcement_Network" title="Financial Crimes Enforcement Network">FinCEN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_State" title="United States Department of State">Department of State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Institute_of_Standards_and_Technology" title="National Institute of Standards and Technology">National Institute of Standards and Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Customs_Service" title="United States Customs Service">Customs Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._Immigration_and_Customs_Enforcement" title="U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement">U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-government<br />organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">American Civil Liberties Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Library_Association" title="American Library Association">American Library Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Center_for_Democracy_and_Technology" title="Center for Democracy and Technology">Center for Democracy and Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Center_for_Public_Integrity" title="Center for Public Integrity">Center for Public Integrity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_Frontier_Foundation" title="Electronic Frontier Foundation">Electronic Frontier Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_Privacy_Information_Center" title="Electronic Privacy Information Center">Electronic Privacy Information Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanitarian_Law_Project" title="Humanitarian Law Project">Humanitarian Law Project</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="VH1_Trailblazer_Honors" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:VH1_Trailblazer_Honors" title="Template:VH1 Trailblazer Honors"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:VH1_Trailblazer_Honors" title="Template talk:VH1 Trailblazer Honors"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:VH1_Trailblazer_Honors" title="Special:EditPage/Template:VH1 Trailblazer Honors"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="VH1_Trailblazer_Honors" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/VH1_Trailblazer_Honors" title="VH1 Trailblazer Honors">VH1 Trailblazer Honors</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2014</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orange_Is_the_New_Black#Cast_and_characters" title="Orange Is the New Black"><i>Orange Is the New Black</i> cast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roberta_Kaplan" title="Roberta Kaplan">Roberta Kaplan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Abdallah_Wambere" title="John Abdallah Wambere">John Abdallah Wambere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edith_Windsor" title="Edith Windsor">Edith Windsor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2015</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marsha_Aizumi" title="Marsha Aizumi">Marsha Aizumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connor_Franta" title="Connor Franta">Connor Franta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheila_Lopez" title="Sheila Lopez">Sheila Lopez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arsham_Parsi" title="Arsham Parsi">Arsham Parsi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bayard_Rustin" title="Bayard Rustin">Bayard Rustin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dennis_Shepard" title="Dennis Shepard">Dennis Shepard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judy_Shepard" title="Judy Shepard">Judy Shepard</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2016</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Advocate_(LGBT_magazine)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Advocate (LGBT magazine)">The Advocate</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Fierstein" title="Harvey Fierstein">Harvey Fierstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsha_P._Johnson" title="Marsha P. Johnson">Marsha P. Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Billie_Jean_King" title="Billie Jean King">Billie Jean King</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Subhi_Nahas&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Subhi Nahas (page does not exist)">Subhi Nahas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylvia_Rivera" title="Sylvia Rivera">Sylvia Rivera</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2017</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Ailey" title="Alvin Ailey">Alvin Ailey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jason_Collins" title="Jason Collins">Jason Collins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleve_Jones" title="Cleve Jones">Cleve Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Kohan" title="David Kohan">David Kohan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyndi_Lauper" title="Cyndi Lauper">Cyndi Lauper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Mutchnick" title="Max Mutchnick">Max Mutchnick</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2018</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">American Civil Liberties Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Baldwin" title="James Baldwin">James Baldwin</a></li> <li>Sybrina Fulton</li> <li>Tracy Martin</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ryan_Murphy_(producer)" title="Ryan Murphy (producer)">Ryan Murphy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2019</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Atwood" title="Margaret Atwood">Margaret Atwood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarana_Burke" title="Tarana Burke">Tarana Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ava_DuVernay" title="Ava DuVernay">Ava DuVernay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nancy_Pelosi" title="Nancy Pelosi">Nancy Pelosi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21637#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21637#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21637#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000121069806">ISNI</a></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000087301615">2</a></span></li></ul></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/124191829">VIAF</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/1044946-2">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n79079580">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12373672n">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12373672n">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00276346">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="American civil liberties union"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.sbn.it/nome/UFIV082158">Italy</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an35004723">Australia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="American Civil Liberties Union"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=uk2011670210&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/90389783">Norway</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810674279605606">Poland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007257763705171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA04828551?l=en">CiNii</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.getty.edu/vow/ULANFullDisplay?find=&role=&nation=&subjectid=500271016">ULAN</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/786355">Trove</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/027603644">IdRef</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w65x61pb">SNAC</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <!-- NewPP limit report Parsed by mw‐web.eqiad.main‐864bbfd546‐qmw68 Cached time: 20241130000659 Cache expiry: 85996 Reduced expiry: true Complications: [vary‐revision‐sha1, show‐toc] CPU time usage: 1.858 seconds Real time usage: 2.247 seconds Preprocessor visited node count: 15756/1000000 Post‐expand include size: 301617/2097152 bytes Template argument size: 10775/2097152 bytes Highest expansion depth: 22/100 Expensive parser function count: 12/500 Unstrip recursion depth: 1/20 Unstrip post‐expand size: 582398/5000000 bytes Lua time usage: 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