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Over the past few centuries, our understanding of how the Sun drives space weather and climate on the Earth and other planets has advanced at an ever increasing rate. This 2010 volume, the last in this series of three heliophysics texts, focuses on long-term variability from the Sun's decade-long sunspot cycle and considers the evolution of the planetary system over ten billion years from a climatological perspective. Topics covered range from the dynamo action of stars and planets to processes in the Earth's troposphere, ionosphere, and magnetosphere and their effects on planetary climate and habitability. Supplemented by online teaching materials, it can be used as a textbook for courses or as a foundational reference for researchers in fields from astrophysics and plasma physics to planetary and climate science.","my_library_url":"https://www.google.com/accounts/Login?service=print\u0026continue=https://books.google.com.sg/books%3Fop%3Dlibrary\u0026hl=en","is_magazine":false,"is_public_domain":false,"last_page":{"pid":"PA495","order":525,"title":"495"}},{"enableUserFeedbackUI":true,"pseudocontinuous":true,"is_cobrand":false,"sign_in_url":"https://www.google.com/accounts/Login?service=print\u0026continue=https://books.google.com.sg/books%3Fid%3DM8NwTYEl0ngC%26q%3Dmodulation%26source%3Dgbs_word_cloud_r%26hl%3Den\u0026hl=en","isEntityPageViewport":false,"showViewportOnboarding":false,"showViewportPlainTextOnboarding":false},{"page":[{"pid":"PA162","highlights":[{"X":152,"Y":442,"W":58,"H":13},{"X":94,"Y":491,"W":58,"H":13},{"X":479,"Y":491,"W":29,"H":13},{"X":228,"Y":540,"W":58,"H":13},{"X":139,"Y":572,"W":58,"H":13},{"X":345,"Y":572,"W":58,"H":13},{"X":332,"Y":589,"W":58,"H":13}],"flags":8,"order":176,"vq":"modulation"}]},null,{"number_of_results":53,"search_results":[{"page_id":"PR1","page_number":"i","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003emodulation\u003c/b\u003e by the heliospheric magnetic field; and planetary habitability subject to internal and external drivers of the climate system. In addition to its utility as a textbook, it also constitutes a foundational reference for\u0026nbsp;...","page_url":"https://books.google.com.sg/books?id=M8NwTYEl0ngC\u0026pg=PR1\u0026vq=modulation"},{"page_id":"PR7","page_number":"vii","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003emodulation\u003c/b\u003e of galactic cosmic rays 259 9.6 Sample model simulations using the full transport equation 261 9.7 The Maunder minimum 264 9.8 On the heliospheric \u003cb\u003emodulation\u003c/b\u003e of galactic cosmic rays 266 9.9 The sunspot minimum between cycles\u0026nbsp;...","page_url":"https://books.google.com.sg/books?id=M8NwTYEl0ngC\u0026pg=PR7\u0026vq=modulation"},{"page_id":"PA17","page_number":"17","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003emodulation\u003c/b\u003e of galactic cosmic rays, discussed in Chapter 9). The line connecting the centers of gravity of the two polarities in an active region tends to be inclined towards the equator in the direction of rotation by about 4◦ (Joy\u0026#39;s\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA24","page_number":"24","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003emodulated\u003c/b\u003e in step with the dynamo strength (Wang et al., 2002) – with cause and consequence not yet sorted out – or ... \u003cb\u003emodulation\u003c/b\u003e of the solar sunspot cycle (and its associated variations in cosmic-ray fluxes – see Chapter 9 – and\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA25","page_number":"25","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003emodulation\u003c/b\u003e, a variety of (quasi-)empirical methods have been tested to forecast the strength of sunspot cycles, with methods including some modeling, analyses of solar “climate” trends, spectral analyses, and even neural networks\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA40","page_number":"40","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003emodulation\u003c/b\u003e, but rather a slow increase and decrease of overall solar irradiance in step with the sunspot cycle. This is also seen on other stars of solar-like activity (Fig. 2.13; see Hall et al., 2009, for a discussion of this trend\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA44","page_number":"44","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003emodulations\u003c/b\u003e; it appears that the differential rotation is remarkably insensitive to stellar rotation, as for example the pole–equator lap times that have been inferred are in most cases similar to the ∼180days observed for the Sun\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA46","page_number":"46","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003emodulation\u003c/b\u003e. 2.7 Fully convective stars, brown dwarfs, and beyond Somewhere along the spectrum of stars, brown dwarfs, and exoplanets, a transition from an outflow-driven asterosphere to a field-shielded magnetosphere is expected to\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA47","page_number":"47","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003emodulation\u003c/b\u003e of the galactic cosmic rays by the heliospheric magnetic field and solar wind (Chapter 9). The presence of both the 11-year and – more pronounced – 22-year cycles in the records (e.g. Miyahara et al., 2004) can be interpreted\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA60","page_number":"60","snippet_text":"... at other latitudes, and the spot areas/fields are not axisymmetric – explaining why there is often substantial rotational \u003cb\u003emodulation\u003c/b\u003e of the optical/near-IR. 60 Formation and early evolution of stars and protoplanetary disks."},{"page_id":"PA61","page_number":"61","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003emodulation\u003c/b\u003e of the optical/near-IR stellar photospheric emission. The properties of TTauri magnetic fields, as ... \u003cb\u003emodulated\u003c/b\u003e starspot-produced light curves – on time scales of days, weeks, months, years (Herbst et al., 2007)\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA111","page_number":"111","snippet_text":"... a stellar context exhibiting spatially \u003cb\u003emodulated\u003c/b\u003e convective patterns see Brown et al. (2008). Although these rotationally aligned, columnar convective structures were originally identified 5.2 The many faces of solar convection 111."},{"page_id":"PA118","page_number":"118","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003emodulations\u003c/b\u003e of cyclic activity in the Sun and other stars see Chapter 2. In Chapter 3 of Vol. I a large-scale dynamo was defined as a dynamo that can generate magnetic structure onscales largerthanthe correlationlength of the velocity\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA159","page_number":"159","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003emodulated\u003c/b\u003e by the amplitude of the solar cycle; varying levels of solar activity may contribute significantly to ... \u003cb\u003emodulation\u003c/b\u003e through stochastic forcing Sources of stochastic “noise” abound in the solar interior; large-scale flows\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA160","page_number":"160","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003emodulations\u003c/b\u003e in the overall cycle amplitudes, “long” in the sense of being much longer than the coherence time for the noise and/or forcing, and often significantly longer than the cycle period itself. Often this can be traced to the\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA161","page_number":"161","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003emodulation\u003c/b\u003e patterns spanning many cycles, and shorter-lived Dalton-minimum-like intervals of markedly reduced amplitude. Both of these solutions do fairly well at reproducing Gnevyshev–Ohl-like alternating patterns of variations in\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA162","page_number":"162","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003emodulation\u003c/b\u003e corresponds to a non-linear interaction between modes of different parity, with the Lorentz force-mediated flow variations controlling the transition from one mode to another; Type-II \u003cb\u003emodulation\u003c/b\u003e refers to an exchange of\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA163","page_number":"163","snippet_text":"Carolus J. Schrijver, George L. Siscoe. amplitude \u003cb\u003emodulations\u003c/b\u003e, provided the magnetic Prandtl number is small (see ... \u003cb\u003emodulation\u003c/b\u003e through time delays In solar cycle models based on the Babcock–Leighton mechanism of poloidal field\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA164","page_number":"164","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003emodulation\u003c/b\u003e driven by stochastic noise can also lead to a form of intermittency, by exciting the higher-order modes that perturb the normal operation of the otherwise dominant dynamo mode, producing strongly reduced cycle amplitudes (see\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA166","page_number":"166","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003emodulation\u003c/b\u003e due to the Lorentz force, time delay, etc.? (iii) How do we “forecast” the sunspot number from a dynamo solution that describes the spatiotemporal evolution of a diffuse, large-scale magnetic field? Remarkably, we are still\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA246","page_number":"246","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003emodulations\u003c/b\u003e. It is demonstrated below in Section 9.3.1 that cosmic-ray variations on time scales less than about one hundred thousand years must be caused by changes in the heliosphere, caused by changes in the Sun. Interstellar\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA247","page_number":"247","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003emodulation\u003c/b\u003e of galactic cosmic rays during five sunspot cycles. Note the alternation in the cosmic-ray maxima between sharply peaked and more-rounded shapes. (Data courtesy of the University of Chicago.) Fig. 9.5. The temporal power\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA248","page_number":"248","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003emodulation\u003c/b\u003e processes that change the incident flux have varied during the past. There is clear evidence from this that the level of solar activity has changed substantially over the past 400 years; the sunspot numbers have exhibited a\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA250","page_number":"250","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003emodulation\u003c/b\u003e effects. 9.2.4.1 Variations on the 101–104-year time scale Correlations are known among solar activity indices and 14C activity: 14C increases during solar minima and decreases during solar maxima, reflecting solar \u003cb\u003emodulation\u003c/b\u003e\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA251","page_number":"251","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003emodulation\u003c/b\u003e of galactic cosmic rays. 9.2.4.2 Variations on the 105–107-year time scale The record of the galactic cosmic-ray flux on a million-year time scale can be inferred from induced nuclear reactions in extraterrestrial matter of\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA255","page_number":"255","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003emodulation\u003c/b\u003e process. In contrast, where the fluid is compressed, such as at the termination shock, the particles gain energy from the flow. The Parker transport equation, for the quasi-isotropic distribution function (or phase space\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA259","page_number":"259","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003emodulation\u003c/b\u003e of galactic cosmic rays The essential problem in the solar \u003cb\u003emodulation\u003c/b\u003e of galactic cosmic rays is to solve the differential equation (9.2) by analytical or numerical methods, subject to the boundary condition that the\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA261","page_number":"261","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003emodulation\u003c/b\u003e quantity rv/κ, which measures the strength of the \u003cb\u003emodulation\u003c/b\u003e, is small, a very simple analytic solution can be obtained. The form of this solution corresponds exactly to that obtained for charged particles influenced by a\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA264","page_number":"264","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003emodulation\u003c/b\u003e of galactic cosmic rays at the present time can be regarded effectively as a combination of drift effects and diffusion–advection effects. The diffusion–advection effects can naturally produce only an 11-year periodicity\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA266","page_number":"266","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003emodulation\u003c/b\u003e of galactic cosmic rays Observations of galactic cosmic rays together with theory and modeling have served for decades as unique and valuable remote probes of the heliosphere in regions which are difficult or impossible to\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA267","page_number":"267","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003emodulation\u003c/b\u003e developed in this chapter suggests that, because of these observed changes, the cosmic-ray intensity should be quite high. This is borne out by the observations shown in Fig. 9.12. Because the time scale for effects to\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA271","page_number":"271","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003emodulated\u003c/b\u003e by solar activity in different ways. When viewed in the visible light that dominates the total solar irradiance, the solar disk displays two prominent types of active features, called sunspots and faculae, which are\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA276","page_number":"276","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003emodulation\u003c/b\u003e variations are superimposed on both the 10.7 cm and Lyman α time series. curve – were recognized as being highly variable, with flux variations related to the solar activity cycle, detecting fluctuations in Earth\u0026#39;s dominant\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA283","page_number":"283","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003emodulation\u003c/b\u003e by both solar rotation and the solar cycle (Fig. 10.1), with variations in 1nm bins in the range 50 to 100%, i.e. comparable to or greater than that of Lyman α. The variability depends strongly on wavelength, with emissions\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA318","page_number":"318","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003emodulated\u003c/b\u003e by the cosmic-ray-induced ion production in the atmosphere. Later they reduced the effect to low-altitude, low-latitude clouds (Marsh and Svensmark, 2003). This issue is still debated in papers supporting (Usoskin, 2008) and\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA320","page_number":"320","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003emodulation\u003c/b\u003e function. The solar \u003cb\u003emodulation\u003c/b\u003e function basically corresponds to the average energy lost by a cosmic-ray proton on its way to the Earth (cf., Section 9.5, Eq. (9.8)). Figure 11.11 shows the differential energy spectrum of\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA321","page_number":"321","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003emodulation\u003c/b\u003e is a monotonically decreasing function of particle energy and consequently the \u003cb\u003emodulation\u003c/b\u003e is small near the equator (∼14GeV) and large at high latitudes which are accessible to the strongly \u003cb\u003emodulated\u003c/b\u003e energies near 1GeV. If a\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA322","page_number":"322","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003emodulation\u003c/b\u003e of = 550MeV EC: electron capture. All nuclear reactions are induced by high-energy secondary particles generated by the primary cosmic-ray particles (so-called spallation reactions). The only exception is 14C, which is almost\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA324","page_number":"324","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003emodulation\u003c/b\u003e of the cosmic-ray flux. Episodic solar proton events can cause short but intense cosmic radiation, but do not contribute much to the total production rate due to the low proton energies. Changes in the system on the other\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA325","page_number":"325","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003emodulation\u003c/b\u003e because geomagnetic shielding disappears at high latitudes, whereas the signal in the equatorial record would be dominated by geomagnetic \u003cb\u003emodulation\u003c/b\u003e. However, as a result of atmospheric mixing, this is not the case. Solar\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA326","page_number":"326","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003emodulation\u003c/b\u003e effects generally occur on shorter time scales than geomagnetically induced production changes. Applying low-pass filters with cutoff frequencies in the range of 1/2000 and 1/3000 yr−1 on cosmogenic nuclide fluxes provides\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA328","page_number":"328","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003emodulation\u003c/b\u003e function (Fig. 11.16). The GRIP ice-core record is limited to the period from 1640 to 9300BP and has recently been complemented by the most recent 360 years, which are a composite of derived from neutron monitor data and\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA329","page_number":"329","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003emodulation\u003c/b\u003e function from Fig. 11.16. The color scale is a measure of the spectral power relative to the spectral power of white noise, thus measuring signal significance. See Color Plate 11. Table 11.5. Prominent common periodicities\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA330","page_number":"330","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003emodulation\u003c/b\u003e parameter can be reconstructed from 10Be measurements in polar ice cores (see Fig. 11.16). Using basic physics it is possible to derive from the open magnetic field (Steinhilber et al., 2009). The difficult step is to relate\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA337","page_number":"337","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003emodulation\u003c/b\u003e of the cosmic ray flux). 10Be is also a cosmogenic isotope and has a different geo- chemical cycle. After removing the effects of changes in the Earth\u0026#39;s magnetic field, there is quite a good residual relationship between the\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA418","page_number":"418","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003emodulated\u003c/b\u003e with a semiannual period reflecting the twice yearly crossing of the equator by the Sun. The amplitude of the tide is bounded by ∼10m/s for the extreme minima to ∼100m/s for the extreme maxima for the semiannual cycles\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA439","page_number":"439","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003emodulation\u003c/b\u003e are marked by symbols A, B, and C. Pairs of vertical lines mark periods of solar maximum in early 1992 and solar minimum in 1996. (Rottman, 2000.) of the ozone and temperature response decreases as one penetrates. 16.5\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA441","page_number":"441","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003emodulation\u003c/b\u003e of the polar jets with the development of winter patterns resembling the Arctic Oscillation (Matthes et al., 2006; Kuroda et al., 2007) are two mechanisms that have been proposed to explain the existence of dynamical\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA456","page_number":"456","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003emodulation\u003c/b\u003e function from the present to 9350BP. 329 11.17 Wavelet analysis of the solar \u003cb\u003emodulation\u003c/b\u003e function . 329 11.18 Comparison of the reconstructed length fluctuations of the Great Aletsch glacier with the reconstructed total solar\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA489","page_number":"489","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003emodulation\u003c/b\u003e function, 320 transport components, 255 types, sources, 243 cosmogenic radionuclides, 320 ice cores and tree rings, 324 transport and deposition, 324 Cowling\u0026#39;s theorem, 142, 189 Curie temperature, 185 definition of active\u0026nbsp;...","page_url":"https://books.google.com.sg/books?id=M8NwTYEl0ngC\u0026pg=PA489\u0026vq=modulation"},{"page_id":"PA490","page_number":"490","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003emodulation\u003c/b\u003e, 260 beryllium, carbon isotopes, 248 corotating wind streams, 248 during prolonged cycle minimum, 267 force field solution, 261 global merged interaction regions (GMIRs), 248 heliospheric sink and shadow, 253 heliospheric\u0026nbsp;...","page_url":"https://books.google.com.sg/books?id=M8NwTYEl0ngC\u0026pg=PA490\u0026vq=modulation"},{"page_id":"PA491","page_number":"491","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003emodulation\u003c/b\u003e, 259 systematic heliospheric circulation, 255 transport equation, 255 boundary conditions, 257 transport processes, 255 variations, 246 on long time scales, 250 galactic habitable zone, definition, 84 Ganymede, magnetic field\u0026nbsp;...","page_url":"https://books.google.com.sg/books?id=M8NwTYEl0ngC\u0026pg=PA491\u0026vq=modulation"},{"page_id":"PA493","page_number":"493","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003emodulation\u003c/b\u003e, 160, 162 Dalton minimum, 292 forecast, 166 Hale, or polarity, 275 ionosphere–thermosphere variation, 368 Maunder minimum, 292 modern maximum, 292 Schwabe or sunspot cycle, 274 tropospheric dynamics, 444 solar irradiance\u0026nbsp;...","page_url":"https://books.google.com.sg/books?id=M8NwTYEl0ngC\u0026pg=PA493\u0026vq=modulation"}],"search_query_escaped":"modulation"},{});</script></div></div></div><script>(function() {var href = window.location.href;if (href.indexOf('?') !== -1) {var parameters = href.split('?')[1].split('&');for (var i = 0; i < parameters.length; i++) {var param = parameters[i].split('=');if (param[0] == 'focus') {var elem = document.getElementById(param[1]);if (elem) {elem.focus();}}}}})();</script>