CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html><html class="" lang="en"><head><meta http-equiv="X-UA-Compatible" content="IE=edge" /><meta name="robots" content="index, follow"><meta charset="utf-8"/><meta name="HandheldFriendly" content="true"><meta name="MobileOptimized" content="600"><meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0"><link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="180x180" href="/apple-touch-icon.png"><link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" sizes="32x32" href="/favicon-32x32.png"><link rel="icon" type="image/png" sizes="16x16" href="/favicon-16x16.png"><link rel="manifest" href="/site.webmanifest" crossorigin="use-credentials"><link rel="mask-icon" href="/safari-pinned-tab.svg" color="#312d5a"><meta name="msapplication-TileColor" content="#312d5a"><meta name="theme-color" content="#312d5a"><link rel="alternate" type="application/rss+xml" title="Stay up to date with IPPR" href="https://www.ippr.org/feed.rss"><link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" title="IPPR" href="/osd.xml" data-tooltip-align="b,c" data-tooltip="IPPR" aria-label="IPPR" data-title="IPPR"><link href="https://www.ippr.org/" rel="home"><link type="text/plain" href="https://www.ippr.org/humans.txt" rel="author"><title>Dr Annie Williamson | IPPR </title><meta name="keywords" content="policy, research, public policy,"><meta name="description" content=" Her research at IPPR considers the economic benefits of health and social care reform, including preventive public health policies, NHS productivity, and w"><meta name="referrer" content="no-referrer-when-downgrade"><meta property="og:locale" content="en_GB"><meta property="og:site_name" content="IPPR"><meta property="og:type" content="website" ><meta property="og:url" content="https://www.ippr.org/profile/annie-williamson"><meta property="og:title" content="Dr Annie Williamson | IPPR"><meta property="og:description" content=" Her research at IPPR considers the economic benefits of health and social care reform, including preventive public health policies, NHS productivity, and w"><meta property="og:image" content="https://ippr-org.transforms.svdcdn.com/production/Staff/Annie-Williamson.jpg?w=1200&h=628&q=100&auto=format&fit=crop&crop=focalpoint&fp-x=0.5485&fp-y=0.3081&dm=1727788078&s=93c4e7376e3d5c276eebdfd41b577e78"><meta property="og:image:secure_url" content="https://ippr-org.transforms.svdcdn.com/production/Staff/Annie-Williamson.jpg?w=1200&h=628&q=100&auto=format&fit=crop&crop=focalpoint&fp-x=0.5485&fp-y=0.3081&dm=1727788078&s=93c4e7376e3d5c276eebdfd41b577e78"><meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"><meta property="og:image:height" content="630"><meta name="twitter:card" content="summary_large_image"><meta name="twitter:site" content="@ippr_uk"><meta name="twitter:creator" content="@ippr_uk"><meta name="twitter:title" content="Dr Annie Williamson | IPPR"><meta name="twitter:description" content=" Her research at IPPR considers the economic benefits of health and social care reform, including preventive public health policies, NHS productivity, and w"><meta name="twitter:image" content="https://ippr-org.transforms.svdcdn.com/production/Staff/Annie-Williamson.jpg?w=1200&h=628&q=100&auto=format&fit=crop&crop=focalpoint&fp-x=0.5485&fp-y=0.3081&dm=1727788078&s=93c4e7376e3d5c276eebdfd41b577e78"><script> // Check that service workers are registered if ('serviceWorker' in navigator) { // Use the window load event to keep the page load performant window.addEventListener('load', function() { navigator.serviceWorker.register(' https://www.ippr.org/dist/sw.js'); }); } </script><style type="text/css">:root{--content-space:1em;--form-space:2rem;--block-space:clamp(1.5rem,4.16667vw,3.75rem);--icon-button-size:3rem;--icon-button-text-size:1.1rem;--strong-font-weight:500;--primary-color:#44e5a8;--primary-color-text:#312d5a;--secondary-color:#312d5a;--secondary-color-text:#fff;--tertiary-color:var(--secondary-color);--tertiary-color-text:#fff;--canvas-color:#f6f6f4;--page-color:#fff;--text-color:#484848;--text-color-quiet:#666;--focus-color:#312d5a;--button-text-color:var(--primary-color-text);--button-bg-color:var(--primary-color);--button-border-color:var(--button-bg-color);--button-text-color-alt:var(--button-text-color);--button-bg-color-alt:var(--button-bg-color);--button-border-color-alt:var(--secondary-color);--button-text-color-disabled:#333535;--button-bg-color-disabled:#e5e5e1;--button-shadow-size:5px;--nav-list-align:start;--nav-list-direction:row;--nav-list-wrap:wrap}body,html{padding:0;margin:0;scroll-behavior:smooth}*,:after,:before{box-sizing:border-box}body{font-size:clamp(1rem,2.21354vw,1.125rem);line-height:1.5;font-weight:400}html{font-family:system-ui,sans-serif;color:inherit;overflow-x:hidden;overflow-y:scroll;min-height:100%;background-color:var(--canvas-color);color:var(--text-color)}@supports (font-variation-settings:normal){html{font-family:Inter,system-ui,sans-serif}}html :focus{outline:none}html.has-open-menu{overflow:hidden}h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6{margin-top:calc(var(--content-space) + .5em);margin-bottom:0}h1{font-size:clamp(2.0625rem,5.33854vw,3.5rem)}h1,h2{font-family:Loretta,serif;font-weight:600;color:var(--display-font-color,var(--secondary-color));line-height:1.3}h2{font-size:clamp(1.6875rem,4.29688vw,2.625rem)}h3{font-family:Loretta,serif;font-weight:600;color:var(--display-font-color,var(--secondary-color));font-size:clamp(1.375rem,3.38542vw,1.9375rem)}h3,h4{line-height:1.3}h4{font-family:system-ui,sans-serif;color:inherit;font-weight:500;font-size:clamp(1.1875rem,2.86458vw,1.375rem)}@supports (font-variation-settings:normal){h4{font-family:Inter,system-ui,sans-serif}}h5{font-family:system-ui,sans-serif;color:inherit;font-weight:500;font-size:clamp(1rem,2.21354vw,1.125rem);line-height:1.3}@supports (font-variation-settings:normal){h5{font-family:Inter,system-ui,sans-serif}}h6{font-family:system-ui,sans-serif;color:inherit;font-weight:500;font-size:clamp(.875rem,1.95312vw,1rem);line-height:1.3}@supports (font-variation-settings:normal){h6{font-family:Inter,system-ui,sans-serif}}a{text-decoration:var(--text-decoration,underline)}a,a:active{color:currentColor}@media (hover){a:hover{color:currentColor}}a:focus{outline:none}.c-staff-block a{text-decoration:none}.c-staff-block a.is-active,.c-staff-block a:active,.c-staff-block a:focus,.c-staff-block a:focus-within{text-decoration:underline}@media (hover){.c-staff-block a:hover{text-decoration:underline}}.icon{display:inline-block;vertical-align:text-top;height:1em;width:1em}.icon svg{display:block;width:100%;height:100%}.i-logo{width:1.25495em;height:1.5em}@media (min-width:38.01rem){.i-logo{width:1.38881em;height:1.66em}}@media (min-width:60.01rem){.i-logo{width:1.46411em;height:1.75em}}.i-logo--north,.i-logo--scotland{width:1.5em;height:1.5em}@media (min-width:38.01rem){.i-logo--north,.i-logo--scotland{width:1.66em;height:1.66em}}@media (min-width:60.01rem){.i-logo--north,.i-logo--scotland{width:1.75em;height:1.75em}}.c-feed,.o-grid{display:grid;grid-gap:var(--phone-row-gap,0) var(--phone-column-gap,1rem);grid-template-columns:[full-start] 0 [break-start] 0 repeat(12,[col] 1fr) [break-end] 0 [full-end] 0}@media (min-width:38.01rem){.c-feed,.o-grid{grid-gap:var(--tablet-row-gap,0) var(--tablet-column-gap,2rem)}}@media (min-width:60.01rem){.c-feed,.o-grid{grid-gap:var(--desktop-row-gap,0) var(--desktop-column-gap,3rem)}}@media (min-width:84.01rem){.c-feed,.o-grid{width:auto;grid-template-columns:[full-start] 1fr [break-start] minmax(0,3.25rem) repeat(12,[col] 3.25rem) [break-end] minmax(0,3.25rem) [full-end] 1fr}}.c-feed,.o-grid--contained{grid-template-columns:repeat(12,[col] 1fr)}.c-feed,.o-grid--block{--phone-row-gap:2rem;--tablet-row-gap:2rem;--desktop-row-gap:3rem}.o-grid--narrow{grid-template-columns:repeat(8,1fr)}.o-grid--list{--phone-row-gap:var(--content-space);--tablet-row-gap:var(--content-space);--desktop-row-gap:var(--content-space)}.o-grid--content-block,.o-grid--flush{--phone-row-gap:0;--tablet-row-gap:0;--desktop-row-gap:0}.c-feed:empty,.o-grid:empty{display:none}.c-feed .c-feed,.c-feed .o-grid,.o-grid .c-feed,.o-grid .o-grid{width:100%}.c-feed__item,.o-grid__item{grid-column-start:3;grid-column-end:15}.o-grid--narrow .c-feed__item,.o-grid--narrow .o-grid__item{grid-column-start:1;grid-column-end:9}.c-feed .c-feed__item,.c-feed .o-grid__item,.o-grid--contained .c-feed__item,.o-grid--contained .o-grid__item{grid-column-start:1;grid-column-end:13}@media (min-width:60.01rem){.o-sidebar-grid__content .c-feed__item:not(:where(.has-h-col,.o-grid__item--full)),.o-sidebar-grid__content .o-grid__item:not(:where(.has-h-col,.o-grid__item--full)){grid-column-end:11}}.o-grid__item--full{grid-column-start:1;grid-column-end:17}.o-grid__item--breakout{grid-column-start:2;grid-column-end:16}.o-image{display:block;position:relative;width:100%;max-width:var(--intrinsic-width,none);overflow:hidden}.o-image--cover{height:100%;max-width:none}.o-image--logo{max-width:calc(var(--intrinsic-width)/2)}.c-gallery--carousel .o-image{max-width:none}.o-image__img{width:100%;height:auto;margin:auto;transition:.3s;display:block}.o-image--cover .o-image__img{object-fit:cover;height:100%}.o-image--picture .o-image__img{position:static;object-fit:cover;height:100%}@media (min-width:60.01rem){.o-image--desktop-cover .o-image__img{object-fit:cover;height:100%}}.o-image--portrait .o-image__img{height:100%;width:auto}.o-image__icon{position:absolute;top:0;right:0;bottom:0;left:0;width:100%;height:auto;margin:auto}.o-image-bg{position:relative;background-size:cover}.o-image-bg:before{display:block;content:"";position:absolute;top:0;right:0;bottom:0;left:0;z-index:0;transition:.3s;width:100%;height:100%;background-size:100% 100%}.o-image-bg.is-loaded:before{opacity:0}.o-nav--filter{background-color:#44e5a8;color:#fff}.o-nav__container{display:flex;justify-content:space-between;align-items:flex-start;position:relative}.o-nav__list{list-style:none;padding:var(--nav-list-padding,0);display:flex;gap:var(--content-space) 2rem;align-items:var(--nav-list-align);flex-direction:var(--nav-list-direction);flex-wrap:var(--nav-list-wrap);align-items:var(--nav-list-align,normal)}@media (max-width:38rem){.o-nav__list{--nav-list-direction:column;--nav-list-wrap:nowrap}}@media (hover:none){.o-nav--scroll .o-nav__list{flex-wrap:nowrap;overflow-x:scroll;overflow-y:auto;padding-bottom:1rem}}@media (max-width:60rem){.o-nav--dropdown .o-nav__list{--decoration-color:currentColor;display:none;flex-flow:column;padding:2rem;position:absolute;top:100%;right:0;bottom:auto;left:0;z-index:10;pointer-events:none;background-color:var(--primary-color);color:var(--primary-color-text)}#page-menu.is-active .o-nav__list{pointer-events:all;display:flex}}.o-nav__item{margin-bottom:0;display:flex;flex-shrink:0;font-weight:var(--nav-font-weight,500)}.h-flex-fix .o-nav__item:not(:last-child){margin-right:2rem}.o-nav__link{display:inline-flex;appearance:none;background-color:transparent;border:0;color:currentColor;white-space:nowrap;align-items:center;transition:.3s}.o-nav__link:not(.o-nav__link--unline){text-decoration:none;background-image:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),linear-gradient(var(--decoration-color,var(--primary-color)),var(--decoration-color,var(--primary-color)));background-position:0 100%,0 100%;background-repeat:no-repeat,no-repeat;background-size:100% 3px,0 3px;transition:background-size .3s}.o-nav__link:not(.o-nav__link--unline).is-active,.o-nav__link:not(.o-nav__link--unline):active,.o-nav__link:not(.o-nav__link--unline):focus,.o-nav__link:not(.o-nav__link--unline):focus-within{background-size:100% 3px,100% 3px;background-position:0 -100%,0 100%}@media screen and (-ms-high-contrast:active),screen and (-ms-high-contrast:none){.o-nav__link:not(.o-nav__link--unline).is-active,.o-nav__link:not(.o-nav__link--unline):active,.o-nav__link:not(.o-nav__link--unline):focus,.o-nav__link:not(.o-nav__link--unline):focus-within{border-bottom:3px solid var(--decoration-color,var(--primary-color))}}@media (hover){.o-nav__link:not(.o-nav__link--unline):hover{background-size:100% 3px,100% 3px;background-position:0 -100%,0 100%}}@media screen and (hover) and (-ms-high-contrast:active),screen and (hover) and (-ms-high-contrast:none){.o-nav__link:not(.o-nav__link--unline):hover{border-bottom:3px solid var(--decoration-color,var(--primary-color))}}.o-nav__link:not(.o-nav__link--unline):focus:not(:focus-visible){outline:none}.o-nav__link:not(.o-nav__link--unline):focus-visible{outline:solid Max(2px,.1em) var(--focus-color);outline-offset:.15em}.o-nav__link.is-active:after,.o-nav__link:active:after,.o-nav__link:focus-within:after,.o-nav__link:focus:after{width:100%}@media (hover){.o-nav__link:hover:after{width:100%}}.o-nav__icon{margin-left:1rem;color:currentColor}@media (min-width:60.01rem){.o-nav--dropdown .o-nav__action{display:none}}.o-skip-link{position:absolute;left:-100vw;opacity:0;transition:all .3s}.o-skip-link:active,.o-skip-link:focus{left:0;z-index:1001;opacity:1}.c-site-header{width:100%;-webkit-overflow-scrolling:touch}.c-site-header__logo{grid-area:logo}.c-site-header__nav--primary{grid-area:nav--primary}.c-site-header__nav--secondary{grid-area:nav--secondary}.c-site-header__nav--tertiary{grid-area:nav--tertiary}.c-site-header__container{position:relative;display:grid;grid-area:1/3/1/15;grid-template-columns:min-content 1fr max-content;grid-template-areas:"logo nav--primary nav--secondary" ". nav--tertiary nav--tertiary"}.c-site-header__logo{font-size:clamp(2.0625rem,5.33854vw,3.5rem);color:#312d5a;background-color:#44e5a8;transform:translateY(clamp(1rem,2vw,1.5rem));transition:transform .3s;position:relative;z-index:4;margin:0 1em}@media (min-width:60.01rem){.c-site-header__logo{font-size:clamp(1.6875rem,4.29688vw,2.625rem)}}@media (min-width:72.01rem){.c-site-header__logo{margin-left:.5em;font-size:clamp(1.375rem,3.38542vw,1.9375rem)}}@media (min-width:82.01rem){.c-site-header__logo{font-size:clamp(1.6875rem,4.29688vw,2.625rem)}}@media (min-width:92.01rem){.c-site-header__logo{font-size:clamp(2.0625rem,5.33854vw,3.5rem)}}.c-site-header__logo:before{content:"";background-color:#44e5a8;position:absolute;top:-1em;right:-.4em;bottom:-.66em;left:-.6em;z-index:-1;transform:rotate(-10deg)}.c-site-header__logo:hover{transform:translateY(1rem);color:#312d5a}.c-site-header__logo:focus-visible:before{outline:solid 2px var(--primary-color-text);outline-offset:-.25em}.c-site-header__nav--primary{--nav-list-align:center;--nav-font-weight:800;align-self:center;justify-self:end}@media (min-width:82.01rem){.c-site-header__nav--primary{font-size:clamp(1.09375rem,2.53906vw,1.25rem)}}@media (min-width:92.01rem){.c-site-header__nav--primary{font-size:clamp(1.1875rem,2.86458vw,1.375rem)}}.c-site-header--error .c-site-header__nav--primary{display:none}.c-site-header__nav--secondary{font-size:clamp(1.1875rem,2.86458vw,1.375rem)}@media (min-width:82.01rem){.c-site-header__nav--secondary{font-size:clamp(1.25rem,3.125vw,1.625rem)}}@media (min-width:92.01rem){.c-site-header__nav--secondary{font-size:clamp(1.375rem,3.38542vw,1.9375rem);margin-right:-4rem}}.c-site-header__nav--tertiary{--nav-list-align:end;--nav-list-direction:column;--nav-list-wrap:nowrap;--nav-list-padding:1rem 1.5rem 0.25rem 0;--decoration-color:currentColor;background-color:var(--tertiary-color);color:var(--tertiary-color-text);justify-self:end;position:relative;z-index:1;padding:1.25rem 0}@media (min-width:72.01rem){.c-site-header__nav--tertiary{--nav-list-direction:row;--nav-list-padding:0;--nav-font-weight:800;margin-right:1rem}}@media (min-width:92.01rem){.c-site-header__nav--tertiary{margin-right:-2rem}}.c-site-header__nav--tertiary:after,.c-site-header__nav--tertiary:before{content:"";position:absolute;top:0;bottom:0;width:100vw;z-index:-1;background-color:var(--tertiary-color)}.c-site-header__nav--tertiary:before{right:50%}.c-site-header__nav--tertiary:after{left:50%}.c-site-header__expand{display:grid;grid-template-columns:1fr 1rem;justify-items:end;align-items:center;column-gap:.5rem;cursor:pointer;font-weight:800}@media (min-width:72.01rem){.c-site-header__expand{display:none}}.c-site-header__expand-icon{transition:transform .25s}[open] .c-site-header__expand-icon{transform:rotateX(180deg)}.c-site-header__expand::-webkit-details-marker{display:none}.c-site-header__nav--secondary .c-site-header__list{display:grid;grid-template-columns:1fr 1fr;list-style:none;min-height:100%;padding:0 0 0 2rem}.c-site-header__nav--secondary .c-site-header__link{display:flex;align-items:center;justify-content:center;padding:.75em;min-height:100%;background-color:var(--tertiary-color);color:var(--tertiary-color-text)}.c-site-header__nav--secondary .c-site-header__link:focus-visible{outline:solid 2px var(--tertiary-color-text);outline-offset:-.5em}.c-site-header__mini-nav{display:flex;flex-direction:row;padding:0;font-size:clamp(1.6875rem,4.29688vw,2.625rem)}.c-site-header__mini-nav-link{display:block;padding:.33em}.c-site-header__search,.c-site-header__trigger{display:block}.c-site-main{min-height:75vh;transition:opacity .5s ease-in-out}.c-site-main.is-active,.c-site-main:active,.c-site-main:focus,.c-site-main:focus-within{outline:none}@media (hover){.c-site-main:hover{outline:none}}@media (min-width:38.01rem){.c-site-main{padding-bottom:2rem}}@media (min-width:92.01rem){.c-site-main{padding-bottom:4rem}}body:not(.is-loaded) .c-site-main{opacity:0}@media screen and (-ms-high-contrast:active),screen and (-ms-high-contrast:none){body:not(.is-loaded) .c-site-main{opacity:1}}.c-site-main:before{content:"";background-color:var(--page-color);border-radius:clamp(1.25rem,5.20833vw,3.125rem);grid-row-start:1;grid-row-end:-1;grid-column-start:1;grid-column-end:-1;margin-bottom:-2rem}@media (min-width:38.01rem){.c-site-main:before{margin-bottom:-4rem}}@media (min-width:60.01rem){.c-site-main:before{grid-column-start:2;grid-column-end:-2}}@media (min-width:92.01rem){.c-site-main:before{margin-left:-2rem;margin-right:-2rem;margin-bottom:-6rem}}.c-site-menu{--site-menu-offset:calc(100% + 13px);--site-menu-bg:hsla(0,0%,100%,0);position:fixed;top:0;right:auto;bottom:auto;left:0;z-index:3;width:100%;overflow:hidden;display:flex;height:100vh;pointer-events:none;background-color:var(--site-menu-bg)}.h-accessibility{border:0;clip:rect(0 0 0 0);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;white-space:nowrap;width:1px}@media (max-width:38rem){.h-except-phone{display:none!important}}@media (min-width:38.01rem){.h-only-phone{display:none!important}}@media (max-width:72rem){.h-gt-laptop{display:none!important}}@media (min-width:72.01rem){.h-lt-laptop{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="stylesheet" href="https://www.ippr.org/dist/css/main-caebc24315.min.css" media="print" onload="this.media='all'"><noscript><link rel="stylesheet" href="https://www.ippr.org/dist/css/main-caebc24315.min.css"></noscript></head><body class="" id="start"><style type="text/css" id="page-theme"></style><style type="text/css" id="custom-css"></style><div id="app" class=""><a class="o-skip-link" href="#site-main"><span class="o-button o-button--regular">Skip to main content</span></a><div id="site-notifications"><v-notification v-cloak></v-notification></div><header id="site-header" class="c-site-header o-grid"><div class="c-site-header__container"><a href="/" class="c-site-header__logo" aria-label="IPPR"><span class="icon i-logo"><svg fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 169 202"><path d="M169 202v-17h-13.3l-13-24 3.4-2c3.7-2.5 6.8-6 9.2-10.5 2.4-4.6 3.6-9.7 3.6-15.3 0-9.9-3.4-17.7-10.2-23.5a43.6 43.6 0 0 0-29-8.7h-1.2V84h-13.1V64.2h9.7c7.3 0 13.3-.4 18.1-1.3 4.9-1 9.2-2.6 12.9-5 3.7-2.5 6.8-6 9.2-10.6 2.4-4.5 3.6-9.6 3.6-15.2 0-9.9-3.4-17.7-10.2-23.5a43.6 43.6 0 0 0-29-8.7H65.7v17h13v67h-13v18c-3.7-.6-7.6-1-12-1h-1.2V84h-13V17h13V0H0v17h13v67H0v34h13v67H0v17h52.6v-17h-13v-19.7h9.8c7.2 0 13.2-.4 18-1.3 4.2-.8 8-2.2 11.4-4.1v25h-13V202h52.6v-17h-13v-19.7h13.2l19.2 36.7H169ZM65 133.2c0 4.3-1.2 8-3.9 10.9-2.6 3-8.4 4.4-17.6 4.4h-4V118h5c5.4 0 9.3.3 11.6.9 2.4.6 4.4 2.2 6.2 4.8a16 16 0 0 1 2.8 9.4Zm40.4-85.7V17.2h9.8c2.9.1 5.1.4 6.7.8 2.3.6 4.4 2.2 6.2 4.8a16 16 0 0 1 2.8 9.4c0 4.3-1.4 8-4 10.9-2.6 3-8.5 4.4-17.6 4.4h-4Zm25.5 85.7c0 4.3-1.4 8-4 10.9-2.6 3-8.5 4.4-17.6 4.4h-4V118h5c5.4 0 9.3.3 11.6.9 2.3.6 4.4 2.2 6.2 4.8a16 16 0 0 1 2.8 9.4Z" fill="currentColor"/></svg></span></a><nav class="c-site-header__nav--primary o-nav o-nav--primary"><ul class="c-site-header__mini-nav h-lt-laptop"><li class="c-site-header__search"><a href="https://www.ippr.org/search" class="c-site-header__mini-nav-link " aria-label="Search"><span class="icon i-search"><svg fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 20 20"><path fill-rule="evenodd" clip-rule="evenodd" d="M13.65 11.99a7.58 7.58 0 0 0-1.46-9.59 7.28 7.28 0 0 0-10.39.76 7.58 7.58 0 0 0 .74 10.56 7.28 7.28 0 0 0 9.64.01l5.92 5.39c.47.41 1.18.36 1.6-.12.4-.48.35-1.2-.12-1.62l-5.93-5.4Zm-2.93-7.85a5.26 5.26 0 0 1 .51 7.33 5.05 5.05 0 0 1-7.21.52 5.26 5.26 0 0 1-.51-7.33 5.05 5.05 0 0 1 7.2-.52Z" fill="currentColor"/></svg></span></a></li><li class="c-site-header__trigger"><a href="#site-menu" id="js-menu-open" class="c-site-header__mini-nav-link js-menu-toggle"><span class="icon i-menu"><svg fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 30 30"><path d="M0 21.214a2.357 2.357 0 0 1 2.357-2.357h25.286a2.357 2.357 0 1 1 0 4.715H2.357A2.357 2.357 0 0 1 0 21.213ZM0 9.214a2.357 2.357 0 0 1 2.357-2.357h25.286a2.357 2.357 0 0 1 0 4.715H2.357A2.357 2.357 0 0 1 0 9.213Z" fill="currentColor"/></svg></span></a></li></ul><ul class="o-nav__list h-gt-laptop"><li class="o-nav__item"><a href="https://www.ippr.org/research-and-ideas" class="o-nav__link "> Research and ideas </a></li><li class="o-nav__item"><a href="https://www.ippr.org/who-we-are" class="o-nav__link "> Who we are </a></li><li class="o-nav__item"><a href="https://www.ippr.org/events" class="o-nav__link "> Events </a></li><li class="o-nav__item"><a href="https://www.ippr.org/media-office" class="o-nav__link "> Press </a></li><li class="o-nav__item"><a href="https://www.ippr.org/get-involved" class="o-nav__link "> Get involved </a></li><li class="o-nav__item"><a href="https://www.ippr.org/search" class="o-nav__link o-inline-icon " aria-label="Search"><span class="icon i-search" aria-hidden="true"><svg fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 20 20"><path fill-rule="evenodd" clip-rule="evenodd" d="M13.65 11.99a7.58 7.58 0 0 0-1.46-9.59 7.28 7.28 0 0 0-10.39.76 7.58 7.58 0 0 0 .74 10.56 7.28 7.28 0 0 0 9.64.01l5.92 5.39c.47.41 1.18.36 1.6-.12.4-.48.35-1.2-.12-1.62l-5.93-5.4Zm-2.93-7.85a5.26 5.26 0 0 1 .51 7.33 5.05 5.05 0 0 1-7.21.52 5.26 5.26 0 0 1-.51-7.33 5.05 5.05 0 0 1 7.2-.52Z" fill="currentColor"/></svg></span></a></li></ul></nav><nav class="c-site-header__nav--secondary o-nav h-gt-laptop"><ul class="c-site-header__list"><li class="c-site-header__item h-brand--north"><a href="https://www.ippr.org/north" class="c-site-header__link " aria-label="IPPR North"><span class="icon i-logo--north"><svg fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 56 56"><path fill-rule="evenodd" clip-rule="evenodd" d="M44.9 50.86v4.64h-8.29l-5.09-10-.92.02H28v5.33h3.46v4.65H17.48v-4.65h3.46v-6.81c-.9.53-1.9.9-3.02 1.11-1.28.24-2.88.37-4.8.37h-2.6v5.33h3.45v4.65H0v-4.65h3.45v-18.2H0v-9.3h3.45V5.15H0V.5h13.97v4.65h-3.45v18.2h3.45V28h.33c1.16 0 2.21.1 3.18.29v-4.94h3.46V5.15h-3.46V.5h14.3c3.34 0 5.91.8 7.73 2.37 1.81 1.58 2.72 3.71 2.72 6.39a9 9 0 0 1-.96 4.16 7.41 7.41 0 0 1-2.45 2.87 9.14 9.14 0 0 1-3.41 1.36c-1.28.24-2.89.37-4.81.37H28v5.33h3.49V28h.3c3.33 0 5.9.8 7.72 2.37 1.81 1.58 2.72 3.71 2.72 6.39a9 9 0 0 1-.96 4.16 7.42 7.42 0 0 1-3.37 3.4l3.47 6.54h3.54ZM16.26 39.73c.7-.8 1.04-1.79 1.04-2.97 0-1-.24-1.86-.72-2.56a2.98 2.98 0 0 0-1.66-1.3c-.63-.17-1.65-.25-3.06-.25h-1.33v8.28h1.05c2.42 0 3.98-.4 4.68-1.2ZM28 5.18v8.25h1.06c2.42 0 3.97-.4 4.67-1.2.7-.8 1.04-1.79 1.04-2.97 0-1-.24-1.86-.72-2.56a2.97 2.97 0 0 0-1.66-1.3 9.14 9.14 0 0 0-1.79-.23v.01H28Zm5.73 34.55c.7-.8 1.04-1.79 1.04-2.97 0-1-.24-1.86-.72-2.56a2.98 2.98 0 0 0-1.66-1.3c-.62-.17-1.64-.25-3.06-.25H28v8.28h1.06c2.42 0 3.97-.4 4.67-1.2Z" fill="currentColor"/><path d="M55.82 50.66v4.84h-1.84v-1.47h-7.22v1.47h-1.85v-4.63l6.82-4.08h-4.97v1.45h-1.85v-4.97h1.85v1.55h9.14v2.47l-8.1 4.76h6.18v-1.39h1.84Z" fill="currentColor"/><path fill-rule="evenodd" clip-rule="evenodd" d="M52.01 35.21c2.38 0 3.99 1.61 3.99 4.04 0 2.42-1.6 4.05-3.99 4.05-2.37 0-3.96-1.63-3.96-4.05 0-2.43 1.59-4.04 3.96-4.04Zm.04 5.57c1.3 0 2.07-.57 2.07-1.51 0-1-.77-1.54-2.15-1.54-1.29 0-2.06.57-2.06 1.54 0 .97.77 1.5 2.14 1.5Z" fill="currentColor"/><path d="M54.07 30.59v-1.53h1.75v5.4h-1.75v-1.41H50v1.33h-1.75V30.8h1.91a2.74 2.74 0 0 1-2.04-2.7v-.38h2.3v.25c0 1.12.32 1.8 1.06 2.21.46.26 1.07.4 1.67.4h.93ZM49.99 26.32v.98h-1.75v-.98h-1.2l-1.74-2.46h2.94v-1.41h1.75v1.41h3.28c.62 0 .75-.11.75-.65 0-.26-.03-.4-.14-.76h1.67c.26.62.39 1.27.39 1.85 0 .7-.25 1.34-.66 1.66-.34.3-.61.36-1.32.36h-3.97ZM55.82 17.1v4.8h-1.75v-1.18h-7.4v1.17H44.9v-3.7h3.94c-.64-.94-.8-1.4-.8-2.17 0-.96.43-1.75 1.15-2.09.52-.24.7-.27 1.64-.27h3.23v-1.13h1.75v3.58h-4.87c-.67 0-.93.22-.93.79 0 .4.11.73.48 1.3h3.57v-1.1h1.75Z" fill="currentColor"/></svg></span></a></li><li class="c-site-header__item h-brand--scotland"><a href="https://www.ippr.org/scotland" class="c-site-header__link " aria-label="IPPR Scotland"><span class="icon i-logo--scotland"><svg fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 56 56"><path d="M46 55.4v-4.63h-3.63l-3.55-6.52a7.46 7.46 0 0 0 3.46-3.4 8.8 8.8 0 0 0 .97-4.15c0-2.67-.93-4.8-2.79-6.38-1.85-1.58-4.49-2.37-7.9-2.37h-.3v-4.63h-3.58v-5.33h2.66c1.97 0 3.61-.13 4.93-.37a9.5 9.5 0 0 0 3.5-1.36 7.46 7.46 0 0 0 2.5-2.86 8.8 8.8 0 0 0 .98-4.16c0-2.67-.93-4.8-2.79-6.37C38.61 1.29 35.97.5 32.56.5H17.9v4.64h3.54v18.18H17.9v4.92c-1-.19-2.08-.29-3.26-.29h-.34v-4.63h-3.54V5.14h3.54V.5H0v4.64h3.54v18.18H0v9.27h3.54v18.18H0v4.64h14.31v-4.64h-3.54v-5.33h2.66c1.97 0 3.62-.12 4.93-.37a9.67 9.67 0 0 0 3.09-1.1v6.8H17.9v4.64h14.31v-4.64h-3.54v-5.33h2.66l.95-.01 5.2 9.98H46ZM17.7 36.7c0 1.18-.35 2.17-1.06 2.97-.71.8-2.3 1.2-4.79 1.2h-1.08v-8.28h1.36c1.45 0 2.5.08 3.14.25.64.16 1.2.6 1.7 1.3.5.7.74 1.56.74 2.56Zm10.98-23.3V5.18h2.66c.8.03 1.41.1 1.84.21.64.17 1.2.6 1.7 1.3.49.71.74 1.56.74 2.56 0 1.19-.36 2.18-1.07 2.97-.72.8-2.31 1.2-4.79 1.2h-1.08Zm6.94 23.3a4.3 4.3 0 0 1-1.07 2.97c-.72.8-2.31 1.2-4.79 1.2h-1.08v-8.28h1.36c1.45 0 2.5.08 3.14.25.64.16 1.2.6 1.7 1.3.49.7.74 1.56.74 2.56Z" fill="currentColor"/><path d="M55.84 55.41v-1.65h-.82c.63-.46.94-1.12.94-1.98 0-.55-.15-1.08-.4-1.55-.52-.87-1.31-1.28-2.5-1.28-.93 0-1.69.34-2.25.99-.4.49-.56.76-1.08 1.92-.56 1.25-.83 1.59-1.34 1.59-.44 0-.79-.42-.79-.97 0-.74.55-1.28 1.44-1.4v-1.64h-2.96v1.65h.8c-.6.42-.9 1.03-.9 1.8 0 1.5 1.12 2.61 2.66 2.61.75 0 1.4-.26 1.85-.75.36-.39.72-.95 1.1-1.74l.41-.83c.3-.63.75-.98 1.24-.98.59 0 1.05.48 1.05 1.07 0 .89-.66 1.45-1.77 1.5v1.64h3.32Zm-6.78-13.67v1.48h.54c-.46.7-.66 1.3-.66 2.06a3.35 3.35 0 0 0 3.5 3.44c2.15 0 3.56-1.54 3.56-3.88 0-1.57-.7-2.69-2.06-3.3l-.74 1.68c.67.4 1.09 1.04 1.09 1.73 0 .97-.7 1.54-1.88 1.54-1.07 0-1.74-.6-1.74-1.57 0-.73.38-1.29 1.13-1.63v-1.55h-2.74Zm6.94-3.9c0-2.14-1.44-3.56-3.57-3.56-2.12 0-3.55 1.42-3.55 3.56s1.43 3.58 3.55 3.58c2.13 0 3.57-1.44 3.57-3.58Zm-1.68.02c0 .83-.7 1.33-1.86 1.33-1.22 0-1.9-.47-1.9-1.33 0-.85.68-1.35 1.83-1.35 1.24 0 1.93.47 1.93 1.35Zm-3.7-3.7v-.86h3.55c.64 0 .88-.06 1.18-.32.38-.28.6-.84.6-1.46 0-.52-.12-1.1-.35-1.64h-1.5c.1.32.13.45.13.68 0 .47-.11.57-.67.57h-2.94v-1.25h-1.56v1.25h-2.64l1.56 2.17h1.08v.86h1.56Zm5.22-4.62v-4.21h-1.57v.94h-8.19v3.27h1.57V28.5h6.62v1.04h1.57Zm-1.57-12.02v1.11H51.8c-1.1 0-1.46.07-1.95.43-.66.48-.98 1.37-.98 2.73 0 1.71.5 2.75 1.62 3.3l.32-1.76a1.57 1.57 0 0 1-.55-1.24c0-.77.48-1.29 1.2-1.29h.4a3.8 3.8 0 0 0-.33 1.55c0 1.61.96 2.78 2.28 2.78 1.23 0 2.13-1.05 2.13-2.48 0-.67-.18-1.22-.63-1.85h.53v-3.28h-1.57Zm-.94 3.28h.56c.51.58.7.92.7 1.35 0 .5-.39.88-.9.88-.5 0-.85-.4-.85-.98 0-.34.1-.59.41-1.13l.08-.12Zm-2.7-3.56v-1.05h3.64v1.05h1.57v-4.26h-1.57v1.04h-3.06c-.29-.4-.44-.83-.44-1.2 0-.51.24-.68.96-.68h4.11V8.96h-1.57v1.02h-2.7c-.8 0-1.26.09-1.68.3-.59.32-.95.98-.95 1.74 0 .7.22 1.28.73 2h-.61v3.22h1.56ZM54.26.79v1.07h-8.19v3.26h1.57V4.06h2.14c-.58.5-.9 1.2-.9 1.96 0 1.66 1.53 2.94 3.52 2.94 2 0 3.53-1.26 3.53-2.93 0-.73-.26-1.3-.9-1.97h.8V.8h-1.57Zm-1.85 3.26c1.14 0 1.81.49 1.81 1.35 0 .82-.7 1.33-1.81 1.33-1.12 0-1.8-.5-1.8-1.33 0-.85.68-1.35 1.8-1.35Z" fill="currentColor"/></svg></span></a></li></ul></nav></div></header><nav class="c-site-menu h-lt-laptop" id="site-menu" hidden><h3 class="h-accessibility">Site Menu.</h3><div class="c-site-menu__inner"><nav class="c-site-menu__nav--tertiary"><button id="js-menu-close" class="c-site-menu__trigger js-menu-close" aria-label="Close"><span class="icon i-close"><svg fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 31 31"><path d="M5.627 2.21a2.417 2.417 0 1 0-3.418 3.418l9.873 9.873-9.873 9.873a2.417 2.417 0 0 0 3.418 3.418L15.5 18.92l9.873 9.873a2.417 2.417 0 0 0 3.418-3.418l-9.873-9.873 9.873-9.873a2.417 2.417 0 1 0-3.418-3.418L15.5 12.083 5.627 2.21Z" fill="currentColor"/></svg></span></button><a href="https://www.ippr.org/search" class="c-site-menu__search " aria-label="Search"><span class="icon i-search"><svg fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 20 20"><path fill-rule="evenodd" clip-rule="evenodd" d="M13.65 11.99a7.58 7.58 0 0 0-1.46-9.59 7.28 7.28 0 0 0-10.39.76 7.58 7.58 0 0 0 .74 10.56 7.28 7.28 0 0 0 9.64.01l5.92 5.39c.47.41 1.18.36 1.6-.12.4-.48.35-1.2-.12-1.62l-5.93-5.4Zm-2.93-7.85a5.26 5.26 0 0 1 .51 7.33 5.05 5.05 0 0 1-7.21.52 5.26 5.26 0 0 1-.51-7.33 5.05 5.05 0 0 1 7.2-.52Z" fill="currentColor"/></svg></span></a></nav><nav class="c-site-menu__nav--primary"><h4 class="h-accessibility">Main Site Sections.</h4><ul class="c-site-menu__nav-list"><li class="c-site-menu__nav-item"><a href="https://www.ippr.org/research-and-ideas" class="c-site-menu__nav-link "> Research and ideas </a></li><li class="c-site-menu__nav-item"><a href="https://www.ippr.org/who-we-are" class="c-site-menu__nav-link "> Who we are </a></li><li class="c-site-menu__nav-item"><a href="https://www.ippr.org/events" class="c-site-menu__nav-link "> Events </a></li><li class="c-site-menu__nav-item"><a href="https://www.ippr.org/media-office" class="c-site-menu__nav-link "> Press </a></li><li class="c-site-menu__nav-item"><a href="https://www.ippr.org/get-involved" class="c-site-menu__nav-link "> Get involved </a></li></ul></nav><nav class="c-site-menu__nav--secondary"><ul class="c-site-menu__nav-list"><li class="c-site-menu__nav-item h-brand--north"><a href="https://www.ippr.org/north" class="c-site-menu__nav-link " aria-label="IPPR North"><span class="icon i-logo--north"><svg fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 56 56"><path fill-rule="evenodd" clip-rule="evenodd" d="M44.9 50.86v4.64h-8.29l-5.09-10-.92.02H28v5.33h3.46v4.65H17.48v-4.65h3.46v-6.81c-.9.53-1.9.9-3.02 1.11-1.28.24-2.88.37-4.8.37h-2.6v5.33h3.45v4.65H0v-4.65h3.45v-18.2H0v-9.3h3.45V5.15H0V.5h13.97v4.65h-3.45v18.2h3.45V28h.33c1.16 0 2.21.1 3.18.29v-4.94h3.46V5.15h-3.46V.5h14.3c3.34 0 5.91.8 7.73 2.37 1.81 1.58 2.72 3.71 2.72 6.39a9 9 0 0 1-.96 4.16 7.41 7.41 0 0 1-2.45 2.87 9.14 9.14 0 0 1-3.41 1.36c-1.28.24-2.89.37-4.81.37H28v5.33h3.49V28h.3c3.33 0 5.9.8 7.72 2.37 1.81 1.58 2.72 3.71 2.72 6.39a9 9 0 0 1-.96 4.16 7.42 7.42 0 0 1-3.37 3.4l3.47 6.54h3.54ZM16.26 39.73c.7-.8 1.04-1.79 1.04-2.97 0-1-.24-1.86-.72-2.56a2.98 2.98 0 0 0-1.66-1.3c-.63-.17-1.65-.25-3.06-.25h-1.33v8.28h1.05c2.42 0 3.98-.4 4.68-1.2ZM28 5.18v8.25h1.06c2.42 0 3.97-.4 4.67-1.2.7-.8 1.04-1.79 1.04-2.97 0-1-.24-1.86-.72-2.56a2.97 2.97 0 0 0-1.66-1.3 9.14 9.14 0 0 0-1.79-.23v.01H28Zm5.73 34.55c.7-.8 1.04-1.79 1.04-2.97 0-1-.24-1.86-.72-2.56a2.98 2.98 0 0 0-1.66-1.3c-.62-.17-1.64-.25-3.06-.25H28v8.28h1.06c2.42 0 3.97-.4 4.67-1.2Z" fill="currentColor"/><path d="M55.82 50.66v4.84h-1.84v-1.47h-7.22v1.47h-1.85v-4.63l6.82-4.08h-4.97v1.45h-1.85v-4.97h1.85v1.55h9.14v2.47l-8.1 4.76h6.18v-1.39h1.84Z" fill="currentColor"/><path fill-rule="evenodd" clip-rule="evenodd" d="M52.01 35.21c2.38 0 3.99 1.61 3.99 4.04 0 2.42-1.6 4.05-3.99 4.05-2.37 0-3.96-1.63-3.96-4.05 0-2.43 1.59-4.04 3.96-4.04Zm.04 5.57c1.3 0 2.07-.57 2.07-1.51 0-1-.77-1.54-2.15-1.54-1.29 0-2.06.57-2.06 1.54 0 .97.77 1.5 2.14 1.5Z" fill="currentColor"/><path d="M54.07 30.59v-1.53h1.75v5.4h-1.75v-1.41H50v1.33h-1.75V30.8h1.91a2.74 2.74 0 0 1-2.04-2.7v-.38h2.3v.25c0 1.12.32 1.8 1.06 2.21.46.26 1.07.4 1.67.4h.93ZM49.99 26.32v.98h-1.75v-.98h-1.2l-1.74-2.46h2.94v-1.41h1.75v1.41h3.28c.62 0 .75-.11.75-.65 0-.26-.03-.4-.14-.76h1.67c.26.62.39 1.27.39 1.85 0 .7-.25 1.34-.66 1.66-.34.3-.61.36-1.32.36h-3.97ZM55.82 17.1v4.8h-1.75v-1.18h-7.4v1.17H44.9v-3.7h3.94c-.64-.94-.8-1.4-.8-2.17 0-.96.43-1.75 1.15-2.09.52-.24.7-.27 1.64-.27h3.23v-1.13h1.75v3.58h-4.87c-.67 0-.93.22-.93.79 0 .4.11.73.48 1.3h3.57v-1.1h1.75Z" fill="currentColor"/></svg></span></a></li><li class="c-site-menu__nav-item h-brand--scotland"><a href="https://www.ippr.org/scotland" class="c-site-menu__nav-link " aria-label="IPPR Scotland"><span class="icon i-logo--scotland"><svg fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 56 56"><path d="M46 55.4v-4.63h-3.63l-3.55-6.52a7.46 7.46 0 0 0 3.46-3.4 8.8 8.8 0 0 0 .97-4.15c0-2.67-.93-4.8-2.79-6.38-1.85-1.58-4.49-2.37-7.9-2.37h-.3v-4.63h-3.58v-5.33h2.66c1.97 0 3.61-.13 4.93-.37a9.5 9.5 0 0 0 3.5-1.36 7.46 7.46 0 0 0 2.5-2.86 8.8 8.8 0 0 0 .98-4.16c0-2.67-.93-4.8-2.79-6.37C38.61 1.29 35.97.5 32.56.5H17.9v4.64h3.54v18.18H17.9v4.92c-1-.19-2.08-.29-3.26-.29h-.34v-4.63h-3.54V5.14h3.54V.5H0v4.64h3.54v18.18H0v9.27h3.54v18.18H0v4.64h14.31v-4.64h-3.54v-5.33h2.66c1.97 0 3.62-.12 4.93-.37a9.67 9.67 0 0 0 3.09-1.1v6.8H17.9v4.64h14.31v-4.64h-3.54v-5.33h2.66l.95-.01 5.2 9.98H46ZM17.7 36.7c0 1.18-.35 2.17-1.06 2.97-.71.8-2.3 1.2-4.79 1.2h-1.08v-8.28h1.36c1.45 0 2.5.08 3.14.25.64.16 1.2.6 1.7 1.3.5.7.74 1.56.74 2.56Zm10.98-23.3V5.18h2.66c.8.03 1.41.1 1.84.21.64.17 1.2.6 1.7 1.3.49.71.74 1.56.74 2.56 0 1.19-.36 2.18-1.07 2.97-.72.8-2.31 1.2-4.79 1.2h-1.08Zm6.94 23.3a4.3 4.3 0 0 1-1.07 2.97c-.72.8-2.31 1.2-4.79 1.2h-1.08v-8.28h1.36c1.45 0 2.5.08 3.14.25.64.16 1.2.6 1.7 1.3.49.7.74 1.56.74 2.56Z" fill="currentColor"/><path d="M55.84 55.41v-1.65h-.82c.63-.46.94-1.12.94-1.98 0-.55-.15-1.08-.4-1.55-.52-.87-1.31-1.28-2.5-1.28-.93 0-1.69.34-2.25.99-.4.49-.56.76-1.08 1.92-.56 1.25-.83 1.59-1.34 1.59-.44 0-.79-.42-.79-.97 0-.74.55-1.28 1.44-1.4v-1.64h-2.96v1.65h.8c-.6.42-.9 1.03-.9 1.8 0 1.5 1.12 2.61 2.66 2.61.75 0 1.4-.26 1.85-.75.36-.39.72-.95 1.1-1.74l.41-.83c.3-.63.75-.98 1.24-.98.59 0 1.05.48 1.05 1.07 0 .89-.66 1.45-1.77 1.5v1.64h3.32Zm-6.78-13.67v1.48h.54c-.46.7-.66 1.3-.66 2.06a3.35 3.35 0 0 0 3.5 3.44c2.15 0 3.56-1.54 3.56-3.88 0-1.57-.7-2.69-2.06-3.3l-.74 1.68c.67.4 1.09 1.04 1.09 1.73 0 .97-.7 1.54-1.88 1.54-1.07 0-1.74-.6-1.74-1.57 0-.73.38-1.29 1.13-1.63v-1.55h-2.74Zm6.94-3.9c0-2.14-1.44-3.56-3.57-3.56-2.12 0-3.55 1.42-3.55 3.56s1.43 3.58 3.55 3.58c2.13 0 3.57-1.44 3.57-3.58Zm-1.68.02c0 .83-.7 1.33-1.86 1.33-1.22 0-1.9-.47-1.9-1.33 0-.85.68-1.35 1.83-1.35 1.24 0 1.93.47 1.93 1.35Zm-3.7-3.7v-.86h3.55c.64 0 .88-.06 1.18-.32.38-.28.6-.84.6-1.46 0-.52-.12-1.1-.35-1.64h-1.5c.1.32.13.45.13.68 0 .47-.11.57-.67.57h-2.94v-1.25h-1.56v1.25h-2.64l1.56 2.17h1.08v.86h1.56Zm5.22-4.62v-4.21h-1.57v.94h-8.19v3.27h1.57V28.5h6.62v1.04h1.57Zm-1.57-12.02v1.11H51.8c-1.1 0-1.46.07-1.95.43-.66.48-.98 1.37-.98 2.73 0 1.71.5 2.75 1.62 3.3l.32-1.76a1.57 1.57 0 0 1-.55-1.24c0-.77.48-1.29 1.2-1.29h.4a3.8 3.8 0 0 0-.33 1.55c0 1.61.96 2.78 2.28 2.78 1.23 0 2.13-1.05 2.13-2.48 0-.67-.18-1.22-.63-1.85h.53v-3.28h-1.57Zm-.94 3.28h.56c.51.58.7.92.7 1.35 0 .5-.39.88-.9.88-.5 0-.85-.4-.85-.98 0-.34.1-.59.41-1.13l.08-.12Zm-2.7-3.56v-1.05h3.64v1.05h1.57v-4.26h-1.57v1.04h-3.06c-.29-.4-.44-.83-.44-1.2 0-.51.24-.68.96-.68h4.11V8.96h-1.57v1.02h-2.7c-.8 0-1.26.09-1.68.3-.59.32-.95.98-.95 1.74 0 .7.22 1.28.73 2h-.61v3.22h1.56ZM54.26.79v1.07h-8.19v3.26h1.57V4.06h2.14c-.58.5-.9 1.2-.9 1.96 0 1.66 1.53 2.94 3.52 2.94 2 0 3.53-1.26 3.53-2.93 0-.73-.26-1.3-.9-1.97h.8V.8h-1.57Zm-1.85 3.26c1.14 0 1.81.49 1.81 1.35 0 .82-.7 1.33-1.81 1.33-1.12 0-1.8-.5-1.8-1.33 0-.85.68-1.35 1.8-1.35Z" fill="currentColor"/></svg></span></a></li></ul></nav><a href="#site-main" class="h-accessibility c-site-menu__return js-menu-close">Return to main</a></div></nav><main class="c-site-main o-sidebar-grid o-grid" role="main" id="site-main" tabindex="0"><div class="o-sidebar-grid__header" id="page-header"><header class="c-page-header o-grid"><div class="c-page-header__container"><h1 class="c-page-header__title "> Dr Annie Williamson </h1><span class="c-page-header__posttitle "> Research fellow </span></div></header></div><div class="o-sidebar-grid__menu" id="page-menu"></div><aside class="o-sidebar-grid__sidebar "></aside><div class="o-sidebar-grid__content" id="page-content"><section class="o-grid o-page-grid__content o-page-grid__content--sidebar"><div class="o-block o-text o-text--intro o-grid__item"><p><em>Dr Annie Williamson is a Research Fellow working on health and social care for the IPPR Commission on Health and Prosperity.</em></p></div><div id="block-273573" class="o-block o-text o-text-block o-grid__item h-colstart--1 h-colend--9 h-phone-colstart--1 h-phone-colend--13 has-h-col o-block--row-1" data-block='[]'><p><em>Her research at IPPR considers the economic benefits of health and social care reform, including preventive public health policies, NHS productivity, and workforce reform. Her work has been featured in the Guardian, the Independent, the Washington Post, openDemocracy, the British Medical Journal, and the Lancet.</em></p><p><em>Annie is also a practising doctor in the NHS, working at Guy's and St Thomas’ Hospital in London. Prior to studying medicine, she gained a BA and MPhil in Economics at the University of Oxford, and worked as a health economist for Partners in Health in Chiapas, Mexico. She combines both skillsets in her role analysing health and public services at IPPR.</em></p></div></section></div><aside class="o-sidebar-grid__sidebar " id="page-sidebar"><div class="c-meta c-meta--profile o-block"><div class="o-image c-meta__image" style="--intrinsic-width:300px"><img class="o-image__img" src="https://ippr-org.transforms.svdcdn.com/production/Staff/Annie-Williamson.jpg?w=300&h=300&q=100&auto=format&fit=crop&crop=focalpoint&fp-x=0.5485&fp-y=0.3081&dm=1727788078&s=c738c221251262de21a389c0547f2fad" width="300" height="300" loading="lazy" itemprop="image" alt="" ></div><dl class="c-meta__list"><div class="c-meta__item c-meta__item--twitter"><dt class="c-meta__key">Twitter</dt><dd class="c-meta__value"><a href="https://twitter.com/a_williamson1">@a_williamson1</a></dd></div><div class="c-meta__item c-meta__item--email"><dt class="c-meta__key">Email</dt><dd class="c-meta__value"><a href="mailto:a.williamson@ippr.org">a.williamson@ippr.org</a></dd></div></dl><div class="c-meta__logos"><a href="/" class="c-meta__logo" aria-label="IPPR"><span class="icon i-logo"><svg fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 169 202"><path d="M169 202v-17h-13.3l-13-24 3.4-2c3.7-2.5 6.8-6 9.2-10.5 2.4-4.6 3.6-9.7 3.6-15.3 0-9.9-3.4-17.7-10.2-23.5a43.6 43.6 0 0 0-29-8.7h-1.2V84h-13.1V64.2h9.7c7.3 0 13.3-.4 18.1-1.3 4.9-1 9.2-2.6 12.9-5 3.7-2.5 6.8-6 9.2-10.6 2.4-4.5 3.6-9.6 3.6-15.2 0-9.9-3.4-17.7-10.2-23.5a43.6 43.6 0 0 0-29-8.7H65.7v17h13v67h-13v18c-3.7-.6-7.6-1-12-1h-1.2V84h-13V17h13V0H0v17h13v67H0v34h13v67H0v17h52.6v-17h-13v-19.7h9.8c7.2 0 13.2-.4 18-1.3 4.2-.8 8-2.2 11.4-4.1v25h-13V202h52.6v-17h-13v-19.7h13.2l19.2 36.7H169ZM65 133.2c0 4.3-1.2 8-3.9 10.9-2.6 3-8.4 4.4-17.6 4.4h-4V118h5c5.4 0 9.3.3 11.6.9 2.4.6 4.4 2.2 6.2 4.8a16 16 0 0 1 2.8 9.4Zm40.4-85.7V17.2h9.8c2.9.1 5.1.4 6.7.8 2.3.6 4.4 2.2 6.2 4.8a16 16 0 0 1 2.8 9.4c0 4.3-1.4 8-4 10.9-2.6 3-8.5 4.4-17.6 4.4h-4Zm25.5 85.7c0 4.3-1.4 8-4 10.9-2.6 3-8.5 4.4-17.6 4.4h-4V118h5c5.4 0 9.3.3 11.6.9 2.3.6 4.4 2.2 6.2 4.8a16 16 0 0 1 2.8 9.4Z" fill="currentColor"/></svg></span></a></div></div></aside><div class="o-sidebar-grid__footer" id="page-footer"><section class="o-grid " id=""><div class="o-grid__item has-h-col o-block"><h3 class="o-block__heading">More from this author:</h3><ol class="c-feed c-feed--standard"><li class="c-feed__item"><a href="https://www.ippr.org/articles/our-greatest-asset" target="_self" class="c-media c-media--link c-media--article"><div class="c-media__image"><div class="o-image" style="--intrinsic-width:725px"><img class="o-image__img" src="https://ippr-org.transforms.svdcdn.com/production/Cover-Image/Our-greatest-asset-website-cover-image-01.png?w=725&h=413&q=100&auto=format&fit=crop&crop=focalpoint&fp-x=0.5084&fp-y=0.6527&dm=1728036723&s=6e9d6c6b5c7738f0aba62c6d05bf69f1" width="725" height="413" loading="lazy" itemprop="image" alt="" ></div></div><h3 class="c-media__title "> Our greatest asset: The final report of the IPPR Commission on Health and Prosperity </h3><div class="c-media__summary o-text "> The nation’s health challenges have reached historic proportions, and change is needed. </div><time class="c-media__datetime "> 17 September 2024 </time></a></li><li class="c-feed__item"><a href="https://www.ippr.org/articles/for-public-health-and-public-finances" target="_self" class="c-media c-media--link c-media--article"><div class="c-media__image"><div class="o-image" style="--intrinsic-width:725px"><img class="o-image__img" src="https://ippr-org.transforms.svdcdn.com/production/Cover-Image/iStock-1245118302.jpg?w=725&h=413&q=100&auto=format&fit=crop&dm=1728044155&s=d131d5936b274e73656a0a9d81a02604" width="725" height="413" loading="lazy" itemprop="image" alt="" ></div></div><h3 class="c-media__title "> For public health and public finances: Reforming health and social care </h3><div class="c-media__summary o-text "> People are spending more years in sickness than ever before. </div><time class="c-media__datetime "> 13 September 2023 </time></a></li><li class="c-feed__item"><a href="https://www.ippr.org/articles/waiting-for-prosperity" target="_self" class="c-media c-media--link c-media--article"><div class="c-media__image"><div class="o-image" style="--intrinsic-width:725px"><img class="o-image__img" src="https://ippr-org.transforms.svdcdn.com/production/Placeholders/placeholder-2.png?w=725&h=413&q=100&auto=format&fit=crop&dm=1702910980&s=33f67d8ccee9b243ba93ca03ba08a6a1" width="725" height="413" loading="lazy" itemprop="image" alt="" ></div></div><h3 class="c-media__title "> Waiting for prosperity: Modelling the economic benefits of reducing elective waiting lists in the NHS </h3><div class="c-media__summary o-text "> In this report we explore the most pressing bottlenecks in the elective treatment pathways. </div><time class="c-media__datetime "> 3 April 2023 </time></a></li></ol></div></section></div></main><footer class="c-site-footer o-grid"><div class="c-site-footer__contact"><h4 class="h-accessibility">Contact Details</h4></div><div class="c-site-footer__social"><nav class="c-site-social " aria-label="Social Media Links."><ul class="c-site-social__list"><li class="c-site-social__item"><a href="https://twitter.com/IPPR" rel="noreferrer" class="c-site-social__link"><span class="c-site-social__icon icon i-social"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="70" height="70" fill="currentColor" viewBox="0 0 70 70"><g clip-path="url(#a)"><path d="M38.044 32.55 49.957 19h-2.823L36.79 30.765 28.53 19H19l12.493 17.79L19 51h2.823l10.923-12.424L41.471 51H51L38.044 32.55Zm-3.866 4.398-1.266-1.772L22.84 21.08h4.336l8.128 11.377 1.266 1.771 10.566 14.788h-4.337l-8.621-12.067Z"/></g><defs><clipPath id="a"><path d="M0 0h70v70H0z"/></clipPath></defs></svg></span><span class="h-accessibility">Twitter</span></a></li><li class="c-site-social__item"><a href="https://www.linkedin.com/company/82853" rel="noreferrer" class="c-site-social__link"><span class="c-site-social__icon icon i-social"><svg fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 70 70"><path fill="currentColor" fill-rule="evenodd" clip-rule="evenodd" d="M25.1 19c0 1.2-.3 2.1-1 3-.7.7-1.7 1.1-3 1.1a3.9 3.9 0 0 1-4-4c-.1-1 .3-2 1-2.8.7-.9 1.7-1.3 3-1.3 1.2 0 2.2.4 2.9 1.2.7.8 1 1.8 1.1 2.9ZM17 51V24.9h8.1V51H17Zm11.9-16.9a139.9 139.9 0 0 0-.2-7.7h7.2l.4 3.4h.1a11 11 0 0 1 2.7-2.6c1.2-1 3-1.4 5-1.4 1.3 0 2.4.2 3.5.6 1.1.5 2 1.1 2.9 2 .7.8 1.4 2 1.8 3.3.5 1.3.7 2.8.7 4.6V51h-8V37.5c0-1.6-.4-2.9-1-4-.6-1-1.6-1.5-3-1.5-1.1 0-2 .3-2.5 1-.6.7-1 1.3-1.3 2l-.2 1v15h-8.1V34.1Z"/></svg></span><span class="h-accessibility">LinkedIn</span></a></li><li class="c-site-social__item"><a href="https://www.instagram.com/ippr_uk/" rel="noreferrer" class="c-site-social__link"><span class="c-site-social__icon icon i-social"><svg fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 70 70"><path fill="currentColor" fill-rule="evenodd" clip-rule="evenodd" d="M35 15c-5.43 0-6.11.02-8.25.12-2.12.1-3.58.44-4.85.93a9.8 9.8 0 0 0-3.54 2.3 9.8 9.8 0 0 0-2.31 3.55c-.5 1.27-.83 2.73-.93 4.85-.1 2.14-.12 2.82-.12 8.25s.02 6.11.12 8.25c.1 2.12.44 3.58.93 4.85a9.8 9.8 0 0 0 2.3 3.54 9.8 9.8 0 0 0 3.55 2.31c1.27.5 2.73.83 4.85.93 2.14.1 2.82.12 8.25.12s6.11-.02 8.25-.12c2.12-.1 3.58-.44 4.85-.93a9.8 9.8 0 0 0 3.54-2.3 9.8 9.8 0 0 0 2.31-3.55c.5-1.27.83-2.73.93-4.85.1-2.14.12-2.82.12-8.25s-.02-6.11-.12-8.25c-.1-2.12-.44-3.58-.93-4.85a9.8 9.8 0 0 0-2.3-3.54 9.8 9.8 0 0 0-3.55-2.31c-1.27-.5-2.73-.83-4.85-.93-2.14-.1-2.82-.12-8.25-.12Zm0 3.6c5.34 0 5.97.02 8.08.12 1.95.09 3.01.42 3.72.69.93.36 1.6.8 2.3 1.5a6.2 6.2 0 0 1 1.5 2.3c.27.7.6 1.76.68 3.7.1 2.12.12 2.75.12 8.09s-.02 5.97-.12 8.08c-.09 1.95-.41 3.01-.69 3.72a6.2 6.2 0 0 1-1.5 2.3 6.2 6.2 0 0 1-2.3 1.5c-.7.27-1.76.6-3.7.68-2.12.1-2.75.12-8.09.12s-5.97-.02-8.08-.12c-1.95-.09-3.01-.41-3.72-.69a6.2 6.2 0 0 1-2.3-1.5 6.2 6.2 0 0 1-1.5-2.3c-.26-.7-.6-1.76-.68-3.7-.1-2.12-.12-2.75-.12-8.09s.02-5.97.12-8.08c.09-1.95.42-3.01.69-3.72.36-.93.8-1.6 1.5-2.3a6.2 6.2 0 0 1 2.3-1.5c.7-.26 1.76-.6 3.7-.68 2.12-.1 2.75-.12 8.09-.12Zm0 23.08a6.69 6.69 0 1 1 0-13.38 6.69 6.69 0 0 1 0 13.38ZM24.7 35a10.3 10.3 0 1 0 20.61 0 10.3 10.3 0 0 0-20.61 0Zm20.92-8.18a2.42 2.42 0 1 0 0-4.85 2.42 2.42 0 0 0 0 4.85Z"/></svg></span><span class="h-accessibility">Instagram</span></a></li><li class="c-site-social__item"><a href="https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCK8bnqASv4NQTSjGJh6awZw" rel="noreferrer" class="c-site-social__link"><span class="c-site-social__icon icon i-social"><svg fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 70 70"><path fill="currentColor" fill-rule="evenodd" clip-rule="evenodd" d="M35 19c-5.4 0-9.6.2-12.6.5-3 .4-5.1 1.1-6.5 2.3a7.2 7.2 0 0 0-2.5 5 78 78 0 0 0 0 17.5c.2 2.1 1 3.8 2.5 5 1.4 1.1 3.6 1.9 6.5 2.2 3 .3 7.2.5 12.6.5 5.4 0 9.6-.2 12.6-.5s5.1-1 6.5-2.2a7.3 7.3 0 0 0 2.5-5 78 78 0 0 0 0-17.6c-.2-2.1-1-3.8-2.5-5a12.7 12.7 0 0 0-6.5-2.2c-3-.3-7.2-.5-12.6-.5Zm5.4 16.6-9 4.3h-1c-.3-.2-.4-.5-.4-1V31c0-.4.1-.7.4-.9h1l9 4.2c.4.2.6.4.6.7 0 .2-.2.5-.6.6Z"/></svg></span><span class="h-accessibility">YouTube</span></a></li><li class="c-site-social__item"><a href="https://www.facebook.com/ipprUK" rel="noreferrer" class="c-site-social__link"><span class="c-site-social__icon icon i-social"><svg fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 70 70"><path fill="currentColor" fill-rule="evenodd" clip-rule="evenodd" d="M45 22.6V16h-5.7c-2.3 0-4.3 1-5.9 2.8a10.2 10.2 0 0 0-2.3 6.7v3.7H25v6.2h6.1V54H38V35.4h6l1.1-6.2h-7.1v-4.4c0-.6.1-1.1.4-1.5.3-.5.7-.7 1-.7H45Z"/></svg></span><span class="h-accessibility">Facebook</span></a></li><li class="c-site-social__item"><a href="https://www.threads.net/@ippr_uk" rel="noreferrer" class="c-site-social__link"><span class="c-site-social__icon icon i-social"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="70" height="70" fill="currentColor" viewBox="0 0 70 70"><g clip-path="url(#a)"><path d="M43.566 33.758c-.145-.07-.293-.137-.442-.202-.26-4.836-2.88-7.604-7.278-7.632h-.06c-2.63 0-4.819 1.132-6.166 3.193l2.42 1.674c1.006-1.54 2.584-1.868 3.747-1.868h.04c1.449.01 2.542.435 3.249 1.263.515.603.859 1.436 1.03 2.488-1.285-.22-2.673-.288-4.158-.202-4.182.243-6.87 2.703-6.69 6.121.092 1.734.948 3.226 2.412 4.2 1.237.824 2.83 1.227 4.487 1.136 2.187-.12 3.903-.963 5.1-2.502.909-1.168 1.483-2.683 1.737-4.591 1.043.634 1.815 1.47 2.242 2.473.725 1.706.768 4.51-1.5 6.796-1.988 2.002-4.377 2.868-7.986 2.895-4.005-.03-7.033-1.325-9.002-3.85-1.844-2.364-2.797-5.78-2.833-10.15.036-4.37.989-7.786 2.833-10.15 1.969-2.525 4.997-3.82 9.001-3.85 4.034.03 7.115 1.332 9.16 3.869 1.002 1.244 1.758 2.808 2.256 4.633L50 28.739c-.604-2.246-1.554-4.18-2.847-5.785-2.621-3.253-6.455-4.92-11.394-4.954h-.02c-4.928.034-8.719 1.707-11.265 4.972C22.208 25.878 21.04 29.92 21 34.988v.024c.04 5.068 1.208 9.11 3.474 12.016C27.02 50.293 30.811 51.966 35.74 52h.02c4.382-.03 7.47-1.188 10.015-3.752 3.33-3.355 3.229-7.56 2.132-10.142-.788-1.851-2.288-3.355-4.34-4.348ZM36 40.933c-1.833.105-3.737-.725-3.83-2.502-.07-1.318.929-2.789 3.943-2.964.345-.02.683-.03 1.016-.03 1.095 0 2.119.107 3.05.313-.348 4.374-2.384 5.084-4.179 5.184Z"/></g><defs><clipPath id="a"><path d="M0 0h70v70H0z"/></clipPath></defs></svg></span><span class="h-accessibility">Threads</span></a></li></ul></nav></div><nav class="c-site-footer__nav--primary o-nav o-nav--primary"><h4 class="h-accessibility">More Site Pages</h4><ul class="o-nav__list"><li class="o-nav__item"><a href="https://www.ippr.org/jobs" class="o-nav__link "> Jobs </a></li><li class="o-nav__item"><a href="https://www.ippr.org/who-we-are/contact-us" class="o-nav__link "> Contact us </a></li><li class="o-nav__item"><a href="https://www.ippr.org/media-office" class="o-nav__link "> Press </a></li><li class="o-nav__item"><a href="https://www.ippr.org/get-involved/mailing-list" class="o-nav__link "> Mailing list </a></li></ul></nav><nav class="c-site-footer__nav--secondary o-nav o-nav--tertiary"><h4 class="h-accessibility">Legal Pages</h4><ul class="o-nav__list"><li class="o-nav__item"><a href="https://www.ippr.org/who-we-are/terms-and-conditions" class="o-nav__link "> Terms and conditions </a></li><li class="o-nav__item"><a href="https://www.ippr.org/who-we-are/accessibility" class="o-nav__link "> Accessibility </a></li><li class="o-nav__item"><a href="https://www.ippr.org/who-we-are/privacy-policy" class="o-nav__link "> Privacy policy </a></li><li class="o-nav__item"><a href="https://www.ippr.org/cookie-policy" class="o-nav__link "> Cookie policy </a></li><li class="o-nav__item"><a href="https://www.ippr.org/who-we-are/safeguarding" class="o-nav__link "> Safeguarding </a></li><li class="o-nav__item"><a href="https://www.ippr.org/site-map" class="o-nav__link "> Site map </a></li></ul></nav><div class="c-site-footer__meta"><h4 class="h-accessibility">Small Print</h4><p>Charity registration number: England and Wales 800065, Scotland SC046557 - Company number: England and Wales 2292601.</p></div><div class="c-site-footer__credit"><p>Website by <a href="https://supercooldesign.co.uk" class="o-nav__link" style="display:inline" rel="nofollow">Supercool</a>.</p></div></footer><div id="site-modal"><v-modal></v-modal></div></div><script src="//cc.cdn.civiccomputing.com/9/cookieControl-9.x.min.js" type="text/javascript"></script><script> window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; function gtag() { dataLayer.push(arguments); } gtag('consent', 'default', { 'ad_storage': 'denied', 'ad_user_data': 'denied', 'ad_personalization': 'denied', 'analytics_storage': 'denied' }); </script><script> var config = { "apiKey": "a88f7e6bf38bdc4266b54030ebeddac0c73ad3a0", "product": "CUSTOM", "optionalCookies": [ { "name": "analytics", "label": "Analytical Cookies", "description": "Analytical cookies help us to fulfil our charitable objectives, apply for funding to keep IPPR doing the things it does best and improve our website by collecting and reporting information on its usage.", "cookies": [ '_ga', '_ga*', '_gid', '_gat', '__utma', '__utmt', '__utmb', '__utmc', '__utmz', '__utmv' ], "onAccept": function () { gtag('consent', 'update', { 'analytics_storage': 'granted' }); CookieControlTriggerUpdateEvent(); document.dispatchEvent(new CustomEvent('cookie-consent-updated')); }, "onRevoke": function () { gtag('consent', 'update', { 'analytics_storage': 'denied' }); CookieControlTriggerUpdateEvent(); } }, { "name": "marketing", "label": "Marketing Cookies", "description": "We use marketing cookies to help us improve the relevancy of advertising campaigns you receive.", "cookies": [ 'fr', 'tr', '_fbc', '_fbp', ], "onAccept": function () { gtag('consent', 'update', { 'ad_user_data': 'granted', 'ad_personalization': 'granted', 'ad_storage': 'granted' }); CookieControlTriggerUpdateEvent(); document.dispatchEvent(new CustomEvent('cookie-consent-updated')); }, "onRevoke": function () { gtag('consent', 'update', { 'ad_user_data': 'denied', 'ad_personalization': 'denied', 'ad_storage': 'denied' }); CookieControlTriggerUpdateEvent(); } }, { "name": "security", "label": "Security", "description": "We use security cookies to help protect the site from malicious access.", "cookies": [], "onAccept": "function () {}", "onRevoke": "function () {}" }], "mode": "gdpr", "initialState": "box", "rejectButton": true, "subDomains": true, "excludedCountries": "open", "position": "left", "layout": "popup", "acceptBehaviour": "all", "closeStyle": "icon", "branding": { "fontColor": "", "backgroundColor": "#000", "removeAbout": true, "removeIcon": true, }, statement: { description: 'For more detailed information, please check our', name: 'Cookie and Privacy Statement', updated: '01/01/2023', url: '//www.ippr.org/cookie-policy', }, text: { notifyTitle: 'This website uses cookies', title: 'Your cookie settings', } }; CookieControl.load(config); var cookieControlUpdateTimer; function CookieControlTriggerUpdateEvent() { clearTimeout(cookieControlUpdateTimer); cookieControlUpdateTimer = setTimeout(function() { dataLayer.push({ 'event': 'cookie_consent_updated' }); }); } </script><script src="https://www.ippr.org/dist/js/app-d54f404042.js"></script><script type="application/ld+json"> { "@context": "http://schema.org", "@type": "WebPage", "author": { "@id": "https://www.ippr.org/" }, "copyrightHolder": { "@id": "Institute for Public Policy Research" }, "copyrightYear": "2024", "creator": { "@id": "https://www.supercooldesign.co.uk" }, "dateModified": "2024-11-28T11:10:58+00:00", "description": "The Institute for Public Policy Research (IPPR) is an independent charity working towards a fairer, greener, and more prosperous society.", "headline": "Dr Annie Williamson", "image": { "@type": "ImageObject", "url": "/placeholder-large.png" }, "inLanguage": "en-gb", "name": "IPPR", "potentialAction": { "@type": "SearchAction", "target": "search?q={search_term_string}" }, "publisher": { "@id": "Institute for Public Policy Research" }, "url": "https://www.ippr.org/" } </script><script type="application/ld+json"> { "@context": "http://schema.org", "@type": "Organization", "logo": "https://ippr-org.transforms.svdcdn.com/production/IPPR-logos/IPPR-2017-Logo_Standard_darkteal.png?w=722&q=100&auto=format&fit=crop&dm=1728042372&s=8a847c4db4306ed8d94f595faa2d2f52", "url": "https://www.ippr.org/", "sameAs" : ["https://twitter.com/IPPR","https://www.linkedin.com/company/82853","https://www.instagram.com/ippr_uk/","https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCK8bnqASv4NQTSjGJh6awZw","https://www.facebook.com/ipprUK","https://www.threads.net/@ippr_uk"], "address": { "@type": "PostalAddress","streetAddress": "8 Storey's Gate","addressLocality": "London","addressCountry": "UK","postalCode": "SW1P 3AY"} , "email": "", "name": "IPPR", "contactPoint" : [ { "@type" : "ContactPoint", "telephone" : "+442074706100", "contactType" : "Reception", "areaServed" : "GB", "availableLanguage": "English" } ] } </script><script type="application/ld+json"> { "@context": "https://schema.org", "@type": "LocalBusiness", "@id": "https://www.ippr.org/", "name": "IPPR", "email": "", "logo": "https://ippr-org.transforms.svdcdn.com/production/IPPR-logos/IPPR-2017-Logo_Standard_darkteal.png?w=722&q=100&auto=format&fit=crop&dm=1728042372&s=8a847c4db4306ed8d94f595faa2d2f52", "telephone": "+442074706100", "priceRange": "$$", "url": "https://www.ippr.org/", "sameAs" : ["https://twitter.com/IPPR", "https://www.linkedin.com/company/82853", "https://www.instagram.com/ippr_uk/", "https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCK8bnqASv4NQTSjGJh6awZw", "https://www.facebook.com/ipprUK", "https://www.threads.net/@ippr_uk" ], "image": [ ] , "address": { "@type": "PostalAddress","streetAddress": "8 Storey's Gate","addressLocality": "London","addressCountry": "UK","postalCode": "SW1P 3AY"} , "contactPoint" : [ { "@type" : "ContactPoint", "telephone" : "+442074706100", "contactType" : "Reception", "areaServed" : "GB", "availableLanguage": "English" } ] } </script><script type="application/ld+json"> { "@context": "http://schema.org", "@type": "Person", "image": "https://ippr-org.transforms.svdcdn.com/production/Staff/Annie-Williamson.jpg?w=2334&q=100&auto=format&fit=crop&crop=focalpoint&fp-x=0.5485&fp-y=0.3081&dm=1727788078&s=df431fa02afaf141a295eda4f248dbb6", "name": "Dr Annie Williamson", '"jobTitle": "Research fellow",' } </script></body></html>