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href="#History_of_the_term_"trench""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>History of the term "trench"</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_of_the_term_"trench"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Morphology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Morphology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Morphology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Morphology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Morphology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Morphology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sedimentation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sedimentation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Sedimentation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sedimentation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Erosive_versus_accretionary_margins" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Erosive_versus_accretionary_margins"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Erosive versus accretionary margins</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Erosive_versus_accretionary_margins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Earthquakes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Earthquakes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Earthquakes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Earthquakes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trench_rollback" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trench_rollback"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Trench rollback</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Trench_rollback-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Trench rollback subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Trench_rollback-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Processes_involved" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Processes_involved"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Processes involved</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Processes_involved-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mantle_interactions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mantle_interactions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Mantle interactions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mantle_interactions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hydrothermal_activity_and_associated_biomes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hydrothermal_activity_and_associated_biomes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Hydrothermal activity and associated biomes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hydrothermal_activity_and_associated_biomes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Deepest_oceanic_trenches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Deepest_oceanic_trenches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Deepest oceanic trenches</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Deepest_oceanic_trenches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notable_oceanic_trenches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_oceanic_trenches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Notable oceanic trenches</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notable_oceanic_trenches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ancient_oceanic_trenches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_oceanic_trenches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Ancient oceanic trenches</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_oceanic_trenches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Oceanic trench</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 59 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-59" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">59 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oseaantrog" title="Oseaantrog – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Oseaantrog" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%82_%D9%85%D8%AD%D9%8A%D8%B7%D9%8A" title="خندق محيطي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="خندق محيطي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuexa_oce%C3%A1nica" title="Fuexa oceánica – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Fuexa oceánica" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%96%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A4" title="সমুদ্র খাত – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="সমুদ্র খাত" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D0%B6%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B1" title="Глыбакаводны жолаб – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Глыбакаводны жолаб" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Океанска падина – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Океанска падина" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foz_danvorel" title="Foz danvorel – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Foz danvorel" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossa_marina" title="Fossa marina – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Fossa marina" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hlubokomo%C5%99sk%C3%BD_p%C5%99%C3%ADkop" title="Hlubokomořský příkop – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Hlubokomořský příkop" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceangrav" title="Oceangrav – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Oceangrav" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiefseerinne" title="Tiefseerinne – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Tiefseerinne" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%BCvik" title="Süvik – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Süvik" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fosa_oce%C3%A1nica" title="Fosa oceánica – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Fosa oceánica" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Profunda_submara_fosego" title="Profunda submara fosego – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Profunda submara fosego" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Itsas_hobi" title="Itsas hobi – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Itsas hobi" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B2%DA%AF%D9%88%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%84" title="درازگودال – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="درازگودال" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fosse_oc%C3%A9anique" title="Fosse océanique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Fosse océanique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinse_aig%C3%A9anach" title="Trinse aigéanach – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Trinse aigéanach" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fosa_abisal" title="Fosa abisal – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Fosa abisal" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%95%B4%EA%B5%AC" title="해구 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="해구" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BD%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%BB%D6%80%D5%B5%D5%A1_%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A4%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6%D5%A4%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Խորջրյա անդունդներ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Խորջրյա անդունդներ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4" title="महासागरीय गर्त – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="महासागरीय गर्त" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanski_jarak" title="Oceanski jarak – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Oceanski jarak" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palung_Samudra" title="Palung Samudra – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Palung Samudra" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossa_oceanica" title="Fossa oceanica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Fossa oceanica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teleng" title="Teleng – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Teleng" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A6%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90_%E1%83%96%E1%83%A6%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%A6%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98" title="ღრმა ზღვის ღარი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ღრმა ზღვის ღარი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D2%B1%D2%A3%D2%93%D1%8B%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Шұңғыма – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Шұңғыма" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mfereji_wa_bahari" title="Mfereji wa bahari – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Mfereji wa bahari" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tranche_soumaren" title="Tranche soumaren – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Tranche soumaren" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%83%D0%BB" title="Кобул – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Кобул" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giliavandenis_lovys" title="Giliavandenis lovys – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Giliavandenis lovys" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/condi_jorne_xamsi" title="condi jorne xamsi – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="condi jorne xamsi" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="Lojban" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>La .lojban.</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%93ce%C3%A1ni_%C3%A1rok" title="Óceáni árok – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Óceáni árok" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2" title="Океански ров – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Океански ров" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE" title="समुद्रगर्ता – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="समुद्रगर्ता" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurang_lautan" title="Jurang lautan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Jurang lautan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a 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searchaux" style="display:none">Long and narrow depressions of the sea floor</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Subduction-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Subduction-en.svg/400px-Subduction-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="230" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Subduction-en.svg/600px-Subduction-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Subduction-en.svg/800px-Subduction-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1482" data-file-height="854" /></a><figcaption>Oceanic crust is formed at an <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_ridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Oceanic ridge">oceanic ridge</a>, while the lithosphere is subducted back into the asthenosphere at trenches</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Oceanic trenches</b> are prominent, long, narrow <a href="/wiki/Topography" title="Topography">topographic</a> <a href="/wiki/Depression_(geology)" title="Depression (geology)">depressions</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Seabed" title="Seabed">ocean floor</a>. They are typically 50 to 100 kilometers (30 to 60 mi) wide and 3 to 4 km (1.9 to 2.5 mi) below the level of the surrounding oceanic floor, but can be thousands of kilometers in length. There are about 50,000 km (31,000 mi) of oceanic trenches worldwide, mostly around the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a>, but also in the eastern <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a> and a few other locations. The greatest ocean depth measured is in the <a href="/wiki/Challenger_Deep" title="Challenger Deep">Challenger Deep</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Mariana_Trench" title="Mariana Trench">Mariana Trench</a>, at a depth of 10,994 m (36,070 ft) below <a href="/wiki/Sea_level" title="Sea level">sea level</a>. </p><p>Oceanic trenches are a feature of the Earth's distinctive <a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">plate tectonics</a>. They mark the locations of <a href="/wiki/Convergent_boundary" title="Convergent boundary">convergent plate boundaries</a>, along which <a href="/wiki/Lithosphere" title="Lithosphere">lithospheric</a> plates move towards each other at rates that vary from a few millimeters to over ten centimeters per year. Oceanic lithosphere moves into trenches at a global rate of about 3 km<sup>2</sup> (1.2 sq mi) per year.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERowley2002_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowley2002-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A trench marks the position at which the flexed, <a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">subducting</a> <a href="/wiki/Slab_(geology)" title="Slab (geology)">slab</a> begins to descend beneath another lithospheric slab. Trenches are generally parallel to and about 200 km (120 mi) from a <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_arc" title="Volcanic arc">volcanic arc</a>. </p><p>Much of the fluid trapped in <a href="/wiki/Sediment" title="Sediment">sediments</a> of the subducting slab returns to the surface at the oceanic trench, producing <a href="/wiki/Mud_volcano" title="Mud volcano">mud volcanoes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">cold seeps</a>. These support unique <a href="/wiki/Biome" title="Biome">biomes</a> based on <a href="/wiki/Chemotrophic" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemotrophic">chemotrophic</a> microorganisms. There is concern that <a href="/wiki/Plastic_debris" class="mw-redirect" title="Plastic debris">plastic debris</a> is accumulating in trenches and threatening these communities. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geographic_distribution">Geographic distribution</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oceanic_trench&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Geographic distribution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pacific_elevation2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Pacific_elevation2.jpg/310px-Pacific_elevation2.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="264" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Pacific_elevation2.jpg/465px-Pacific_elevation2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Pacific_elevation2.jpg/620px-Pacific_elevation2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2036" data-file-height="1736" /></a><figcaption>Major Pacific trenches (1–10) and fracture zones (11–20): 1. <a href="/wiki/Kermadec_Trench" title="Kermadec Trench">Kermadec</a> 2. <a href="/wiki/Tonga_Trench" title="Tonga Trench">Tonga</a> 3. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bougainville_Trench&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bougainville Trench (page does not exist)">Bougainville</a> 4. <a href="/wiki/Mariana_Trench" title="Mariana Trench">Mariana</a> 5. <a href="/wiki/Izu%E2%80%93Ogasawara_Trench" title="Izu–Ogasawara Trench">Izu–Ogasawara</a> 6. <a href="/wiki/Japan_Trench" title="Japan Trench">Japan</a> 7. <a href="/wiki/Kuril%E2%80%93Kamchatka_Trench" title="Kuril–Kamchatka Trench">Kuril–Kamchatka</a> 8. <a href="/wiki/Aleutian_Trench" title="Aleutian Trench">Aleutian</a> 9. <a href="/wiki/Middle_America_Trench" title="Middle America Trench">Middle America</a> 10. <a href="/wiki/Peru%E2%80%93Chile_Trench" title="Peru–Chile Trench">Peru–Chile</a> 11. Mendocino 12. Murray 13. Molokai 14. Clarion 15. Clipperton 16. Challenger 17. Eltanin 18. Udintsev 19. East Pacific Rise (S-shaped) 20. Nazca Ridge </figcaption></figure> <p>There are approximately 50,000 km (31,000 mi) of <a href="/wiki/Convergent_boundary" title="Convergent boundary">convergent plate margins</a> worldwide. These are mostly located around the Pacific Ocean, but are also found in the eastern <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a>, with a few shorter convergent margin segments in other parts of the Indian Ocean, in the Atlantic Ocean, and in the Mediterranean.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStern2005_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStern2005-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are found on the oceanward side of <a href="/wiki/Island_arcs" class="mw-redirect" title="Island arcs">island arcs</a> and Andean-type <a href="/wiki/Orogen" class="mw-redirect" title="Orogen">orogens</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeareyKlepeisVine2009250_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeareyKlepeisVine2009250-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Globally, there are over 50 major ocean trenches covering an area of 1.9 million km<sup>2</sup> or about 0.5% of the oceans.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarrisMacMillan-LawlerRuppBaker2014_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarrisMacMillan-LawlerRuppBaker2014-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Trenches are geomorphologically distinct from <a href="/wiki/Trough_(geology)" title="Trough (geology)">troughs</a>. Troughs are elongated depressions of the sea floor with steep sides and flat bottoms, while trenches are characterized by a V-shaped profile.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarrisMacMillan-LawlerRuppBaker2014_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarrisMacMillan-LawlerRuppBaker2014-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Trenches that are partially infilled are sometimes described as troughs, for example the <a href="/wiki/Makran" title="Makran">Makran</a> Trough.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDastanpour1996_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDastanpour1996-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some trenches are completely buried and lack bathymetric expression as in the <a href="/wiki/Cascadia_subduction_zone" title="Cascadia subduction zone">Cascadia subduction zone</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThomasBurbidgeCummins2007_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomasBurbidgeCummins2007-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which is completely filled with sediments.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldfingerNelsonMoreyJohnson2012_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldfingerNelsonMoreyJohnson2012-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite their appearance, in these instances the fundamental <a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">plate-tectonic</a> structure is still an oceanic trench. Some troughs look similar to oceanic trenches but possess other tectonic structures. One example is the <a href="/wiki/Lesser_Antilles" title="Lesser Antilles">Lesser Antilles</a> Trough, which is the forearc basin of the <a href="/wiki/Lesser_Antilles_subduction_zone" title="Lesser Antilles subduction zone">Lesser Antilles subduction zone</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWestbrookMascleBiju-Duval1984_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWestbrookMascleBiju-Duval1984-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also not a trench is the <a href="/wiki/New_Caledonia" title="New Caledonia">New Caledonia</a> trough, which is an extensional <a href="/wiki/Sedimentary_basin" title="Sedimentary basin">sedimentary basin</a> related to the <a href="/wiki/Tonga-Kermadec_subduction_zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Tonga-Kermadec subduction zone">Tonga-Kermadec subduction zone</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHackneySutherlandCollot2012_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHackneySutherlandCollot2012-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, the Cayman Trough, which is a <a href="/wiki/Pull-apart_basin" title="Pull-apart basin">pull-apart basin</a> within a <a href="/wiki/Transform_fault" title="Transform fault">transform fault</a> zone,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEinsele2000_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEinsele2000-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is not an oceanic trench. </p><p>Trenches, along with <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_arc" title="Volcanic arc">volcanic arcs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wadati%E2%80%93Benioff_zone" title="Wadati–Benioff zone">Wadati–Benioff zones</a> (zones of <a href="/wiki/Earthquake" title="Earthquake">earthquakes</a> under a volcanic arc) are diagnostic of convergent plate boundaries and their deeper manifestations, <a href="/wiki/Subduction_zones" class="mw-redirect" title="Subduction zones">subduction zones</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStern2005_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStern2005-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeareyKlepeisVine2009250_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeareyKlepeisVine2009250-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeersenVoelkerBehrmann2018_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeersenVoelkerBehrmann2018-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Here, two <a href="/wiki/Tectonic_plates" class="mw-redirect" title="Tectonic plates">tectonic plates</a> are drifting into each other at a rate of a few millimeters to over 10 centimeters (4 in) per year. At least one of the plates is <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_lithosphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Oceanic lithosphere">oceanic lithosphere</a>, which plunges under the other plate to be recycled in the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_mantle" title="Earth's mantle">Earth's mantle</a>. </p><p>Trenches are related to, but distinct from, continental collision zones, such as the <a href="/wiki/Himalayas" title="Himalayas">Himalayas</a>. Unlike in trenches, in continental collision zones <a href="/wiki/Continental_crust" title="Continental crust">continental crust</a> enters a subduction zone. When buoyant continental crust enters a trench, subduction comes to a halt and the area becomes a zone of continental collision. Features analogous to trenches are associated with <a href="/wiki/Collision_zone" title="Collision zone">collision zones</a>. One such feature is the <i>peripheral foreland basin</i>, a sediment-filled <a href="/wiki/Foredeep" class="mw-redirect" title="Foredeep">foredeep</a>. Examples of peripheral foreland basins include the <a href="/wiki/Floodplains" class="mw-redirect" title="Floodplains">floodplains</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Ganges_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Ganges River">Ganges River</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Tigris-Euphrates_river_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Tigris-Euphrates river system">Tigris-Euphrates river system</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStern2005_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStern2005-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_of_the_term_"trench""><span id="History_of_the_term_.22trench.22"></span>History of the term "trench"</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oceanic_trench&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History of the term "trench""><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Trenches were not clearly defined until the late 1940s and 1950s. The <a href="/wiki/Bathymetry" title="Bathymetry">bathymetry</a> of the ocean was poorly known prior to the <a href="/wiki/Challenger_expedition" title="Challenger expedition">Challenger expedition</a> of 1872–1876,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEiseley1946_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEiseley1946-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which took 492 soundings of the deep ocean.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeyl196949_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeyl196949-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At station #225, the expedition discovered <a href="/wiki/Challenger_Deep" title="Challenger Deep">Challenger Deep</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThomsonMurray1895_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomsonMurray1895-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> now known to be the southern end of the <a href="/wiki/Mariana_Trench" title="Mariana Trench">Mariana Trench</a>. The laying of <a href="/wiki/Transatlantic_telegraph_cable" title="Transatlantic telegraph cable">transatlantic telegraph cables</a> on the seafloor between the continents during the late 19th and early 20th centuries provided further motivation for improved bathymetry.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcConnell1990_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcConnell1990-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term <i>trench</i>, in its modern sense of a prominent elongated depression of the sea bottom, was first used by Johnstone in his 1923 textbook <i>An Introduction to Oceanography</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnstone1923_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnstone1923-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStern2005_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStern2005-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the 1920s and 1930s, <a href="/wiki/Felix_Andries_Vening_Meinesz" title="Felix Andries Vening Meinesz">Felix Andries Vening Meinesz</a> measured gravity over trenches using a newly developed <a href="/wiki/Gravimeter" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravimeter">gravimeter</a> that could measure <a href="/wiki/Gravity" title="Gravity">gravity</a> from aboard a submarine.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeersenVoelkerBehrmann2018_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeersenVoelkerBehrmann2018-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He proposed the <i>tectogene hypothesis</i> to explain the belts of negative gravity anomalies that were found near island arcs. According to this hypothesis, the belts were zones of <a href="/wiki/Downwelling" title="Downwelling">downwelling</a> of light crustal rock arising from subcrustal convection currents. The tectogene hypothesis was further developed by Griggs in 1939, using an analogue model based on a pair of rotating drums. <a href="/wiki/Harry_Hammond_Hess" title="Harry Hammond Hess">Harry Hammond Hess</a> substantially revised the theory based on his geological analysis.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllwrardt1993_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllwrardt1993-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>World War II in the Pacific led to great improvements of bathymetry, particularly in the western Pacific. In light of these new measurements, the linear nature of the deeps became clear. There was a rapid growth of deep sea research efforts, especially the widespread use of <a href="/wiki/Echo_sounding" title="Echo sounding">echosounders</a> in the 1950s and 1960s. These efforts confirmed the morphological utility of the term "trench." Important trenches were identified, sampled, and mapped via sonar. </p><p>The early phase of trench exploration reached its peak with the 1960 descent of the <a href="/wiki/Bathyscaphe" title="Bathyscaphe">Bathyscaphe</a> <a href="/wiki/Bathyscaphe_Trieste" class="mw-redirect" title="Bathyscaphe Trieste"><i>Trieste</i></a> to the bottom of the Challenger Deep. Following <a href="/wiki/Robert_S._Dietz" title="Robert S. Dietz">Robert S. Dietz</a>' and <a href="/wiki/Harry_Hammond_Hess" title="Harry Hammond Hess">Harry Hess</a>' promulgation of the seafloor spreading hypothesis in the early 1960s and the plate tectonic revolution in the late 1960s, the oceanic trench became an important concept in <a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">plate tectonic</a> theory.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeersenVoelkerBehrmann2018_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeersenVoelkerBehrmann2018-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Morphology">Morphology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oceanic_trench&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Morphology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Subduction_Trench_Schematic.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Subduction_Trench_Schematic.jpg/440px-Subduction_Trench_Schematic.jpg" decoding="async" width="440" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Subduction_Trench_Schematic.jpg/660px-Subduction_Trench_Schematic.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Subduction_Trench_Schematic.jpg/880px-Subduction_Trench_Schematic.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1138" data-file-height="577" /></a><figcaption>Cross section of an oceanic trench formed along an oceanic-oceanic <a href="/wiki/Convergent_boundary" title="Convergent boundary">convergent boundary</a></figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Peru-Chile_trench.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Peru-Chile_trench.jpg/160px-Peru-Chile_trench.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="419" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Peru-Chile_trench.jpg/240px-Peru-Chile_trench.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Peru-Chile_trench.jpg/320px-Peru-Chile_trench.jpg 2x" data-file-width="573" data-file-height="1500" /></a><figcaption> The <a href="/wiki/Peru%E2%80%93Chile_Trench" title="Peru–Chile Trench">Peru–Chile Trench</a> is located just left of the sharp line between the blue deep ocean (on the left) and the light blue continental shelf, along the west coast of South America. It runs along an oceanic-continental boundary, where the oceanic <a href="/wiki/Nazca_plate" title="Nazca plate">Nazca plate</a> subducts beneath the continental <a href="/wiki/South_American_plate" title="South American plate">South American plate</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Oceanic trenches are 50 to 100 kilometers (30 to 60 mi) wide and have an asymmetric V-shape, with the steeper slope (8 to 20 degrees) on the inner (overriding) side of the trench and the gentler slope (around 5 degrees) on the outer (subducting) side of the trench.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeareyKlepeisVine2009250–251_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeareyKlepeisVine2009250–251-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeersenVoelkerBehrmann2018420_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeersenVoelkerBehrmann2018420-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The bottom of the trench marks the boundary between the subducting and overriding plates, known as the basal plate boundary shear<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeersenVoelkerBehrmann2018411–412_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeersenVoelkerBehrmann2018411–412-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or the subduction <a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9collement" title="Décollement">décollement</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStern2005_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStern2005-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The depth of the trench depends on the starting depth of the oceanic lithosphere as it begins its plunge into the trench, the angle at which the slab plunges, and the amount of sedimentation in the trench. Both starting depth and subduction angle are greater for older oceanic lithosphere, which is reflected in the deep trenches of the western Pacific. Here the bottoms of the Marianas and the Tonga–Kermadec trenches are up to 10–11 kilometers (6.2–6.8 mi) below sea level. In the eastern Pacific, where the subducting oceanic lithosphere is much younger, the depth of the Peru-Chile trench is around 7 to 8 kilometers (4.3 to 5.0 mi).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeareyKlepeisVine2009250–251_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeareyKlepeisVine2009250–251-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Though narrow, oceanic trenches are remarkably long and continuous, forming the largest linear depressions on earth. An individual trench can be thousands of kilometers long.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeareyKlepeisVine2009250_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeareyKlepeisVine2009250-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most trenches are convex towards the subducting slab, which is attributed to the spherical geometry of the Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeareyKlepeisVine2009251_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeareyKlepeisVine2009251-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The trench asymmetry reflects the different physical mechanisms that determine the inner and outer slope angle. The outer slope angle of the trench is determined by the bending radius of the subducting slab, as determined by its elastic thickness. Since oceanic lithosphere thickens with age, the outer slope angle is ultimately determined by the age of the subducting slab.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBodineWatts1979_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBodineWatts1979-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeersenVoelkerBehrmann2018411–412_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeersenVoelkerBehrmann2018411–412-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The inner slope angle is determined by the <a href="/wiki/Angle_of_repose" title="Angle of repose">angle of repose</a> of the overriding plate edge.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeersenVoelkerBehrmann2018411–412_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeersenVoelkerBehrmann2018411–412-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This reflects frequent earthquakes along the trench that prevent oversteepening of the inner slope.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStern2005_2-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStern2005-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As the subducting plate approaches the trench, it bends slightly upwards before beginning its plunge into the depths. As a result, the outer trench slope is bounded by an <i>outer trench high</i>. This is subtle, often only tens of meters high, and is typically located a few tens of kilometers from the trench axis. On the outer slope itself, where the plate begins to bend downwards into the trench, the upper part of the subducting slab is broken by bending faults that give the outer trench slope a <a href="/wiki/Horst_and_graben" title="Horst and graben">horst and graben</a> topography. The formation of these bending faults is suppressed where oceanic ridges or large seamounts are subducting into the trench, but the bending faults cut right across smaller seamounts. Where the subducting slab is only thinly veneered with sediments, the outer slope will often show <a href="/wiki/Seafloor_spreading" title="Seafloor spreading">seafloor spreading</a> ridges oblique to the horst and graben ridges.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeersenVoelkerBehrmann2018411–412_20-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeersenVoelkerBehrmann2018411–412-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sedimentation">Sedimentation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oceanic_trench&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Sedimentation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Trench morphology is strongly modified by the amount of sedimentation in the trench. This varies from practically no sedimentation, as in the Tonga-Kermadec trench, to completely filled with sediments, as with the Cascadia subduction zone. Sedimentation is largely controlled by whether the trench is near a continental sediment source.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeareyKlepeisVine2009251_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeareyKlepeisVine2009251-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The range of sedimentation is well illustrated by the Chilean trench. The north Chile portion of the trench, which lies along the <a href="/wiki/Atacama_Desert" title="Atacama Desert">Atacama Desert</a> with its very slow rate of weathering, is sediment-starved, with from 20 to a few hundred meters of sediments on the trench floor. The tectonic morphology of this trench segment is fully exposed on the ocean bottom. The central Chile segment of the trench is moderately sedimented, with sediments onlapping onto pelagic sediments or ocean basement of the subducting slab, but the trench morphology is still clearly discernible. The southern Chile segment of the trench is fully sedimented, to the point where the outer rise and slope are no longer discernible. Other fully sedimented trenches include the Makran Trough, where sediments are up to 7.5 kilometers (4.7 mi) thick; the Cascadia subduction zone, which is completed buried by 3 to 4 kilometers (1.9 to 2.5 mi) of sediments; and the northernmost Sumatra subduction zone, which is buried under 6 kilometers (3.7 mi) of sediments.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeersenVoelkerBehrmann2018412–416_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeersenVoelkerBehrmann2018412–416-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sediments are sometimes transported along the axis of an oceanic trench. The central Chile trench experiences transport of sediments from source fans along an axial channel.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVölkerGeersenContreras-ReyesReichert2013_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVölkerGeersenContreras-ReyesReichert2013-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similar transport of sediments has been documented in the Aleutian trench.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStern2005_2-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStern2005-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition to sedimentation from rivers draining into a trench, sedimentation also takes place from landslides on the tectonically steepened inner slope, often driven by <a href="/wiki/Megathrust_earthquake" title="Megathrust earthquake">megathrust earthquakes</a>. The Reloca Slide of the central Chile trench is an example of this process.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVölkerWeinrebeBehrmannBialas2009_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVölkerWeinrebeBehrmannBialas2009-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Erosive_versus_accretionary_margins">Erosive versus accretionary margins</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oceanic_trench&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Erosive versus accretionary margins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Convergent margins are classified as erosive or accretionary, and this has a strong influence on the morphology of the inner slope of the trench. Erosive margins, such as the northern Peru-Chile, Tonga-Kermadec, and Mariana trenches, correspond to sediment-starved trenches.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeareyKlepeisVine2009250_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeareyKlepeisVine2009250-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The subducting slab erodes material from the lower part of the overriding slab, reducing its volume. The edge of the slab experiences subsidence and steepening, with normal faulting. The slope is underlain by relative strong igneous and metamorphic rock, which maintains a high angle of repose.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeersenVoelkerBehrmann2018416_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeersenVoelkerBehrmann2018416-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over half of all convergent margins are erosive margins.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStern2005_2-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStern2005-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Accretionary margins, such as the southern Peru-Chile, Cascadia, and Aleutians, are associated with moderately to heavily sedimented trenches. As the slab subducts, sediments are "bulldozed" onto the edge of the overriding plate, producing an <i><a href="/wiki/Accretionary_wedge" title="Accretionary wedge">accretionary wedge</a></i> or <i>accretionary prism</i>. This builds the overriding plate outwards. Because the sediments lack strength, their angle of repose is gentler than the rock making up the inner slope of erosive margin trenches. The inner slope is underlain by <a href="/wiki/Imbrication_(sedimentology)" title="Imbrication (sedimentology)">imbricated</a> <a href="/wiki/Thrust_sheets" class="mw-redirect" title="Thrust sheets">thrust sheets</a> of sediments. The inner slope topography is roughened by localized <a href="/wiki/Mass_wasting" title="Mass wasting">mass wasting</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeersenVoelkerBehrmann2018416_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeersenVoelkerBehrmann2018416-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cascadia has practically no bathymetric expression of the outer rise and trench, due to complete sediment filling, but the inner trench slope is complex, with many thrust ridges. These compete with canyon formation by rivers draining into the trench. Inner trench slopes of erosive margins rarely show thrust ridges.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeersenVoelkerBehrmann2018420_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeersenVoelkerBehrmann2018420-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Accretionary prisms grow in two ways. The first is by frontal accretion, in which sediments are scraped off the downgoing plate and emplaced at the front of the accretionary prism.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStern2005_2-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStern2005-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the accretionary wedge grows, older sediments further from the trench become increasingly <a href="/wiki/Lithification" title="Lithification">lithified</a>, and faults and other structural features are steepened by rotation towards the trench.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeareyKlepeisVine2009264–266_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeareyKlepeisVine2009264–266-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The other mechanism for accretionary prism growth is underplating<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStern2005_2-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStern2005-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (also known as basal accretion<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBangsMorganTréhuContreras-Reyes2020_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBangsMorganTréhuContreras-Reyes2020-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) of subducted sediments, together with some <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_crust" title="Oceanic crust">oceanic crust</a>, along the shallow parts of the subduction decollement. The <a href="/wiki/Franciscan_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="Franciscan Group">Franciscan Group</a> of <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a> is interpreted as an ancient accretionary prism in which underplating is recorded as tectonic mélanges and duplex structures.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStern2005_2-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStern2005-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oceanic-oceanic_convergence_Fig21oceanocean.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Oceanic-oceanic_convergence_Fig21oceanocean.gif/240px-Oceanic-oceanic_convergence_Fig21oceanocean.gif" decoding="async" width="240" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0c/Oceanic-oceanic_convergence_Fig21oceanocean.gif 1.5x" data-file-width="302" data-file-height="174" /></a><figcaption>Oceanic trench formed along an oceanic-oceanic <a href="/wiki/Convergent_boundary" title="Convergent boundary">convergent boundary</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cross_section_of_mariana_trench.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Cross_section_of_mariana_trench.svg/370px-Cross_section_of_mariana_trench.svg.png" decoding="async" width="370" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Cross_section_of_mariana_trench.svg/555px-Cross_section_of_mariana_trench.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Cross_section_of_mariana_trench.svg/740px-Cross_section_of_mariana_trench.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="319" /></a><figcaption> The <a href="/wiki/Mariana_Trench" title="Mariana Trench">Mariana Trench</a> contains the deepest part of the world's oceans, and runs along an oceanic-oceanic convergent boundary. It is the result of the oceanic <a href="/wiki/Pacific_plate" title="Pacific plate">Pacific plate</a> <a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">subducting</a> beneath the oceanic <a href="/wiki/Mariana_plate" title="Mariana plate">Mariana plate</a>.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Earthquakes">Earthquakes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oceanic_trench&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Earthquakes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Frequent <a href="/wiki/Megathrust_earthquake" title="Megathrust earthquake">megathrust earthquakes</a> modify the inner slope of the trench by triggering massive landslides. These leave semicircular landslide scarps with slopes of up to 20 degrees on the headwalls and sidewalls.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVölkerGeersenContreras-ReyesSellanes2014_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVölkerGeersenContreras-ReyesSellanes2014-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Subduction of seamounts and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Aseismic_ridges&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Aseismic ridges (page does not exist)">aseismic ridges</a> into the trench may increase <a href="/wiki/Aseismic_creep" title="Aseismic creep">aseismic creep</a> and reduce the severity of earthquakes. Contrariwise, subduction of large amounts of sediments may allow ruptures along the subduction décollement to propagate for great distances to produce megathrust earthquakes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeersenVoelkerBehrmann2018421_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeersenVoelkerBehrmann2018421-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Trench_rollback">Trench rollback</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oceanic_trench&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Trench rollback"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Trenches seem positionally stable over time, but scientists believe that some trenches—particularly those associated with subduction zones where two oceanic plates converge—move backward into the subducting plate.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDvorkinNurMavkoBen-Avraham1993_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDvorkinNurMavkoBen-Avraham1993-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGarfunkelAndersonSchubert1986_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGarfunkelAndersonSchubert1986-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is called <b>trench rollback</b> or <b>hinge retreat</b> (also <b>hinge rollback</b>) and is one explanation for the existence of <a href="/wiki/Back-arc_basin" title="Back-arc basin">back-arc basins</a>. </p><p>Forces perpendicular to the slab (the portion of the subducting plate within the mantle) are responsible for steepening of the slab and, ultimately, the movement of the hinge and trench at the surface.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchellartMoresi2013_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchellartMoresi2013-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These forces arise from the negative buoyancy of the slab with respect to the mantle<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchellartListerToy2006_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchellartListerToy2006-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> modified by the geometry of the slab itself.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENakakukiMura2013_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENakakukiMura2013-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The extension in the overriding plate, in response to the subsequent subhorizontal mantle flow from the displacement of the slab, can result in formation of a back-arc basin.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlowerDilek2003_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlowerDilek2003-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Processes_involved">Processes involved</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oceanic_trench&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Processes involved"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Several forces are involved in the process of slab rollback. Two forces acting against each other at the interface of the two subducting plates exert forces against one another. The subducting plate exerts a bending force (FPB) that supplies pressure during subduction, while the overriding plate exerts a force against the subducting plate (FTS). The slab pull force (FSP) is caused by the negative buoyancy of the plate driving the plate to greater depths. The resisting force from the surrounding mantle opposes the slab pull forces. Interactions with the 660-km discontinuity cause a deflection due to the buoyancy at the <a href="/wiki/Phase_transition" title="Phase transition">phase transition</a> (F660).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENakakukiMura2013_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENakakukiMura2013-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The unique interplay of these forces is what generates slab rollback. When the deep slab section obstructs the down-going motion of the shallow slab section, slab rollback occurs. The subducting slab undergoes backward sinking due to the negative buoyancy forces causing a retrogradation of the trench hinge along the surface. Upwelling of the mantle around the slab can create favorable conditions for the formation of a back-arc basin.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlowerDilek2003_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlowerDilek2003-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Seismic_tomography" title="Seismic tomography">Seismic tomography</a> provides evidence for slab rollback. Results demonstrate high temperature anomalies within the mantle suggesting subducted material is present in the mantle.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHallSpakman2002_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHallSpakman2002-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ophiolites are viewed as evidence for such mechanisms as high pressure and temperature rocks are rapidly brought to the surface through the processes of slab rollback, which provides space for the exhumation of <a href="/wiki/Ophiolites" class="mw-redirect" title="Ophiolites">ophiolites</a>. </p><p>Slab rollback is not always a continuous process suggesting an episodic nature.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchellartListerToy2006_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchellartListerToy2006-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The episodic nature of the rollback is explained by a change in the density of the subducting plate, such as the arrival of buoyant lithosphere (a continent, arc, ridge, or plateau), a change in the subduction dynamics, or a change in the plate kinematics. The age of the subducting plates does not have any effect on slab rollback.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENakakukiMura2013_35-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENakakukiMura2013-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nearby continental collisions have an effect on slab rollback. Continental collisions induce mantle flow and extrusion of mantle material, which causes stretching and arc-trench rollback.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlowerDilek2003_36-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlowerDilek2003-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the area of the Southeast Pacific, there have been several rollback events resulting in the formation of numerous back-arc basins.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchellartListerToy2006_34-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchellartListerToy2006-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mantle_interactions">Mantle interactions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oceanic_trench&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Mantle interactions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Interactions with the <a href="/wiki/Mantle_(geology)" title="Mantle (geology)">mantle</a> discontinuities play a significant role in slab rollback. Stagnation at the 660-km discontinuity causes retrograde slab motion due to the suction forces acting at the surface.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENakakukiMura2013_35-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENakakukiMura2013-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Slab rollback induces mantle return flow, which causes extension from the <a href="/wiki/Shear_stress" title="Shear stress">shear stresses</a> at the base of the overriding plate. As slab rollback velocities increase, circular mantle flow velocities also increase, accelerating extension rates.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchellartMoresi2013_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchellartMoresi2013-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Extension rates are altered when the slab interacts with the discontinuities within the mantle at 410 km and 660 km depth. Slabs can either penetrate directly into the <a href="/wiki/Lower_mantle_(Earth)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lower mantle (Earth)">lower mantle</a>, or can be retarded due to the phase transition at 660 km depth creating a difference in buoyancy. An increase in retrograde trench migration (slab rollback) (2–4 cm/yr) is a result of flattened slabs at the 660-km discontinuity where the slab does not penetrate into the lower mantle.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChristensen1996_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChristensen1996-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is the case for the Japan, Java and Izu–Bonin trenches. These flattened slabs are only temporarily arrested in the transition zone. The subsequent displacement into the lower mantle is caused by slab pull forces, or the destabilization of the slab from warming and broadening due to thermal diffusion. Slabs that penetrate directly into the lower mantle result in slower slab rollback rates (~1–3 cm/yr) such as the Mariana arc, Tonga arcs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChristensen1996_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChristensen1996-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Atlantic-trench.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Atlantic-trench.JPG/310px-Atlantic-trench.JPG" decoding="async" width="310" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Atlantic-trench.JPG/465px-Atlantic-trench.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Atlantic-trench.JPG/620px-Atlantic-trench.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1076" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rico_Trench" title="Puerto Rico Trench">Puerto Rico Trench</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Hydrothermal_activity_and_associated_biomes">Hydrothermal activity and associated biomes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oceanic_trench&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Hydrothermal activity and associated biomes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As sediments are subducted at the bottom of trenches, much of their fluid content is expelled and moves back along the subduction décollement to emerge on the inner slope as <a href="/wiki/Mud_volcanoes" class="mw-redirect" title="Mud volcanoes">mud volcanoes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cold_seeps" class="mw-redirect" title="Cold seeps">cold seeps</a>. <a href="/wiki/Methane_clathrates" class="mw-redirect" title="Methane clathrates">Methane clathrates</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gas_hydrates" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas hydrates">gas hydrates</a> also accumulate in the inner slope, and there is concern that their breakdown could contribute to <a href="/wiki/Global_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Global warming">global warming</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStern2005_2-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStern2005-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The fluids released at mud volcanoes and cold seeps are rich in <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide" title="Hydrogen sulfide">hydrogen sulfide</a>, providing chemical energy for <a href="/wiki/Chemotroph" title="Chemotroph">chemotrophic microorganisms</a> that form the base of a unique trench <a href="/wiki/Biome" title="Biome">biome</a>. Cold seep communities have been identified in the inner trench slopes of the western Pacific (especially Japan<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFujikuraLindsayKitazatoNishida2010_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFujikuraLindsayKitazatoNishida2010-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), South America, Barbados, the Mediterranean, Makran, and the Sunda trench. These are found at depths as great as 6,000 meters (20,000 ft).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStern2005_2-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStern2005-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The genome of the <a href="/wiki/Extremophile" title="Extremophile">extremophile</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Deinococcus" title="Deinococcus">Deinococcus</a></i> from Challenger Deep has sequenced for its ecological insights and potential industrial uses.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZhangHuangQinQuan2021_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhangHuangQinQuan2021-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Because trenches are the lowest points in the ocean floor, there is concern that <a href="/wiki/Plastic_debris" class="mw-redirect" title="Plastic debris">plastic debris</a> may accumulate in trenches and endanger the fragile trench biomes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPengBellerbyZhangSun2020_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPengBellerbyZhangSun2020-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Deepest_oceanic_trenches">Deepest oceanic trenches</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oceanic_trench&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Deepest oceanic trenches"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Recent measurements, where the salinity and temperature of the water was measured throughout the dive, have uncertainties of about 15 m (49 ft).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmos2021_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmos2021-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Older measurements may be off by hundreds of meters. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Trench </th> <th>Ocean </th> <th>Lowest Point </th> <th>Maximum Depth </th> <th>Source </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Mariana_Trench" title="Mariana Trench">Mariana Trench</a> </td> <td>Pacific Ocean </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Challenger_Deep" title="Challenger Deep">Challenger Deep</a> </td> <td>10,984 m (36,037 ft) </td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmos2021_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmos2021-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Tonga_Trench" title="Tonga Trench">Tonga Trench</a> </td> <td>Pacific Ocean </td> <td>Horizon Deep </td> <td>10,820 m (35,500 ft) </td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmos2021_42-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmos2021-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Philippine_Trench" title="Philippine Trench">Philippine Trench</a> </td> <td>Pacific Ocean </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Emden_Deep" title="Emden Deep">Emden Deep</a> </td> <td>10,540 m (34,580 ft) </td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJamiesonFujiiMayorSolan`2010_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJamiesonFujiiMayorSolan`2010-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Kuril%E2%80%93Kamchatka_Trench" title="Kuril–Kamchatka Trench">Kuril–Kamchatka Trench</a> </td> <td>Pacific Ocean </td> <td> </td> <td>10,542 m (34,587 ft) </td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJamiesonFujiiMayorSolan`2010_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJamiesonFujiiMayorSolan`2010-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Kermadec_Trench" title="Kermadec Trench">Kermadec Trench</a> </td> <td>Pacific Ocean </td> <td> </td> <td>10,047 m (32,963 ft) </td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJamiesonFujiiMayorSolan`2010_43-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJamiesonFujiiMayorSolan`2010-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Izu–Bonin Trench (<a href="/wiki/Izu%E2%80%93Ogasawara_Trench" title="Izu–Ogasawara Trench">Izu–Ogasawara Trench</a>) </td> <td>Pacific Ocean </td> <td> </td> <td>9,810 m (32,190 ft) </td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJamiesonFujiiMayorSolan`2010_43-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJamiesonFujiiMayorSolan`2010-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/New_Britain_Trench" title="New Britain Trench">New Britain Trench</a> </td> <td>Pacific Ocean (<a href="/wiki/Solomon_Sea" title="Solomon Sea">Solomon Sea</a>) </td> <td>Planet Deep </td> <td>9,140 m (29,990 ft) </td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalloCameronHardyFryer2015_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalloCameronHardyFryer2015-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rico_Trench" title="Puerto Rico Trench">Puerto Rico Trench</a> </td> <td>Atlantic Ocean </td> <td>Brownson Deep </td> <td>8,380 m (27,490 ft) </td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmos2021_42-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmos2021-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/South_Sandwich_Trench" title="South Sandwich Trench">South Sandwich Trench</a> </td> <td>Atlantic Ocean </td> <td>Meteor Deep </td> <td>8,265 m (27,116 ft) </td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmos2021_42-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmos2021-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Peru%E2%80%93Chile_Trench" title="Peru–Chile Trench">Peru–Chile Trench</a> or <a href="/wiki/Atacama_Trench" class="mw-redirect" title="Atacama Trench">Atacama Trench</a> </td> <td>Pacific Ocean </td> <td>Richards Deep </td> <td>8,055 m (26,427 ft) </td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJamiesonFujiiMayorSolan`2010_43-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJamiesonFujiiMayorSolan`2010-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Japan_Trench" title="Japan Trench">Japan Trench</a> </td> <td>Pacific Ocean </td> <td> </td> <td>8,412 m (27,498 ft) </td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJamiesonFujiiMayorSolan`2010_43-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJamiesonFujiiMayorSolan`2010-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Cayman_Trench" class="mw-redirect" title="Cayman Trench">Cayman Trench</a> </td> <td>Atlantic Ocean </td> <td>Caribbean Deep </td> <td>7,686 m (25,217 ft) </td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJamiesonFujiiMayorSolan`2010_43-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJamiesonFujiiMayorSolan`2010-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Sunda_Trench" title="Sunda Trench">Sunda Trench</a> </td> <td>Indian Ocean </td> <td>Java Deep </td> <td>7,450 m (24,440 ft) </td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJamiesonFujiiMayorSolan`2010_43-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJamiesonFujiiMayorSolan`2010-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Mauritius" title="Mauritius">Mauritius</a> Trench </td> <td>Indian Ocean </td> <td>Mauritius Point </td> <td>6,875 m (22,556 ft) </td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJamiesonFujiiMayorSolan`2010_43-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJamiesonFujiiMayorSolan`2010-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> Trench </td> <td>Indian Ocean </td> <td>Between India & Maldives </td> <td>7,225 m (23,704 ft) </td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJamiesonFujiiMayorSolan`2010_43-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJamiesonFujiiMayorSolan`2010-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Ceylon" class="mw-redirect" title="Ceylon">Ceylon</a> Trench </td> <td>Indian Ocean </td> <td>Sri Lanka Deep </td> <td>6,400 m (21,000 ft) </td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJamiesonFujiiMayorSolan`2010_43-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJamiesonFujiiMayorSolan`2010-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia">Somalia</a> Trench </td> <td>Indian Ocean </td> <td>Somali Deep </td> <td>6,084 m (19,961 ft) </td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJamiesonFujiiMayorSolan`2010_43-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJamiesonFujiiMayorSolan`2010-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a> Trench </td> <td>Indian Ocean </td> <td>Madagascar Deep </td> <td>6,048 m (19,843 ft) </td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJamiesonFujiiMayorSolan`2010_43-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJamiesonFujiiMayorSolan`2010-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rico_Trench" title="Puerto Rico Trench">Puerto Rico Trench</a> </td> <td>Atlantic Ocean </td> <td>Rio Bermuda Deep </td> <td>5,625 m (18,455 ft) </td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJamiesonFujiiMayorSolan`2010_43-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJamiesonFujiiMayorSolan`2010-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notable_oceanic_trenches">Notable oceanic trenches</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oceanic_trench&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Notable oceanic trenches"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Trench</th> <th>Location </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Aleutian_Trench" title="Aleutian Trench">Aleutian Trench</a> </td> <td>South of the <a href="/wiki/Aleutian_Islands" title="Aleutian Islands">Aleutian Islands</a>, west of <a href="/wiki/Alaska" title="Alaska">Alaska</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Bougainville Trench </td> <td>South of <a href="/wiki/New_Guinea" title="New Guinea">New Guinea</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Cayman_Trench" class="mw-redirect" title="Cayman Trench">Cayman Trench</a> </td> <td>Western Caribbean </td></tr> <tr> <td>Cedros Trench (inactive) </td> <td>Pacific coast of <a href="/wiki/Baja_California" title="Baja California">Baja California</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Hikurangi_Trough" title="Hikurangi Trough">Hikurangi Trough</a> </td> <td>East of New Zealand </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Hjort_Trench" title="Hjort Trench">Hjort Trench</a> </td> <td>Southwest of New Zealand </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Izu%E2%80%93Ogasawara_Trench" title="Izu–Ogasawara Trench">Izu–Ogasawara Trench</a> </td> <td>Near <a href="/wiki/Izu_Islands" title="Izu Islands">Izu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bonin_Islands" title="Bonin Islands">Bonin</a> islands </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Japan_Trench" title="Japan Trench">Japan Trench</a> </td> <td>East of Japan </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Kermadec_Trench" title="Kermadec Trench">Kermadec Trench</a> * </td> <td>Northeast of New Zealand </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Kuril%E2%80%93Kamchatka_Trench" title="Kuril–Kamchatka Trench">Kuril–Kamchatka Trench</a> * </td> <td>Near <a href="/wiki/Kuril_Islands" title="Kuril Islands">Kuril Islands</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Manila_Trench" title="Manila Trench">Manila Trench</a> </td> <td>West of <a href="/wiki/Luzon" title="Luzon">Luzon</a>, Philippines </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Mariana_Trench" title="Mariana Trench">Mariana Trench</a> * </td> <td>Western Pacific Ocean; east of <a href="/wiki/Mariana_Islands" title="Mariana Islands">Mariana Islands</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Middle_America_Trench" title="Middle America Trench">Middle America Trench</a> </td> <td>Eastern Pacific Ocean; off coast of <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guatemala" title="Guatemala">Guatemala</a>, <a href="/wiki/El_Salvador" title="El Salvador">El Salvador</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nicaragua" title="Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a>, <a href="/wiki/Costa_Rica" title="Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/New_Hebrides_Trench" title="New Hebrides Trench">New Hebrides Trench</a> </td> <td>West of <a href="/wiki/Vanuatu" title="Vanuatu">Vanuatu</a> (New Hebrides Islands). </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Peru%E2%80%93Chile_Trench" title="Peru–Chile Trench">Peru–Chile Trench</a> </td> <td>Eastern Pacific Ocean; off coast of <a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a> & <a href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile">Chile</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Philippine_Trench" title="Philippine Trench">Philippine Trench</a> * </td> <td>East of the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rico_Trench" title="Puerto Rico Trench">Puerto Rico Trench</a> </td> <td>Boundary of Caribbean and <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Puysegur_trench" class="mw-redirect" title="Puysegur trench">Puysegur trench</a> </td> <td>Southwest of New Zealand </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Ryukyu_Trench" title="Ryukyu Trench">Ryukyu Trench</a> </td> <td>Eastern edge of Japan's <a href="/wiki/Ryukyu_Islands" title="Ryukyu Islands">Ryukyu Islands</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/South_Sandwich_Trench" title="South Sandwich Trench">South Sandwich Trench</a> </td> <td>East of the <a href="/wiki/South_Sandwich_Islands" title="South Sandwich Islands">South Sandwich Islands</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Sunda_Trench" title="Sunda Trench">Sunda Trench</a> </td> <td>Curves from south of <a href="/wiki/Java" title="Java">Java</a> to west of <a href="/wiki/Sumatra" title="Sumatra">Sumatra</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Andaman_and_Nicobar_Islands" title="Andaman and Nicobar Islands">Andaman and Nicobar Islands</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Tonga_Trench" title="Tonga Trench">Tonga Trench</a> * </td> <td>Near <a href="/wiki/Tonga" title="Tonga">Tonga</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Yap_Trench" title="Yap Trench">Yap Trench</a> </td> <td>Western Pacific Ocean; between <a href="/wiki/Palau_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Palau Islands">Palau Islands</a> and Mariana Trench </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>(*) The five deepest trenches in the world </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ancient_oceanic_trenches">Ancient oceanic trenches</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oceanic_trench&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Ancient oceanic trenches"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Trench</th> <th>Location </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Intermontane_Trench" title="Intermontane Trench">Intermontane Trench</a> </td> <td>Western North America; between the <a href="/wiki/Intermontane_Islands" title="Intermontane Islands">Intermontane Islands</a> and North America </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Insular_Trench&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Insular Trench (page does not exist)">Insular Trench</a> </td> <td>Western North America; between the <a href="/wiki/Insular_Islands" title="Insular Islands">Insular Islands</a> and the Intermontane Islands </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Farallon_Trench" title="Farallon Trench">Farallon Trench</a> </td> <td>Western North America </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Tethys_Trench" class="mw-redirect" title="Tethys Trench">Tethys Trench</a> </td> <td>South of Turkey, <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tibet" title="Tibet">Tibet</a> and Southeast Asia </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oceanic_trench&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span 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topographical features">List of submarine topographical features</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge" title="Mid-ocean ridge">Mid-ocean ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_oceanography" title="Physical oceanography">Physical oceanography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ring_of_Fire" title="Ring of Fire">Ring of Fire</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oceanic_trench&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERowley2002-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERowley2002_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRowley2002">Rowley 2002</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStern2005-2"><span 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href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJamiesonFujiiMayorSolan`2010_43-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJamiesonFujiiMayorSolan`2010_43-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJamiesonFujiiMayorSolan`2010_43-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJamiesonFujiiMayorSolan`2010_43-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJamiesonFujiiMayorSolan`2010_43-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJamiesonFujiiMayorSolan`2010">Jamieson et al</a>.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFJamiesonFujiiMayorSolan`2010 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalloCameronHardyFryer2015-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalloCameronHardyFryer2015_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span 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(1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://deepseadrilling.org/78a/volume/dsdp78a_02.pdf">"Geophysics and the structure of the Lesser Antilles forearc"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project</i>. <b>78</b>: 23–38<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 September</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Initial+Reports+of+the+Deep+Sea+Drilling+Project&rft.atitle=Geophysics+and+the+structure+of+the+Lesser+Antilles+forearc&rft.volume=78&rft.pages=23-38&rft.date=1984&rft.aulast=Westbrook&rft.aufirst=G.K.&rft.au=Mascle%2C+A.&rft.au=Biju-Duval%2C+B.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdeepseadrilling.org%2F78a%2Fvolume%2Fdsdp78a_02.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOceanic+trench" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWrightBloomerMacLeodTaylor2000" class="citation journal cs1">Wright, D. J.; Bloomer, S. H.; MacLeod, C. J.; Taylor, B.; Goodlife, A. M. (2000). "Bathymetry of the Tonga Trench and Forearc: a map series". <i>Marine Geophysical Researches</i>. <b>21</b> (489–511): 2000. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000MarGR..21..489W">2000MarGR..21..489W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1026514914220">10.1023/A:1026514914220</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:6072675">6072675</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Marine+Geophysical+Researches&rft.atitle=Bathymetry+of+the+Tonga+Trench+and+Forearc%3A+a+map+series&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=489%E2%80%93511&rft.pages=2000&rft.date=2000&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A6072675%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1023%2FA%3A1026514914220&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2000MarGR..21..489W&rft.aulast=Wright&rft.aufirst=D.+J.&rft.au=Bloomer%2C+S.+H.&rft.au=MacLeod%2C+C.+J.&rft.au=Taylor%2C+B.&rft.au=Goodlife%2C+A.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOceanic+trench" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhangHuangQinQuan2021" class="citation journal cs1">Zhang, Ru-Yi; Huang, Ying; Qin, Wen-Jing; Quan, Zhe-Xue (June 2021). "The complete genome of extracellular protease-producing Deinococcus sp. D7000 isolated from the hadal region of Mariana Trench Challenger Deep". <i>Marine Genomics</i>. <b>57</b>: 100832. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021MarGn..5700832Z">2021MarGn..5700832Z</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.margen.2020.100832">10.1016/j.margen.2020.100832</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33867118">33867118</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:229392459">229392459</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Marine+Genomics&rft.atitle=The+complete+genome+of+extracellular+protease-producing+Deinococcus+sp.+D7000+isolated+from+the+hadal+region+of+Mariana+Trench+Challenger+Deep&rft.volume=57&rft.pages=100832&rft.date=2021-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.margen.2020.100832&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A229392459%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33867118&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2021MarGn..5700832Z&rft.aulast=Zhang&rft.aufirst=Ru-Yi&rft.au=Huang%2C+Ying&rft.au=Qin%2C+Wen-Jing&rft.au=Quan%2C+Zhe-Xue&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOceanic+trench" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oceanic_trench&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: External 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Hole Oceanographic Institution</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Woods+Hole+Oceanographic+Institution&rft.atitle=Ocean+Trenches&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.whoi.edu%2Fknow-your-ocean%2Focean-topics%2Fseafloor-below%2Focean-trenches%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOceanic+trench" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol 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waves)">Boussinesq approximation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breaking_wave" title="Breaking wave">Breaking wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clapotis" title="Clapotis">Clapotis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cnoidal_wave" title="Cnoidal wave">Cnoidal wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross_sea" title="Cross sea">Cross sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dispersion_(water_waves)" title="Dispersion (water waves)">Dispersion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edge_wave" title="Edge wave">Edge wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equatorial_wave" title="Equatorial wave">Equatorial waves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravity_wave" title="Gravity wave">Gravity wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green%27s_law" title="Green's law">Green's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infragravity_wave" title="Infragravity wave">Infragravity wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_wave" title="Internal wave">Internal wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iribarren_number" title="Iribarren number">Iribarren number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelvin_wave" title="Kelvin wave">Kelvin wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinematic_wave" title="Kinematic wave">Kinematic wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longshore_drift" title="Longshore drift">Longshore drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luke%27s_variational_principle" title="Luke's variational principle">Luke's variational principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mild-slope_equation" title="Mild-slope equation">Mild-slope equation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_stress" title="Radiation stress">Radiation stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rogue_wave" title="Rogue wave">Rogue wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rossby_wave" title="Rossby wave">Rossby wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rossby-gravity_waves" title="Rossby-gravity waves">Rossby-gravity waves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_state" title="Sea state">Sea state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seiche" title="Seiche">Seiche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Significant_wave_height" title="Significant wave height">Significant wave height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soliton" title="Soliton">Soliton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokes_drift" title="Stokes drift">Stokes drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokes_problem" title="Stokes problem">Stokes problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokes_wave" title="Stokes wave">Stokes wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swell_(ocean)" title="Swell (ocean)">Swell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trochoidal_wave" title="Trochoidal wave">Trochoidal wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami">Tsunami</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megatsunami" title="Megatsunami">megatsunami</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Undertow_(water_waves)" title="Undertow (water waves)">Undertow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ursell_number" title="Ursell number">Ursell number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_action_(continuum_mechanics)" title="Wave action (continuum mechanics)">Wave action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_base" title="Wave base">Wave base</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_height" title="Wave height">Wave height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_nonlinearity" title="Wave nonlinearity">Wave nonlinearity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_power" title="Wave power">Wave power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_radar" title="Wave radar">Wave radar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_setup" title="Wave setup">Wave setup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_shoaling" title="Wave shoaling">Wave shoaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_turbulence" title="Wave turbulence">Wave turbulence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave%E2%80%93current_interaction" title="Wave–current interaction">Wave–current interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waves_and_shallow_water" title="Waves and shallow water">Waves and shallow water</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/One-dimensional_Saint-Venant_equations" class="mw-redirect" title="One-dimensional Saint-Venant equations">one-dimensional Saint-Venant equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shallow_water_equations" title="Shallow water equations">shallow water equations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_fetch" title="Wind fetch">Wind fetch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_setup" title="Wind setup">Wind setup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_wave" title="Wind wave">Wind wave</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wind_wave_model" title="Wind wave model">model</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="10" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Upwelling.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Upwelling"><img alt="Upwelling" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Upwelling.svg/120px-Upwelling.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Upwelling.svg/180px-Upwelling.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Upwelling.svg/240px-Upwelling.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="365" data-file-height="242" /></a></span><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Antarctic_bottom_water.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Antarctic bottom water"><img alt="Antarctic bottom water" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Antarctic_bottom_water.svg/120px-Antarctic_bottom_water.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="76" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Antarctic_bottom_water.svg/180px-Antarctic_bottom_water.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Antarctic_bottom_water.svg/240px-Antarctic_bottom_water.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="745" data-file-height="470" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ocean_current" title="Ocean current">Circulation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_circulation" title="Atmospheric circulation">Atmospheric circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baroclinity" title="Baroclinity">Baroclinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boundary_current" title="Boundary current">Boundary current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coriolis_force" title="Coriolis force">Coriolis force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coriolis%E2%80%93Stokes_force" title="Coriolis–Stokes force">Coriolis–Stokes force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Craik%E2%80%93Leibovich_vortex_force" title="Craik–Leibovich vortex force">Craik–Leibovich vortex force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Downwelling" title="Downwelling">Downwelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eddy_(fluid_dynamics)" title="Eddy (fluid dynamics)">Eddy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekman_layer" title="Ekman layer">Ekman layer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekman_spiral" title="Ekman spiral">Ekman spiral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekman_transport" title="Ekman transport">Ekman transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation" title="El Niño–Southern Oscillation">El Niño–Southern Oscillation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_circulation_model" title="General circulation model">General circulation model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochemical_Ocean_Sections_Study" title="Geochemical Ocean Sections Study">Geochemical Ocean Sections Study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geostrophic_current" title="Geostrophic current">Geostrophic current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Ocean_Data_Analysis_Project" title="Global Ocean Data Analysis Project">Global Ocean Data Analysis Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_Stream" title="Gulf Stream">Gulf Stream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humboldt_Current" title="Humboldt Current">Humboldt Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_circulation" title="Hydrothermal circulation">Hydrothermal circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Langmuir_circulation" title="Langmuir circulation">Langmuir circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longshore_drift" title="Longshore drift">Longshore drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loop_Current" title="Loop Current">Loop Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modular_Ocean_Model" title="Modular Ocean Model">Modular Ocean Model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_current" title="Ocean current">Ocean current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_dynamical_thermostat" title="Ocean dynamical thermostat">Ocean dynamical thermostat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_dynamics" title="Ocean dynamics">Ocean dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_gyre" title="Ocean gyre">Ocean gyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overflow_(oceanography)" title="Overflow (oceanography)">Overflow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princeton_Ocean_Model" title="Princeton Ocean Model">Princeton Ocean Model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rip_current" title="Rip current">Rip current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsurface_ocean_current" title="Subsurface ocean current">Subsurface ocean current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sverdrup_balance" title="Sverdrup balance">Sverdrup balance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermohaline_circulation" title="Thermohaline circulation">Thermohaline circulation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shutdown_of_thermohaline_circulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Shutdown of thermohaline circulation">shutdown</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upwelling" title="Upwelling">Upwelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whirlpool" title="Whirlpool">Whirlpool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_generated_current" title="Wind generated current">Wind generated current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Ocean_Circulation_Experiment" title="World Ocean Circulation Experiment">World Ocean Circulation Experiment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tide" title="Tide">Tides</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amphidromic_point" title="Amphidromic point">Amphidromic point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_tide" title="Earth tide">Earth tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Head_of_tide" title="Head of tide">Head of tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_tide" title="Internal tide">Internal tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunitidal_interval" title="Lunitidal interval">Lunitidal interval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perigean_spring_tide" title="Perigean spring tide">Perigean spring tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rip_tide" title="Rip tide">Rip tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_twelfths" title="Rule of twelfths">Rule of twelfths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slack_tide" title="Slack tide">Slack tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_tides" title="Theory of tides">Theory of tides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_bore" title="Tidal bore">Tidal bore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_force" title="Tidal force">Tidal force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_power" title="Tidal power">Tidal power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_race" title="Tidal race">Tidal race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_range" title="Tidal range">Tidal range</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_resonance" title="Tidal resonance">Tidal resonance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide_gauge" title="Tide gauge">Tide gauge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tideline" title="Tideline">Tideline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Landform" title="Landform">Landforms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abyssal_fan" title="Abyssal fan">Abyssal fan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abyssal_plain" title="Abyssal plain">Abyssal plain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atoll" title="Atoll">Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bathymetric_chart" title="Bathymetric chart">Bathymetric chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbonate_platform" title="Carbonate platform">Carbonate platform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_geography" title="Coastal geography">Coastal geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">Cold seep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_margin" title="Continental margin">Continental margin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_rise" title="Continental rise">Continental rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_shelf" title="Continental shelf">Continental shelf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contourite" title="Contourite">Contourite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guyot" title="Guyot">Guyot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrography" title="Hydrography">Hydrography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knoll_(oceanography)" title="Knoll (oceanography)">Knoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_bank" title="Ocean bank">Ocean bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_basin" title="Oceanic basin">Oceanic basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_plateau" title="Oceanic plateau">Oceanic plateau</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Oceanic trench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive_margin" title="Passive margin">Passive margin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seabed" title="Seabed">Seabed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seamount" title="Seamount">Seamount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_canyon" title="Submarine canyon">Submarine canyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_volcano" title="Submarine volcano">Submarine volcano</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">Plate<br />tectonics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Convergent_boundary" title="Convergent boundary">Convergent boundary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divergent_boundary" title="Divergent boundary">Divergent boundary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fracture_zone" title="Fracture zone">Fracture zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">Hydrothermal vent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_geology" title="Marine geology">Marine geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge" title="Mid-ocean ridge">Mid-ocean ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohorovi%C4%8Di%C4%87_discontinuity" title="Mohorovičić discontinuity">Mohorovičić discontinuity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_crust" title="Oceanic crust">Oceanic crust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outer_trench_swell" title="Outer trench swell">Outer trench swell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ridge_push" title="Ridge push">Ridge push</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seafloor_spreading" title="Seafloor spreading">Seafloor spreading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slab_pull" title="Slab pull">Slab pull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slab_suction" title="Slab suction">Slab suction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slab_window" title="Slab window">Slab window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">Subduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transform_fault" title="Transform fault">Transform fault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vine%E2%80%93Matthews%E2%80%93Morley_hypothesis" title="Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis">Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_arc" title="Volcanic arc">Volcanic arc</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ocean zones</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benthic_zone" title="Benthic zone">Benthic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_ocean_water" title="Deep ocean water">Deep ocean water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_sea" title="Deep sea">Deep sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Littoral_zone" title="Littoral zone">Littoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopelagic_zone" title="Mesopelagic zone">Mesopelagic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_zone" title="Oceanic zone">Oceanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_zone" title="Pelagic zone">Pelagic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photic_zone" title="Photic zone">Photic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surf_zone" title="Surf zone">Surf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swash" title="Swash">Swash</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sea_level" title="Sea level">Sea level</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deep-ocean_Assessment_and_Reporting_of_Tsunamis" title="Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis">Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Sea_Level_Observing_System" title="Global Sea Level Observing System">Global Sea Level Observing System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_West_Shelf_Operational_Oceanographic_System" title="North West Shelf Operational Oceanographic System">North West Shelf Operational Oceanographic System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea-level_curve" title="Sea-level curve">Sea-level curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_drop" title="Sea level drop">Sea level drop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">Sea level rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Geodetic_System" title="World Geodetic System">World Geodetic System</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Acoustical_oceanography" class="mw-redirect" title="Acoustical oceanography">Acoustics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deep_scattering_layer" title="Deep scattering layer">Deep scattering layer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acoustic_tomography" title="Ocean acoustic tomography">Ocean acoustic tomography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sofar_bomb" title="Sofar bomb">Sofar bomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SOFAR_channel" title="SOFAR channel">SOFAR channel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_acoustics" title="Underwater acoustics">Underwater acoustics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Satellites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jason-1" title="Jason-1">Jason-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OSTM/Jason-2" title="OSTM/Jason-2">OSTM/Jason-2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jason-3" title="Jason-3">Jason-3</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">Acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argo_(oceanography)" title="Argo (oceanography)">Argo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benthic_lander" title="Benthic lander">Benthic lander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_of_water" title="Color of water">Color of water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DSV_Alvin" title="DSV Alvin">DSV <i>Alvin</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marginal_sea" class="mw-redirect" title="Marginal sea">Marginal sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_energy" title="Marine energy">Marine energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">Marine pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mooring_(oceanography)" title="Mooring (oceanography)">Mooring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Oceanographic_Data_Center" title="National Oceanographic Data Center">National Oceanographic Data Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_exploration" title="Ocean exploration">Explorations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_observations" title="Ocean observations">Observations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_reanalysis" title="Ocean reanalysis">Reanalysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_surface_topography" title="Ocean surface topography">Ocean surface topography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_temperature" title="Ocean temperature">Ocean temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_thermal_energy_conversion" title="Ocean thermal energy conversion">Ocean thermal energy conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanography" title="Oceanography">Oceanography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_oceanography" title="Outline of oceanography">Outline of oceanography</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_sediment" title="Pelagic sediment">Pelagic sediment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_microlayer" title="Sea surface microlayer">Sea surface microlayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature" title="Sea surface temperature">Sea surface temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seawater" title="Seawater">Seawater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_On_a_Sphere" title="Science On a Sphere">Science On a Sphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_stratification" title="Ocean stratification">Stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermocline" title="Thermocline">Thermocline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_glider" title="Underwater glider">Underwater glider</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_column" title="Water column">Water column</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Ocean_Atlas" title="World Ocean Atlas">World Ocean Atlas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" 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