CINXE.COM
CHARLEMAGNE - JewishEncyclopedia.com
<!DOCTYPE html> <html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta charset="utf-8"> <script>window.NREUM||(NREUM={});NREUM.info={"beacon":"bam.nr-data.net","errorBeacon":"bam.nr-data.net","licenseKey":"NRJS-00afb60581bba048d83","applicationID":"761392243","transactionName":"ew1XFxFWXVRVFhxYEUwLWg8GSh5LWAtE","queueTime":2,"applicationTime":35,"agent":""}</script> <script>(window.NREUM||(NREUM={})).init={ajax:{deny_list:["bam.nr-data.net"]}};(window.NREUM||(NREUM={})).loader_config={licenseKey:"NRJS-00afb60581bba048d83",applicationID:"761392243"};;/*! For license information please see nr-loader-rum-1.274.0.min.js.LICENSE.txt */ (()=>{var e,t,r={8122:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{a:()=>i});var n=r(944);function i(e,t){try{if(!e||"object"!=typeof e)return(0,n.R)(3);if(!t||"object"!=typeof t)return(0,n.R)(4);const r=Object.create(Object.getPrototypeOf(t),Object.getOwnPropertyDescriptors(t)),o=0===Object.keys(r).length?e:r;for(let a in o)if(void 0!==e[a])try{if(null===e[a]){r[a]=null;continue}Array.isArray(e[a])&&Array.isArray(t[a])?r[a]=Array.from(new Set([...e[a],...t[a]])):"object"==typeof e[a]&&"object"==typeof t[a]?r[a]=i(e[a],t[a]):r[a]=e[a]}catch(e){(0,n.R)(1,e)}return r}catch(e){(0,n.R)(2,e)}}},2555:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{Vp:()=>c,fn:()=>s,x1:()=>u});var n=r(384),i=r(8122);const o={beacon:n.NT.beacon,errorBeacon:n.NT.errorBeacon,licenseKey:void 0,applicationID:void 0,sa:void 0,queueTime:void 0,applicationTime:void 0,ttGuid:void 0,user:void 0,account:void 0,product:void 0,extra:void 0,jsAttributes:{},userAttributes:void 0,atts:void 0,transactionName:void 0,tNamePlain:void 0},a={};function s(e){try{const t=c(e);return!!t.licenseKey&&!!t.errorBeacon&&!!t.applicationID}catch(e){return!1}}function c(e){if(!e)throw new Error("All info objects require an agent identifier!");if(!a[e])throw new Error("Info for ".concat(e," was never set"));return a[e]}function u(e,t){if(!e)throw new Error("All info objects require an agent identifier!");a[e]=(0,i.a)(t,o);const r=(0,n.nY)(e);r&&(r.info=a[e])}},9417:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{D0:()=>g,gD:()=>h,xN:()=>p});var n=r(993);const i=e=>{if(!e||"string"!=typeof e)return!1;try{document.createDocumentFragment().querySelector(e)}catch{return!1}return!0};var o=r(2614),a=r(944),s=r(384),c=r(8122);const u="[data-nr-mask]",d=()=>{const e={mask_selector:"*",block_selector:"[data-nr-block]",mask_input_options:{color:!1,date:!1,"datetime-local":!1,email:!1,month:!1,number:!1,range:!1,search:!1,tel:!1,text:!1,time:!1,url:!1,week:!1,textarea:!1,select:!1,password:!0}};return{ajax:{deny_list:void 0,block_internal:!0,enabled:!0,harvestTimeSeconds:10,autoStart:!0},distributed_tracing:{enabled:void 0,exclude_newrelic_header:void 0,cors_use_newrelic_header:void 0,cors_use_tracecontext_headers:void 0,allowed_origins:void 0},feature_flags:[],generic_events:{enabled:!0,harvestTimeSeconds:30,autoStart:!0},harvest:{tooManyRequestsDelay:60},jserrors:{enabled:!0,harvestTimeSeconds:10,autoStart:!0},logging:{enabled:!0,harvestTimeSeconds:10,autoStart:!0,level:n.p_.INFO},metrics:{enabled:!0,autoStart:!0},obfuscate:void 0,page_action:{enabled:!0},page_view_event:{enabled:!0,autoStart:!0},page_view_timing:{enabled:!0,harvestTimeSeconds:30,autoStart:!0},performance:{capture_marks:!1,capture_measures:!1},privacy:{cookies_enabled:!0},proxy:{assets:void 0,beacon:void 0},session:{expiresMs:o.wk,inactiveMs:o.BB},session_replay:{autoStart:!0,enabled:!1,harvestTimeSeconds:60,preload:!1,sampling_rate:10,error_sampling_rate:100,collect_fonts:!1,inline_images:!1,fix_stylesheets:!0,mask_all_inputs:!0,get mask_text_selector(){return e.mask_selector},set mask_text_selector(t){i(t)?e.mask_selector="".concat(t,",").concat(u):""===t||null===t?e.mask_selector=u:(0,a.R)(5,t)},get block_class(){return"nr-block"},get ignore_class(){return"nr-ignore"},get mask_text_class(){return"nr-mask"},get block_selector(){return e.block_selector},set block_selector(t){i(t)?e.block_selector+=",".concat(t):""!==t&&(0,a.R)(6,t)},get mask_input_options(){return e.mask_input_options},set mask_input_options(t){t&&"object"==typeof t?e.mask_input_options={...t,password:!0}:(0,a.R)(7,t)}},session_trace:{enabled:!0,harvestTimeSeconds:10,autoStart:!0},soft_navigations:{enabled:!0,harvestTimeSeconds:10,autoStart:!0},spa:{enabled:!0,harvestTimeSeconds:10,autoStart:!0},ssl:void 0,user_actions:{enabled:!0}}},l={},f="All configuration objects require an agent identifier!";function g(e){if(!e)throw new Error(f);if(!l[e])throw new Error("Configuration for ".concat(e," was never set"));return l[e]}function p(e,t){if(!e)throw new Error(f);l[e]=(0,c.a)(t,d());const r=(0,s.nY)(e);r&&(r.init=l[e])}function h(e,t){if(!e)throw new Error(f);var r=g(e);if(r){for(var n=t.split("."),i=0;i<n.length-1;i++)if("object"!=typeof(r=r[n[i]]))return;r=r[n[n.length-1]]}return r}},3371:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{V:()=>f,f:()=>l});var n=r(8122),i=r(384),o=r(6154),a=r(9324);let s=0;const c={buildEnv:a.F3,distMethod:a.Xs,version:a.xv,originTime:o.WN},u={customTransaction:void 0,disabled:!1,isolatedBacklog:!1,loaderType:void 0,maxBytes:3e4,onerror:void 0,ptid:void 0,releaseIds:{},appMetadata:{},session:void 0,denyList:void 0,timeKeeper:void 0,obfuscator:void 0},d={};function l(e){if(!e)throw new Error("All runtime objects require an agent identifier!");if(!d[e])throw new Error("Runtime for ".concat(e," was never set"));return d[e]}function f(e,t){if(!e)throw new Error("All runtime objects require an agent identifier!");d[e]={...(0,n.a)(t,u),...c},Object.hasOwnProperty.call(d[e],"harvestCount")||Object.defineProperty(d[e],"harvestCount",{get:()=>++s});const r=(0,i.nY)(e);r&&(r.runtime=d[e])}},9324:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{F3:()=>i,Xs:()=>o,xv:()=>n});const n="1.274.0",i="PROD",o="CDN"},6154:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{OF:()=>c,RI:()=>i,WN:()=>d,bv:()=>o,gm:()=>a,mw:()=>s,sb:()=>u});var n=r(1863);const i="undefined"!=typeof window&&!!window.document,o="undefined"!=typeof WorkerGlobalScope&&("undefined"!=typeof self&&self instanceof WorkerGlobalScope&&self.navigator instanceof WorkerNavigator||"undefined"!=typeof globalThis&&globalThis instanceof WorkerGlobalScope&&globalThis.navigator instanceof WorkerNavigator),a=i?window:"undefined"!=typeof WorkerGlobalScope&&("undefined"!=typeof self&&self instanceof WorkerGlobalScope&&self||"undefined"!=typeof globalThis&&globalThis instanceof WorkerGlobalScope&&globalThis),s=Boolean("hidden"===a?.document?.visibilityState),c=/iPad|iPhone|iPod/.test(a.navigator?.userAgent),u=c&&"undefined"==typeof SharedWorker,d=((()=>{const e=a.navigator?.userAgent?.match(/Firefox[/\s](\d+\.\d+)/);Array.isArray(e)&&e.length>=2&&e[1]})(),Date.now()-(0,n.t)())},1687:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{Ak:()=>c,Ze:()=>l,x3:()=>u});var n=r(7836),i=r(3606),o=r(860),a=r(2646);const s={};function c(e,t){const r={staged:!1,priority:o.P3[t]||0};d(e),s[e].get(t)||s[e].set(t,r)}function u(e,t){e&&s[e]&&(s[e].get(t)&&s[e].delete(t),g(e,t,!1),s[e].size&&f(e))}function d(e){if(!e)throw new Error("agentIdentifier required");s[e]||(s[e]=new Map)}function l(e="",t="feature",r=!1){if(d(e),!e||!s[e].get(t)||r)return g(e,t);s[e].get(t).staged=!0,f(e)}function f(e){const t=Array.from(s[e]);t.every((([e,t])=>t.staged))&&(t.sort(((e,t)=>e[1].priority-t[1].priority)),t.forEach((([t])=>{s[e].delete(t),g(e,t)})))}function g(e,t,r=!0){const o=e?n.ee.get(e):n.ee,s=i.i.handlers;if(!o.aborted&&o.backlog&&s){if(r){const e=o.backlog[t],r=s[t];if(r){for(let t=0;e&&t<e.length;++t)p(e[t],r);Object.entries(r).forEach((([e,t])=>{Object.values(t||{}).forEach((t=>{t[0]?.on&&t[0]?.context()instanceof a.y&&t[0].on(e,t[1])}))}))}}o.isolatedBacklog||delete s[t],o.backlog[t]=null,o.emit("drain-"+t,[])}}function p(e,t){var r=e[1];Object.values(t[r]||{}).forEach((t=>{var r=e[0];if(t[0]===r){var n=t[1],i=e[3],o=e[2];n.apply(i,o)}}))}},7836:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{P:()=>c,ee:()=>u});var n=r(384),i=r(8990),o=r(3371),a=r(2646),s=r(5607);const c="nr@context:".concat(s.W),u=function e(t,r){var n={},s={},d={},l=!1;try{l=16===r.length&&(0,o.f)(r).isolatedBacklog}catch(e){}var f={on:p,addEventListener:p,removeEventListener:function(e,t){var r=n[e];if(!r)return;for(var i=0;i<r.length;i++)r[i]===t&&r.splice(i,1)},emit:function(e,r,n,i,o){!1!==o&&(o=!0);if(u.aborted&&!i)return;t&&o&&t.emit(e,r,n);for(var a=g(n),c=h(e),d=c.length,l=0;l<d;l++)c[l].apply(a,r);var p=m()[s[e]];p&&p.push([f,e,r,a]);return a},get:v,listeners:h,context:g,buffer:function(e,t){const r=m();if(t=t||"feature",f.aborted)return;Object.entries(e||{}).forEach((([e,n])=>{s[n]=t,t in r||(r[t]=[])}))},abort:function(){f._aborted=!0,Object.keys(f.backlog).forEach((e=>{delete f.backlog[e]}))},isBuffering:function(e){return!!m()[s[e]]},debugId:r,backlog:l?{}:t&&"object"==typeof t.backlog?t.backlog:{},isolatedBacklog:l};return Object.defineProperty(f,"aborted",{get:()=>{let e=f._aborted||!1;return e||(t&&(e=t.aborted),e)}}),f;function g(e){return e&&e instanceof a.y?e:e?(0,i.I)(e,c,(()=>new a.y(c))):new a.y(c)}function p(e,t){n[e]=h(e).concat(t)}function h(e){return n[e]||[]}function v(t){return d[t]=d[t]||e(f,t)}function m(){return f.backlog}}(void 0,"globalEE"),d=(0,n.Zm)();d.ee||(d.ee=u)},2646:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{y:()=>n});class n{constructor(e){this.contextId=e}}},9908:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{d:()=>n,p:()=>i});var n=r(7836).ee.get("handle");function i(e,t,r,i,o){o?(o.buffer([e],i),o.emit(e,t,r)):(n.buffer([e],i),n.emit(e,t,r))}},3606:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{i:()=>o});var n=r(9908);o.on=a;var i=o.handlers={};function o(e,t,r,o){a(o||n.d,i,e,t,r)}function a(e,t,r,i,o){o||(o="feature"),e||(e=n.d);var a=t[o]=t[o]||{};(a[r]=a[r]||[]).push([e,i])}},3878:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";function n(e,t){return{capture:e,passive:!1,signal:t}}function i(e,t,r=!1,i){window.addEventListener(e,t,n(r,i))}function o(e,t,r=!1,i){document.addEventListener(e,t,n(r,i))}r.d(t,{DD:()=>o,jT:()=>n,sp:()=>i})},5607:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{W:()=>n});const n=(0,r(9566).bz)()},9566:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{LA:()=>s,bz:()=>a});var n=r(6154);const i="xxxxxxxx-xxxx-4xxx-yxxx-xxxxxxxxxxxx";function o(e,t){return e?15&e[t]:16*Math.random()|0}function a(){const e=n.gm?.crypto||n.gm?.msCrypto;let t,r=0;return e&&e.getRandomValues&&(t=e.getRandomValues(new Uint8Array(30))),i.split("").map((e=>"x"===e?o(t,r++).toString(16):"y"===e?(3&o()|8).toString(16):e)).join("")}function s(e){const t=n.gm?.crypto||n.gm?.msCrypto;let r,i=0;t&&t.getRandomValues&&(r=t.getRandomValues(new Uint8Array(e)));const a=[];for(var s=0;s<e;s++)a.push(o(r,i++).toString(16));return a.join("")}},2614:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{BB:()=>a,H3:()=>n,g:()=>u,iL:()=>c,tS:()=>s,uh:()=>i,wk:()=>o});const n="NRBA",i="SESSION",o=144e5,a=18e5,s={STARTED:"session-started",PAUSE:"session-pause",RESET:"session-reset",RESUME:"session-resume",UPDATE:"session-update"},c={SAME_TAB:"same-tab",CROSS_TAB:"cross-tab"},u={OFF:0,FULL:1,ERROR:2}},1863:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";function n(){return Math.floor(performance.now())}r.d(t,{t:()=>n})},944:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";function n(e,t){"function"==typeof console.debug&&console.debug("New Relic Warning: https://github.com/newrelic/newrelic-browser-agent/blob/main/docs/warning-codes.md#".concat(e),t)}r.d(t,{R:()=>n})},5284:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{t:()=>c,B:()=>s});var n=r(7836),i=r(6154);const o="newrelic";const a=new Set,s={};function c(e,t){const r=n.ee.get(t);s[t]??={},e&&"object"==typeof e&&(a.has(t)||(r.emit("rumresp",[e]),s[t]=e,a.add(t),function(e={}){try{i.gm.dispatchEvent(new CustomEvent(o,{detail:e}))}catch(e){}}({loaded:!0})))}},8990:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{I:()=>i});var n=Object.prototype.hasOwnProperty;function i(e,t,r){if(n.call(e,t))return e[t];var i=r();if(Object.defineProperty&&Object.keys)try{return Object.defineProperty(e,t,{value:i,writable:!0,enumerable:!1}),i}catch(e){}return e[t]=i,i}},6389:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";function n(e,t=500,r={}){const n=r?.leading||!1;let i;return(...r)=>{n&&void 0===i&&(e.apply(this,r),i=setTimeout((()=>{i=clearTimeout(i)}),t)),n||(clearTimeout(i),i=setTimeout((()=>{e.apply(this,r)}),t))}}function i(e){let t=!1;return(...r)=>{t||(t=!0,e.apply(this,r))}}r.d(t,{J:()=>i,s:()=>n})},5289:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{GG:()=>o,sB:()=>a});var n=r(3878);function i(){return"undefined"==typeof document||"complete"===document.readyState}function o(e,t){if(i())return e();(0,n.sp)("load",e,t)}function a(e){if(i())return e();(0,n.DD)("DOMContentLoaded",e)}},384:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{NT:()=>o,US:()=>d,Zm:()=>a,bQ:()=>c,dV:()=>s,nY:()=>u,pV:()=>l});var n=r(6154),i=r(1863);const o={beacon:"bam.nr-data.net",errorBeacon:"bam.nr-data.net"};function a(){return n.gm.NREUM||(n.gm.NREUM={}),void 0===n.gm.newrelic&&(n.gm.newrelic=n.gm.NREUM),n.gm.NREUM}function s(){let e=a();return e.o||(e.o={ST:n.gm.setTimeout,SI:n.gm.setImmediate,CT:n.gm.clearTimeout,XHR:n.gm.XMLHttpRequest,REQ:n.gm.Request,EV:n.gm.Event,PR:n.gm.Promise,MO:n.gm.MutationObserver,FETCH:n.gm.fetch,WS:n.gm.WebSocket}),e}function c(e,t){let r=a();r.initializedAgents??={},t.initializedAt={ms:(0,i.t)(),date:new Date},r.initializedAgents[e]=t}function u(e){let t=a();return t.initializedAgents?.[e]}function d(e,t){a()[e]=t}function l(){return function(){let e=a();const t=e.info||{};e.info={beacon:o.beacon,errorBeacon:o.errorBeacon,...t}}(),function(){let e=a();const t=e.init||{};e.init={...t}}(),s(),function(){let e=a();const t=e.loader_config||{};e.loader_config={...t}}(),a()}},2843:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{u:()=>i});var n=r(3878);function i(e,t=!1,r,i){(0,n.DD)("visibilitychange",(function(){if(t)return void("hidden"===document.visibilityState&&e());e(document.visibilityState)}),r,i)}},3434:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{YM:()=>c});var n=r(7836),i=r(5607);const o="nr@original:".concat(i.W);var a=Object.prototype.hasOwnProperty,s=!1;function c(e,t){return e||(e=n.ee),r.inPlace=function(e,t,n,i,o){n||(n="");const a="-"===n.charAt(0);for(let s=0;s<t.length;s++){const c=t[s],u=e[c];d(u)||(e[c]=r(u,a?c+n:n,i,c,o))}},r.flag=o,r;function r(t,r,n,s,c){return d(t)?t:(r||(r=""),nrWrapper[o]=t,function(e,t,r){if(Object.defineProperty&&Object.keys)try{return Object.keys(e).forEach((function(r){Object.defineProperty(t,r,{get:function(){return e[r]},set:function(t){return e[r]=t,t}})})),t}catch(e){u([e],r)}for(var n in e)a.call(e,n)&&(t[n]=e[n])}(t,nrWrapper,e),nrWrapper);function nrWrapper(){var o,a,d,l;try{a=this,o=[...arguments],d="function"==typeof n?n(o,a):n||{}}catch(t){u([t,"",[o,a,s],d],e)}i(r+"start",[o,a,s],d,c);try{return l=t.apply(a,o)}catch(e){throw i(r+"err",[o,a,e],d,c),e}finally{i(r+"end",[o,a,l],d,c)}}}function i(r,n,i,o){if(!s||t){var a=s;s=!0;try{e.emit(r,n,i,t,o)}catch(t){u([t,r,n,i],e)}s=a}}}function u(e,t){t||(t=n.ee);try{t.emit("internal-error",e)}catch(e){}}function d(e){return!(e&&"function"==typeof e&&e.apply&&!e[o])}},993:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{ET:()=>o,p_:()=>i});var n=r(860);const i={ERROR:"ERROR",WARN:"WARN",INFO:"INFO",DEBUG:"DEBUG",TRACE:"TRACE"},o="log";n.K7.logging},3969:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{TZ:()=>n,XG:()=>s,rs:()=>i,xV:()=>a,z_:()=>o});const n=r(860).K7.metrics,i="sm",o="cm",a="storeSupportabilityMetrics",s="storeEventMetrics"},6630:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{T:()=>n});const n=r(860).K7.pageViewEvent},782:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{T:()=>n});const n=r(860).K7.pageViewTiming},6344:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{G4:()=>i});var n=r(2614);r(860).K7.sessionReplay;const i={RECORD:"recordReplay",PAUSE:"pauseReplay",REPLAY_RUNNING:"replayRunning",ERROR_DURING_REPLAY:"errorDuringReplay"};n.g.ERROR,n.g.FULL,n.g.OFF},4234:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{W:()=>o});var n=r(7836),i=r(1687);class o{constructor(e,t){this.agentIdentifier=e,this.ee=n.ee.get(e),this.featureName=t,this.blocked=!1}deregisterDrain(){(0,i.x3)(this.agentIdentifier,this.featureName)}}},7603:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{j:()=>P});var n=r(860),i=r(2555),o=r(3371),a=r(9908),s=r(7836),c=r(1687),u=r(5289),d=r(6154),l=r(944),f=r(3969),g=r(384),p=r(6344);const h=["setErrorHandler","finished","addToTrace","addRelease","addPageAction","setCurrentRouteName","setPageViewName","setCustomAttribute","interaction","noticeError","setUserId","setApplicationVersion","start",p.G4.RECORD,p.G4.PAUSE,"log","wrapLogger"],v=["setErrorHandler","finished","addToTrace","addRelease"];var m=r(1863),b=r(2614),y=r(993);var w=r(2646),A=r(3434);function R(e,t,r,n){if("object"!=typeof t||!t||"string"!=typeof r||!r||"function"!=typeof t[r])return(0,l.R)(29);const i=function(e){return(e||s.ee).get("logger")}(e),o=(0,A.YM)(i),a=new w.y(s.P);return a.level=n.level,a.customAttributes=n.customAttributes,o.inPlace(t,[r],"wrap-logger-",a),i}function E(){const e=(0,g.pV)();h.forEach((t=>{e[t]=(...r)=>function(t,...r){let n=[];return Object.values(e.initializedAgents).forEach((e=>{e&&e.api?e.exposed&&e.api[t]&&n.push(e.api[t](...r)):(0,l.R)(38,t)})),n.length>1?n:n[0]}(t,...r)}))}const x={};function _(e,t,g=!1){t||(0,c.Ak)(e,"api");const h={};var w=s.ee.get(e),A=w.get("tracer");x[e]=b.g.OFF,w.on(p.G4.REPLAY_RUNNING,(t=>{x[e]=t}));var E="api-",_=E+"ixn-";function N(t,r,n,o){const a=(0,i.Vp)(e);return null===r?delete a.jsAttributes[t]:(0,i.x1)(e,{...a,jsAttributes:{...a.jsAttributes,[t]:r}}),j(E,n,!0,o||null===r?"session":void 0)(t,r)}function T(){}h.log=function(e,{customAttributes:t={},level:r=y.p_.INFO}={}){(0,a.p)(f.xV,["API/log/called"],void 0,n.K7.metrics,w),function(e,t,r={},i=y.p_.INFO){(0,a.p)(f.xV,["API/logging/".concat(i.toLowerCase(),"/called")],void 0,n.K7.metrics,e),(0,a.p)(y.ET,[(0,m.t)(),t,r,i],void 0,n.K7.logging,e)}(w,e,t,r)},h.wrapLogger=(e,t,{customAttributes:r={},level:i=y.p_.INFO}={})=>{(0,a.p)(f.xV,["API/wrapLogger/called"],void 0,n.K7.metrics,w),R(w,e,t,{customAttributes:r,level:i})},v.forEach((e=>{h[e]=j(E,e,!0,"api")})),h.addPageAction=j(E,"addPageAction",!0,n.K7.genericEvents),h.setPageViewName=function(t,r){if("string"==typeof t)return"/"!==t.charAt(0)&&(t="/"+t),(0,o.f)(e).customTransaction=(r||"http://custom.transaction")+t,j(E,"setPageViewName",!0)()},h.setCustomAttribute=function(e,t,r=!1){if("string"==typeof e){if(["string","number","boolean"].includes(typeof t)||null===t)return N(e,t,"setCustomAttribute",r);(0,l.R)(40,typeof t)}else(0,l.R)(39,typeof e)},h.setUserId=function(e){if("string"==typeof e||null===e)return N("enduser.id",e,"setUserId",!0);(0,l.R)(41,typeof e)},h.setApplicationVersion=function(e){if("string"==typeof e||null===e)return N("application.version",e,"setApplicationVersion",!1);(0,l.R)(42,typeof e)},h.start=()=>{try{(0,a.p)(f.xV,["API/start/called"],void 0,n.K7.metrics,w),w.emit("manual-start-all")}catch(e){(0,l.R)(23,e)}},h[p.G4.RECORD]=function(){(0,a.p)(f.xV,["API/recordReplay/called"],void 0,n.K7.metrics,w),(0,a.p)(p.G4.RECORD,[],void 0,n.K7.sessionReplay,w)},h[p.G4.PAUSE]=function(){(0,a.p)(f.xV,["API/pauseReplay/called"],void 0,n.K7.metrics,w),(0,a.p)(p.G4.PAUSE,[],void 0,n.K7.sessionReplay,w)},h.interaction=function(e){return(new T).get("object"==typeof e?e:{})};const S=T.prototype={createTracer:function(e,t){var r={},i=this,o="function"==typeof t;return(0,a.p)(f.xV,["API/createTracer/called"],void 0,n.K7.metrics,w),g||(0,a.p)(_+"tracer",[(0,m.t)(),e,r],i,n.K7.spa,w),function(){if(A.emit((o?"":"no-")+"fn-start",[(0,m.t)(),i,o],r),o)try{return t.apply(this,arguments)}catch(e){const t="string"==typeof e?new Error(e):e;throw A.emit("fn-err",[arguments,this,t],r),t}finally{A.emit("fn-end",[(0,m.t)()],r)}}}};function j(e,t,r,i){return function(){return(0,a.p)(f.xV,["API/"+t+"/called"],void 0,n.K7.metrics,w),i&&(0,a.p)(e+t,[(0,m.t)(),...arguments],r?null:this,i,w),r?void 0:this}}function k(){r.e(296).then(r.bind(r,8778)).then((({setAPI:t})=>{t(e),(0,c.Ze)(e,"api")})).catch((e=>{(0,l.R)(27,e),w.abort()}))}return["actionText","setName","setAttribute","save","ignore","onEnd","getContext","end","get"].forEach((e=>{S[e]=j(_,e,void 0,g?n.K7.softNav:n.K7.spa)})),h.setCurrentRouteName=g?j(_,"routeName",void 0,n.K7.softNav):j(E,"routeName",!0,n.K7.spa),h.noticeError=function(t,r){"string"==typeof t&&(t=new Error(t)),(0,a.p)(f.xV,["API/noticeError/called"],void 0,n.K7.metrics,w),(0,a.p)("err",[t,(0,m.t)(),!1,r,!!x[e]],void 0,n.K7.jserrors,w)},d.RI?(0,u.GG)((()=>k()),!0):k(),h}var N=r(9417),T=r(8122);const S={accountID:void 0,trustKey:void 0,agentID:void 0,licenseKey:void 0,applicationID:void 0,xpid:void 0},j={};var k=r(5284);const I=e=>{const t=e.startsWith("http");e+="/",r.p=t?e:"https://"+e};let O=!1;function P(e,t={},r,n){let{init:a,info:c,loader_config:u,runtime:l={},exposed:f=!0}=t;l.loaderType=r;const p=(0,g.pV)();c||(a=p.init,c=p.info,u=p.loader_config),(0,N.xN)(e.agentIdentifier,a||{}),function(e,t){if(!e)throw new Error("All loader-config objects require an agent identifier!");j[e]=(0,T.a)(t,S);const r=(0,g.nY)(e);r&&(r.loader_config=j[e])}(e.agentIdentifier,u||{}),c.jsAttributes??={},d.bv&&(c.jsAttributes.isWorker=!0),(0,i.x1)(e.agentIdentifier,c);const h=(0,N.D0)(e.agentIdentifier),v=[c.beacon,c.errorBeacon];O||(h.proxy.assets&&(I(h.proxy.assets),v.push(h.proxy.assets)),h.proxy.beacon&&v.push(h.proxy.beacon),E(),(0,g.US)("activatedFeatures",k.B),e.runSoftNavOverSpa&&=!0===h.soft_navigations.enabled&&h.feature_flags.includes("soft_nav")),l.denyList=[...h.ajax.deny_list||[],...h.ajax.block_internal?v:[]],l.ptid=e.agentIdentifier,(0,o.V)(e.agentIdentifier,l),e.ee=s.ee.get(e.agentIdentifier),void 0===e.api&&(e.api=_(e.agentIdentifier,n,e.runSoftNavOverSpa)),void 0===e.exposed&&(e.exposed=f),O=!0}},8374:(e,t,r)=>{r.nc=(()=>{try{return document?.currentScript?.nonce}catch(e){}return""})()},860:(e,t,r)=>{"use strict";r.d(t,{$J:()=>o,K7:()=>n,P3:()=>i});const n={ajax:"ajax",genericEvents:"generic_events",jserrors:"jserrors",logging:"logging",metrics:"metrics",pageAction:"page_action",pageViewEvent:"page_view_event",pageViewTiming:"page_view_timing",sessionReplay:"session_replay",sessionTrace:"session_trace",softNav:"soft_navigations",spa:"spa"},i={[n.pageViewEvent]:1,[n.pageViewTiming]:2,[n.metrics]:3,[n.jserrors]:4,[n.spa]:5,[n.ajax]:6,[n.sessionTrace]:7,[n.softNav]:8,[n.sessionReplay]:9,[n.logging]:10,[n.genericEvents]:11},o={[n.pageViewTiming]:"events",[n.ajax]:"events",[n.spa]:"events",[n.softNav]:"events",[n.metrics]:"jserrors",[n.jserrors]:"jserrors",[n.sessionTrace]:"browser/blobs",[n.sessionReplay]:"browser/blobs",[n.logging]:"browser/logs",[n.genericEvents]:"ins"}}},n={};function i(e){var t=n[e];if(void 0!==t)return t.exports;var o=n[e]={exports:{}};return r[e](o,o.exports,i),o.exports}i.m=r,i.d=(e,t)=>{for(var r in t)i.o(t,r)&&!i.o(e,r)&&Object.defineProperty(e,r,{enumerable:!0,get:t[r]})},i.f={},i.e=e=>Promise.all(Object.keys(i.f).reduce(((t,r)=>(i.f[r](e,t),t)),[])),i.u=e=>"nr-rum-1.274.0.min.js",i.o=(e,t)=>Object.prototype.hasOwnProperty.call(e,t),e={},t="NRBA-1.274.0.PROD:",i.l=(r,n,o,a)=>{if(e[r])e[r].push(n);else{var s,c;if(void 0!==o)for(var u=document.getElementsByTagName("script"),d=0;d<u.length;d++){var l=u[d];if(l.getAttribute("src")==r||l.getAttribute("data-webpack")==t+o){s=l;break}}if(!s){c=!0;var f={296:"sha512-gkYkZDAwQ9PwaDXs2YM+rNIdRej1Ac1mupWobRJ8eahQcXz6/sunGZCKklrzi5kWxhOGRZr2tn0rEKuLTXzfAA=="};(s=document.createElement("script")).charset="utf-8",s.timeout=120,i.nc&&s.setAttribute("nonce",i.nc),s.setAttribute("data-webpack",t+o),s.src=r,0!==s.src.indexOf(window.location.origin+"/")&&(s.crossOrigin="anonymous"),f[a]&&(s.integrity=f[a])}e[r]=[n];var g=(t,n)=>{s.onerror=s.onload=null,clearTimeout(p);var i=e[r];if(delete e[r],s.parentNode&&s.parentNode.removeChild(s),i&&i.forEach((e=>e(n))),t)return t(n)},p=setTimeout(g.bind(null,void 0,{type:"timeout",target:s}),12e4);s.onerror=g.bind(null,s.onerror),s.onload=g.bind(null,s.onload),c&&document.head.appendChild(s)}},i.r=e=>{"undefined"!=typeof Symbol&&Symbol.toStringTag&&Object.defineProperty(e,Symbol.toStringTag,{value:"Module"}),Object.defineProperty(e,"__esModule",{value:!0})},i.p="https://js-agent.newrelic.com/",(()=>{var e={840:0,374:0};i.f.j=(t,r)=>{var n=i.o(e,t)?e[t]:void 0;if(0!==n)if(n)r.push(n[2]);else{var o=new Promise(((r,i)=>n=e[t]=[r,i]));r.push(n[2]=o);var a=i.p+i.u(t),s=new Error;i.l(a,(r=>{if(i.o(e,t)&&(0!==(n=e[t])&&(e[t]=void 0),n)){var o=r&&("load"===r.type?"missing":r.type),a=r&&r.target&&r.target.src;s.message="Loading chunk "+t+" failed.\n("+o+": "+a+")",s.name="ChunkLoadError",s.type=o,s.request=a,n[1](s)}}),"chunk-"+t,t)}};var t=(t,r)=>{var n,o,[a,s,c]=r,u=0;if(a.some((t=>0!==e[t]))){for(n in s)i.o(s,n)&&(i.m[n]=s[n]);if(c)c(i)}for(t&&t(r);u<a.length;u++)o=a[u],i.o(e,o)&&e[o]&&e[o][0](),e[o]=0},r=self["webpackChunk:NRBA-1.274.0.PROD"]=self["webpackChunk:NRBA-1.274.0.PROD"]||[];r.forEach(t.bind(null,0)),r.push=t.bind(null,r.push.bind(r))})(),(()=>{"use strict";i(8374);var e=i(944),t=i(6344),r=i(9566);class n{agentIdentifier;constructor(e=(0,r.LA)(16)){this.agentIdentifier=e}#e(t,...r){if("function"==typeof this.api?.[t])return this.api[t](...r);(0,e.R)(35,t)}addPageAction(e,t){return this.#e("addPageAction",e,t)}setPageViewName(e,t){return this.#e("setPageViewName",e,t)}setCustomAttribute(e,t,r){return this.#e("setCustomAttribute",e,t,r)}noticeError(e,t){return this.#e("noticeError",e,t)}setUserId(e){return this.#e("setUserId",e)}setApplicationVersion(e){return this.#e("setApplicationVersion",e)}setErrorHandler(e){return this.#e("setErrorHandler",e)}addRelease(e,t){return this.#e("addRelease",e,t)}log(e,t){return this.#e("log",e,t)}}class o extends n{#e(t,...r){if("function"==typeof this.api?.[t])return this.api[t](...r);(0,e.R)(35,t)}start(){return this.#e("start")}finished(e){return this.#e("finished",e)}recordReplay(){return this.#e(t.G4.RECORD)}pauseReplay(){return this.#e(t.G4.PAUSE)}addToTrace(e){return this.#e("addToTrace",e)}setCurrentRouteName(e){return this.#e("setCurrentRouteName",e)}interaction(){return this.#e("interaction")}wrapLogger(e,t,r){return this.#e("wrapLogger",e,t,r)}}var a=i(860),s=i(9417);const c=Object.values(a.K7);function u(e){const t={};return c.forEach((r=>{t[r]=function(e,t){return!0===(0,s.gD)(t,"".concat(e,".enabled"))}(r,e)})),t}var d=i(7603);var l=i(1687),f=i(4234),g=i(5289),p=i(6154),h=i(384);const v=e=>p.RI&&!0===(0,s.gD)(e,"privacy.cookies_enabled");function m(e){return!!(0,h.dV)().o.MO&&v(e)&&!0===(0,s.gD)(e,"session_trace.enabled")}var b=i(6389);class y extends f.W{constructor(e,t,r=!0){super(e.agentIdentifier,t),this.auto=r,this.abortHandler=void 0,this.featAggregate=void 0,this.onAggregateImported=void 0,!1===e.init[this.featureName].autoStart&&(this.auto=!1),this.auto?(0,l.Ak)(e.agentIdentifier,t):this.ee.on("manual-start-all",(0,b.J)((()=>{(0,l.Ak)(e.agentIdentifier,this.featureName),this.auto=!0,this.importAggregator(e)})))}importAggregator(t,r={}){if(this.featAggregate||!this.auto)return;let n;this.onAggregateImported=new Promise((e=>{n=e}));const o=async()=>{let o;try{if(v(this.agentIdentifier)){const{setupAgentSession:e}=await i.e(296).then(i.bind(i,3861));o=e(t)}}catch(t){(0,e.R)(20,t),this.ee.emit("internal-error",[t]),this.featureName===a.K7.sessionReplay&&this.abortHandler?.()}try{if(t.sharedAggregator)await t.sharedAggregator;else{t.sharedAggregator=i.e(296).then(i.bind(i,9337));const{EventAggregator:e}=await t.sharedAggregator;t.sharedAggregator=new e}if(!this.#t(this.featureName,o))return(0,l.Ze)(this.agentIdentifier,this.featureName),void n(!1);const{lazyFeatureLoader:e}=await i.e(296).then(i.bind(i,6103)),{Aggregate:a}=await e(this.featureName,"aggregate");this.featAggregate=new a(t,r),n(!0)}catch(t){(0,e.R)(34,t),this.abortHandler?.(),(0,l.Ze)(this.agentIdentifier,this.featureName,!0),n(!1),this.ee&&this.ee.abort()}};p.RI?(0,g.GG)((()=>o()),!0):o()}#t(e,t){switch(e){case a.K7.sessionReplay:return m(this.agentIdentifier)&&!!t;case a.K7.sessionTrace:return!!t;default:return!0}}}var w=i(6630);class A extends y{static featureName=w.T;constructor(e,t=!0){super(e,w.T,t),this.importAggregator(e)}}var R=i(9908),E=i(2843),x=i(3878),_=i(782),N=i(1863);class T extends y{static featureName=_.T;constructor(e,t=!0){super(e,_.T,t),p.RI&&((0,E.u)((()=>(0,R.p)("docHidden",[(0,N.t)()],void 0,_.T,this.ee)),!0),(0,x.sp)("pagehide",(()=>(0,R.p)("winPagehide",[(0,N.t)()],void 0,_.T,this.ee))),this.importAggregator(e))}}var S=i(3969);class j extends y{static featureName=S.TZ;constructor(e,t=!0){super(e,S.TZ,t),this.importAggregator(e)}}new class extends o{constructor(t,r){super(r),p.gm?(this.features={},(0,h.bQ)(this.agentIdentifier,this),this.desiredFeatures=new Set(t.features||[]),this.desiredFeatures.add(A),this.runSoftNavOverSpa=[...this.desiredFeatures].some((e=>e.featureName===a.K7.softNav)),(0,d.j)(this,t,t.loaderType||"agent"),this.run()):(0,e.R)(21)}get config(){return{info:this.info,init:this.init,loader_config:this.loader_config,runtime:this.runtime}}run(){try{const t=u(this.agentIdentifier),r=[...this.desiredFeatures];r.sort(((e,t)=>a.P3[e.featureName]-a.P3[t.featureName])),r.forEach((r=>{if(!t[r.featureName]&&r.featureName!==a.K7.pageViewEvent)return;if(this.runSoftNavOverSpa&&r.featureName===a.K7.spa)return;if(!this.runSoftNavOverSpa&&r.featureName===a.K7.softNav)return;const n=function(e){switch(e){case a.K7.ajax:return[a.K7.jserrors];case a.K7.sessionTrace:return[a.K7.ajax,a.K7.pageViewEvent];case a.K7.sessionReplay:return[a.K7.sessionTrace];case a.K7.pageViewTiming:return[a.K7.pageViewEvent];default:return[]}}(r.featureName).filter((e=>!(e in this.features)));n.length>0&&(0,e.R)(36,{targetFeature:r.featureName,missingDependencies:n}),this.features[r.featureName]=new r(this)}))}catch(t){(0,e.R)(22,t);for(const e in this.features)this.features[e].abortHandler?.();const r=(0,h.Zm)();delete r.initializedAgents[this.agentIdentifier]?.api,delete r.initializedAgents[this.agentIdentifier]?.features,delete this.sharedAggregator;return r.ee.get(this.agentIdentifier).abort(),!1}}}({features:[A,T,j],loaderType:"lite"})})()})();</script> <title>CHARLEMAGNE - JewishEncyclopedia.com</title> <meta name="description" content="Complete contents the 1906 Jewish Encyclopedia."> <link rel="shortcut icon" href="/images/favicon.ico"> <link rel="stylesheet" media="screen" href="/stylesheets/style.css" /> <link rel="stylesheet" media="screen" href="/stylesheets/jquery-ui.css" /> <script src="/javascripts/jquery.min.js"></script> <script src="/javascripts/jquery-ui.min.js"></script> <script src="/javascripts/rails.js"></script> <script src="/javascripts/modernizr-1.6.min.js"></script> <script src="/javascripts/clear-form.js"></script> <!-- Global site tag (gtag.js) - Google Analytics --> <script async src="https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtag/js?id=G-KS1CM4DDS6"></script> <script> $(document).ready(function() { $(".notselectedletter").live('mouseenter', function() { $(".selectedletter").removeClass('active') }) $(".notselectedletter").live('mouseleave', function() { $(".selectedletter").addClass('active') }) $(".letterlink").click(function() { $('.selectedletter').addClass('notselectedletter') $('.selectedletter').removeClass('selectedletter') $(this).parent().addClass('selectedletter').addClass('active') $(this).parent().removeClass('notselectedletter') }) $("#searchtips").click(function() { $("#tippopup").slideDown() }) $("#closeicon").click(function() { $("#tippopup").slideUp() }) }) // Global site tag (gtag.js) - Google Analytics window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; function gtag(){dataLayer.push(arguments);} gtag('js', new Date()); gtag('config', 'G-KS1CM4DDS6'); </script> <meta name="csrf-param" content="authenticity_token" /> <meta name="csrf-token" content="6xrX0A7X8YbzJxcN17xEI97zQDTzlEcfxtP5mwk04fIRuJOd0EU0e2QJzuKFmdg3lpJtidEwL/tteQ+dQ3Zabw==" /> </head> <body> <script type="text/javascript"> (function(w,d,t,u,n,s,e){w['SwiftypeObject']=n;w[n]=w[n]||function(){ (w[n].q=w[n].q||[]).push(arguments);};s=d.createElement(t); e=d.getElementsByTagName(t)[0];s.async=1;s.src=u;e.parentNode.insertBefore(s,e); })(window,document,'script','//s.swiftypecdn.com/install/v2/st.js','_st'); _st('install','HcWqBw44KhbcKksxJarf','2.0.0'); </script> <div id="custom-doc" class="yui3-g"> <header id="hd" class="yui3-u-1"> <div class="yui3-g"> <div class="yui3-u-1-3"> <h1 class="logo"><a href="/">JewishEncyclopedia.com</a></h1> </div> <div class="yui3-u-1-3"> </div> <div class="yui3-u-1-3"> <input type="text" class="st-default-search-input" style="width:275px"> </div> </div> <div class="yui3-g"> <nav class="yui3-u-1"> <ul id="nav"> <li class='selectedletter active'> <a href="#" class="letterlink">A</a> <ul> <li> <a title="AACH - Abdima (Abdimi) of Sepphoris" href="/directory/A/1"> AACH - ABDI </a> </li> <li> <a title="Abdimi Malla谩赂楼a - ABRAHAM OF BOHEMIA" href="/directory/A/205"> ABDI - ABRA </a> </li> <li> <a title="ABRAHAM IBN BOLAT - ABRAHAM BEN YOM-谩鹿卢OB OF TUDELA" href="/directory/A/408"> ABRA - ABRA </a> </li> <li> <a title="ABRAHAM 谩潞聮ARFATI - ADLER, DAVID BARUCH" href="/directory/A/611"> ABRA - ADLE </a> </li> <li> <a title="ADLER, ELKAN NATHAN - AIN MUSA" href="/directory/A/814"> ADLE - AINM </a> </li> <li> <a title="AIRE - ALGAZI, YOM-谩鹿卢OB BEN ISRAEL JACOB" href="/directory/A/1017"> AIRE - ALGA </a> </li> <li> <a title="ALGEBRA, SCIENCE OF - AMORITES" href="/directory/A/1220"> ALGE - AMOR </a> </li> <li> <a title="AMOS - ANTUNES" href="/directory/A/1423"> AMOS - ANTU </a> </li> <li> <a title="ANTWERP - ARTAXERXES II" href="/directory/A/1626"> ANTW - ARTA </a> </li> <li> <a title="ARTAXERXES III. - ASSER, CAREL" href="/directory/A/1829"> ARTA - ASSE </a> </li> <li> <a title="ASSER, CAREL - 'AZZUT PANIM" href="/directory/A/2032"> ASSE - AZZU </a> </li> </ul> </li> <li class='notselectedletter'> <a href="#" class="letterlink">B</a> <ul> <li> <a title="BA'AL - BAKHMUT" href="/directory/B/2235"> BAAL - BAKH </a> </li> <li> <a title="BAKI, SIMSON - BARNACLE-GOOSE" href="/directory/B/2385"> BAKI - BARN </a> </li> <li> <a title="BARNATO, BARNETT ISAACS - BE ABIDAN" href="/directory/B/2535"> BARN - BEAB </a> </li> <li> <a title="BE RAB - BELMONTE" href="/directory/B/2685"> BERA - BELM </a> </li> <li> <a title="BELMONTE, B. E. COLA脙聡O - BENJAMIN, SAMUEL" href="/directory/B/2835"> BELM - BENJ </a> </li> <li> <a title="BENJAMIN B. SAMUEL OF COUTANCES - BERNSTAMM, LEOPOLD BERNARD" href="/directory/B/2984"> BENJ - BERN </a> </li> <li> <a title="BERNSTEIN, AARON (DAVID) - BIEDERMANN, MICHAEL LAZAR" href="/directory/B/3133"> BERN - BIED </a> </li> <li> <a title="BIEGELEISEN, HENRY - BLUMENFELDT, SIMON" href="/directory/B/3282"> BIEG - BLUM </a> </li> <li> <a title="BLUMENSTOCK VON HALBAN, LEO - BORNSTEIN, PAUL" href="/directory/B/3431"> BLUM - BORN </a> </li> <li> <a title="BORODAVKA - BRODA, BENJAMIN B. AARON" href="/directory/B/3580"> BORO - BROD </a> </li> <li> <a title="BRODSKI - BYZANTINE EXPIRE" href="/directory/B/3729"> BROD - BYZA </a> </li> </ul> </li> <li class='notselectedletter'> <a href="#" class="letterlink">C</a> <ul> <li> <a title="CABALA - CANSINO, JACOB" href="/directory/C/3878"> CABA - CANS </a> </li> <li> <a title="CANSTATT, KARL FRIEDRICH - CARPI, ZACHARIAH" href="/directory/C/3975"> CANS - CARP </a> </li> <li> <a title="CARPZOV, JOHANN BENEDICT II. - CEMETERY" href="/directory/C/4072"> CARP - CEME </a> </li> <li> <a title="CENSER - CHASTITY, PROOF OF" href="/directory/C/4169"> CENS - CHAS </a> </li> <li> <a title="CH脙聜TEAU-THIERRY - CHRIST" href="/directory/C/4265"> CHAT - CHRI </a> </li> <li> <a title="CHRISTIAN - COHEN, ABNER" href="/directory/C/4361"> CHRI - COHE </a> </li> <li> <a title="COHEN, ABRAHAM - COLON" href="/directory/C/4457"> COHE - COLO </a> </li> <li> <a title="COLON, JOSEPH B. SOLOMON - CORDOVA" href="/directory/C/4553"> COLO - CORD </a> </li> <li> <a title="CORDOVA, ISAAC HEZEKIAH B. JACOB - CR脙聣MIEUX, GASTON" href="/directory/C/4649"> CORD - CREM </a> </li> <li> <a title="CR脙聣MIEUX, HANANEEL - CZYNSKI, JAN (JEAN)" href="/directory/C/4745"> CREM - CZYN </a> </li> </ul> </li> <li class='notselectedletter'> <a href="#" class="letterlink">D</a> <ul> <li> <a title="DABBASHETH - DANON, JOSEPH BEN JACOB BEN MOSES IBN" href="/directory/D/4841"> DABB - DANO </a> </li> <li> <a title="DANON, ME脙聫R BENJAMIN MENAHEM - DAVID, ERNEST" href="/directory/D/4891"> DANO - DAVI </a> </li> <li> <a title="DAVID, FERDINAND - DAVIDSOHN, LEON" href="/directory/D/4941"> DAVI - DAVI </a> </li> <li> <a title="DAVIDSOHN, ROBERT - DEDE AGATCH" href="/directory/D/4991"> DAVI - DEDE </a> </li> <li> <a title="DEDICATION - DENMARK" href="/directory/D/5041"> DEDI - DENM </a> </li> <li> <a title="DENVER - DEUTSCH, EMANUEL OSCAR MENAHEM" href="/directory/D/5091"> DENV - DEUT </a> </li> <li> <a title="DEUTSCH, GOTTHARD - DIESSENHOFEN" href="/directory/D/5141"> DEUT - DIES </a> </li> <li> <a title="DIETARY LAWS - DLUGOSZ, JEAN" href="/directory/D/5191"> DIET - DLUG </a> </li> <li> <a title="DLUGOSZ - DOSA BEN SAADIA" href="/directory/D/5241"> DLUG - DOSA </a> </li> <li> <a title="DOSA B. 谩鹿卢EBET - DUALISM" href="/directory/D/5291"> DOSA - DUAL </a> </li> <li> <a title="DUARTE, LUIS - DYVIN" href="/directory/D/5341"> DUAR - DYVI </a> </li> </ul> </li> <li class='notselectedletter'> <a href="#" class="letterlink">E</a> <ul> <li> <a title="EAGLE - EFES" href="/directory/E/5390"> EAGL - EFES </a> </li> <li> <a title="EFODI - EJECTMENT" href="/directory/E/5444"> EFOD - EJEC </a> </li> <li> <a title="EKAH (LAMENTATIONS) RABBATI - ELEAZAR B. NATHAN" href="/directory/E/5498"> EKAH - ELEA </a> </li> <li> <a title="ELEAZAR BEN PEDAT - ELIEZER B. 谩赂陇ISMA" href="/directory/E/5551"> ELEA - ELIE </a> </li> <li> <a title="ELIEZER (LIEZER) BEN HYRCANUS - ELIJAH BEN JOSEPH" href="/directory/E/5604"> ELIE - ELIJ </a> </li> <li> <a title="ELIJAH B. JOSEPH (YOSKE) - ELTEKEH" href="/directory/E/5657"> ELIJ - ELTE </a> </li> <li> <a title="ELVIRA - ENGEL, JOSEPH" href="/directory/E/5710"> ELVI - ENGE </a> </li> <li> <a title="ENGELBERT, HERMANN - EPICURUS AND EPICUREANISM" href="/directory/E/5763"> ENGE - EPIC </a> </li> <li> <a title="EPIGRAMS - ESTELLA" href="/directory/E/5816"> EPIG - ESTE </a> </li> <li> <a title="ESTELLE, FRANCE - EVIL-MERODACH" href="/directory/E/5869"> ESTE - EVIL </a> </li> <li> <a title="EVIL SPIRITS - EZRAHITE" href="/directory/E/5922"> EVIL - EZRA </a> </li> </ul> </li> <li class='notselectedletter'> <a href="#" class="letterlink">F</a> <ul> <li> <a title="FABLE - FAR谩赂陇I (PAR谩赂陇I), ESTORI" href="/directory/F/5975"> FABL - FARH </a> </li> <li> <a title="FAR谩赂陇I, 谩赂陇AYYIM MU'ALLIM - FELBERMAN, LOUIS" href="/directory/F/6018"> FARH - FELB </a> </li> <li> <a title="FELD, JULIUS - FEUER, NATHANIEL" href="/directory/F/6061"> FELD - FEUE </a> </li> <li> <a title="FEUST, KARL - FISCHELS, ME脙聫R" href="/directory/F/6104"> FEUS - FISC </a> </li> <li> <a title="FISCHER, BERNARD - FLEXNER, SIMON" href="/directory/F/6147"> FISC - FLEX </a> </li> <li> <a title="FLISFEDER, D. I. - FORGERY" href="/directory/F/6190"> FLIS - FORG </a> </li> <li> <a title="FORGIVENESS - FRANCOLM, ISAAC ASHER" href="/directory/F/6233"> FORG - FRAN </a> </li> <li> <a title="FRANGI, 谩赂陇AYYIM - FRANKL, LOTHAR AMADEUS, RITTER VON HOCHWART" href="/directory/F/6276"> FRAN - FRAN </a> </li> <li> <a title="FRANKL, LUDWIG AUGUST, RITTER VON HOCHWART - FRIDAY" href="/directory/F/6318"> FRAN - FRID </a> </li> <li> <a title="FRIEDBERG, ABRAHAM SHALOM ("HAR SHALOM") - FROHBERG, REGINA" href="/directory/F/6360"> FRIE - FROH </a> </li> <li> <a title="FROHMAN, CHARLES - F脙聹RTH, MEYER B. ELHANAN" href="/directory/F/6402"> FROH - FURT </a> </li> </ul> </li> <li class='notselectedletter'> <a href="#" class="letterlink">G</a> <ul> <li> <a title="GABBAI - GAMALIEL III." href="/directory/G/6444"> GABB - GAMA </a> </li> <li> <a title="GAMALIEL IV. - GEDALIAH CORDOVERO" href="/directory/G/6497"> GAMA - GEDA </a> </li> <li> <a title="GEDALIAH, JUDAH, DON - GERMANUS, MOSES" href="/directory/G/6550"> GEDA - GERM </a> </li> <li> <a title="GERMANY - GHIRON" href="/directory/G/6603"> GERM - GHIR </a> </li> <li> <a title="GHIRONDI - GLOGAU, JEHIEL MICHAEL BEN UZZIEL" href="/directory/G/6656"> GHIR - GLOG </a> </li> <li> <a title="GLOGAUER, ABIGDOR BEN SIM谩赂陇AH HA-LEVI - GOLDSCHMIDT, LOTHAR" href="/directory/G/6709"> GLOG - GOLD </a> </li> <li> <a title="GOLDSCHMIDT, ME脙聫R AARON - GORDON, LEON (JUDAH L脙聳B BEN ASHER)" href="/directory/G/6761"> GOLD - GORD </a> </li> <li> <a title="GORDON, MICHEL - GRAZIANI, AUGUSTO" href="/directory/G/6813"> GORD - GRAZ </a> </li> <li> <a title="GRAZIANO, ABRAHAM JOSEPH SOLOMON BEN MORDECAI - GUARDIA, LA, THE HOLY CHILD OF" href="/directory/G/6865"> GRAZ - GUAR </a> </li> <li> <a title="GUARDIAN AND WARD - GYMNASIUM" href="/directory/G/6917"> GUAR - GYMN </a> </li> </ul> </li> <li class='notselectedletter'> <a href="#" class="letterlink">H</a> <ul> <li> <a title="HAARBLEICHER, MOSES M. - HAINDORF, ALEXANDER" href="/directory/H/6969"> HAAR - HAIN </a> </li> <li> <a title="HAIR - HAMNUNA II." href="/directory/H/7061"> HAIR - HAMN </a> </li> <li> <a title="HAMNUNA OF BABYLONIA - HARARI, JUDAH (ARYEH)" href="/directory/H/7153"> HAMN - HARA </a> </li> <li> <a title="HARARITE - HAUSEN, MOSES BEN ASHER ANSHEL" href="/directory/H/7245"> HARA - HAUS </a> </li> <li> <a title="HAUSER, CARL FRANKL - 谩赂陇AZZAN, ABRAHAM BEN JUDAH" href="/directory/H/7337"> HAUS - HAZZ </a> </li> <li> <a title="谩赂陇AZZAN, ELEAZAR HA- - HEKSCHER, EPHRAIM BEN SAMUEL SANVEL" href="/directory/H/7429"> HAZZ - HEKS </a> </li> <li> <a title="HELA - HERRMANN, LEO" href="/directory/H/7520"> HELA - HERR </a> </li> <li> <a title="HERSCHEL, SIR WILLIAM - HILLEL BEN ELIAKIM" href="/directory/H/7611"> HERS - HILL </a> </li> <li> <a title="HILLEL OF ERFURT - H脙聳CHHEIMER (H脙聳脛聥HHEIM, HOCHHEIMER, HECHIM)" href="/directory/H/7702"> HILL - HOCH </a> </li> <li> <a title="HOCHMEISTER - HOROWITZ, SHABBETHAI SHEFTEL" href="/directory/H/7793"> HOCH - HORO </a> </li> <li> <a title="HORSCHETZKY, MORITZ - HYSSOP" href="/directory/H/7884"> HORS - HYSS </a> </li> </ul> </li> <li class='notselectedletter'> <a href="#" class="letterlink">I</a> <ul> <li> <a title="I - IBN MIGAS, ME脙聫R" href="/directory/I/7975"> I - IBNM </a> </li> <li> <a title="IBN MUHAJAR, AHUB BEN ME脙聫R HANASI IBN <ForeignChars>V06p538003.jpg</ForeignChars> - IBN YA谩赂陇YA, JOSEPH BEN DAVID" href="/directory/I/8008"> IBNM - IBNY </a> </li> <li> <a title="IBN YA'ISH, BARUCH BEN ISAAC - ILLESCOS, JACOB DI" href="/directory/I/8041"> IBNY - ILLE </a> </li> <li> <a title="ILLIBERIS - INDIANAPOLIS" href="/directory/I/8074"> ILLI - INDI </a> </li> <li> <a title="INDICTMENT - INTERMEDIATE DAYS" href="/directory/I/8107"> INDI - INTE </a> </li> <li> <a title="INTESTACY - ISAAC IBN 谩赂陇ALFON, ABU IBRAHIM" href="/directory/I/8139"> INTE - ISAA </a> </li> <li> <a title="ISAAC BEN 谩赂陇AYYIM BEN ABRAHAM HA-KOHEN - ISAAC BEN MORDECAI GERSHON" href="/directory/I/8171"> ISAA - ISAA </a> </li> <li> <a title="ISAAC BEN MORDECAI HA-LEVI - ISABELLA I" href="/directory/I/8203"> ISAA - ISAB </a> </li> <li> <a title="ISAIAH - ISPAHAN" href="/directory/I/8235"> ISAI - ISPA </a> </li> <li> <a title="ISRAEL - ISRAELI, ISRAEL" href="/directory/I/8267"> ISRA - ISRA </a> </li> <li> <a title="ISRAELIK - ISRAELS, ABRAHAM HARTOG" href="/directory/I/8299"> ISRA - ISRA </a> </li> <li> <a title="ISRAEL'S HEROLD - IZRAELITA MAGYAR N脙聣PTANIT脙聯" href="/directory/I/8331"> ISRA - IZRA </a> </li> </ul> </li> <li class='notselectedletter'> <a href="#" class="letterlink">J</a> <ul> <li> <a title="JAARBOOKEN VOR DE ISRAELITEN - JACOB OF KEFAR SEKANYA (SIMA脙聫)" href="/directory/J/8363"> JAAR - JACO </a> </li> <li> <a title="JACOB B. KORSHAI - JAFFE (JOFFE)" href="/directory/J/8431"> JACO - JAFF </a> </li> <li> <a title="JAGEL, ABRAHAM BEN HANANIAH DEI GALICCHI - JEHOSHAPHAT" href="/directory/J/8499"> JAGE - JEHO </a> </li> <li> <a title="JEHOSHAPHAT, VALLEY OF - JEWISH COMMENT" href="/directory/J/8567"> JEHO - JEWI </a> </li> <li> <a title="JEWISH CRITERION, THE - JOD" href="/directory/J/8635"> JEWI - JOD </a> </li> <li> <a title="JOEL - JONATHAN BEN ELEAZAR" href="/directory/J/8702"> JOEL - JONA </a> </li> <li> <a title="JONATHAN BEN HOR谩赂虏INAS (ARCHINAS) - JOSEPH BEN GORION" href="/directory/J/8769"> JONA - JOSE </a> </li> <li> <a title="JOSEPH IBN 谩赂陇ASAN - JOSEPHS, MICHAEL" href="/directory/J/8836"> JOSE - JOSE </a> </li> <li> <a title="JOSEPHS, WALTER - JUDAH B. AMMI" href="/directory/J/8903"> JOSE - JUDA </a> </li> <li> <a title="JUDAH ARYEH L脙聳B BEN JOSHUA H脙聳SCHEL - JUDE, DER" href="/directory/J/8970"> JUDA - JUDE </a> </li> <li> <a title="JUDE, DER (New York) - JUWEL, MOSES MORDECAI" href="/directory/J/9037"> JUDE - JUWE </a> </li> </ul> </li> <li class='notselectedletter'> <a href="#" class="letterlink">K</a> <ul> <li> <a title="KAB - KALIFA, MOSES BEN MALKA" href="/directory/K/9104"> KAB - KALI </a> </li> <li> <a title="KALILAH WA-DIMNAH - 谩赂虏ANAH ABIGDOR" href="/directory/K/9147"> KALI - KANA </a> </li> <li> <a title="KANITZ, AUGUST - KA谩鹿垄ABI (<ForeignChars>V07p451001.jpg</ForeignChars>), JOSEPH BEN NISSIM" href="/directory/K/9189"> KANI - KASA </a> </li> <li> <a title="KASHER - KEMPNER, GABRIEL" href="/directory/K/9231"> KASH - KEMP </a> </li> <li> <a title="KEMPNER, MAX - KIEV" href="/directory/K/9273"> KEMP - KIEV </a> </li> <li> <a title="KIHAYA - KITE" href="/directory/K/9315"> KIHA - KITE </a> </li> <li> <a title="KITTSEER, MICHAEL - KNOT" href="/directory/K/9357"> KITT - KNOT </a> </li> <li> <a title="KNOXVILLE - KOKEBE YI谩潞聮谩赂陇A谩赂虏" href="/directory/K/9399"> KNOX - KOKE </a> </li> <li> <a title="KOL BO - KOSMINSKY, MARKS" href="/directory/K/9441"> KOLB - KOSM </a> </li> <li> <a title="KOSSARSKI, JULIUS - KROCHMAL, NACHMAN KOHEN" href="/directory/K/9483"> KOSS - KROC </a> </li> <li> <a title="KRON, JUDAH BEN ELEAZAR - KUTTOWER, ABRAHAM GERSHON BEN EPHRAIM" href="/directory/K/9525"> KRON - KUTT </a> </li> </ul> </li> <li class='notselectedletter'> <a href="#" class="letterlink">L</a> <ul> <li> <a title="LA PEYRERE, ISAAC - LANDSHUTH, LESER" href="/directory/L/9567"> LAPE - LAND </a> </li> <li> <a title="LANDSOFER (LANDSCHREIBER), JONAH BEN ELIJAH - LAZARUS, JOSEPHINE" href="/directory/L/9627"> LAND - LAZA </a> </li> <li> <a title="LAZARUS, JULIUS - LEMOS, HENRIETTE DE" href="/directory/L/9687"> LAZA - LEMO </a> </li> <li> <a title="LEMUEL - LEVI BEN ABRAHAM BEN 谩赂陇AYYIM" href="/directory/L/9747"> LEMU - LEVI </a> </li> <li> <a title="LEVI, BENEDIKT - LEVITAN, ISAAC (ISAAC ILYICH)" href="/directory/L/9807"> LEVI - LEVI </a> </li> <li> <a title="LEVITES (Temple Servants) - LEWINSTEIN, JOSEPH" href="/directory/L/9866"> LEVI - LEWI </a> </li> <li> <a title="LEWIS, DAVID - LILIENBLUM, MOSES L脙聳B" href="/directory/L/9925"> LEWI - LILI </a> </li> <li> <a title="LILIENTHAL, MAX - LIVER" href="/directory/L/9984"> LILI - LIVE </a> </li> <li> <a title="LIVERPOOL - LONDON, SOLOMON B. MOSES RAPHAEL" href="/directory/L/10043"> LIVE - LOND </a> </li> <li> <a title="LONG BRANCH - L脙聳WY, ADOLF" href="/directory/L/10102"> LONG - LOWY </a> </li> <li> <a title="L脙聳WY, ALBERT - LYSIMACHUS" href="/directory/L/10161"> LOWY - LYSI </a> </li> </ul> </li> <li class='notselectedletter'> <a href="#" class="letterlink">M</a> <ul> <li> <a title="MAACAH - MALACHI B. JACOB HA-KOHEN" href="/directory/M/10220"> MAAC - MALA </a> </li> <li> <a title="MALAGA - MARKS, SAMUEL" href="/directory/M/10324"> MALA - MARK </a> </li> <li> <a title="MARKUS, LUDWIG - MEASURES" href="/directory/M/10428"> MARK - MEAS </a> </li> <li> <a title="MEAT-TAX - MENAHEM MENDEL BEN BARUCH BENDET" href="/directory/M/10532"> MEAT - MENA </a> </li> <li> <a title="MENAHEM OF MERSEBURG - METER IN THE BIBLE" href="/directory/M/10636"> MENA - METE </a> </li> <li> <a title="METHODOLOGY - MILLET" href="/directory/M/10739"> METH - MILL </a> </li> <li> <a title="MILMAN, HENRY HART - MONDAY AND THURSDAY PRAYER" href="/directory/M/10842"> MILM - MOND </a> </li> <li> <a title="MONEY - MOSER" href="/directory/M/10945"> MONE - MOSE </a> </li> <li> <a title="MOSER, MOSES - MOSES OF SMOLENSK" href="/directory/M/11048"> MOSE - MOSE </a> </li> <li> <a title="MOSES SOFER - MYSTICISM" href="/directory/M/11151"> MOSE - MYST </a> </li> </ul> </li> <li class='notselectedletter'> <a href="#" class="letterlink">N</a> <ul> <li> <a title="NAAMAH - NAHUM" href="/directory/N/11254"> NAAM - NAHU </a> </li> <li> <a title="NAHUM ELIEZER BEN JACOB - NASI, DAVID" href="/directory/N/11293"> NAHU - NASI </a> </li> <li> <a title="NASI GRACIA MENDESIA - NATHAN NATA OF SHKLOV" href="/directory/N/11332"> NASI - NATH </a> </li> <li> <a title="NATHAN BEN SAMUEL - NEBUZAR-ADAN" href="/directory/N/11371"> NATH - NEBU </a> </li> <li> <a title="NECHO - NESEK" href="/directory/N/11410"> NECH - NESE </a> </li> <li> <a title="NESVIZH - NEUZEIT, DIE" href="/directory/N/11448"> NESV - NEUZ </a> </li> <li> <a title="NEVAKHOVICH, L脙聳B - NICHOLAS III., IV., V" href="/directory/N/11486"> NEVA - NICH </a> </li> <li> <a title="NICHOLAS OF DAMASCUS (NICOLAUS DAMASCENUS) - NISSIM BEN MOSES OF MARSEILLES" href="/directory/N/11524"> NICH - NISS </a> </li> <li> <a title="NISSIM B. REUBEN GERONDI - NOSE-RING" href="/directory/N/11562"> NISS - NOSE </a> </li> <li> <a title="NOSSIG, ALFRED - NYONS" href="/directory/N/11600"> NOSS - NYON </a> </li> </ul> </li> <li class='notselectedletter'> <a href="#" class="letterlink">O</a> <ul> <li> <a title="OAK AND TEREBINTH - OHOLIAB" href="/directory/O/11638"> OAKA - OHOL </a> </li> <li> <a title="OHOLIBAMAH - OPFERPFENNIG, GOLDENER" href="/directory/O/11678"> OHOL - OPFE </a> </li> <li> <a title="OPHEL - OREGON" href="/directory/O/11718"> OPHE - OREG </a> </li> <li> <a title="OREN - OSTROG" href="/directory/O/11758"> OREN - OSTR </a> </li> <li> <a title="OSTROGORSKI, MOISEI YAKOVLEVICH - 'OZER BEN ME脙聫R" href="/directory/O/11797"> OSTR - OZER </a> </li> </ul> </li> <li class='notselectedletter'> <a href="#" class="letterlink">P</a> <ul> <li> <a title="PABLO ALVARO - PAPPENHEIM" href="/directory/P/11836"> PABL - PAPP </a> </li> <li> <a title="PAPPENHEIM, ISRAEL HIRSCH - PATTO, SAMSON GOMEZ" href="/directory/P/11893"> PAPP - PATT </a> </li> <li> <a title="PAUL DE BURGOS - PENITENTIAL DAYS" href="/directory/P/11950"> PAUL - PENI </a> </li> <li> <a title="PENNSYLVANIA - PESI谩赂虏TA (DE-RAB KAHANA; RABBATI; ZU谩鹿卢ARTI)" href="/directory/P/12007"> PENN - PESI </a> </li> <li> <a title="PESSELES, JOSEPH (ELIAS) - PHINEHAS" href="/directory/P/12063"> PESS - PHIN </a> </li> <li> <a title="PHINEHAS BEN CLUSOTH - PINSKER, DOB B脙聞R B. NATHAN" href="/directory/P/12119"> PHIN - PINS </a> </li> <li> <a title="PINSKER, LEV (LEV SEMIONOVICH) - POLA" href="/directory/P/12175"> PINS - POLA </a> </li> <li> <a title="POLACCO, VITTORIO - PORGES, NATHAN" href="/directory/P/12231"> POLA - PORG </a> </li> <li> <a title="PORGES VON PORTHEIM - PREGNANCY" href="/directory/P/12287"> PORG - PREG </a> </li> <li> <a title="PREMEDITATION - PROVENCE" href="/directory/P/12343"> PREM - PROV </a> </li> <li> <a title="PROVERBS - PYKE, LIONEL EDWARD" href="/directory/P/12399"> PROV - PYKE </a> </li> </ul> </li> <li class='notselectedletter'> <a href="#" class="letterlink">Q</a> <ul> <li> <a title="QUADRATUS, UMMIDIUS CAIUS - QUORUM" href="/directory/Q/12455"> QUAD - QUOR </a> </li> </ul> </li> <li class='notselectedletter'> <a href="#" class="letterlink">R</a> <ul> <li> <a title="RAAB - RABINOVICH (RABBINOWITZ), OSIP AARONOVICH" href="/directory/R/12465"> RAAB - RABI </a> </li> <li> <a title="RABINOVITZ, JOSHUA BEN ELIJAH - RAMESES" href="/directory/R/12510"> RABI - RAME </a> </li> <li> <a title="RAMI B. EZEKIEL - RAUSUK, SAMSON" href="/directory/R/12554"> RAMI - RAUS </a> </li> <li> <a title="RAVEN - REGGIO" href="/directory/R/12598"> RAVE - REGG </a> </li> <li> <a title="REGGIO, ABRAHAM (VITA) BEN AZRIEL - REPTILES" href="/directory/R/12642"> REGG - REPT </a> </li> <li> <a title="RESCISSION - RIBA" href="/directory/R/12686"> RESC - RIBA </a> </li> <li> <a title="RIBASH - RITTANGEL, JOHANN STEPHANUS" href="/directory/R/12730"> RIBA - RITT </a> </li> <li> <a title="RITTER, IMMANUEL HEINRICH - ROMI, DANIEL B. JEHIEL" href="/directory/R/12774"> RITT - ROMI </a> </li> <li> <a title="ROMI, JOSEPH - ROSENTHAL, DAVID" href="/directory/R/12818"> ROMI - ROSE </a> </li> <li> <a title="ROSENTHAL, DAVID AUGUSTUS - ROTH, WILHELM" href="/directory/R/12862"> ROSE - ROTH </a> </li> <li> <a title="ROTHENBURG - RYSSEL, CARL VICTOR" href="/directory/R/12906"> ROTH - RYSS </a> </li> </ul> </li> <li class='notselectedletter'> <a href="#" class="letterlink">S</a> <ul> <li> <a title="SAADIA - SAMBARI (CATTAWI?), JOSEPH BEN ISAAC" href="/directory/S/12950"> SAAD - SAMB </a> </li> <li> <a title="SAMBATION, SANBATION, SABBATION (SAMBA谩鹿卢YON) - SANDALS" href="/directory/S/13062"> SAMB - SAND </a> </li> <li> <a title="SANDEK (SYNDIKUS) - SCHMELKES, GOTTFRIED S." href="/directory/S/13174"> SAND - SCHM </a> </li> <li> <a title="SCHMID, ANTON VON - SELA" href="/directory/S/13286"> SCHM - SELA </a> </li> <li> <a title="SELAH - SHATZKES, MOSES AARON" href="/directory/S/13398"> SELA - SHAT </a> </li> <li> <a title="SHAVING - SHUSHAN" href="/directory/S/13510"> SHAV - SHUS </a> </li> <li> <a title="SHUSHAN (SUSA) PURIM - SIM谩赂陇AH B. SAMUEL OF SPEYER" href="/directory/S/13622"> SHUS - SIMH </a> </li> <li> <a title="SIM谩赂陇AH B. SAMUEL OF VITRY - SOLOMON, TESTAMENT OF" href="/directory/S/13734"> SIMH - SOLO </a> </li> <li> <a title="SOLOMON B. AARON TROKI - SPIEGEL, FREDERICK S." href="/directory/S/13846"> SOLO - SPIE </a> </li> <li> <a title="SPIELMANN, SIR ISIDORE - STRASBURG" href="/directory/S/13958"> SPIE - STRA </a> </li> <li> <a title="STRASHUN, MATHIAS - SZOLD, HENRIETTA" href="/directory/S/14070"> STRA - SZOL </a> </li> </ul> </li> <li class='notselectedletter'> <a href="#" class="letterlink">T</a> <ul> <li> <a title="谩鹿卢A'AMIM - TALMUDIC LAW" href="/directory/T/14182"> TAAM - TALM </a> </li> <li> <a title="TALMUD TORAH - TARRAGONA" href="/directory/T/14217"> TALM - TARR </a> </li> <li> <a title="TARRASCH, SIEGBERT - TE谩赂陇INA, ABBA" href="/directory/T/14252"> TARR - TEHI </a> </li> <li> <a title="TE谩赂陇INNAH - TENNESSEE" href="/directory/T/14286"> TEHI - TENN </a> </li> <li> <a title="TENT - THEBEN, KOPPEL (JACOB BEN ABRAHAM MANDL)" href="/directory/T/14320"> TENT - THEB </a> </li> <li> <a title="THEBES - TIBERIAS, LAKE" href="/directory/T/14354"> THEB - TIBE </a> </li> <li> <a title="TIBERIUS JULIUS ALEXANDER - TOBIAS, EMIL" href="/directory/T/14388"> TIBE - TOBI </a> </li> <li> <a title="TOBIT, BOOK OF - TORTOSA" href="/directory/T/14422"> TOBI - TORT </a> </li> <li> <a title="TORTSCHINER, L脙聳B B. ABRAHAM - TREBINO (TREMINO) DE SOBREMONTE, TOMAS" href="/directory/T/14456"> TORT - TREB </a> </li> <li> <a title="TREBITSCH, ABRAHAM BEN REUBEN 谩赂陇AYYA谩鹿卢 - TRIWOSCH, JOSEPH ELIJAH" href="/directory/T/14490"> TREB - TRIW </a> </li> <li> <a title="TROKI - TYROL" href="/directory/T/14524"> TROK - TYRO </a> </li> </ul> </li> <li class='notselectedletter'> <a href="#" class="letterlink">U</a> <ul> <li> <a title="U-BA LE-谩潞聮IYYON - UNGARISCHE ISRAELIT, DER" href="/directory/U/14558"> UBAL - UNGA </a> </li> <li> <a title="UNGER, EPHRAIM SOLOMON - URI" href="/directory/U/14580"> UNGE - URI </a> </li> <li> <a title="URI BEN DAVID BEN MOSES - UZZIEL" href="/directory/U/14602"> URIB - UZZI </a> </li> </ul> </li> <li class='notselectedletter'> <a href="#" class="letterlink">V</a> <ul> <li> <a title="VAEZ - VAN STRAALEN, SAMUEL" href="/directory/V/14624"> VAEZ - VANS </a> </li> <li> <a title="VANCOUVER - VELLUM" href="/directory/V/14644"> VANC - VELL </a> </li> <li> <a title="VENDOR AND PURCHASER - VERSICLE THEMES" href="/directory/V/14664"> VEND - VERS </a> </li> <li> <a title="VERVEER, ELCHANAN - VINE" href="/directory/V/14684"> VERV - VINE </a> </li> <li> <a title="VINEGAR - VIZHAINY (VIZHUNY, VIZAN, VIZANY)" href="/directory/V/14703"> VINE - VIZH </a> </li> <li> <a title="VOCALIZATION - VULTURE" href="/directory/V/14722"> VOCA - VULT </a> </li> </ul> </li> <li class='notselectedletter'> <a href="#" class="letterlink">W</a> <ul> <li> <a title="WA'AD ARBA' ARA谩潞聮OT - WALLER STEIN, ABRAHAM BEN ASHER" href="/directory/W/14741"> WAAD - WALL </a> </li> <li> <a title="WALLICH - WATER-DRAWING, FEAST OF" href="/directory/W/14768"> WALL - WATE </a> </li> <li> <a title="WATER-RIGHTS - WEIGHTS AND MEASURES" href="/directory/W/14795"> WATE - WEIG </a> </li> <li> <a title="WEIL, ADOLF - WEISS, MARKUS NISSA" href="/directory/W/14822"> WEIL - WEIS </a> </li> <li> <a title="WEISS, MAX - WESSELY, WOLFGANG" href="/directory/W/14849"> WEIS - WESS </a> </li> <li> <a title="WEST - WIENER, LEOPOLD" href="/directory/W/14876"> WEST - WIEN </a> </li> <li> <a title="WIENER, ME脙炉R - WILLIAM OF AUVERGNE" href="/directory/W/14903"> WIEN - WILL </a> </li> <li> <a title="WILLIAM OF NORWICH - WISE, STEPHEN SAMUEL" href="/directory/W/14930"> WILL - WISE </a> </li> <li> <a title="WISMAR - WOLFENB脙聹TTEL" href="/directory/W/14957"> WISM - WOLF </a> </li> <li> <a title="WOLFENSTEIN, MARTHA - WOOLF, EDWARD" href="/directory/W/14984"> WOLF - WOOL </a> </li> <li> <a title="WOOLF, SIDNEY - WYSBER, LUDWIG" href="/directory/W/15011"> WOOL - WYSB </a> </li> </ul> </li> <li class='notselectedletter'> <a href="#" class="letterlink">X</a> <ul> <li> <a title="XABILLO - XYSTUS" href="/directory/X/15038"> XABI - XYST </a> </li> </ul> </li> <li class='notselectedletter'> <a href="#" class="letterlink">Y</a> <ul> <li> <a title="YA'ABE谩潞聮 - YAR谩赂陇I, ABRAHAM" href="/directory/Y/15045"> YAAB - YARH </a> </li> <li> <a title="YARMOUTH - YEVREISKAYA BIBLIOTEKA" href="/directory/Y/15064"> YARM - YEVR </a> </li> <li> <a title="YE谩潞聮ER HA-RA' - YI谩潞聮谩赂陇A谩赂虏 BAR JUDAH" href="/directory/Y/15083"> YEZE - YIZH </a> </li> <li> <a title="YI谩潞聮谩赂陇A谩赂虏 OF MAGDALA - YOM KIPPUR 谩赂虏A谩鹿卢AN" href="/directory/Y/15101"> YIZH - YOMK </a> </li> <li> <a title="YOM-谩鹿卢OB BEN ABRAHAM ISHBILI - YUSUF IBN TESHUFIN" href="/directory/Y/15119"> YOMT - YUSU </a> </li> </ul> </li> <li class='notselectedletter'> <a href="#" class="letterlink">Z</a> <ul> <li> <a title="ZABARA, JOSEPH - ZALINSKI, MOSES G." href="/directory/Z/15137"> ZABA - ZALI </a> </li> <li> <a title="ZALMUNNA - 谩潞聮ARFATI, 谩潞聮AREFATI" href="/directory/Z/15155"> ZALM - ZARF </a> </li> <li> <a title="谩潞聮ARFATI - 谩潞聮EBI ASHKENAZI" href="/directory/Z/15173"> ZARF - ZEBI </a> </li> <li> <a title="谩潞聮EBI HIRSCH BEN 谩赂陇AYYIM - 谩潞聮EDE谩赂虏, JOSEPH KOHEN-" href="/directory/Z/15191"> ZEBI - ZEDE </a> </li> <li> <a title="ZEDEKIAH - ZEITLIN, WILLIAM" href="/directory/Z/15209"> ZEDE - ZEIT </a> </li> <li> <a title="ZEITSCHRIFT F脙聹R DIE GESCHICHTE DER JUDEN IN DEUTSCHLAND - ZEPHANIAH BEN MORDECAI TROKI" href="/directory/Z/15227"> ZEIT - ZEPH </a> </li> <li> <a title="ZERAHIAH BEN ISAAC HA-LEVI GERONDI - ZIMMERN, HELEN" href="/directory/Z/15244"> ZERA - ZIMM </a> </li> <li> <a title="ZIMRAT HA-ARE谩潞聮 - ZODIAC" href="/directory/Z/15261"> ZIMR - ZODI </a> </li> <li> <a title="ZOHAR - ZUKERTORT, JOHANNES HERMANN" href="/directory/Z/15278"> ZOHA - ZUKE </a> </li> <li> <a title="ZUKUNFT, DIE - ZWEIFEL, PAUL" href="/directory/Z/15295"> ZUKU - ZWEI </a> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </nav> </div> </header> <div id="bd" class="yui3-u-1"> <div class="yui3-g"> <div class="yui3-u-17-24"> <p id="notice"></p> <article class="yui3-g"> <div class="yui3-u-1"> <h1>CHARLEMAGNE:</h1> </div> <div class="yui3-u-1" style="margin-top:.5em"> <h2>By: <a href="/contribs/524">Richard Gottheil</a>, <a href="/contribs/538">Isaac Broyd茅</a> </h2> </div> <div class="yui3-u-1" style="margin-top:1em"> <p>King of the Franks and emperor of the West; born April, 742; died Jan. 28, 814. His attitude toward the Jews was rather that of a clever politician than of a liberal-minded man. He realized the advantages to be derived by the country from the business abilities of the Jews, and gave them complete freedom with regard to their commercial transactions. Some Jews seem to have occupied prominent places at his court. Thus, Charlemagne had for his physician one named Ferragut. A Hebrew named Isaac was a member of an embassy sent by Charlemagne to Harun al-Rashid, probably in the capacity of dragoman. The account which connects Charlemagne with the coming of Makir to Narbonne is apocryphal.</p><p>But if the Jews were free in their commercial dealings, their political status generally remained almost the same under Charlemagne as under his predecessors. This is seen in his capitularies, some of which deal directly with the Jews. In bringing a charge against a Christian, the Jew was to have four, nine, or seven witnesses, while the Christian was held only to three. No Jew was to engage a Christian workman on a Sunday, nor was he to take in pledge, at the risk of the loss of his property and his right hand, anything that was the property of the Church. No Jew was allowed to force a Christian to go to prison as pledge for a Jew. When a Jew took an oath he was to hold a copy of the Pentateuch in his hand, and to swear: "So help me God! the same God that gave the Law on Mt. Sinai; may the leprosy of the Syrian Naaman not come upon me, as it did on him, nor the earth swallow me up as it did Dathan and Abiram; in this matter I have done thee nothing that is evil." Some of the capitularies were dictated by a spirit of proselytism. In regulating the laws of marriage, Charlemagne forbade the Jews to marry relatives within the seventh degree of consanguinity. "We desire," says he in this capitulary, "that any Christian man or woman, any Jew or Jewess, who would contract a marriage, should not be permitted to do so until after having provided a dowry and obtained in the Church of God the benediction of a priest." But the genuineness of some of the capitularies is not beyond doubt.</p><div class="bibliography"><strong>Bibliography:</strong><ul class="bibliography"><li class="bibliographyitem"> Bougnet, Recueil, v. 679;</li> <li class="bibliographyitem">Pertz, Monumenta Germani艙 Historica, i. 194;</li> <li class="bibliographyitem">Aronius, Regesten, pp. 25-29;</li> <li class="bibliographyitem">B茅darride. Les Juifs en France, en Espagne et en Italie, pp. 73 et seq.;</li> <li class="bibliographyitem">Gr盲tz, Gesch. der Juden, v. 182 et seq.;</li> <li class="bibliographyitem">Gross, Gallia Judaica, p. 404;</li> <li class="bibliographyitem">Saige, Les Juifs du Languedoc, pp. 8, 42, 43, 79.</li></ul></div><ArticleAuthor GoTo="C120046"><Name><LastName><sc>G.</sc></LastName></Name></ArticleAuthor> <ArticleAuthor GoTo="C120061"><Name><FirstName>I.</FirstName> <LastName><sc>Br.</sc></LastName></Name></ArticleAuthor> </div> </article> </div> <div class="yui3-u-7-24"> <div style="padding-left:26px"> <div class="yui3-g"> <div class="yui3-u-1"> Images of pages </div> <div class="yui3-u-1-3" style="text-align:center"> <a href="http://d2b4hhdj1xs9hu.cloudfront.net/KN3N677O.jpg"><img src="http://drtgfht421y7f.cloudfront.net/KN3N677O.jpg" /><br>V:3 P:677</a> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <footer id="ft" class="yui3-u-1"> <div class="yui3-g"> <div id="footer-nav" class="yui3-u-2-5"> <div class="title">About Jewish Encyclopedia</div> <ul> <li><a href="/literary_directorate_listing">Literary Directorate Listing</a></li> <li><a href="/preface">Preface</a></li> <li><a href="/synopsis_of_jewish_encyclopedia">Synopsis of Jewish Encyclopedia</a></li> <li><a href="/systems_of_transliteration_citation_of_proper_names">Systems of Transliteration Citation of Proper Names</a></li> <li><a href="/abbreviations_listings">Abbreviations Listings</a></li> <li><a href="/list_of_patrons">List of Patrons</a></li> </ul> </div> <div id="kopelmanlogo" class="yui3-u-1-5"> <a href="http://www.kopelman.org"><img alt="Funded by The Kopelman Foundation" src="/images/logo-foundation.jpg" /></a> </div> <div id="copyright" class="yui3-u-2-5"> <em>©2002-2021, JewishEncyclopedia.com. All rights reserved</em><br> <a href="/privacy">Privacy</a> | <a href="/terms_of_use">Terms of Use</a> | <a href="/contact">Contact</a> </div> </div> </footer> </div> <div id="fb-root"></div> <script type="text/javascript" charset="utf-8" src="https://www.sefaria.org/linker.js"></script> <script> sefaria.link(); </script> </body> </html>