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Knox</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philander_C._Knox-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-William_Saxbe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#William_Saxbe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>William Saxbe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-William_Saxbe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_20th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_20th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.3</span> <span>Late 20th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_20th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-21st_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#21st_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>21st century</span> </div> </a> <ul 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">This article is part of <a href="/wiki/Category:United_States_Senate" title="Category:United States Senate">a series</a> on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">United States Senate</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><figure class="mw-halign-none" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Seal_of_the_United_States_Senate.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Great Seal of the United States Senate"><img alt="Great Seal of the United States Senate" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Seal_of_the_United_States_Senate.svg/75px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Senate.svg.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Seal_of_the_United_States_Senate.svg/113px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Senate.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Seal_of_the_United_States_Senate.svg/150px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Senate.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1030" data-file-height="1030" /></a><figcaption>Great Seal of the United States Senate</figcaption></figure></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Senate" title="History of the United States Senate">History of the United States Senate</a></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ccccff;padding:0em;"> Members</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_United_States_senators" title="List of current United States senators">Current members</a> <div class="hlist"><ul><li>(<a href="/wiki/Seniority_in_the_United_States_Senate" title="Seniority in the United States Senate">by seniority</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Classes_of_United_States_senators" title="Classes of United States senators">by class</a>)</li></ul></div></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_former_United_States_senators" title="List of former United States senators">Former members</a></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Hill_committee" title="Hill committee">Hill committees</a> <div class="hlist"><ul><li>(<a href="/wiki/Democratic_Senatorial_Campaign_Committee" title="Democratic Senatorial Campaign Committee">DSCC</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/National_Republican_Senatorial_Committee" title="National Republican Senatorial Committee">NRSC</a>)</li></ul></div></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_United_States_Senate" title="Women in the United States Senate">Women in the Senate</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States" title="Vice President of the United States">United States Vice President</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_vice_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of vice presidents of the United States">list</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_pro_tempore_of_the_United_States_Senate" title="President pro tempore of the United States Senate">President pro tempore</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_pro_tempore_of_the_United_States_Senate" title="List of presidents pro tempore of the United States Senate">list</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presiding_Officer_of_the_United_States_Senate" title="Presiding Officer of the United States Senate">Presiding officer</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Party_leaders_of_the_United_States_Senate" title="Party leaders of the United States Senate">Party leaders</a></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Party_leadership_of_the_United_States_Senate" class="mw-redirect" title="Party leadership of the United States Senate">Party leadership of<br />the United States Senate</a></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senate_Democratic_Caucus" title="Senate Democratic Caucus">Democratic Caucus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senate_Republican_Conference" title="Senate Republican Conference">Republican Conference</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ccccff;padding:0em;"> Politics and procedure</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advice_and_consent" title="Advice and consent">Advice and consent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue_slip_(U.S._Senate)" title="Blue slip (U.S. Senate)">Blue slip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Closed_session_of_the_United_States_Congress" title="Closed session of the United States Congress">Closed session</a> (<a href="/wiki/Closed_sessions_of_the_United_States_Senate" title="Closed sessions of the United States Senate">list</a>)</li> <li><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cloture" title="Cloture">Cloture</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_congressional_committee" title="United States congressional committee">Committees</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_current_United_States_Senate_committees" class="mw-redirect" title="List of current United States Senate committees">list</a>)</li></ul></div></li> <li><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Executive_session" title="Executive session">Executive session</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Morning_business" title="Morning business">Morning business</a></li></ul></div></li> <li><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Filibuster_in_the_United_States_Senate" title="Filibuster in the United States Senate">Filibuster</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate_Journal" title="United States Senate Journal">Journal</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_option" title="Nuclear option">Nuclear option</a></li></ul></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recess_appointment" title="Recess appointment">Recess appointment</a></li> <li><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quorum" title="Quorum">Quorum</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Quorum_call" title="Quorum call">Quorum call</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Salaries_of_members_of_the_United_States_Congress" title="Salaries of members of the United States Congress">Salaries</a></li></ul></div></li> <li><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Saxbe fix</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Seal_of_the_United_States_Senate" class="mw-redirect" title="Seal of the United States Senate">Seal</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Senate_hold" title="Senate hold">Holds</a></li></ul></div></li> <li><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Senatorial_courtesy" title="Senatorial courtesy">Senatorial courtesy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Standing_Rules_of_the_United_States_Senate" title="Standing Rules of the United States Senate">Standing Rules</a></li></ul></div></li> <li><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Traditions_of_the_United_States_Senate" title="Traditions of the United States Senate">Traditions</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Unanimous_consent" title="Unanimous consent">Unanimous consent</a></li></ul></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tie-breaking_votes_cast_by_the_vice_president_of_the_United_States" title="List of tie-breaking votes cast by the vice president of the United States">Vice presidential tie-breaking votes</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ccccff;padding:0em;"> Places</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Capitol" title="United States Capitol">United States Capitol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate_chamber" title="United States Senate chamber">Senate chamber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Senate_Chamber" title="Old Senate Chamber">Old Senate Chamber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate_Reception_Room" title="United States Senate Reception Room">Senate Reception Room</a></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Congressional_office_buildings" title="Congressional office buildings">Senate office buildings</a> <div class="hlist"><ul><li>(<a href="/wiki/Dirksen_Senate_Office_Building" title="Dirksen Senate Office Building">Dirksen</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Hart_Senate_Office_Building" title="Hart Senate Office Building">Hart</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Senate_Office_Building" title="Russell Senate Office Building">Russell</a>)</li></ul></div></div></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">This article is part of <a href="/wiki/Category:United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Category:United States House of Representatives">a series</a> on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">United States House<br />of Representatives</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><figure class="mw-halign-none" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Seal_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Great Seal of the United States House of Representatives"><img alt="Great Seal of the United States House of Representatives" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Seal_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives.svg/75px-Seal_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives.svg.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Seal_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives.svg/113px-Seal_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Seal_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives.svg/150px-Seal_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1030" data-file-height="1030" /></a><figcaption>Great Seal of the United States House of Representatives</figcaption></figure></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="History of the United States House of Representatives">History of the House</a></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;padding:0.25em;"> Members</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_members_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="List of current members of the United States House of Representatives">Current members</a> <div class="hlist"><ul><li>(<a href="/wiki/Seniority_in_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Seniority in the United States House of Representatives">by seniority</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Non-voting_members_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Non-voting members of the United States House of Representatives">non-voting</a>)</li></ul></div></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_former_members_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="List of former members of the United States House of Representatives">Former members</a></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Hill_committee" title="Hill committee">Hill committees</a> <div class="hlist"><ul><li>(<a href="/wiki/Democratic_Congressional_Campaign_Committee" title="Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee">DCCC</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/National_Republican_Congressional_Committee" title="National Republican Congressional Committee">NRCC</a>)</li></ul></div></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Women in the United States House of Representatives">Women in the House</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Speaker_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Speaker of the United States House of Representatives">Speaker of the House</a> <ul><li><div class="hlist"><ul><li>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_speakers_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="List of speakers of the United States House of Representatives">list of speakers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Speaker_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives_elections" title="List of Speaker of the United States House of Representatives elections">list of elections</a>)</li></ul></div></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Party_leaders_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Party leaders of the United States House of Representatives">Party leaders</a></li></ul> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/House_Democratic_Caucus" title="House Democratic Caucus">Democratic Caucus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_Republican_Conference" title="House Republican Conference">Republican Conference</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;padding:0.25em;"> <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_congressional_districts" title="List of United States congressional districts">Congressional districts</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_congressional_apportionment" title="United States congressional apportionment">Apportionment</a> (<a href="/wiki/Huntington%E2%80%93Hill_method" title="Huntington–Hill method">Huntington–Hill method</a>)</li> <li><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Redistricting_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Redistricting in the United States">Redistricting</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Gerrymandering_in_the_United_States" title="Gerrymandering in the United States">Gerrymandering</a></li></ul></div></li> <li><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_ticket" title="General ticket">General ticket</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Plural_district" title="Plural district">Plural district</a></li></ul></div></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;padding:0.25em;"> Politics and procedure</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Committee_of_the_Whole_(United_States_House_of_Representatives)" title="Committee of the Whole (United States House of Representatives)">Committee of the Whole</a></li> <li><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Closed_session_of_the_United_States_Congress" title="Closed session of the United States Congress">Closed session</a> (<a href="/wiki/Closed_sessions_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Closed sessions of the United States House of Representatives">list</a>)</li><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Saxbe fix</a></li></ul></div></li> <li><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_congressional_committee" title="United States congressional committee">Committees</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_House_of_Representatives_committees" title="List of United States House of Representatives committees">list</a>)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Procedures_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Procedures of the United States House of Representatives">Procedures</a></li></ul></div></li> <li><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origination_Clause" title="Origination Clause">Origination Clause</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Quorum_call" title="Quorum call">Quorum call</a></li></ul></div></li> <li><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unanimous_consent" title="Unanimous consent">Unanimous consent</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Salaries_of_members_of_the_United_States_Congress" title="Salaries of members of the United States Congress">Salaries</a></li></ul></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_impeachment_in_the_United_States" title="Federal impeachment in the United States">Articles of impeachment</a></li> <li><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Self-executing_rule" title="Self-executing rule">Self-executing rule</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Suspension_of_the_rules_in_the_United_States_Congress" title="Suspension of the rules in the United States Congress">Rules suspension</a></li></ul></div></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;padding:0.25em;"> Places</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Capitol" title="United States Capitol">United States Capitol</a></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Congressional_office_buildings" title="Congressional office buildings">House office buildings</a> <div class="hlist"><ul><li>(<a href="/wiki/Cannon_House_Office_Building" title="Cannon House Office Building">Cannon</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ford_House_Office_Building" title="Ford House Office Building">Ford</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Longworth_House_Office_Building" title="Longworth House Office Building">Longworth</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/O%27Neill_House_Office_Building" title="O'Neill House Office Building">O'Neill</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Rayburn_House_Office_Building" title="Rayburn House Office Building">Rayburn</a>)</li></ul></div></div></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:#aaa 1px solid; border-bottom:#aaa 1px solid;"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/16px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/24px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">United States portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Template:United States House of Representatives"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Template talk:United States House of Representatives"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Special:EditPage/Template:United States House of Representatives"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Saxbe fix</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/æ/: 'a' in 'bad'">æ</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="'b' in 'buy'">b</span><span title="/iː/: 'ee' in 'fleece'">iː</span></span>/</a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key"><i title="English pronunciation respelling"><span style="font-size:90%">SAKS</span>-bee</i></a>), or <b>salary rollback</b>, is a mechanism by which the <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">president of the United States</a>, in appointing a current or former member of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">United States Congress</a> whose elected term has not yet expired, can avoid the restriction of the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">United States Constitution</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Ineligibility_Clause" title="Ineligibility Clause">Ineligibility Clause</a>. That clause prohibits the president from appointing a current or former member of Congress to a civil office position that was created, or to a civil office position for which the pay or benefits (collectively, "emoluments") were increased, during the term for which that member was elected until the term has expired. The rollback, first implemented by an <a href="/wiki/Act_of_Congress" title="Act of Congress">Act of Congress</a> in 1909, reverts the emoluments of the office to the amount they were when that member began his or her elected term. </p><p>To prevent ethical conflicts, <a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a> proposed language at the <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia_Convention" class="mw-redirect" title="Philadelphia Convention">Constitutional Convention</a> that was adopted as the Ineligibility Clause after debate and modification by other <a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Founding Fathers</a>. Historically, a number of approaches have been taken to circumvent or adhere to the restrictions; these have included choosing another nominee, allowing the desired nominee's elected term of office to expire, ignoring the clause entirely, or reducing the offending emoluments to the level prior to when the nominee took office. Although Congress passed the mechanism reducing emoluments in 1909, the procedure was named "Saxbe fix" after Senator <a href="/wiki/William_Saxbe" class="mw-redirect" title="William Saxbe">William Saxbe</a>, who was confirmed as <a href="/wiki/United_States_Attorney_General" title="United States Attorney General">attorney general</a> in 1973 after Congress reduced the office's salary to the level it had been before Saxbe's term commenced. The Saxbe fix has subsequently become relevant as a successful—though not universally accepted—solution for appointments by presidents of both parties of sitting members of the United States Congress to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Cabinet" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Cabinet">United States Cabinet</a>. Members of Congress have been appointed to <a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_judge" title="United States federal judge">federal judgeships</a> without any fix being enacted; court challenges to such appointments have failed. </p><p>There were four Saxbe fixes for appointees of presidents prior to <a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a>. The first two rollbacks concerned appointees of <a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republicans</a> <a href="/wiki/William_Howard_Taft" title="William Howard Taft">William Howard Taft</a> and <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a>, and the last two were implemented for appointees of <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democrats</a> <a href="/wiki/Jimmy_Carter" title="Jimmy Carter">Jimmy Carter</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a>. Congress approved two more in the weeks preceding Obama's presidency in preparation for his designated Cabinet nominees. Since the 1980s, Saxbe fixes have only been temporary, extending to the conclusion of the term for which the sitting member of Congress was elected. The Clause has received relatively little scholarly or judicial attention; the sparse extant debate centers on whether the reduction of salary satisfies the Ineligibility Clause, or whether affected members of Congress are ineligible for appointment in spite of the reduction. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Saxbe_fix&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ineligibility_Clause" title="Ineligibility Clause">Ineligibility Clause</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:James_Madison_by_Gilbert_Stuart.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/James_Madison_by_Gilbert_Stuart.jpg/220px-James_Madison_by_Gilbert_Stuart.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="271" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/James_Madison_by_Gilbert_Stuart.jpg/330px-James_Madison_by_Gilbert_Stuart.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/James_Madison_by_Gilbert_Stuart.jpg/440px-James_Madison_by_Gilbert_Stuart.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2228" data-file-height="2742" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a> envisioned ethical conflict, resulting in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">United States Constitution</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Ineligibility_Clause" title="Ineligibility Clause">Ineligibility Clause</a>, which later gave rise to the Saxbe fix.</figcaption></figure> <p>In his notes of the <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia_Convention" class="mw-redirect" title="Philadelphia Convention">Philadelphia Convention</a> in 1787, <a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a> expressed the fear that members of Congress would create new federal jobs, or increase the salaries for existing jobs, and then take those jobs for themselves. Madison wrote that corrupt legislative actions, in the form of the unnecessary creation of offices and the increase of salaries for personal benefit, were one of his greatest concerns.<sup id="cite_ref-SpadotCaaP166_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SpadotCaaP166-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The delegates who were present agreed that no member of Congress should be eligible to be appointed to an executive position while serving in Congress.<sup id="cite_ref-CI_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CI-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Madison originally proposed a one-year length on such a bar.<sup id="cite_ref-SpadotCaaP169_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SpadotCaaP169-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, <a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Gorham" title="Nathaniel Gorham">Nathaniel Gorham</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_Wilson_(Founding_Father)" title="James Wilson (Founding Father)">James Wilson</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a> wanted no bar at all at the conclusion of congressional service.<sup id="cite_ref-CI_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CI-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Eventually, Madison proposed a compromise: "that no office ought to be open to a member, which may be created or augmented while he is in the legislature"; this led to extensive debate.<sup id="cite_ref-CI_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CI-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The delegates eliminated the prohibition on a member of Congress's assuming holding <i>state</i> office based on the rationale that there might be times when it might be in the best interest of the nation to allow such service. They eliminated the one-year ban because they judged it to be ineffective in protecting the Constitution.<sup id="cite_ref-CI_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CI-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SpadotCaaP_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SpadotCaaP-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Charles_Cotesworth_Pinckney" title="Charles Cotesworth Pinckney">Charles Cotesworth Pinckney</a> moved that the states vote and the prohibition carried by vote of 8 states to 3.<sup id="cite_ref-SpadotCaaP169_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SpadotCaaP169-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Robert_Yates_(politician)" title="Robert Yates (politician)">Robert Yates</a> noted that the clause "which shall have been created, or the Emoluments whereof shall have been increased" was an amendment passed in his absence, and that he did not place much faith in it as he felt unscrupulous politicians would circumvent it by creating new positions for persons who would subsequently place a member of Congress in a vacancy that they and not Congress created.<sup id="cite_ref-SpadotCaaP_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SpadotCaaP-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Madison moved that the phrase "or the Emoluments whereof shall have been augmented by the legislature of the United States, during the time they were members thereof, and for one year thereafter." This motion failed 2–8, with one state divided.<sup id="cite_ref-SpadotCaaP169_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SpadotCaaP169-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The clause was limited to "civil" offices so as not to restrict military service.<sup id="cite_ref-CI_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CI-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Accordingly, the clause was passed in its current form without an explicit time consideration. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:30%; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <p>"No Senator or Representative shall, during the Time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil Office under the Authority of the United States, which shall have been created, or the Emoluments whereof shall have been increased during such time; and no Person holding any Office under the United States, shall be a Member of either House during his Continuance in Office." </p> </blockquote> <p style="padding-bottom: 0;"><cite class="left-aligned" style=""><a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Section_6:_Compensation,_privilege,_restriction_on_holding_civil_office" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">Article 1, Section 6, Clause 2</a> of the United States Constitution</cite></p> </div> <p><a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Section_6:_Compensation,_privilege,_restriction_on_holding_civil_office" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">Article 1, Section 6, Clause 2</a> of the United States Constitution therefore prohibits self-dealing legislation and is intended to protect the "<a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers_under_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Separation of powers under the United States Constitution">separation of power</a>" of the various branches of government. Corruption such as previously seen in the <a href="/wiki/British_Parliament" class="mw-redirect" title="British Parliament">British Parliament</a> was a consideration during debate by the framers of the Constitution.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Legal scholars have accorded this clause little attention in their academic writings and there have been no cases which directly applied the clause, as no plaintiff has been able to establish <a href="/wiki/Legal_standing" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal standing">legal standing</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-TEC91_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TEC91-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In fact, some general guides to Constitutional research, such as the clause-by-clause <i>The Constitution of the United States: A Guide and Bibliography to Current Scholarly Research</i>, do not discuss the Ineligibility clause.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most scholarly texts on the Constitution ignore the clause.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the Saxbe fix is named for Nixon nominee <a href="/wiki/William_Saxbe" class="mw-redirect" title="William Saxbe">William Saxbe</a>, the device's first intentional use predates him by several decades. As a matter of historical tradition, the Saxbe fix is considered sufficient to remove the disqualification of the Ineligibility Clause.<sup id="cite_ref-ToCL_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ToCL-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-firstread-2Nov08_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-firstread-2Nov08-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Saxbe_fix&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="18th_and_19th_centuries">18th and 19th centuries</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Saxbe_fix&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: 18th and 19th centuries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:188px;max-width:188px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:93px;max-width:93px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:William_Paterson_copy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/William_Paterson_copy.jpg/91px-William_Paterson_copy.jpg" decoding="async" width="91" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/William_Paterson_copy.jpg/137px-William_Paterson_copy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/William_Paterson_copy.jpg/182px-William_Paterson_copy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="414" data-file-height="500" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:91px;max-width:91px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Thomas_Johnson_(governor).jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Thomas_Johnson_%28governor%29.jpeg/89px-Thomas_Johnson_%28governor%29.jpeg" decoding="async" width="89" height="111" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Thomas_Johnson_%28governor%29.jpeg/134px-Thomas_Johnson_%28governor%29.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Thomas_Johnson_%28governor%29.jpeg/178px-Thomas_Johnson_%28governor%29.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="435" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flow-root"><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align:left">The <a href="/wiki/Ineligibility_Clause" title="Ineligibility Clause">Ineligibility Clause</a> impeded President <a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a>'s 1793 appointment of <a href="/wiki/William_Paterson_(judge)" title="William Paterson (judge)">William Paterson</a> (left) to replace <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Johnson_(jurist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Johnson (jurist)">Thomas Johnson</a> (right) on the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Supreme Court">United States Supreme Court</a>.</div></div></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:188px;max-width:188px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:97px;max-width:97px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Matt_Whitaker_Ransom_-_Brady-Handy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Matt_Whitaker_Ransom_-_Brady-Handy.jpg/95px-Matt_Whitaker_Ransom_-_Brady-Handy.jpg" decoding="async" width="95" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Matt_Whitaker_Ransom_-_Brady-Handy.jpg/143px-Matt_Whitaker_Ransom_-_Brady-Handy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Matt_Whitaker_Ransom_-_Brady-Handy.jpg/190px-Matt_Whitaker_Ransom_-_Brady-Handy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2640" data-file-height="3360" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:87px;max-width:87px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Edward_Oliver_Wolcott_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Edward_Oliver_Wolcott_2.jpg/85px-Edward_Oliver_Wolcott_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="85" height="122" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Edward_Oliver_Wolcott_2.jpg/128px-Edward_Oliver_Wolcott_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Edward_Oliver_Wolcott_2.jpg/170px-Edward_Oliver_Wolcott_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="268" data-file-height="386" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flow-root"><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align:left">Without regard to the constitutional issue, President <a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland" title="Grover Cleveland">Grover Cleveland</a> appointed <a href="/wiki/Matthew_Ransom" class="mw-redirect" title="Matthew Ransom">Matthew Ransom</a> (left) as <a href="/wiki/United_States_Ambassador_to_Mexico" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Ambassador to Mexico">Ambassador to Mexico</a> and <a href="/wiki/Edward_Oliver_Wolcott" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward Oliver Wolcott">Edward Wolcott</a> (right) chaired a commission appointed by President <a href="/wiki/William_McKinley" title="William McKinley">William McKinley</a>.</div></div></div></div> <p>The Ineligibility Clause has interfered with appointments as far back as 1793. <a href="/wiki/United_States_President" class="mw-redirect" title="United States President">President</a> <a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a> attempted to appoint <a href="/wiki/William_Paterson_(judge)" title="William Paterson (judge)">William Paterson</a> to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Supreme Court">Supreme Court</a> on February 27, 1793, after the resignation of <a href="/wiki/Associate_Justice_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court">Associate Justice</a> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Johnson_(jurist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Johnson (jurist)">Thomas Johnson</a>. However, Paterson, who was serving as <a href="/wiki/Governor_of_New_Jersey" title="Governor of New Jersey">Governor of New Jersey</a>, had previously been elected to serve a Senate term that would expire at noon on March 4, 1793. Washington withdrew the nomination and withheld it until the afternoon of March 4, when the term for the disqualifying office had expired.<sup id="cite_ref-TEC104_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TEC104-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1882, a formal opinion by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Attorney_General" title="United States Attorney General">Attorney General</a> concluded that resignation from Congress does not free a member to be appointed to civil office because the Clause speaks to the <i>term</i> for which a member was elected, and that term still exists, even if a member resigns.<sup id="cite_ref-AGBB_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AGBB-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, as in the Paterson matter a century earlier, <a href="/wiki/Iowa_Governor" class="mw-redirect" title="Iowa Governor">Iowa Governor</a> <a href="/wiki/Samuel_J._Kirkwood" title="Samuel J. Kirkwood">Samuel J. Kirkwood</a>, who had resigned a Senate seat with a term that did not expire until March 1883, was ineligible for appointment to the position of <a href="/wiki/United_States_International_Trade_Commission" title="United States International Trade Commission">United States Tariff Commissioner</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-TEC103_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TEC103-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1896, the <a href="/wiki/Comptroller_of_the_Treasury" title="Comptroller of the Treasury">Comptroller of the Treasury</a> determined, after the fact, that former Senator <a href="/wiki/Matthew_Ransom" class="mw-redirect" title="Matthew Ransom">Matthew Ransom</a>'s appointment as Minister to Mexico was invalid, as that office's salary had been increased during Ransom's term; the belated discovery precluded Ransom from drawing a salary.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The practice of barring members of Congress from serving in other civil offices was not without exception. Ransom, after all, was in fact appointed.<sup id="cite_ref-KSBFtC_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KSBFtC-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In another case, there may have been an inadvertent Saxbe fix. Senator <a href="/wiki/Lot_M._Morrill" title="Lot M. Morrill">Lot M. Morrill</a> began serving a six-year term in 1871, and in 1873, as part of the <a href="/wiki/Salary_Grab_Act" title="Salary Grab Act">Salary Grab Act</a>, Congress increased Cabinet officers' salaries from $8,000 to $10,000; it repealed the increase in 1874, and two years later—before the end of his term—Morrill was appointed <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Treasury" title="United States Secretary of the Treasury">United States Secretary of the Treasury</a>. The repeal of the "salary grab" was motivated by reaction to public outrage rather than concerns about a member's eligibility for office, but Acting United States Attorney General <a href="/wiki/Robert_Bork" title="Robert Bork">Robert Bork</a> would later cite the Morrill case in his opinion about the Saxbe appointment.<sup id="cite_ref-TEC124-5_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TEC124-5-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="20th_century">20th century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Saxbe_fix&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: 20th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Philander_C._Knox">Philander C. Knox</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Saxbe_fix&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Philander C. Knox"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:184px;max-width:184px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:182px;max-width:182px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Senator_Philander_Chase_Knox.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Senator_Philander_Chase_Knox.jpg/180px-Senator_Philander_Chase_Knox.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Senator_Philander_Chase_Knox.jpg/270px-Senator_Philander_Chase_Knox.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Senator_Philander_Chase_Knox.jpg/360px-Senator_Philander_Chase_Knox.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3186" data-file-height="4248" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flow-root"><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align:left">President <a href="/wiki/William_Taft" class="mw-redirect" title="William Taft">William Taft</a> used what is now referred to as the Saxbe fix to appoint <a href="/wiki/Philander_C._Knox" title="Philander C. Knox">Philander C. Knox</a> as <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_State" title="United States Secretary of State">Secretary of State</a>.</div></div></div></div> <p>In 1909, <a href="/wiki/President-elect_of_the_United_States" title="President-elect of the United States">President-elect</a> Taft announced his <a href="/wiki/Philander_C._Knox#Nomination_controversy" title="Philander C. Knox">intent to nominate</a> Senator <a href="/wiki/Philander_C._Knox" title="Philander C. Knox">Philander C. Knox</a> to be <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_State" title="United States Secretary of State">Secretary of State</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shortly after the announcement, the Clause emerged as a problem that caught those involved by surprise:<sup id="cite_ref-KSBFtC_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KSBFtC-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Knox had been elected to serve a term that would not end until 1911, and during that term Congress had voted to increase executive branch pay.<sup id="cite_ref-KSBFtC_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KSBFtC-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-knox-1_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-knox-1-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Members of Congress considered reverting the fix after the appointed nominee had resigned and assumed the post so that Knox would not have to forgo any emoluments.<sup id="cite_ref-KSBFtC_20-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KSBFtC-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Members of Congress also discussed reverting the salaries of all United States Cabinet members.<sup id="cite_ref-KSBFtC_20-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KSBFtC-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the suggestion of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate_Committee_on_the_Judiciary" title="United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary">Senate Judiciary Committee</a>, Congress passed a bill reducing only the Secretary of State's salary to the level it had been at before Knox's term began, believing this would cure the problem. </p><p>The Senate passed the bill unanimously,<sup id="cite_ref-knox-1_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-knox-1-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but there was much more opposition in the <a href="/wiki/U.S._House_of_Representatives" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. House of Representatives">U.S. House of Representatives</a>, where the same measure failed to get a required two-thirds vote under a motion to <a href="/wiki/Suspension_of_the_rules_in_the_United_States_Congress" title="Suspension of the rules in the United States Congress">suspend the rules</a> and pass, a procedure normally reserved for uncontroversial matters.<sup id="cite_ref-nyt021609_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nyt021609-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After a different procedural rule was applied, it passed by a 173–115 majority vote and <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">President Roosevelt</a> subsequently signed the bill.<sup id="cite_ref-nyt021609_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nyt021609-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On March 4,<sup id="cite_ref-knox-1_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-knox-1-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the first Saxbe fix became effective when the salary of the Secretary of State (but not that of other Cabinet members) was reverted from $12,000 to $8,000.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Senate confirmed all of Taft's Cabinet appointees on March 5,<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Knox took office on March 6.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1922, the boundaries of the Clause were further defined when Senator <a href="/wiki/William_S._Kenyon_(Iowa_politician)" title="William S. Kenyon (Iowa politician)">William S. Kenyon</a> was allowed to accept an appointment by President <a href="/wiki/Warren_G._Harding" title="Warren G. Harding">Warren G. Harding</a> as circuit judge for the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Eighth_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit">Eighth Circuit</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-TEC91_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TEC91-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Attorney General <a href="/wiki/Harry_M._Daugherty" title="Harry M. Daugherty">Harry M. Daugherty</a> concluded that no disqualifying event had occurred because the increase in emoluments to that office had occurred in a term prior to the one Kenyon was serving at the time of the nomination.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (Daugherty's opinion would later be reaffirmed by the <a href="/wiki/Clinton_administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Clinton administration">Clinton administration</a> when Representative <a href="/wiki/Bill_Richardson" title="Bill Richardson">Bill Richardson</a> was nominated as U.N. Ambassador.)<sup id="cite_ref-schroeder_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-schroeder-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> No rollback was attempted when Senator <a href="/wiki/Hugo_Black" title="Hugo Black">Hugo Black</a> was appointed to the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a>, and in <i><a href="/wiki/Ex_parte_Levitt" title="Ex parte Levitt">Ex parte Levitt</a></i>, the court rejected, for lack of <a href="/wiki/Legal_standing" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal standing">legal standing</a>, an attempt to prevent Black from taking his seat based on Ineligibility Clause objections. The <a href="/wiki/Movant" class="mw-redirect" title="Movant">movant</a> in the Black case, <a href="/wiki/Albert_Levitt" title="Albert Levitt">Albert Levitt</a>, only had an interest in the case as a United States Citizen and a member of the Supreme Court bar, which the Court found to be insufficient.<sup id="cite_ref-ToCL_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ToCL-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="William_Saxbe">William Saxbe</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Saxbe_fix&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: William Saxbe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:184px;max-width:184px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:182px;max-width:182px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:William_B._Saxbe.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/William_B._Saxbe.jpg/180px-William_B._Saxbe.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="231" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/William_B._Saxbe.jpg/270px-William_B._Saxbe.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/William_B._Saxbe.jpg/360px-William_B._Saxbe.jpg 2x" data-file-width="420" data-file-height="538" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flow-root"><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align:left">President <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a> used the Saxbe fix to appoint <a href="/wiki/William_B._Saxbe" title="William B. Saxbe">William B. Saxbe</a> as <a href="/wiki/United_States_Attorney_General" title="United States Attorney General">Attorney General</a>.</div></div></div></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Nixon_administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Nixon administration">Nixon administration</a> skirted the Ineligibility Clause during its first year, when Nixon named Representative <a href="/wiki/Donald_Rumsfeld" title="Donald Rumsfeld">Donald Rumsfeld</a> as Director of the <a href="/wiki/Office_of_Economic_Opportunity" title="Office of Economic Opportunity">Office of Economic Opportunity</a> in 1969. Although the salary for that office had been increased to $42,500 during Rumsfeld's term in Congress,<sup id="cite_ref-nyt110273_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nyt110273-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rumsfeld was not paid a salary for the position. Rather, Rumsfeld was dually employed as <a href="/wiki/Assistant_to_the_President" class="mw-redirect" title="Assistant to the President">Assistant to the President</a> at the same $42,500 salary,<sup id="cite_ref-nyt110273_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nyt110273-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a position presumably outside the scope of the Clause. </p><p>The rollback device gained its name when President Richard Nixon sought to appoint Senator William Saxbe as Attorney General following the <a href="/wiki/Saturday_Night_Massacre" title="Saturday Night Massacre">Saturday Night Massacre</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-fedtimes-k_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fedtimes-k-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Elliot_Richardson" title="Elliot Richardson">Elliot Richardson</a> resigned on October 20, 1973, and Nixon nominated Saxbe on November 1.<sup id="cite_ref-LaLE_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LaLE-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Saxbe was chosen in large part because, despite the confrontations of the ongoing <a href="/wiki/Watergate_scandal" title="Watergate scandal">Watergate scandal</a>, Nixon felt the Senate would want to confirm one of their own.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Saxbe had been a senator in 1969 when the Congress passed a pay increase from $35,000 to $60,000 for Cabinet members.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/Title_2_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 2 of the United States Code">2 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/2/358">§ 358</a>, "After considering the report and recommendations of the Commission submitted under section 357 of this title, the president shall transmit to Congress his recommendations with respect to the exact rates of pay, for offices and positions within the purview of subparagraphs (A), (B), (C), and (D) of section 356 of this title, which the president considers to be fair and reasonable ..."<sup id="cite_ref-usca-psc_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-usca-psc-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The president transmitted "Salary Recommendations For 1969 Increases" to Congress on January 15, 1969 following the first Commission Report submitted to him under <a href="/wiki/Act_of_Congress#Public_law,_private_law,_designation" title="Act of Congress"><abbr title="Public Law">Pub. L.</abbr></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://uslaw.link/citation/us-law/public/90/206">90–206</a> in December 1968. (34 F.R. 2241; 83 <a href="/wiki/United_States_Statutes_at_Large" title="United States Statutes at Large">Stat.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://legislink.org/us/stat-83-863">863</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-usca-psc_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-usca-psc-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Saxbe had become a Senator on January 3, 1969 and on February 14 the legislation became law when Congress took no action to <a href="/wiki/Legislative_veto" title="Legislative veto">veto</a> the proposal that raised the salary of top executive branch officials, the judicial branch and members of Congress.<sup id="cite_ref-GG_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GG-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As with the Knox instance, the clause complication caught both Saxbe and the Nixon administration by surprise after the nomination had been announced.<sup id="cite_ref-nyt110273_30-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nyt110273-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-saxbe-auto_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-saxbe-auto-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In early November 1973 Nixon requested a reduction in emoluments to pre-1969 levels as a remedy to the problem.<sup id="cite_ref-GG_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GG-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Senate_Judiciary_Committee" class="mw-redirect" title="Senate Judiciary Committee">Senate Judiciary Committee</a> held several days of hearings on how to properly interpret the Ineligibility Clause,<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with conflicting opinions being given by constitutional law professors about whether the proposed remedy was constitutional.<sup id="cite_ref-wapo112073_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wapo112073-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Senate then acted upon the advice of acting Attorney General <a href="/wiki/Robert_Bork" title="Robert Bork">Robert Bork</a> that reducing the Attorney General's salary to its pre-1969 level by enacting <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.congress.gov/bill/93rd-congress/house-bill/11710">H.R. 11710</a> (<a href="/wiki/Act_of_Congress#Public_law,_private_law,_designation" title="Act of Congress"><abbr title="Public Law">Pub. L.</abbr></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://uslaw.link/citation/us-law/public/93/178">93–178</a>) would cure the ineligibility.<sup id="cite_ref-GG_36-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GG-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.congress.gov/bill/93rd-congress/senate-bill/2673">S. 2673</a> passed in the Senate by a 75–16 roll-call vote on November 28 after it was approved by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate_Committee_on_Post_Office_and_Civil_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Senate Committee on Post Office and Civil Service">Senate Post Office and Civil Service Committee</a> and sharply criticized by the Senate Judiciary Committee.<sup id="cite_ref-GG_36-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GG-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although passage in the House was less controversial than it was in the Senate because the constitutional issues did not dominate consideration, the bill met with other procedural obstacles. At the time, Congress was under siege for what was widely perceived as abuse of members' <a href="/wiki/Franking" title="Franking">franking</a> privileges.<sup id="cite_ref-GG_36-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GG-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In April, the House had approved H.R. 3180 to clarify what was and was not proper use of franking, and the Senate amended the bill on October 11. The House requested a conference, but the Senate delayed. Supposedly, Senate Post Office and Civil Service Committee Chairman <a href="/wiki/Gale_McGee" class="mw-redirect" title="Gale McGee">Gale McGee</a> was delaying the franking bill until the Senate-passed post card voter registration bill (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.congress.gov/bill/93rd-congress/senate-bill/352">S. 352</a>) was put to a House vote. Thus, at first the House inserted franking language in its Saxbe fix bill. On December 3, it suspended its rules to pass the bill 261–129. The Senate then passed the Saxbe fix bill (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.congress.gov/bill/93rd-congress/house-bill/11710">H.R. 11710</a>) on December 6 without the franking language. The House agreed to the amended bill on December 7.<sup id="cite_ref-GG_36-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GG-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On December 10, Nixon officially submitted the Saxbe nomination.<sup id="cite_ref-APP_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-APP-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Judiciary Committee approved Saxbe on December 13 and the full Senate confirmed him on December 17 by a 75–10 vote.<sup id="cite_ref-LaLE_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LaLE-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ten <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic</a> senators cited constitutional concerns in opposing this move.<sup id="cite_ref-HCF_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HCF-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Senator <a href="/wiki/Robert_C._Byrd" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert C. Byrd">Robert C. Byrd</a>, who felt the bar was not avoidable by legislation,<sup id="cite_ref-GG_36-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GG-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> explained his position at the time: "[The Clause is] so clear that it can't be waived. ... We should not delude the American people into thinking a way can be found around the constitutional obstacle."<sup id="cite_ref-wapo112073_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wapo112073-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Saxbe did not resign his Senate seat until January 4, 1974, when his wife became eligible for survivor benefits after the completion of his fifth year of service.<sup id="cite_ref-LaLE_32-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LaLE-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This delayed his transition to the Cabinet because the Clause expressly prohibits dual service. Saxbe later wrote that although he needed the additional salary he lost (he was earning $42,500 per year as a senator), he was still willing to serve as Attorney General and would get by financially.<sup id="cite_ref-saxbe-auto_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-saxbe-auto-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His biggest fear was that the fix would be ruled unconstitutional by the Supreme Court several months after he had been in office, and he would have to repay salary already spent.<sup id="cite_ref-saxbe-auto_37-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-saxbe-auto-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Late_20th_century">Late 20th century</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Saxbe_fix&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Late 20th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:184px;max-width:184px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:182px;max-width:182px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Edmund_Sixtus_Muskie_cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Edmund_Sixtus_Muskie_cropped.jpg/180px-Edmund_Sixtus_Muskie_cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Edmund_Sixtus_Muskie_cropped.jpg/270px-Edmund_Sixtus_Muskie_cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Edmund_Sixtus_Muskie_cropped.jpg/360px-Edmund_Sixtus_Muskie_cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="1024" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flow-root"><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align:left">President <a href="/wiki/Jimmy_Carter" title="Jimmy Carter">Jimmy Carter</a> used the Saxbe fix to appoint <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Muskie" title="Edmund Muskie">Edmund Muskie</a> as Secretary of State.</div></div></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:184px;max-width:184px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:182px;max-width:182px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:LloydBentsen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/LloydBentsen.jpg/180px-LloydBentsen.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/LloydBentsen.jpg/270px-LloydBentsen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/LloydBentsen.jpg/360px-LloydBentsen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="901" data-file-height="1116" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flow-root"><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align:left">President <a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a> used the Saxbe fix to appoint <a href="/wiki/Lloyd_Bentsen" title="Lloyd Bentsen">Lloyd Bentsen</a> as <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Treasury" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Secretary of Treasury">Treasury Secretary</a> with the help of out-going President <a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">George H. W. Bush</a>.</div></div></div></div> <p>Subsequently, Jimmy Carter became the first Democratic president to use a Saxbe fix when he appointed Senator <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Muskie" title="Edmund Muskie">Edmund Muskie</a> as his Secretary of State.<sup id="cite_ref-CI_2-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CI-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_Vance" title="Cyrus Vance">Cyrus Vance</a> had resigned on April 28, 1980.<sup id="cite_ref-FP_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FP-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (Ironically, Muskie had been one of the ten senators voting against Saxbe's confirmation.)<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Carter nominated Muskie on April 29,<sup id="cite_ref-FP2_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FP2-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the Senate confirmed Muskie on May 7 by a 94–2 vote.<sup id="cite_ref-FP_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FP-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CP_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CP-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike the Knox and Saxbe fixes, the salary reduction to allow Muskie's appointment was temporary, reducing the salary only for the duration of Muskie's tenure.<sup id="cite_ref-CI_2-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CI-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When Carter appointed Representative <a href="/wiki/Abner_Mikva" title="Abner Mikva">Abner Mikva</a> to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_District_of_Columbia_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit">D.C. Circuit</a>, a lawsuit challenging the appointment based on Ineligibility Clause objections again failed for lack of standing.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Upon the retirement of Supreme Court Justice <a href="/wiki/Lewis_F._Powell,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Lewis F. Powell, Jr.">Lewis F. Powell, Jr.</a> in 1987, President <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a> considered appointing Senator <a href="/wiki/Orrin_Hatch" title="Orrin Hatch">Orrin Hatch</a> to fill his seat.<sup id="cite_ref-nyt062887_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nyt062887-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But Congress had, during the term which he was still serving, enacted a salary increase for the judiciary.<sup id="cite_ref-nyt062887_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nyt062887-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In July 1987, Bork was nominated instead, although it is not clear how important a role the Ineligibility Clause issue played in the selection.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Two months later, Assistant Attorney General <a href="/wiki/Charles_J._Cooper" title="Charles J. Cooper">Charles J. Cooper</a> rejected the Saxbe fix in a written opinion, concluding that it did not resolve the Ineligibility Clause issue.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-HCatEC_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HCatEC-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (The Bork nomination was rejected by the Senate, and the seat ultimately went to <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Kennedy" title="Anthony Kennedy">Anthony Kennedy</a>.)<sup id="cite_ref-HCatEC_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HCatEC-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jan_Crawford_Greenberg&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jan Crawford Greenberg (page does not exist)">Jan Crawford Greenberg</a>, the Justice Department had previously done the same to Senator Hatch the year prior when Hatch put forth his name as a replacement for retiring Chief Justice <a href="/wiki/Warren_Burger" class="mw-redirect" title="Warren Burger">Warren Burger</a>. According to Greenburg, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Michael_Carvin_(lawyer)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Michael Carvin (lawyer) (page does not exist)">Michael Carvin</a> used the Ineligibility Clause as a pretext to allow the White House to quietly say no to Hatch.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On January 5, 1993, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.congress.gov/bill/103rd-congress/senate-joint-resolution/1">S.J.Res. 1</a>, a bill to reduce the salary of the Treasury Secretary from $148,400 to $99,500 (the pre-1989 level), passed by a voice vote in the Senate and by the House on January 6.<sup id="cite_ref-1C_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1C-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On January 19,<sup id="cite_ref-1C_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1C-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> President <a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">George H. W. Bush</a> signed a bill enacting a temporary Saxbe fix so that Senator <a href="/wiki/Lloyd_Bentsen" title="Lloyd Bentsen">Lloyd Bentsen</a> could move from the Senate to take the job of <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Treasury" title="United States Secretary of the Treasury">Treasury Secretary</a> during the newly elected Clinton administration.<sup id="cite_ref-HCF_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HCF-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> S.J. RES. 1 (1993), which canceled emolument increases for the remainder of Bentsen's term, a term set to expire at noon on January 3, 1995, had been passed by both Houses without objection.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, in a law review article, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Minnesota_Law_School" title="University of Minnesota Law School">University of Minnesota Law School</a> Professor <a href="/w/index.php?title=Michael_Stokes_Paulson&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Michael Stokes Paulson (page does not exist)">Michael Stokes Paulson</a> rejected the Bentsen fix as unconstitutional.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1994, President <a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a> received approval to use a Saxbe fix to appoint <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate_Majority_Leader" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Senate Majority Leader">United States Senate Majority Leader</a> <a href="/wiki/George_J._Mitchell" title="George J. Mitchell">George J. Mitchell</a> to the Supreme Court, but Mitchell withdrew his name from consideration for reasons unrelated to his eligibility.<sup id="cite_ref-TEC133_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TEC133-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="21st_century">21st century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Saxbe_fix&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: 21st century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:192px;max-width:192px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:68px;max-width:68px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Hillary_Clinton_official_Secretary_of_State_portrait_crop.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Hillary_Clinton_official_Secretary_of_State_portrait_crop.jpg/66px-Hillary_Clinton_official_Secretary_of_State_portrait_crop.jpg" decoding="async" width="66" height="83" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Hillary_Clinton_official_Secretary_of_State_portrait_crop.jpg/99px-Hillary_Clinton_official_Secretary_of_State_portrait_crop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Hillary_Clinton_official_Secretary_of_State_portrait_crop.jpg/132px-Hillary_Clinton_official_Secretary_of_State_portrait_crop.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2070" data-file-height="2588" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:61px;max-width:61px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Kensalazar.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Kensalazar.jpg/59px-Kensalazar.jpg" decoding="async" width="59" height="83" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Kensalazar.jpg/89px-Kensalazar.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Kensalazar.jpg/118px-Kensalazar.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="2100" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:57px;max-width:57px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Hilda_Solis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Hilda_Solis.jpg/55px-Hilda_Solis.jpg" decoding="async" width="55" height="83" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Hilda_Solis.jpg/83px-Hilda_Solis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Hilda_Solis.jpg/110px-Hilda_Solis.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="753" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flow-root"><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align:left">President <a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a> appointed three sitting Members of Congress to the Cabinet: <a href="/wiki/Hillary_Clinton" title="Hillary Clinton">Hillary Clinton</a> (left), <a href="/wiki/Ken_Salazar" title="Ken Salazar">Ken Salazar</a> (center) and <a href="/wiki/Hilda_Solis" title="Hilda Solis">Hilda Solis</a> (right). Congress passed Saxbe fixes to make Clinton eligible for appointment as Secretary of State and Salazar as <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Interior" title="United States Secretary of the Interior">Secretary of the Interior</a>.</div></div></div></div> <p>The term "Saxbe fix" reentered the public lexicon in 2008 with the speculation that Senator <a href="/wiki/Hillary_Clinton" title="Hillary Clinton">Hillary Clinton</a> was President-elect <a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a>'s preferred nominee to be <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_State" title="United States Secretary of State">Secretary of State</a>, fueled by Obama's confirmation of his intent to nominate Clinton December 1, 2008.<sup id="cite_ref-HCF_44-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HCF-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Clinton's relevant Senate term began with the seating of the <a href="/wiki/110th_United_States_Congress" title="110th United States Congress">110th United States Congress</a> on January 3, 2007, following her <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate_election_in_New_York,_2006" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Senate election in New York, 2006">2006 re-election</a>. During that time, United States Cabinet salaries were increased from $186,600 to $191,300 in January 2008, and to $196,700 in January 2009.<sup id="cite_ref-fedtimes-k_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fedtimes-k-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-HCF_44-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HCF-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These pay raises were by <a href="/wiki/Executive_order_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Executive order (United States)">executive order</a> in accordance with <a href="/wiki/Cost_of_living_adjustment" class="mw-redirect" title="Cost of living adjustment">cost of living adjustment</a> statutes, as noted by legal scholar <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Volokh" title="Eugene Volokh">Eugene Volokh</a> on his blog, <a href="/wiki/The_Volokh_Conspiracy" title="The Volokh Conspiracy">The Volokh Conspiracy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-HCatEC_54-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HCatEC-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Before the January 2009 pay increases, secretaries made $191,300 compared to Members of Congress who earned $169,300.<sup id="cite_ref-pol121808_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pol121808-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Without a Saxbe fix, Clinton would have been ineligible to serve in the Cabinet until the conclusion of the <a href="/wiki/112th_United_States_Congress" title="112th United States Congress">112th United States Congress</a> in January 2013, near the end of Obama's elected term.<sup id="cite_ref-HCatEC_54-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HCatEC-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Senate passed Saxbe-fix legislation on December 10, 2008, acting by <a href="/wiki/Unanimous_consent" title="Unanimous consent">unanimous consent</a> to reduce the Secretary of State's salary back to its January 1, 2007 level of $186,000,<sup id="cite_ref-thomas_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-thomas-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> taking effect at 12:00 noon on January 20, 2009.<sup id="cite_ref-thomas_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-thomas-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> President <a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a> signed the resolution into law on December 19,<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> cancelling all emolument increases made or to be made during Clinton's Senate term between noon of January 3, 2007, and noon of January 3, 2013.<sup id="cite_ref-thomas_61-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-thomas-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The conservative advocacy group <a href="/wiki/Judicial_Watch" title="Judicial Watch">Judicial Watch</a> announced after the nomination that it believed a Saxbe fix was unconstitutional and that Clinton could not become Secretary of State until 2013 at the earliest.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the Saxbe fix was passed, Judicial Watch said it might seek to halt Clinton's appointment via litigation.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On January 29, 2009, a week after Clinton had been sworn into the position, Judicial Watch filed the lawsuit <i>Rodearmel v. Clinton</i> in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_District_Court_for_the_District_of_Columbia" title="United States District Court for the District of Columbia">United States District Court for the District of Columbia</a>, on behalf of David Rodearmel, a U.S. <a href="/wiki/Foreign_Service_Officer" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreign Service Officer">Foreign Service Officer</a> and <a href="/wiki/United_States_State_Department" class="mw-redirect" title="United States State Department">State Department</a> employee.<sup id="cite_ref-jw012009_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jw012009-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ap012909_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ap012909-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The suit claims that Clinton is "constitutionally ineligible" to serve as Secretary of State due to the Ineligibility Clause and that Rodearmel cannot be forced to serve under her, as it would violate the oath he took as a Foreign Service Officer in 1991 to "support and defend" and "bear true faith and allegiance" to the U.S. Constitution.<sup id="cite_ref-ap012909_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ap012909-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On February 6, a panel of three judges was appointed to hear the case.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On May 20, the Obama administration <a href="/wiki/Office_of_Legal_Counsel" title="Office of Legal Counsel">Office of Legal Counsel</a> filed an opinion with the district court saying that Clinton's appointment did not violate the Ineligibility Clause, and that an "on net" view of the Clause "presents an entirely natural interpretation of the [Constitution's] language."<sup id="cite_ref-blt062309_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-blt062309-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On October 30, 2009, the District Court dismissed the case, stating "Because Rodearmel has failed to allege that Clinton has taken any action—much less an action that has aggrieved him—he does not come within the 'zone of interests' protected by the Secretary of State Emoluments Act."<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Senator <a href="/wiki/Ken_Salazar" title="Ken Salazar">Ken Salazar</a>, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Interior" title="United States Secretary of the Interior">Secretary of the Interior</a>, also required a Saxbe fix by the <a href="/wiki/111th_United_States_Congress" title="111th United States Congress">111th United States Congress</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pol121808_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pol121808-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Salazar was given a temporary Saxbe fix on January 6, 2009 as part of <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.congress.gov/bill/111th-congress/senate-joint-resolution/3">S.J.Res. 3</a>. This resolution rolled back the salary of the Secretary of the Interior to the January 1, 2005 level, effective January 20, 2009. The resolution canceled all emolument increases for this office made or to be made between noon of January 3, 2005, and ending at noon of January 3, 2011.<sup id="cite_ref-Salazarfix_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Salazarfix-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The bill was sponsored by Senate Majority Leader <a href="/wiki/Harry_Reid" title="Harry Reid">Harry Reid</a>, was introduced on January 6, 2009, and became the first public law enacted by the 111th Congress (<a href="/wiki/Act_of_Congress#Public_law,_private_law,_designation" title="Act of Congress"><abbr title="Public Law">Pub. L.</abbr></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.govinfo.gov/link/plaw/111/public/1?link-type=html">111–1 (text)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.govinfo.gov/link/plaw/111/public/1?link-type=pdf&.pdf">(PDF)</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Salazarfix_71-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Salazarfix-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During Obama's first term there were three Cabinet members serving who were sitting members of the House or Senate when appointed, two of whom (Clinton and Salazar) required Saxbe fixes. The May 2009 Office of Legal Counsel brief also asserted the constitutionality of Salazar's appointment.<sup id="cite_ref-blt062309_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-blt062309-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legality">Legality</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Saxbe_fix&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Legality"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Over time, the Saxbe fix has become politically uncontroversial.<sup id="cite_ref-goldsworthy_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-goldsworthy-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both Democratic and Republicans Administrations have used the fix, and indeed Republican outgoing President George H. W. Bush helped Democratic incoming President Bill Clinton execute the fix by signing it into law on the eve of <a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton_1993_presidential_inauguration" class="mw-redirect" title="Bill Clinton 1993 presidential inauguration">Clinton's inauguration</a>. The fixes that have been enacted for Obama's cabinet have passed in both the House and the Senate without amendment and by unanimous consent.<sup id="cite_ref-thomas_61-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-thomas-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Salazarfix_71-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Salazarfix-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Outgoing Republican President George W. Bush signed the Saxbe fixes for both Hillary Clinton and Ken Salazar into law for the incoming Democratic Obama administration.<sup id="cite_ref-thomas_61-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-thomas-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Salazarfix_71-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Salazarfix-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The constitutionality of the fix has been much debated, however, the U.S. Supreme Court has never directly ruled on it.<sup id="cite_ref-goldsworthy_72-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-goldsworthy-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Critical review of the clause begins with a study of the terms in the plain language of the clause: "No Senator or Representative shall, during the Time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil Office under the Authority of the United States, which shall have been created, or the Emoluments whereof shall have been increased during such time . ... " All of the terms have been at issue in past controversies and many of the terms have been well-settled.<sup id="cite_ref-TEC94_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TEC94-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historically, the excluded class of individuals affected by the clause has not been an issue: all scholars have agreed that the clause refers exclusively to all members of Congress.<sup id="cite_ref-TEC94_74-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TEC94-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The clause uses the verb "elected". If a senator serving under an appointment to fill a vacancy in an unexpired term accepted a nomination to federal office before the expiration of his or her term, this might be an issue.<sup id="cite_ref-schroeder_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-schroeder-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The phrase "During the time for which he was elected" has not been controversial. <a href="/wiki/Associate_Justice_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States">Justice</a> <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Story" title="Joseph Story">Joseph Story</a> has expounded in his <i>Commentaries on the Constitution of the United States</i> that the disqualifying event expires at the conclusion of the elected term in which it occurred.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This view is commonly accepted.<sup id="cite_ref-TEC101_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TEC101-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Justice" title="United States Department of Justice">Department of Justice</a> memoranda, outlining official opinions by United States Attorney General, hold that "the Ineligibility Clause covers only increases during the term that a Member of Congress is [or would be] currently serving".<sup id="cite_ref-schroeder_29-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-schroeder-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This principle was applied, for example, to the question of whether President <a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Clinton</a> could appoint Representative <a href="/wiki/Bill_Richardson" title="Bill Richardson">Bill Richardson</a> as <a href="/wiki/United_States_Ambassador_to_the_United_Nations" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Ambassador to the United Nations">Ambassador to the United Nations</a> despite a salary increase prior to his current term, and whether President <a href="/wiki/Warren_G._Harding" title="Warren G. Harding">Harding</a> could appoint Senator <a href="/wiki/William_Squire_Kenyon" class="mw-redirect" title="William Squire Kenyon">William Kenyon</a> as a <a href="/wiki/United_States_Circuit_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Circuit Court">Judge</a> despite the Congressional increase of judicial salaries during his previous term.<sup id="cite_ref-schroeder_29-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-schroeder-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Opinions issued by the Clinton administration <a href="/wiki/Office_of_Legal_Counsel" title="Office of Legal Counsel">Office of Legal Counsel</a> often presupposed the application of the clause,<sup id="cite_ref-schroeder_29-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-schroeder-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and conceded that "[t]he tradition of interpreting the Clause has been 'formalistic' rather than 'functional<span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span>".<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another clarification came in 1969, when newly re-elected Representative <a href="/wiki/Melvin_Laird" title="Melvin Laird">Melvin Laird</a> was President-elect Nixon's choice for <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Defense" title="United States Secretary of Defense">Secretary of Defense</a> and Congress was expected to raise the pay of Cabinet members in the new term.<sup id="cite_ref-nyt110273_30-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nyt110273-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Attorney General <a href="/wiki/Ramsey_Clark" title="Ramsey Clark">Ramsey Clark</a> gave an official opinion, which Laird followed, that Laird could be sworn in and serve in the new term from January 3 to January 20 (when Nixon would take office) without running afoul of the Clause, as long as he joined the cabinet before the pay raise went into effect.<sup id="cite_ref-nyt110273_30-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nyt110273-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arguments_for_its_constitutionality">Arguments for its constitutionality</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Saxbe_fix&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Arguments for its constitutionality"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One way to interpret the clause is by the <a href="/wiki/Intentionalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Intentionalist">intentionalist</a> view.<sup id="cite_ref-TEC146_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TEC146-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As stated by <a href="/wiki/University_of_North_Carolina_School_of_Law" title="University of North Carolina School of Law">University of North Carolina School of Law</a> professor Michael J. Gerhardt, this is the position that "the critical inquiry is not whether the <a href="/wiki/Letter_of_the_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Letter of the law">letter of the law</a> has been broken (it has) but rather whether the problem that the clause exists to preclude—conflicts of interest in nominating a member of Congress who has been able to vote himself or herself a raise—has been avoided".<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The commonly used term for this <a href="/wiki/Spirit_of_the_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Spirit of the law">spirit of the law</a> argument is "net increases".<sup id="cite_ref-HMBU_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HMBU-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to conservative constitutional law attorney <a href="/wiki/Bruce_Fein" title="Bruce Fein">Bruce Fein</a>, "The so-called fix fits the purpose of the clause like a glove."<sup id="cite_ref-SctCnj_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SctCnj-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>If the Saxbe fix is a solution for the primary problem of self-dealing, a relevant fact is that Congress has not voted to increase any Cabinet salary or benefits since the 1990s, when it granted that power to the president in the form of an across-the-board <a href="/wiki/Cost_of_living_adjustment" class="mw-redirect" title="Cost of living adjustment">cost of living adjustment</a> by executive order. However, the Ineligibility Clause does not distinguish between increases in emoluments by legislation and increases by executive order.<sup id="cite_ref-HMBU_80-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HMBU-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Perhaps the most lenient interpretation of self-dealing was made during the 1973 Saxbe hearings by <a href="/wiki/Duke_University_School_of_Law" title="Duke University School of Law">Duke University School of Law</a> professor William Van Alstyne, who argued that the ineligibility clause only applied to new offices created during a congressional term, not to appointments to existing offices.<sup id="cite_ref-wapo112073_40-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wapo112073-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some scholars think that the phrase "shall have been increased during such time" is ambiguous and allows different interpretations. For instance, it could be interpreted as meaning either "shall have been increased at least once" or "shall have been increased on net". In the latter case the Saxbe fix would be constitutional.<sup id="cite_ref-HCatEC_54-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HCatEC-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arguments_against_its_constitutionality">Arguments against its constitutionality</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Saxbe_fix&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Arguments against its constitutionality"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Another way to interpret the clause is through the lens of <a href="/wiki/Textualism" title="Textualism">textualism</a>, that is, giving primary consideration to what the law says rather than to its purpose. Most legal scholars who take this view argue that the Saxbe fix does not address the constitutional problem.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because to textualism advocates the language of the rule is an absolute prohibition, law professor and textualist Michael Paulsen has said, a "'fix' can rescind the salary, ... but it cannot repeal historical events. The emoluments of the office had been increased. The rule specified in the text still controls."<sup id="cite_ref-firstread-2Nov08_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-firstread-2Nov08-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most textualists agree that the spirit of the Ineligibility Clause would be addressed by a Saxbe fix, but they dispute that a clause's "spirit" overrides its text.<sup id="cite_ref-TEC156_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TEC156-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This view is not confined to textualists; for example, law professors <a href="/wiki/Jack_Balkin" title="Jack Balkin">Jack Balkin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mark_Tushnet" title="Mark Tushnet">Mark Tushnet</a> share it, with Tushnet observing that the Saxbe fix "smacks of clever manipulation" and does not adequately address the issue because "rescinding the increase does not mean that the salary 'shall not have been increased'; it simply means that the salary shall have been both increased and reduced during the term."<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some intentionalists interpret the Ineligibility Clause as a safeguard against escalation of the size and scope of the federal government and its corresponding budget, in addition to being a safeguard against self-enrichment. They argue that reverting salary increases does not prevent members of Congress from engaging in conduct that would bloat the government.<sup id="cite_ref-HMBU_80-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HMBU-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another argument presented during the Saxbe nomination hearings was that the constitutional framers wrote the Ineligibility Clause to prevent Congress from enacting laws to benefit one of its own members. Any Saxbe fix is such a law and should be disallowed based on this fact alone.<sup id="cite_ref-TEC130_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TEC130-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Challenges">Challenges</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Saxbe_fix&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Challenges"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Once Congress approves a salary reduction and the nominee is confirmed, legal experts conclude that in practice it is unlikely that an appointment would be successfully challenged in the courts. The most likely claimant would be an individual who has been adversely affected by a discretionary decision under the nominee's authority—for example someone denied a <a href="/wiki/Passport" title="Passport">passport</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-HMBU_80-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HMBU-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is unlikely that anyone would be found to have <a href="/wiki/Standing_(law)" title="Standing (law)">standing</a> to contest the appointment. The Supreme Court has become less solicitous of standing since retreating from the most expansive level of <i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._SCRAP" class="mw-redirect" title="United States v. SCRAP">United States v. SCRAP</a></i>. In particular, it has been unwilling to grant standing for a generalized constitutional injury other than to a plaintiff who is protected by a statute or when a statute grants standing.<sup id="cite_ref-firstread-2Nov08_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-firstread-2Nov08-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It has already proven difficult to be recognized as having standing when a fix is not used for a controversial appointment. The courts have dismissed suits contesting the appointments of Justice <a href="/wiki/Hugo_Black" title="Hugo Black">Hugo Black</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Ex_parte_Levitt" title="Ex parte Levitt">Ex parte Levitt</a></i>, 302 U.S. 633 (1937)) and Judge <a href="/wiki/Abner_Mikva" title="Abner Mikva">Abner Mikva</a> (<i><a href="/w/index.php?title=McClure_v._Carter&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="McClure v. Carter (page does not exist)">McClure v. Carter</a></i>, 454 U.S. 1025 (1981)). Black and Mikva were members of Congress (Black of the Senate, Mikva of the House of Representatives) prior to appointment and were appointed without a Saxbe fix. In both cases, the courts held that the plaintiff lacked standing to challenge the appointment.<sup id="cite_ref-CI_2-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CI-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other than these cases, most attempts to gain standing have been considered frivolous lawsuits brought by fringe groups.<sup id="cite_ref-SctCnj_81-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SctCnj-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Precedents">Precedents</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Saxbe_fix&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Precedents"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are several nuances to the Ineligibility Clause that determine the necessity of fixes in specific situations:<sup id="cite_ref-CI_2-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CI-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>It applies to those members who have actually taken their seats, not to those who were elected but not yet sworn in.</li> <li>According to <i><a href="/wiki/Marbury_v._Madison" title="Marbury v. Madison">Marbury v. Madison</a></i>, "appointed" means at the moment of nomination for civil office, not at the time of approval.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although Chief Justice <a href="/wiki/John_Marshall" title="John Marshall">John Marshall</a> stated that appointments by the president are completely voluntary, there are restrictions on his statutory authority.<sup id="cite_ref-ToCL_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ToCL-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, the duty to commission officers of the United States is enjoined by the constitution and he must nominate with the advice and consent of the Senate.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The bar cannot be evaded by resignation from Congress. In a written opinion of Attorney General <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_H._Brewster" title="Benjamin H. Brewster">Benjamin H. Brewster</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-AGBB_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AGBB-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the clause applies for the term "for which he was elected," not the time during which the member actually holds office.</li> <li>According to <i>United States v. Hartwell</i>, "Civil office" is one in which the appointee exercises an authoritative role. It does not apply to temporary, honorific, advisory, or occasional postings.<sup id="cite_ref-USvH_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USvH-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The terms civil office and civil officer are used only once each in the Constitution and civil office is never defined therein.<sup id="cite_ref-APCttC_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-APCttC-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>According to <i>McLean v. United States</i>, "Emoluments" means not only salary, but also includes other benefits such as forage and rations.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Under presidents <a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Lyndon B. Johnson</a> and Jimmy Carter, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Justice" title="United States Department of Justice">United States Department of Justice</a> determined that it did not matter when Congress passed legislation increasing the salary for an office, so long as the former member of Congress was nominated before the salary increase went into effect.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Saxbe_fix&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-SpadotCaaP166-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-SpadotCaaP166_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Yates, p. 166.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CI-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CI_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CI_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CI_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CI_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CI_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CI_2-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CI_2-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CI_2-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CI_2-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFForte,_David_F.2008" class="citation web cs1">Forte, David F. (2008-12-03). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090202050128/http://www.heritage.org/Research/LegalIssues/wm2149.cfm">"Constitutional Ineligibility: What Does the Emoluments Clause Mean?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Heritage_Foundation" title="The Heritage Foundation">The Heritage Foundation</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.heritage.org/Research/LegalIssues/wm2149.cfm">the original</a> on 2009-02-02<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-01-24</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Constitutional+Ineligibility%3A+What+Does+the+Emoluments+Clause+Mean%3F&rft.pub=The+Heritage+Foundation&rft.date=2008-12-03&rft.au=Forte%2C+David+F.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.heritage.org%2FResearch%2FLegalIssues%2Fwm2149.cfm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaxbe+fix" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SpadotCaaP169-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SpadotCaaP169_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SpadotCaaP169_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SpadotCaaP169_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Yates, pp. 169–172.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SpadotCaaP-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SpadotCaaP_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SpadotCaaP_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Yates, pp. 47–48.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/documents/a1_6_2s1.html">"Article 1, Section 6, Clause 2: Records of the Federal Convention"</a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a>. 1987<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-11-26</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Article+1%2C+Section+6%2C+Clause+2%3A+Records+of+the+Federal+Convention&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago&rft.date=1987&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpress-pubs.uchicago.edu%2Ffounders%2Fdocuments%2Fa1_6_2s1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaxbe+fix" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-TEC91-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-TEC91_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-TEC91_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">O'Connor, J. p. 91</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReams,_Bernard_D.Yoak1987" class="citation book cs1">Reams, Bernard D. & Yoak, Stuart D. (1987). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/constitutionofun0000ream"><i>The Constitution of the United States: A Guide and Bibliography to Current Scholarly Research</i></a></span>. Oceana Publications, Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-379-20888-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-379-20888-1"><bdi>0-379-20888-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Constitution+of+the+United+States%3A+A+Guide+and+Bibliography+to+Current+Scholarly+Research&rft.pub=Oceana+Publications%2C+Inc&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=0-379-20888-1&rft.au=Reams%2C+Bernard+D.&rft.au=Yoak%2C+Stuart+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fconstitutionofun0000ream&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaxbe+fix" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurphy,_Walter_F.,_James_E._Fleming,_Sotirios_A._Barber_and_Stephen_Maceo2008" class="citation book cs1">Murphy, Walter F., James E. Fleming, Sotirios A. Barber and Stephen Maceo (2008). <i>American Constitutional Interpretation</i> (4th ed.). Foundation Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59941-242-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59941-242-9"><bdi>978-1-59941-242-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Constitutional+Interpretation&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Foundation+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-59941-242-9&rft.au=Murphy%2C+Walter+F.%2C+James+E.+Fleming%2C+Sotirios+A.+Barber+and+Stephen+Maceo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaxbe+fix" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSullivan,_Kathleen_M.Gunther2007" class="citation book cs1">Sullivan, Kathleen M. & Gunther, Gerald (2007). <i>Constitutional Law</i> (16th ed.). Foundation Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59941-246-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59941-246-7"><bdi>978-1-59941-246-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Constitutional+Law&rft.edition=16th&rft.pub=Foundation+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-59941-246-7&rft.au=Sullivan%2C+Kathleen+M.&rft.au=Gunther%2C+Gerald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaxbe+fix" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStone,_Geoffrey_R.,_Louis_M._Seidman,_Cass_R._Sunstein_and_Mark_V._Tushnet2001" class="citation book cs1">Stone, Geoffrey R., Louis M. Seidman, Cass R. Sunstein and Mark V. Tushnet (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/constitutional00ston"><i>Constitutional Law</i></a> (4th ed.). Aspen Law & Business. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7355-2016-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-7355-2016-X"><bdi>0-7355-2016-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Constitutional+Law&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Aspen+Law+%26+Business&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-7355-2016-X&rft.au=Stone%2C+Geoffrey+R.%2C+Louis+M.+Seidman%2C+Cass+R.+Sunstein+and+Mark+V.+Tushnet&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fconstitutional00ston&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaxbe+fix" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChoper,_Jesse_H.,_Richard_H._Fallon,_Jr.,_Yale_Kamisar_and_Steven_H._Shiffrin2001" class="citation book cs1">Choper, Jesse H., Richard H. Fallon, Jr., Yale Kamisar and Steven H. Shiffrin (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/constitutionalla0000unse"><i>Constitutional Law: Cases – Comments – Questions</i></a> (9th ed.). West Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-314-24716-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-314-24716-5"><bdi>0-314-24716-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Constitutional+Law%3A+Cases+%E2%80%93+Comments+%E2%80%93+Questions&rft.edition=9th&rft.pub=West+Publishing&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-314-24716-5&rft.au=Choper%2C+Jesse+H.%2C+Richard+H.+Fallon%2C+Jr.%2C+Yale+Kamisar+and+Steven+H.+Shiffrin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fconstitutionalla0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaxbe+fix" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNowak,_John_E.Rotunda2000" class="citation book cs1">Nowak, John E. & Rotunda, Ronald D. (2000). <i>Constitutional Law</i> (6th ed.). West Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-314-23748-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-314-23748-8"><bdi>0-314-23748-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Constitutional+Law&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=West+Publishing&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-314-23748-8&rft.au=Nowak%2C+John+E.&rft.au=Rotunda%2C+Ronald+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaxbe+fix" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRedlich,_Norman,_John_Attanasio_and_Joel_K._Goldstein2008" class="citation book cs1">Redlich, Norman, John Attanasio and Joel K. Goldstein (2008). <i>Constitutional Law</i> (5th ed.). Matthew Bender & Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4224-1738-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4224-1738-6"><bdi>978-1-4224-1738-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Constitutional+Law&rft.edition=5th&rft.pub=Matthew+Bender+%26+Company&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-4224-1738-6&rft.au=Redlich%2C+Norman%2C+John+Attanasio+and+Joel+K.+Goldstein&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaxbe+fix" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ToCL-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ToCL_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ToCL_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ToCL_14-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRotunda,_Ronald_D.Nowak2007" class="citation book cs1">Rotunda, Ronald D. & Nowak, John E. (2007). "Constitutional Limitations on the Assumption of Public Office". <i>Treatise on Constitutional Law: Substance and Procedure</i>. Vol. 2 (4th ed.). Thomson/West. pp. 47–48. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-314-93436-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-314-93436-9"><bdi>978-0-314-93436-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Constitutional+Limitations+on+the+Assumption+of+Public+Office&rft.btitle=Treatise+on+Constitutional+Law%3A+Substance+and+Procedure&rft.pages=47-48&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Thomson%2FWest&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-314-93436-9&rft.au=Rotunda%2C+Ronald+D.&rft.au=Nowak%2C+John+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaxbe+fix" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-firstread-2Nov08-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-firstread-2Nov08_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-firstread-2Nov08_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-firstread-2Nov08_15-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams2008" class="citation web cs1">Williams, Pete (2008-11-25). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090201022441/http://firstread.msnbc.msn.com/archive/2008/11/25/1688640.aspx">"HRC, State – and the Constitution"</a>. <i>First Read</i>. <a href="/wiki/MSNBC" title="MSNBC">MSNBC</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://firstread.msnbc.msn.com/archive/2008/11/25/1688640.aspx">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(Blog)</span> on 2009-02-01<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-11-29</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=First+Read&rft.atitle=HRC%2C+State+%E2%80%93+and+the+Constitution&rft.date=2008-11-25&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Pete&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffirstread.msnbc.msn.com%2Farchive%2F2008%2F11%2F25%2F1688640.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaxbe+fix" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-TEC104-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-TEC104_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">O'Connor, J. p. 104</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AGBB-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AGBB_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AGBB_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">17 Op. Att'y Gen. 365 (1882)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-TEC103-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-TEC103_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">O'Connor, J. p. 103</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See 2 Decisions of the Comptroller of the Treasury 135 (1896).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-KSBFtC-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-KSBFtC_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-KSBFtC_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-KSBFtC_20-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-KSBFtC_20-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-KSBFtC_20-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F60913F83B5512738DDDA90994DA405B898CF1D3">"Knox Seems Barred From the Cabinet"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. February 10, 1909<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 25,</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Knox+Seems+Barred+From+the+Cabinet&rft.date=1909-02-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fquery.nytimes.com%2Fgst%2Fabstract.html%3Fres%3DF60913F83B5512738DDDA90994DA405B898CF1D3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaxbe+fix" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-TEC124-5-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-TEC124-5_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">O'Connor, J. pp. 124–125.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">43 Congressional Record 2390-403 (1909).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-knox-1-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-knox-1_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-knox-1_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-knox-1_23-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1909/02/12/101733196.pdf">"Knox Relief Bill Passes in Senate"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. February 12, 1909<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 25,</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Knox+Relief+Bill+Passes+in+Senate&rft.date=1909-02-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftimesmachine.nytimes.com%2Ftimesmachine%2F1909%2F02%2F12%2F101733196.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaxbe+fix" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nyt021609-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nyt021609_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nyt021609_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1909/02/16/101867245.pdf">"Way Clear For Knox to Enter Cabinet"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. February 16, 1909<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 25,</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Way+Clear+For+Knox+to+Enter+Cabinet&rft.date=1909-02-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftimesmachine.nytimes.com%2Ftimesmachine%2F1909%2F02%2F16%2F101867245.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaxbe+fix" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreeley1911" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Horace_Greeley" title="Horace Greeley">Greeley, Horace</a> (1911). <i>The Tribune Almanac and Political Register</i>. The Tribune Association. p. 553.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Tribune+Almanac+and+Political+Register&rft.pages=553&rft.pub=The+Tribune+Association&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Greeley&rft.aufirst=Horace&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaxbe+fix" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1909/03/06/101033616.pdf">"Senate Confirms Taft's Cabinet"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. March 6, 1909<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 6,</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Senate+Confirms+Taft%27s+Cabinet&rft.date=1909-03-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftimesmachine.nytimes.com%2Ftimesmachine%2F1909%2F03%2F06%2F101033616.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaxbe+fix" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1909/03/07/101034101.pdf">"Cabinet Officers Begin Their Work"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. March 7, 1909<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 5,</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Cabinet+Officers+Begin+Their+Work&rft.date=1909-03-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftimesmachine.nytimes.com%2Ftimesmachine%2F1909%2F03%2F07%2F101034101.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaxbe+fix" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">33 Op. Att'y Gen. 88 (1922)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-schroeder-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-schroeder_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-schroeder_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-schroeder_29-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-schroeder_29-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-schroeder_29-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchroeder1996" class="citation web cs1">Schroeder, Christopher (1996-12-31). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081117172557/http://www.usdoj.gov/olc/inelbr2.htm">"Application of the Ineligibility Clause"</a>. <i>Memorandum Opinion for the Counsel to the President</i>. <a href="/wiki/Office_of_Legal_Counsel" title="Office of Legal Counsel">Office of Legal Counsel</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usdoj.gov/olc/inelbr2.htm">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(Memo)</span> on 2008-11-17<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-11-26</span></span>. <q>The Ineligibility Clause of the Constitution would not bar the appointment of Representative <a href="/wiki/Bill_Richardson" title="Bill Richardson">Bill Richardson</a> to serve as United States Ambassador to the United Nations or of Senator <a href="/wiki/William_Cohen" title="William Cohen">William Cohen</a> to serve as Secretary of Defense.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Memorandum+Opinion+for+the+Counsel+to+the+President&rft.atitle=Application+of+the+Ineligibility+Clause&rft.date=1996-12-31&rft.aulast=Schroeder&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.usdoj.gov%2Folc%2Finelbr2.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaxbe+fix" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nyt110273-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nyt110273_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nyt110273_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nyt110273_30-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nyt110273_30-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nyt110273_30-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRugaber,_Walter1973" class="citation news cs1">Rugaber, Walter (November 2, 1973). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://select.nytimes.com/mem/archive/pdf?res=F00714FA3F5D127A93C0A9178AD95F478785F9">"1969 Rise in Cabinet Pay Could Prove Bar to Saxbe"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 22,</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=1969+Rise+in+Cabinet+Pay+Could+Prove+Bar+to+Saxbe&rft.date=1973-11-02&rft.au=Rugaber%2C+Walter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fselect.nytimes.com%2Fmem%2Farchive%2Fpdf%3Fres%3DF00714FA3F5D127A93C0A9178AD95F478785F9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaxbe+fix" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-fedtimes-k-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-fedtimes-k_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-fedtimes-k_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKauffman2008" class="citation web cs1">Kauffman, Tim (November 25, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130123033939/http://www.federaltimes.com/federal-times-blog/2008/11/26/clinton-nomination-a-constitutional-quandary/">"Clinton nomination a Constitutional quandary"</a>. <i>FedLine</i>. <a href="/wiki/Federal_Times" title="Federal Times">Federal Times</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.federaltimes.com/federal-times-blog/2008/11/26/clinton-nomination-a-constitutional-quandary/">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(Blog)</span> on January 23, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 28,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=FedLine&rft.atitle=Clinton+nomination+a+Constitutional+quandary&rft.date=2008-11-25&rft.aulast=Kauffman&rft.aufirst=Tim&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.federaltimes.com%2Ffederal-times-blog%2F2008%2F11%2F26%2Fclinton-nomination-a-constitutional-quandary%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaxbe+fix" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-LaLE-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-LaLE_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-LaLE_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-LaLE_32-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">"Law and Law Enforcement", <i>Congress and the Nation IV</i>, p. 563.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOelsner,_Lesley1973" class="citation news cs1">Oelsner, Lesley (December 18, 1973). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://select.nytimes.com/mem/archive/pdf?res=F60A12F7385D127A93CAA81789D95F478785F9">"Senate, 75 to 10, Votes to Confirm Saxbe as Attorney General"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 22,</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Senate%2C+75+to+10%2C+Votes+to+Confirm+Saxbe+as+Attorney+General&rft.date=1973-12-18&rft.au=Oelsner%2C+Lesley&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fselect.nytimes.com%2Fmem%2Farchive%2Fpdf%3Fres%3DF60A12F7385D127A93CAA81789D95F478785F9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaxbe+fix" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070930055812/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,944652,00.html">"Handing the Ball to Bill – Saxbe"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">Time</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Time_Inc." title="Time Inc.">Time Inc.</a> November 12, 1973. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,944652,00.html">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(Article)</span> on September 30, 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 24,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Time&rft.atitle=Handing+the+Ball+to+Bill+%E2%80%93+Saxbe&rft.date=1973-11-12&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.time.com%2Ftime%2Fmagazine%2Farticle%2F0%2C9171%2C944652%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaxbe+fix" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-usca-psc-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-usca-psc_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-usca-psc_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Title_2_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 2 of the United States Code">2 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/2/358">§ 358</a>,</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-GG-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-GG_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GG_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GG_36-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GG_36-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GG_36-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GG_36-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GG_36-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">"General Government", <i>Congress and the Nation IV</i>, p. 803.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-saxbe-auto-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-saxbe-auto_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-saxbe-auto_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-saxbe-auto_37-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaxbe2000" class="citation book cs1">Saxbe, William B. (2000). <i>I've Seen the Elephant: An Autobiography</i>. Kent State University Press. pp. 141–142, 149. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87338-668-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-87338-668-X"><bdi>0-87338-668-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=I%27ve+Seen+the+Elephant%3A+An+Autobiography&rft.pages=141-142%2C+149&rft.pub=Kent+State+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-87338-668-X&rft.aulast=Saxbe&rft.aufirst=William+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaxbe+fix" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevinson2006" class="citation book cs1">Levinson, Sanford (2006). <i>Our Undemocratic Constitution: Where the Constitution Goes Wrong (And How We the People Can Correct It)</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. p. 68. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-530751-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-530751-8"><bdi>0-19-530751-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Our+Undemocratic+Constitution%3A+Where+the+Constitution+Goes+Wrong+%28And+How+We+the+People+Can+Correct+It%29&rft.pages=68&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-19-530751-8&rft.aulast=Levinson&rft.aufirst=Sanford&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaxbe+fix" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hearings Before the Committee on the Judiciary, United States Senate, 93d Cong., 1st Sess., on <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.congress.gov/bill/93rd-congress/senate-bill/2673">S. 2673</a> (1973)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-wapo112073-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-wapo112073_40-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wapo112073_40-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wapo112073_40-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell,_Mary1973" class="citation news cs1">Russell, Mary (November 20, 1973). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090225021559/http://media.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/nation/pdf/saxbeandbyrd_112073.pdf">"Robert Byrd Sees Saxbe Job Illegal"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a></i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://media.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/nation/pdf/saxbeandbyrd_112073.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on February 25, 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 18,</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Robert+Byrd+Sees+Saxbe+Job+Illegal&rft.date=1973-11-20&rft.au=Russell%2C+Mary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmedia.washingtonpost.com%2Fwp-srv%2Fnation%2Fpdf%2Fsaxbeandbyrd_112073.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaxbe+fix" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">119 Congressional Record 37,017-26 (1973).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeese2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edwin_Meese" title="Edwin Meese">Meese, Edwin</a> (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-_8N3UeXeesC&pg=PA83"><i>The Heritage Guide to the Constitution</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Regnery_Publishing" title="Regnery Publishing">Regnery Publishing</a>. p. 83. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-59698-001-X" title="Special:BookSources/1-59698-001-X"><bdi>1-59698-001-X</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 28,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Heritage+Guide+to+the+Constitution&rft.pages=83&rft.pub=Regnery+Publishing&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=1-59698-001-X&rft.aulast=Meese&rft.aufirst=Edwin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-_8N3UeXeesC%26pg%3DPA83&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaxbe+fix" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-APP-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-APP_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Appendix, <i>Congress and the Nation IV</i>, p. 1113.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-HCF-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-HCF_44-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-HCF_44-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-HCF_44-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-HCF_44-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKamen2008" class="citation news cs1">Kamen, Al (November 19, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110927110844/http://voices.washingtonpost.com/the-trail/2008/11/19/hillary_clintons_fix.html">"Hillary Clinton's Fix"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a>; 44 The Obama Presidency: A Transition to Power</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://voices.washingtonpost.com/the-trail/2008/11/19/hillary_clintons_fix.html">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(Series)</span> on September 27, 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 25,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post%3B+44+The+Obama+Presidency%3A+A+Transition+to+Power&rft.atitle=Hillary+Clinton%27s+Fix&rft.date=2008-11-19&rft.aulast=Kamen&rft.aufirst=Al&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fvoices.washingtonpost.com%2Fthe-trail%2F2008%2F11%2F19%2Fhillary_clintons_fix.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaxbe+fix" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FP-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FP_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FP_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">"Foreign Policy", <i>Congress and the Nation V</i>, p. 116.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://select.nytimes.com/mem/archive/pdf?res=F50A12F7385D127A93CAA81789D95F478785F9">"Roll-Call Vote in Senate On Saxbe Confirmation"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. December 18, 1973<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 22,</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Roll-Call+Vote+in+Senate+On+Saxbe+Confirmation&rft.date=1973-12-18&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fselect.nytimes.com%2Fmem%2Farchive%2Fpdf%3Fres%3DF50A12F7385D127A93CAA81789D95F478785F9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaxbe+fix" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FP2-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FP2_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Foreign Policy", <i>Congress and the Nation V</i>, p. 119.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CP-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-CP_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Carter Presidency", <i>Congress and the Nation V</i>, p. 984.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <i>McClure v. Carter</i>, 513 F.Supp. 265 (D. Idaho 1981), <i>aff'd sub nom. McClure v. Reagan</i>, 545 U.S. 1025 (1981).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nyt062887-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nyt062887_50-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nyt062887_50-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMolotsky1987" class="citation news cs1">Molotsky, Irvin (June 28, 1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B0DEEDC1330F93BA15755C0A961948260">"Inside Fight Seen Over Court Choice"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,964928,00.html">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(Article)</span> on December 3, 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 21,</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Rodearmel+v.+Clinton+et+al.&rft.pub=Justia+News&rft.date=2009-02-06&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.justia.com%2Fcases%2Ffeatured%2Fdistrict-of-columbia%2Fdcdce%2F1%3A2009cv00171%2F134928%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaxbe+fix" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-blt062309-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-blt062309_69-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-blt062309_69-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScarcella,_Mike2009" class="citation news cs1">Scarcella, Mike (June 23, 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://legaltimes.typepad.com/blt/2009/06/doj-clinton-salazar-constitutionally-eligible-to-serve.html">"DOJ: Clinton, Salazar Constitutionally Eligible to Serve"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Legal_Times" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal Times">Legal Times</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 23,</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Legal+Times&rft.atitle=DOJ%3A+Clinton%2C+Salazar+Constitutionally+Eligible+to+Serve&rft.date=2009-06-23&rft.au=Scarcella%2C+Mike&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flegaltimes.typepad.com%2Fblt%2F2009%2F06%2Fdoj-clinton-salazar-constitutionally-eligible-to-serve.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaxbe+fix" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Reilly,_Cary2009" class="citation news cs1">O'Reilly, Cary (October 30, 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120721100538/http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601110&sid=aZ3j1lzT_GRA">"Clinton Wins Dismissal of Suit Challenging Selection"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bloomberg_News" title="Bloomberg News">Bloomberg News</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601110&sid=aZ3j1lzT_GRA">the original</a> on July 21, 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 31,</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Clinton+Wins+Dismissal+of+Suit+Challenging+Selection&rft.date=2009-10-30&rft.au=O%27Reilly%2C+Cary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bloomberg.com%2Fapps%2Fnews%3Fpid%3D20601110%26sid%3DaZ3j1lzT_GRA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaxbe+fix" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Salazarfix-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Salazarfix_71-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Salazarfix_71-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Salazarfix_71-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Salazarfix_71-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.congress.gov/bill/111th-congress/senate-joint-resolution/3">S.J.Res. 3</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-goldsworthy-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-goldsworthy_72-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-goldsworthy_72-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldsworthy2006" class="citation book cs1">Goldsworthy, Jeffrey Denys (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/interpr_xxx_2006_00_6818/page/28"><i>Interpreting Constitutions: A Comparative Study</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/interpr_xxx_2006_00_6818/page/28">28</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-927413-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-927413-4"><bdi>0-19-927413-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Interpreting+Constitutions%3A+A+Comparative+Study&rft.pages=28&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-19-927413-4&rft.aulast=Goldsworthy&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey+Denys&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Finterpr_xxx_2006_00_6818%2Fpage%2F28&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaxbe+fix" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVermeule2007" class="citation book cs1">Vermeule, Adrian (2007). <i>Mechanisms of Democracy: Institutional Design Writ Small</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. p. 54. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-533346-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-533346-6"><bdi>978-0-19-533346-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mechanisms+of+Democracy%3A+Institutional+Design+Writ+Small&rft.pages=54&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-19-533346-6&rft.aulast=Vermeule&rft.aufirst=Adrian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaxbe+fix" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-TEC94-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-TEC94_74-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-TEC94_74-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">O'Connor, J. p. 94</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStory1987" class="citation book cs1">Story, Joseph (1987) [1833]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/comment_sto_1987_00_8124"><i>Commentaries on the Constitution</i></a>. Vol. 2. Carolina Academic Press. pp. §§ 864–69. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89089-314-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-89089-314-4"><bdi>0-89089-314-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Commentaries+on+the+Constitution&rft.pages=%C2%A7%C2%A7+864-69&rft.pub=Carolina+Academic+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=0-89089-314-4&rft.aulast=Story&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcomment_sto_1987_00_8124&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaxbe+fix" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-TEC101-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-TEC101_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">O'Connor, J. p. 101.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchroeder1996" class="citation web cs1">Schroeder, Christopher (1996-07-26). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081117172552/http://www.usdoj.gov/olc/peterfinal.htm">"Nomination of Sitting Member of Congress to be Ambassador to Vietnam"</a>. <i>Memorandum Opinion for the Counsel to the President</i>. <a href="/wiki/Office_of_Legal_Counsel" title="Office of Legal Counsel">Office of Legal Counsel</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usdoj.gov/olc/peterfinal.htm">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(Memo)</span> on 2008-11-17<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-11-26</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Memorandum+Opinion+for+the+Counsel+to+the+President&rft.atitle=Nomination+of+Sitting+Member+of+Congress+to+be+Ambassador+to+Vietnam&rft.date=1996-07-26&rft.aulast=Schroeder&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.usdoj.gov%2Folc%2Fpeterfinal.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaxbe+fix" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-TEC146-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-TEC146_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">O'Connor, J. p. 146</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGerhardt2003" class="citation book cs1">Gerhardt, Michael J. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/federal_ger_2003_00_6274/page/162"><i>The Federal Appointments Process: A Constitutional and Historical Analysis</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Duke_University_Press" title="Duke University Press">Duke University Press</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/federal_ger_2003_00_6274/page/162">162</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8223-3199-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-8223-3199-3"><bdi>0-8223-3199-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Federal+Appointments+Process%3A+A+Constitutional+and+Historical+Analysis&rft.pages=162&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-8223-3199-3&rft.aulast=Gerhardt&rft.aufirst=Michael+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffederal_ger_2003_00_6274%2Fpage%2F162&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaxbe+fix" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-HMBU-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-HMBU_80-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-HMBU_80-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-HMBU_80-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-HMBU_80-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShapiro,_Ilya2008" class="citation web cs1">Shapiro, Ilya (2008-12-17). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cato.org/commentary/hillary-may-be-unconstitutional?queryID=74a80903fb5178929c7a71f105471a0d">"Hillary May Be Unconstitutional"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_American_Spectator" title="The American Spectator">The American Spectator</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/CATO_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="CATO Institute">CATO Institute</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-01-24</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+American+Spectator&rft.atitle=Hillary+May+Be+Unconstitutional&rft.date=2008-12-17&rft.au=Shapiro%2C+Ilya&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cato.org%2Fcommentary%2Fhillary-may-be-unconstitutional%3FqueryID%3D74a80903fb5178929c7a71f105471a0d&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaxbe+fix" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SctCnj-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SctCnj_81-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SctCnj_81-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDombey,_Daniel2008" class="citation web cs1">Dombey, Daniel (2008-12-03). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/a8c8acc2-c165-11dd-831e-000077b07658.html?nclick_check=1">"Salary clause threatens Clinton's new job"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Financial_Times" class="mw-redirect" title="The Financial Times">The Financial Times</a></i>. The Financial Times Ltd<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-01-25</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Financial+Times&rft.atitle=Salary+clause+threatens+Clinton%27s+new+job&rft.date=2008-12-03&rft.au=Dombey%2C+Daniel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ft.com%2Fcms%2Fs%2F0%2Fa8c8acc2-c165-11dd-831e-000077b07658.html%3Fnclick_check%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaxbe+fix" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaulsen,_Michael_S.1994" class="citation journal cs1">Paulsen, Michael S. (1994). "Is Lloyd Bentsen Unconstitutional?". <i>Stanford Law Review</i>. <b>46</b> (4): 907–918. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1229096">10.2307/1229096</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1229096">1229096</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Stanford+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Is+Lloyd+Bentsen+Unconstitutional%3F&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=907-918&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1229096&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1229096%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Paulsen%2C+Michael+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaxbe+fix" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-TEC156-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-TEC156_83-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">O'Connor, J. p. 156.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See also (writing in another context) <a href="/wiki/Frank_Easterbrook" title="Frank Easterbrook">Frank Easterbrook</a>, <i>What Does Legislative History Tell Us?</i>, 66 Chi.-Kent. L. Rev. 441 (1991): "laws have no 'spirit,' that they are complex compromises with limits and often with conflicting provisions, the proponents of which have discordant understandings."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTushnet2000" class="citation book cs1">Tushnet, Mark (2000). <i>Taking the Constitution Away from the Courts</i>. <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. pp. 34–35. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-07035-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-07035-0"><bdi>0-691-07035-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Taking+the+Constitution+Away+from+the+Courts&rft.pages=34-35&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-691-07035-0&rft.aulast=Tushnet&rft.aufirst=Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaxbe+fix" class="Z3988"></span>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bloggingheads.tv/diavlogs/16496?&in=12:17&out=19:50">video interview with Jack Bailkin</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-TEC130-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-TEC130_86-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">O'Connor, J. p. 130</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Justice <a href="/wiki/William_J._Brennan,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="William J. Brennan, Jr.">Brennan</a> favored standing for any injury in fact, economic or otherwise. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNowakRotunda2000" class="citation book cs1">Nowak, John E. & Rotunda, Ronald D. (2000). <i>Constitutional Law</i> (6th ed.). West Publishing. pp. 89–91. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-314-23748-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-314-23748-8"><bdi>0-314-23748-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Constitutional+Law&rft.pages=89-91&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=West+Publishing&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-314-23748-8&rft.aulast=Nowak&rft.aufirst=John+E.&rft.au=Rotunda%2C+Ronald+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaxbe+fix" class="Z3988"></span> Brennan saw standing as little more than a device for ensuring concrete averseness between the parties, see, e.g., <i><a href="/wiki/Baker_v._Carr" title="Baker v. Carr">Baker v. Carr</a></i> (per Brennan, J.). But Justice Brennan left the court in 1990, and in cases like <i><a href="/wiki/Lujan_v._Defenders_of_Wildlife" title="Lujan v. Defenders of Wildlife">Lujan v. Defenders of Wildlife</a></i> and <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Steel_Co._v._Citizens_for_a_Better_Environment&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Steel Co. v. Citizens for a Better Environment (page does not exist)">Steel Co. v. Citizens for a Better Environment</a></i>, the court has repudiated his version of standing.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_5" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 5">5</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> (Cranch <a href="/wiki/Reporter_of_Decisions_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Reporter of Decisions of the Supreme Court of the United States">1</a>) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/5/137/">137</a> (1803)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marbury, 5 U.S. (1 Cranch) at 155, 2 L.Ed. at 66.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-USvH-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-USvH_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_73" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 73">73</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/73/385/">385</a> (1868)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-APCttC-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-APCttC_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLieberman,_Jethro_K.1999" class="citation book cs1">Lieberman, Jethro K. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/practicalcompani00lieb/page/91">"Civil Office and Civil Officers"</a>. <i>A Practical Companion to the Constitution</i>. University of California Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/practicalcompani00lieb/page/91">91</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-21280-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-21280-0"><bdi>0-520-21280-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Civil+Office+and+Civil+Officers&rft.btitle=A+Practical+Companion+to+the+Constitution&rft.pages=91&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-520-21280-0&rft.au=Lieberman%2C+Jethro+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpracticalcompani00lieb%2Fpage%2F91&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaxbe+fix" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_226" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 226">226</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/226/374/">374</a> (1912)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">42 Op. Att'y Gen. 381 (1969)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">3 Op. Off. Legal Counsel 286 (1979)</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Saxbe_fix&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Connor,_Ann1965" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">O'Connor, Ann, ed. (1965). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/congressnation45-64cong"><i>Congress and the Nation</i></a>. Vol. IV (1973–1976). <a href="/wiki/Congressional_Quarterly_Inc" class="mw-redirect" title="Congressional Quarterly Inc">Congressional Quarterly Inc</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87187-112-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-87187-112-2"><bdi>0-87187-112-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Congress+and+the+Nation&rft.pub=Congressional+Quarterly+Inc&rft.date=1965&rft.isbn=0-87187-112-2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcongressnation45-64cong&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaxbe+fix" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Connor,_Ann1981" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">O'Connor, Ann, ed. (30 October 1981). <i>Congress and the Nation</i>. Vol. V (1977–1980). <a href="/wiki/Congressional_Quarterly_Inc" class="mw-redirect" title="Congressional Quarterly Inc">Congressional Quarterly Inc</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87187-216-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-87187-216-1"><bdi>0-87187-216-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Congress+and+the+Nation&rft.pub=Congressional+Quarterly+Inc&rft.date=1981-10-30&rft.isbn=0-87187-216-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaxbe+fix" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Connor,_Ann1965" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">O'Connor, Ann, ed. (1965). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/congressnation00cong"><i>Congress and the Nation</i></a>. Vol. IX (1993–1996). <a href="/wiki/Congressional_Quarterly_Inc" class="mw-redirect" title="Congressional Quarterly Inc">Congressional Quarterly Inc</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56802-240-9" title="Special:BookSources/1-56802-240-9"><bdi>1-56802-240-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Congress+and+the+Nation&rft.pub=Congressional+Quarterly+Inc&rft.date=1965&rft.isbn=1-56802-240-9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcongressnation00cong&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaxbe+fix" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Connor,_John_F.1995" class="citation journal cs1">O'Connor, John F. (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161002003313/http://www.steptoe.com/assets/attachments/3658.PDF">"The Emoluments Clause: An Anti-Federalist Intruder In A Federalist Constitution"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Hofstra Law Review</i>. <b>24</b> (89). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.steptoe.com/assets/attachments/3658.PDF">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2016-10-02<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-01-25</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hofstra+Law+Review&rft.atitle=The+Emoluments+Clause%3A+An+Anti-Federalist+Intruder+In+A+Federalist+Constitution&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=89&rft.date=1995&rft.au=O%27Connor%2C+John+F.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.steptoe.com%2Fassets%2Fattachments%2F3658.PDF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaxbe+fix" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYates,_Robert1839" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Yates_(politician)" title="Robert Yates (politician)">Yates, Robert</a> (1839). <i>Secret proceedings and debates of the Convention assembled at Philadelphia, in the year 1787, for the purpose of forming the Constitution of the United States of America</i>. Wilbur Curtiss.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Secret+proceedings+and+debates+of+the+Convention+assembled+at+Philadelphia%2C+in+the+year+1787%2C+for+the+purpose+of+forming+the+Constitution+of+the+United+States+of+America&rft.pub=Wilbur+Curtiss&rft.date=1839&rft.au=Yates%2C+Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaxbe+fix" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output 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born outside the United States">Born outside the U.S.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resignation_from_the_United_States_Senate" title="Resignation from the United States Senate">Resigned</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_appointed_United_States_senators" title="List of appointed United States senators">Appointed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_senators_who_switched_parties" title="List of United States senators who switched parties">Switched parties</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">House</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_members_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="List of current members of the United States House of Representatives">Members</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seniority_in_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Seniority in the United States House of Representatives">seniority</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dean_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Dean of the United States House of Representatives">Dean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_former_members_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="List of former members of the United States House of Representatives">Former</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_representatives_expelled,_censured,_or_reprimanded" title="List of United States representatives expelled, censured, or reprimanded">Expelled, censured, and reprimanded</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_members_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives_who_served_a_single_term" title="List of members of the United States House of Representatives who served a single term">Served a single term</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_members_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives_who_lost_re-election_in_a_primary" title="List of members of the United States House of Representatives who lost re-election in a primary">Lost re-election in a primary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_representatives_who_switched_parties" title="List of United States representatives who switched parties">Switched parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_members-elect_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives_who_never_took_their_seats" title="List of members-elect of the United States House of Representatives who never took their seats">Elected but did not serve</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New members</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_new_members_of_the_90th_United_States_Congress" title="List of new members of the 90th United States Congress">90th (1967)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_new_members_of_the_91st_United_States_Congress" title="List of new members of the 91st United States Congress">91st (1969)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_new_members_of_the_92nd_United_States_Congress" title="List of new members of the 92nd United States Congress">92nd (1971)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_new_members_of_the_93rd_United_States_Congress" title="List of new members of the 93rd United States Congress">93rd (1973)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_new_members_of_the_94th_United_States_Congress" title="List of new members of the 94th United States Congress">94th (1975)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_new_members_of_the_95th_United_States_Congress" title="List of new members of the 95th United States Congress">95th (1977)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_new_members_of_the_96th_United_States_Congress" title="List of new members of the 96th United States Congress">96th (1979)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_new_members_of_the_97th_United_States_Congress" title="List of new members of the 97th United States Congress">97th (1981)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_new_members_of_the_98th_United_States_Congress" title="List of new members of the 98th United States Congress">98th (1983)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_new_members_of_the_99th_United_States_Congress" title="List of new members of the 99th United States Congress">99th (1985)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_new_members_of_the_100th_United_States_Congress" title="List of new members of the 100th United States Congress">100th (1987)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_new_members_of_the_101st_United_States_Congress" title="List of new members of the 101st United States Congress">101st (1989)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_new_members_of_the_102nd_United_States_Congress" title="List of new members of the 102nd United States Congress">102nd (1991)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_new_members_of_the_103rd_United_States_Congress" title="List of new members of the 103rd United States Congress">103rd (1993)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_new_members_of_the_104th_United_States_Congress" title="List of new members of the 104th United States Congress">104th (1995)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_new_members_of_the_105th_United_States_Congress" title="List of new members of the 105th United States Congress">105th (1997)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_new_members_of_the_106th_United_States_Congress" title="List of new members of the 106th United States Congress">106th (1999)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_new_members_of_the_107th_United_States_Congress" title="List of new members of the 107th United States Congress">107th (2001)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_new_members_of_the_108th_United_States_Congress" title="List of new members of the 108th United States Congress">108th (2003)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_new_members_of_the_109th_United_States_Congress" title="List of new members of the 109th United States Congress">109th (2005)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_new_members_of_the_110th_United_States_Congress" title="List of new members of the 110th United States Congress">110th (2007)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_new_members_of_the_111th_United_States_Congress" title="List of new members of the 111th United States Congress">111th (2009)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_new_members_of_the_112th_United_States_Congress" title="List of new members of the 112th United States Congress">112th (2011)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_new_members_of_the_113th_United_States_Congress" title="List of new members of the 113th United States Congress">113th (2013)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_new_members_of_the_114th_United_States_Congress" title="List of new members of the 114th United States Congress">114th (2015)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_new_members_of_the_115th_United_States_Congress" title="List of new members of the 115th United States Congress">115th (2017)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_new_members_of_the_116th_United_States_Congress" title="List of new members of the 116th United States Congress">116th (2019)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_new_members_of_the_117th_United_States_Congress" title="List of new members of the 117th United States Congress">117th (2021)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_new_members_of_the_118th_United_States_Congress" title="List of new members of the 118th United States Congress">118th (2023)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Leaders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Senate</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States" title="Vice President of the United States">President</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_vice_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of vice presidents of the United States">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_pro_tempore_of_the_United_States_Senate" title="President pro tempore of the United States Senate">President pro tempore</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_pro_tempore_of_the_United_States_Senate" title="List of presidents pro tempore of the United States Senate">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Party_leaders_of_the_United_States_Senate" title="Party leaders of the United States Senate">Leaders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senate_Democratic_Caucus" title="Senate Democratic Caucus">Democratic Caucus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Senate_Democratic_Caucus#Chairs" title="Senate Democratic Caucus">Chair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senate_Democratic_Caucus#Caucus_secretary" title="Senate Democratic Caucus">Secretary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate_Democratic_Policy_Committee" title="United States Senate Democratic Policy Committee">Policy Committee Chair</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senate_Republican_Conference" title="Senate Republican Conference">Republican Conference</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Senate_Republican_Conference#List_of_conference_chairmen_and_chairwomen" title="Senate Republican Conference">Chair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senate_Republican_Conference#List_of_Secretary_and_Vice_Chairman" title="Senate Republican Conference">Vice-Chair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate_Republican_Policy_Committee" title="United States Senate Republican Policy Committee">Policy Committee Chair</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">House</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Speaker_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Speaker of the United States House of Representatives">Speaker</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_speakers_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="List of speakers of the United States House of Representatives">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Party_leaders_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Party leaders of the United States House of Representatives">Leaders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bipartisan_Legal_Advisory_Group" title="Bipartisan Legal Advisory Group">Bipartisan Legal Advisory Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_Democratic_Caucus" title="House Democratic Caucus">Democratic Caucus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_Republican_Conference" title="House Republican Conference">Republican Conference</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Districts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_congressional_districts" title="List of United States congressional districts">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_congressional_apportionment" title="United States congressional apportionment">Apportionment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerrymandering#United_States" title="Gerrymandering">Gerrymandering</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Congressional_caucus" title="Congressional caucus">Congressional caucus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caucuses_of_the_United_States_Congress" title="Caucuses of the United States Congress">Caucuses of the United States Congress</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ethnic and racial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_the_United_States_Congress" title="African Americans in the United States Congress">African-American members</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_senators" title="List of African-American United States senators">Senate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_representatives" title="List of African-American United States representatives">House</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Black_Caucus" title="Congressional Black Caucus">Black Caucus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Arab_and_Middle_Eastern_Americans_in_the_United_States_Congress" title="List of Arab and Middle Eastern Americans in the United States Congress">Arab and Middle Eastern members</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Asian_Americans_and_Pacific_Islands_Americans_in_the_United_States_Congress" title="List of Asian Americans and Pacific Islands Americans in the United States Congress">Asian Pacific American members</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Asian_Pacific_American_Caucus" title="Congressional Asian Pacific American Caucus">Asian Pacific American Caucus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans_in_the_United_States_Congress" title="Hispanic and Latino Americans in the United States Congress">Hispanic and Latino members</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans_in_the_United_States_Congress" title="List of Hispanic and Latino Americans in the United States Congress">list</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Hispanic_Caucus" title="Congressional Hispanic Caucus">Hispanic Caucus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Hispanic_Conference" title="Congressional Hispanic Conference">Hispanic Conference</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Jewish_members_of_the_United_States_Congress" title="List of Jewish members of the United States Congress">Jewish members</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Jewish_Caucus" title="Congressional Jewish Caucus">Congressional Jewish Caucus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States_Congress" title="List of Native Americans in the United States Congress">Native American members</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Gender and sexual identity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_LGBT_members_of_the_United_States_Congress" class="mw-redirect" title="List of LGBT members of the United States Congress">LGBT members</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Equality_Caucus" title="Congressional Equality Caucus">Equality Caucus</a></li></ul></li> <li>Women <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_United_States_Senate" title="Women in the United States Senate">Senate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Women in the United States House of Representatives">House</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Caucus_for_Women%27s_Issues" title="Congressional Caucus for Women's Issues">Issues Caucus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives#Current_female_members" title="Women in the United States House of Representatives">current House</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Occupation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Physicians_in_the_United_States_Congress" title="Physicians in the United States Congress">Physicians</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Religion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Buddhist_members_of_the_United_States_Congress" title="List of Buddhist members of the United States Congress">Buddhist members</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Hindu_members_of_the_United_States_Congress" title="List of Hindu members of the United States Congress">Hindu members</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Jewish_members_of_the_United_States_Congress" title="List of Jewish members of the United States Congress">Jewish members</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Mormon_members_of_the_United_States_Congress" title="List of Mormon members of the United States Congress">Mormon (LDS) members</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Muslim_members_of_the_United_States_Congress" title="List of Muslim members of the United States Congress">Muslim members</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Quaker_members_of_the_United_States_Congress" title="List of Quaker members of the United States Congress">Quaker members</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dalip_Singh_Saund" title="Dalip Singh Saund">Sikh members</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_historical_longest-serving_members_of_the_United_States_Congress" title="List of historical longest-serving members of the United States Congress">By length of service historically</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_members_of_the_United_States_Congress_by_wealth" title="List of current members of the United States Congress by wealth">Current members by wealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_members_of_the_United_States_Congress_from_multiple_states" title="List of members of the United States Congress from multiple states">From multiple states</a></li> <li>Died in office <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Congress_members_who_died_in_office_(1790%E2%80%931899)" title="List of United States Congress members who died in office (1790–1899)">1790–1899</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Congress_members_who_died_in_office_(1900%E2%80%931949)" title="List of United States Congress members who died in office (1900–1949)">1900–1949</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Congress_members_who_died_in_office_(1950%E2%80%931999)" title="List of United States Congress members who died in office (1950–1999)">1950–1999</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Congress_members_who_died_in_office_(2000%E2%80%93)" title="List of United States Congress members who died in office (2000–)">2000–present</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Congress_members_killed_or_wounded_in_office" title="List of United States Congress members killed or wounded in office">Killed or wounded in office</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_party_switchers_in_the_United_States" title="List of party switchers in the United States">Party switchers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_members_of_the_United_States_Congress_who_owned_slaves" title="List of members of the United States Congress who owned slaves">Slave owners</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Powers,_privileges,_procedure,_committees,_history,_media" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Powers, privileges, procedure, committees, history, media</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Powers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">Article I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_Clause" title="Copyright Clause">Copyright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commerce_Clause" title="Commerce Clause">Commerce</a> <a href="/wiki/Dormant_Commerce_Clause" title="Dormant Commerce Clause">(Dormant)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contempt_of_Congress" title="Contempt of Congress">Contempt of Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_war_by_the_United_States" title="Declaration of war by the United States">Declaration of war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_impeachment_in_the_United_States" title="Federal impeachment in the United States">Impeachment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Impeachment_inquiry_in_the_United_States" title="Impeachment inquiry in the United States">Inquiries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_impeachment_trial_in_the_United_States" title="Federal impeachment trial in the United States">Trial</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_nationality_law" title="United States nationality law">Naturalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necessary_and_Proper_Clause" title="Necessary and Proper Clause">"Necessary and Proper"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_power_of_enforcement" title="Congressional power of enforcement">Power of enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxing_and_Spending_Clause" title="Taxing and Spending Clause">Taxing/spending</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Privileges</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Salaries_of_members_of_the_United_States_Congress" title="Salaries of members of the United States Congress">Salaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franking" title="Franking">Franking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech_or_Debate_Clause" title="Speech or Debate Clause">Immunity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Procedure</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Act_of_Congress" title="Act of Congress">Act of Congress</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_federal_legislation" title="List of United States federal legislation">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appropriations_bill_(United_States)" title="Appropriations bill (United States)">Appropriation bill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_(United_States_Congress)" title="Bill (United States Congress)">Bill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_budget_process" title="United States budget process">Budget process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censure_in_the_United_States" title="Censure in the United States">Censure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Closed_session_of_the_United_States_Congress" title="Closed session of the United States Congress">Closed sessions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Closed_sessions_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Closed sessions of the United States House of Representatives">House</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Closed_sessions_of_the_United_States_Senate" title="Closed sessions of the United States Senate">Senate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloture" title="Cloture">Cloture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concurrent_resolution" title="Concurrent resolution">Concurrent resolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuing_resolution" title="Continuing resolution">Continuing resolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dear_Colleague_letter_(United_States)" title="Dear Colleague letter (United States)">Dear Colleague letter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discharge_petition" title="Discharge petition">Discharge petition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enrolled_bill" title="Enrolled bill">Enrolled bill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expulsion_from_the_United_States_Congress" title="Expulsion from the United States Congress">Expulsion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_resolution" title="Joint resolution">Joint resolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_session_of_the_United_States_Congress" title="Joint session of the United States Congress">Joint session</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_joint_sessions_of_the_United_States_Congress" title="List of joint sessions of the United States Congress">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lame-duck_session" title="Lame-duck session">Lame-duck session</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magic_minute" title="Magic minute">Magic minute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hastert_Rule" class="mw-redirect" title="Hastert Rule">Majority of the majority (Hastert Rule)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_referral" title="Multiple referral">Multiple referral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procedures_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Procedures of the United States House of Representatives">House procedures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quorum_call" title="Quorum call">Quorum call</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconciliation_(United_States_Congress)" title="Reconciliation (United States Congress)">Reconciliation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rider_(legislation)" title="Rider (legislation)">Rider</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Saxbe fix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sponsor_(legislative)" title="Sponsor (legislative)">Sponsorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suspension_of_the_rules_in_the_United_States_Congress" title="Suspension of the rules in the United States Congress">Suspension of the rules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unanimous_consent" title="Unanimous consent">Unanimous consent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veto" title="Veto">Veto</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Line-item_veto" title="Line-item veto">Line-item veto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pocket_veto" title="Pocket veto">Pocket veto</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Senate-specific</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advice_and_consent" title="Advice and consent">Advice and consent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue_slip_(U.S._Senate)" title="Blue slip (U.S. Senate)">Blue slip (U.S. Senate)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classes_of_United_States_senators" title="Classes of United States senators">Classes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_communication" title="Executive communication">Executive communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_session" title="Executive session">Executive session</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filibuster_in_the_United_States_Senate" title="Filibuster in the United States Senate">Filibuster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jefferson%27s_Manual" title="Jefferson's Manual">Jefferson's <i>Manual</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate_Journal" title="United States Senate Journal"><i>Senate Journal</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morning_business" title="Morning business">Morning business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_option" title="Nuclear option">Nuclear option</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presiding_Officer_of_the_United_States_Senate" title="Presiding Officer of the United States Senate">Presiding Officer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recess_appointment" title="Recess appointment">Recess appointment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconciliation_(United_States_Congress)" title="Reconciliation (United States Congress)">Reconciliation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riddick%27s_Senate_Procedure" title="Riddick's Senate Procedure">Riddick's Senate Procedure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senate_hold" title="Senate hold">Senate hold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senatorial_courtesy" title="Senatorial courtesy">Senatorial courtesy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seniority_in_the_United_States_Senate" title="Seniority in the United States Senate">Seniority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standing_Rules_of_the_United_States_Senate" title="Standing Rules of the United States Senate">Standing Rules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tie-breaking_votes_cast_by_the_vice_president_of_the_United_States" title="List of tie-breaking votes cast by the vice president of the United States">Tie-breaking votes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditions_of_the_United_States_Senate" title="Traditions of the United States Senate">Traditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_Clause" title="Treaty Clause">Treaty Clause</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_States_congressional_committee" title="United States congressional committee">Committees</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chairperson" class="mw-redirect" title="Chairperson">Chairman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ranking_member" title="Ranking member">ranking member</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_of_the_Whole_(United_States_House_of_Representatives)" title="Committee of the Whole (United States House of Representatives)">Of the Whole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_congressional_conference_committee" title="United States congressional conference committee">Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discharge_petition" title="Discharge petition">Discharge petition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_congressional_hearing" title="United States congressional hearing">Hearings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Markup_(legislation)" title="Markup (legislation)">Markup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_oversight" title="Congressional oversight">Oversight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_congressional_joint_committees" title="List of United States congressional joint committees">List (Joint)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_House_of_Representatives_committees" title="List of United States House of Representatives committees">List (House)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Senate_committees" title="List of United States Senate committees">List (Senate)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Select_or_special_committee_(United_States_Congress)" title="Select or special committee (United States Congress)">Select and special</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standing_committee_(United_States_Congress)" title="Standing committee (United States Congress)">Standing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_congressional_subcommittee" title="United States congressional subcommittee">Subcommittees</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Items</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gavel#United_States_Congress_gavels" title="Gavel">Gavels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mace_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Mace of the United States House of Representatives">Mace of the House</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seal_of_the_United_States_Senate" class="mw-redirect" title="Seal of the United States Senate">Seal of the Senate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Congress" title="History of the United States Congress">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="History of the United States House of Representatives">House history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/U.S._representative_bibliography_(congressional_memoirs)" title="U.S. representative bibliography (congressional memoirs)">memoirs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Speaker_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives_elections" title="List of Speaker of the United States House of Representatives elections">speaker elections</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Senate" title="History of the United States Senate">Senate history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Senate_election_disputes" title="List of United States Senate election disputes">election disputes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._senator_bibliography_(congressional_memoirs)" title="U.S. senator bibliography (congressional memoirs)">memoirs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Congress" title="Continental Congress">Continental Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Hall" title="Federal Hall">Federal Hall (1789–1790)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_Hall" title="Congress Hall">Congress Hall (1790–1800)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Brick_Capitol" title="Old Brick Capitol">Old Brick Capitol (1815–1819)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biographical_Directory_of_the_United_States_Congress" title="Biographical Directory of the United States Congress"><i>Biographical Directory</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divided_government_in_the_United_States" title="Divided government in the United States">Divided government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Party_divisions_of_United_States_Congresses" title="Party divisions of United States Congresses">Party divisions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Media</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/C-SPAN" title="C-SPAN">C-SPAN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Quarterly" title="Congressional Quarterly">Congressional Quarterly</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Hill_(newspaper)" title="The Hill (newspaper)">The Hill</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Politico" title="Politico">Politico</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Roll_Call" title="Roll Call">Roll Call</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Capitol_Complex_(Capitol_Hill)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Capitol_Complex" title="United States Capitol Complex">Capitol Complex</a> (<a href="/wiki/Capitol_Hill" title="Capitol Hill">Capitol Hill</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legislative<br />offices</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_staff" title="Congressional staff">Congressional staff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_Accountability_Office" title="Government Accountability Office">Gov. Accountability Office (GAO)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comptroller_General_of_the_United_States" title="Comptroller General of the United States">Comptroller General</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architect_of_the_Capitol" title="Architect of the Capitol">Architect of the Capitol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Capitol_Police" title="United States Capitol Police">Cap. Police</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capitol_Police_Board" class="mw-redirect" title="Capitol Police Board">Board</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Capitol_Guide_Service" title="United States Capitol Guide Service">Cap. Guide Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Budget_Office" title="Congressional Budget Office">Congr. Budget Office (CBO)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Office_of_Congressional_Workplace_Rights" title="Office of Congressional Workplace Rights">Congr. Workplace Rights (OCWR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Government_Publishing_Office" title="United States Government Publishing Office">Gov. Publishing Office (GPO)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Office_of_Technology_Assessment" title="Office of Technology Assessment">Technology Assessment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Offices</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Senate</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curator_of_the_United_States_Senate" title="Curator of the United States Senate">Curator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historian_of_the_United_States_Senate" title="Historian of the United States Senate">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate_Library" title="United States Senate Library">Library</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">House</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Office_of_Congressional_Ethics" title="Office of Congressional Ethics">Congr. Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives_Office_of_Emergency_Planning,_Preparedness,_and_Operations" title="United States House of Representatives Office of Emergency Planning, Preparedness, and Operations">Emergency Planning, Preparedness, and Operations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives_Office_of_Interparliamentary_Affairs" title="United States House of Representatives Office of Interparliamentary Affairs">Interparliamentary Affairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Office_of_the_Law_Revision_Counsel" title="Office of the Law Revision Counsel">Law Revision Counsel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Office_of_the_Legislative_Counsel" title="Office of the Legislative Counsel">Legislative Counsel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives_Library" title="United States House of Representatives Library">Library</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Employees</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Senate</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Secretary_of_the_United_States_Senate" title="Secretary of the United States Senate">Secretary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaplain_of_the_United_States_Senate" title="Chaplain of the United States Senate">Chaplain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curator_of_the_United_States_Senate" title="Curator of the United States Senate">Curator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historian_of_the_United_States_Senate" title="Historian of the United States Senate">Historian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate_Librarian" title="United States Senate Librarian">Librarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Page_of_the_United_States_Senate" title="Page of the United States Senate">Pages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parliamentarian_of_the_United_States_Senate" title="Parliamentarian of the United States Senate">Parliamentarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergeant_at_Arms_of_the_United_States_Senate" title="Sergeant at Arms of the United States Senate">Sergeant at Arms and Doorkeeper</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">House</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chaplain_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Chaplain of the United States House of Representatives">Chaplain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_Administrative_Officer_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Chief Administrative Officer of the United States House of Representatives">Chief Administrative Officer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clerk_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Clerk of the United States House of Representatives">Clerk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doorkeeper_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Doorkeeper of the United States House of Representatives">Doorkeeper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Director_of_Floor_Operations" title="Director of Floor Operations">Floor Operations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floor_Services_Chief" title="Floor Services Chief">Floor Services Chief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historian_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Historian of the United States House of Representatives">Historian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Page_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Page of the United States House of Representatives">Pages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/House_Page_Board" class="mw-redirect" title="House Page Board">Board</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parliamentarian_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Parliamentarian of the United States House of Representatives">Parliamentarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmaster_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Postmaster of the United States House of Representatives">Postmaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reading_Clerk_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Reading Clerk of the United States House of Representatives">Reading Clerk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergeant_at_Arms_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Sergeant at Arms of the United States House of Representatives">Sergeant at Arms</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of<br />Congress</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Research_Service" title="Congressional Research Service">Congressional Research Service</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Research_Service_reports" class="mw-redirect" title="Congressional Research Service reports">reports</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Copyright_Office" title="United States Copyright Office">Copyright Office</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Register_of_Copyrights" title="Register of Copyrights">Register of Copyrights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_Library_of_Congress" title="Law Library of Congress">Law Library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Poet_Laureate" title="United States Poet Laureate">Poet Laureate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/THOMAS" title="THOMAS">THOMAS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Adams_Building" title="John Adams Building">Adams Building</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson_Building" title="Thomas Jefferson Building">Jefferson Building</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison_Memorial_Building" title="James Madison Memorial Building">Madison Building</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Government_Publishing_Office" title="United States Government Publishing Office">Gov.<br />Publishing Office</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_Printer_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Public Printer of the United States">Public Printer</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Pictorial_Directory" title="Congressional Pictorial Directory">Congressional Pictorial Directory</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Record" title="Congressional Record">Congressional Record</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Official_Congressional_Directory" title="Official Congressional Directory">Official Congressional Directory</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_Government_Manual" title="United States Government Manual">U.S. Gov. Manual</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Congressional_Serial_Set" title="United States Congressional Serial Set">Serial Set</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Statutes_at_Large" title="United States Statutes at Large">Statutes at Large</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Code" title="United States Code">United States Code</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Capitol" title="United States Capitol">Capitol Building</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_artwork_at_the_United_States_Capitol_complex" title="List of artwork at the United States Capitol complex">List of artwork at the United States Capitol complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_portraits_in_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives_collection_(A-J)" class="mw-redirect" title="List of portraits in the United States House of Representatives collection (A-J)">List of portraits in the United States House of Representatives collection (A-J)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brumidi_Corridors" title="Brumidi Corridors">Brumidi Corridors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Prayer_Room" title="Congressional Prayer Room">Congressional Prayer Room</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Capitol_crypt" title="United States Capitol crypt">Crypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Capitol_dome" title="United States Capitol dome">Dome</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Freedom" title="Statue of Freedom">Statue of Freedom</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Capitol_rotunda" title="United States Capitol rotunda">Rotunda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hall_of_Columns" title="Hall of Columns">Hall of Columns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Statuary_Hall" title="National Statuary Hall">Statuary Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Capitol_Visitor_Center" title="United States Capitol Visitor Center">Visitor Center</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Apotheosis_of_Washington" title="The Apotheosis of Washington">The Apotheosis of Washington</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Freedom" title="Statue of Freedom">Statue of Freedom</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_Independence_(painting)" title="Declaration of Independence (painting)"><i>Declaration of Independence</i> painting</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Scene_at_the_Signing_of_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Scene at the Signing of the Constitution of the United States">Scene at the Signing of the Constitution of the United States</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Apotheosis_of_Democracy" title="Apotheosis of Democracy">Apotheosis of Democracy</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Progress_of_Civilization_Pediment" title="Progress of Civilization Pediment">Progress of Civilization Pediment</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/First_Reading_of_the_Emancipation_Proclamation_of_President_Lincoln" title="First Reading of the Emancipation Proclamation of President Lincoln">First Reading of the Emancipation Proclamation of President Lincoln</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Surrender_of_General_Burgoyne" title="Surrender of General Burgoyne">Surrender of General Burgoyne</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Surrender_of_Lord_Cornwallis" title="Surrender of Lord Cornwallis">Surrender of Lord Cornwallis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_and_the_Revolutionary_War_Door" title="George Washington and the Revolutionary War Door">George Washington and the Revolutionary War Door</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_War_Door" title="Revolutionary War Door">Revolutionary War Door</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Columbus_Doors" title="Columbus Doors">Columbus Doors</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Washington_at_Princeton" title="Washington at Princeton">Washington at Princeton</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Westward_the_Course_of_Empire_Takes_Its_Way" title="Westward the Course of Empire Takes Its Way">Westward the Course of Empire Takes Its Way</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice_President%27s_Room" title="Vice President's Room">VP's Room</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate_Vice_Presidential_Bust_Collection" title="United States Senate Vice Presidential Bust Collection">VP Bust Collection</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Congressional_office_buildings" title="Congressional office buildings">Office<br />buildings</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Senate</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dirksen_Senate_Office_Building" title="Dirksen Senate Office Building">Dirksen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hart_Senate_Office_Building" title="Hart Senate Office Building">Hart</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Mountains_and_Clouds" title="Mountains and Clouds">Mountains and Clouds</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Senate_Office_Building" title="Russell Senate Office Building">Russell</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">House</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/House_Office_Building_Commission" title="House Office Building Commission">Building Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_office_lottery" title="Congressional office lottery">office lottery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannon_House_Office_Building" title="Cannon House Office Building">Cannon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ford_House_Office_Building" title="Ford House Office Building">Ford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longworth_House_Office_Building" title="Longworth House Office Building">Longworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/O%27Neill_House_Office_Building" title="O'Neill House Office Building">O'Neill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rayburn_House_Office_Building" title="Rayburn House Office Building">Rayburn</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other<br />facilities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Botanic_Garden" title="United States Botanic Garden">Botanic Garden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senate_Staff_Health_and_Fitness_Facility" class="mw-redirect" title="Senate Staff Health and Fitness Facility">Health and Fitness Facility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recording_Studio_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Recording Studio of the United States House of Representatives">House Recording Studio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate_chamber" title="United States Senate chamber">Senate chamber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Senate_Chamber" title="Old Senate Chamber">Old Senate Chamber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Supreme_Court_Chamber" title="Old Supreme Court Chamber">Old Supreme Court Chamber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitol_Power_Plant" title="Capitol Power Plant">Power Plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Webster_Senate_Page_Residence" title="Daniel Webster Senate Page Residence">Webster Page Residence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Capitol_subway_system" title="United States Capitol subway system">Subway</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capitol_Hill" title="Capitol Hill">Capitol Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Capitol_cornerstone_laying" title="United States Capitol cornerstone laying">United States Capitol cornerstone laying</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Constitution_of_the_United_States" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Template:Constitution of the United States"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Template talk:Constitution of the United States"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Constitution of the United States"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Constitution_of_the_United_States" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">Constitution of the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Preamble_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Preamble to the United States Constitution">Preamble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Three_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Three of the United States Constitution">III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Four_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Four of the United States Constitution">IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Five_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Five of the United States Constitution">V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Six_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Six of the United States Constitution">VI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Seven_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Seven of the United States Constitution">VII</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="List of amendments to the Constitution of the United States">Amendments</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Second Amendment to the United States Constitution">2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Third Amendment to the United States Constitution">3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution">6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution">8</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ninth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Ninth Amendment to the United States Constitution">9</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">10</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1795–1804</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eleventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eleventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">11</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twelfth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution">12</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Reconstruction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">13</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">14</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">15</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sixteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">16</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seventeenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">17</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">18</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nineteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">19</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twentieth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twentieth Amendment to the United States Constitution">20</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-first_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution">21</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution">22</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-third_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution">23</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">24</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">25</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-sixth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution">26</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-seventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">27</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="List of amendments to the Constitution of the United States">Unratified</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Apportionment_Amendment" title="Congressional Apportionment Amendment">Congressional Apportionment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titles_of_Nobility_Amendment" title="Titles of Nobility Amendment">Titles of Nobility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corwin_Amendment" title="Corwin Amendment">Corwin Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_Labor_Amendment" title="Child Labor Amendment">Child Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_Rights_Amendment" title="Equal Rights Amendment">Equal Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia_Voting_Rights_Amendment" title="District of Columbia Voting Rights Amendment">District of Columbia Voting Rights</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_proposed_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="List of proposed amendments to the Constitution of the United States">Proposed</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balanced_budget_amendment" title="Balanced budget amendment">Balanced budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaine_Amendment" title="Blaine Amendment">Blaine amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bricker_Amendment" title="Bricker Amendment">Bricker amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_finance_reform_amendment" title="Campaign finance reform amendment">Campaign finance reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_amendment" title="Christian amendment">Christian amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crittenden_Compromise" title="Crittenden Compromise">Crittenden Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_College_abolition_amendment" title="Electoral College abolition amendment">Electoral College abolition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_Opportunity_to_Govern_Amendment" title="Equal Opportunity to Govern Amendment">Equal Opportunity to Govern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Marriage_Amendment" title="Federal Marriage Amendment">Federal Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_Desecration_Amendment" title="Flag Desecration Amendment">Flag Desecration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_Life_Amendment" title="Human Life Amendment">Human Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proposed_%22Liberty%22_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Proposed "Liberty" Amendment to the United States Constitution">"Liberty" amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludlow_Amendment" title="Ludlow Amendment">Ludlow amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parental_Rights_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Parental Rights Amendment to the United States Constitution">Parental Rights amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_Prayer_Amendment" title="School Prayer Amendment">School Prayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single_subject_amendment" title="Single subject amendment">Single subject</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victims%27_Rights_Amendment" title="Victims' Rights Amendment">Victims' Rights</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Convention_to_propose_amendments_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Convention to propose amendments to the United States Constitution">Convention to propose amendments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_ratifying_conventions" title="State ratifying conventions">State ratifying conventions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Formation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Vernon_Conference" title="Mount Vernon Conference">Mount Vernon Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annapolis_Convention_(1786)" title="Annapolis Convention (1786)">Annapolis Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)" title="Constitutional Convention (United States)">Philadelphia Convention</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Plan" title="Virginia Plan">Virginia Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Jersey_Plan" title="New Jersey Plan">New Jersey Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connecticut_Compromise" title="Connecticut Compromise">Connecticut Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-fifths_Compromise" title="Three-fifths Compromise">Three-fifths Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Detail" title="Committee of Detail">Committee of Detail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Framers" class="mw-redirect" title="Framers">List of Framers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signing_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Signing of the United States Constitution">Signing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Printing_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Printing of the United States Constitution">Printing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independence_Hall" title="Independence Hall">Independence Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syng_inkstand" title="Syng inkstand">Syng inkstand</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Federalist_Papers" title="The Federalist Papers">The Federalist Papers</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Federalist_Papers" title="Anti-Federalist Papers">Anti-Federalist Papers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Compromise" title="Massachusetts Compromise">Massachusetts Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Ratifying_Convention" title="Virginia Ratifying Convention">Virginia Ratifying Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_Circular_Letter" title="New York Circular Letter">New York Circular Letter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hillsborough_Convention" title="Hillsborough Convention">Hillsborough Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fayetteville_Convention" title="Fayetteville Convention">Fayetteville Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ratification_of_the_United_States_Constitution_by_Rhode_Island" title="Ratification of the United States Constitution by Rhode Island">Rhode Island ratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_drafting_and_ratification_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Timeline of drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution">Drafting and ratification timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_clauses_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="List of clauses of the United States Constitution">Clauses</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Admission_to_the_Union" title="Admission to the Union">Admission to the Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appointments_Clause" title="Appointments Clause">Appointments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appropriations_bill_(United_States)" title="Appropriations bill (United States)">Appropriations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_petition_in_the_United_States" title="Right to petition in the United States">Assemble and Petition Clause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assistance_of_Counsel_Clause" title="Assistance of Counsel Clause">Assistance of Counsel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case_or_Controversy_Clause" title="Case or Controversy Clause">Case or Controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizenship_Clause" title="Citizenship Clause">Citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commerce_Clause" title="Commerce Clause">Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interstate_compact" title="Interstate compact">Compact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compulsory_Process_Clause" title="Compulsory Process Clause">Compulsory Process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confrontation_Clause" title="Confrontation Clause">Confrontation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_power_of_enforcement" title="Congressional power of enforcement">Congressional enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contingent_election" title="Contingent election">Contingent Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contract_Clause" title="Contract Clause">Contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_Clause" title="Copyright Clause">Copyright and Patent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_Jeopardy_Clause" title="Double Jeopardy Clause">Double Jeopardy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Due_Process_Clause" title="Due Process Clause">Due Process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_clause" class="mw-redirect" title="Elections clause">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engagements_Clause" title="Engagements Clause">Engagements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">Equal Protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Establishment_Clause" title="Establishment Clause">Establishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Three_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Original_and_appellate_jurisdiction" title="Article Three of the United States Constitution">Exceptions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Excessive_Bail_Clause" title="Excessive Bail Clause">Excessive Bail</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ex_post_facto_law#United_States" title="Ex post facto law">Ex Post Facto</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extradition_Clause" title="Extradition Clause">Extradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Exercise_Clause" title="Free Exercise Clause">Free Exercise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press_in_the_United_States" title="Freedom of the press in the United States">Freedom of the Press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech_in_the_United_States" title="Freedom of speech in the United States">Freedom of Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Clause" title="Fugitive Slave Clause">Fugitive Slave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Full_Faith_and_Credit_Clause" title="Full Faith and Credit Clause">Full Faith and Credit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxing_and_Spending_Clause#General_Welfare_Clause" title="Taxing and Spending Clause">General Welfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guarantee_Clause" title="Guarantee Clause">Guarantee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_congressional_apportionment" title="United States congressional apportionment">House Apportionment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_impeachment_in_the_United_States" title="Federal impeachment in the United States">Impeachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Import-Export_Clause" title="Import-Export Clause">Import-Export</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ineligibility_Clause" title="Ineligibility Clause">Ineligibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Section_8" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">Militia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural-born-citizen_clause_(United_States)" title="Natural-born-citizen clause (United States)">Natural-born citizen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necessary_and_Proper_Clause" title="Necessary and Proper Clause">Necessary and Proper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_Religious_Test_Clause" title="No Religious Test Clause">No Religious Test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oath_of_office_of_the_president_of_the_United_States" title="Oath of office of the president of the United States">Oath or Affirmation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_jurisdiction_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Original jurisdiction of the Supreme Court of the United States">Original Jurisdiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origination_Clause" title="Origination Clause">Origination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_pardons_in_the_United_States" title="Federal pardons in the United States">Pardon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postal_Clause" title="Postal Clause">Postal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presentment_Clause" title="Presentment Clause">Presentment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Electoral_College" title="United States Electoral College">Presidential Electors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_line_of_succession" title="United States presidential line of succession">Presidential succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privileges_and_Immunities_Clause" title="Privileges and Immunities Clause">Privileges and Immunities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privileges_or_Immunities_Clause" title="Privileges or Immunities Clause">Privileges or Immunities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recess_appointment" title="Recess appointment">Recess appointment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_2:_Making_recommendations_to_Congress" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">Recommendation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#Self-incrimination" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Self-Incrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech_or_Debate_Clause" title="Speech or Debate Clause">Speech or Debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speedy_Trial_Clause" title="Speedy Trial Clause">Speedy Trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_1:_State_of_the_Union" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">State of the Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supremacy_Clause" title="Supremacy Clause">Supremacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Section_9" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">Suspension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_5:_Caring_for_the_faithful_execution_of_the_law" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">Take Care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#Eminent_domain" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Takings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxing_and_Spending_Clause" title="Taxing and Spending Clause">Taxing and Spending</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Four_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Federal_property_and_the_Territorial_Clause" title="Article Four of the United States Constitution">Territorial</a></li> <li>Title of Nobility (<a href="/wiki/Foreign_Emoluments_Clause" title="Foreign Emoluments Clause">Foreign Emoluments</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_Clause" title="Treaty Clause">Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jury_trial#United_States" title="Jury trial">Trial by Jury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vesting_Clauses" title="Vesting Clauses">Vesting</a> (<a href="/wiki/Legislative_Vesting_Clause" title="Legislative Vesting Clause">Legislative</a> / <a href="/wiki/Executive_Vesting_Clause" title="Executive Vesting Clause">Executive</a> / <a href="/wiki/Judicial_Vesting_Clause" title="Judicial Vesting Clause">Judicial</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicinage_Clause" title="Vicinage Clause">Vicinage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_Powers_Clause" title="War Powers Clause">War Powers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interpretation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_power_(federalism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Balance of power (federalism)">Balance of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concurrent_powers" title="Concurrent powers">Concurrent powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_law_of_the_United_States" title="Constitutional law of the United States">Constitutional law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_constitutional_criminal_procedure" title="United States constitutional criminal procedure">Criminal procedure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_constitutional_sentencing_law" title="United States constitutional sentencing law">Criminal sentencing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dormant_Commerce_Clause" title="Dormant Commerce Clause">Dormant Commerce Clause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enumerated_powers_(United_States)" title="Enumerated powers (United States)">Enumerated powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_footing" title="Equal footing">Equal footing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_privilege" title="Executive privilege">Executive privilege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Implied_powers" title="Implied powers">Implied powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incorporation_of_the_Bill_of_Rights" title="Incorporation of the Bill of Rights">Incorporation of the Bill of Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_review_in_the_United_States" title="Judicial review in the United States">Judicial review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondelegation_doctrine#United_States" title="Nondelegation doctrine">Nondelegation doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plenary_power" title="Plenary power">Plenary power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_preemption" title="Federal preemption">Preemption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reserved_powers" title="Reserved powers">Reserved powers</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Saxbe fix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States" title="Separation of church and state in the United States">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers_under_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Separation of powers under the United States Constitution">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symmetric_federalism" title="Symmetric federalism">Symmetric federalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_protester_constitutional_arguments" title="Tax protester constitutional arguments">Taxation power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unitary_executive_theory" title="Unitary executive theory">Unitary executive theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Framers" class="mw-redirect" title="Framers">Signatories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Convention President</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New Hampshire</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Langdon_(politician)" title="John Langdon (politician)">John Langdon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Gilman" title="Nicholas Gilman">Nicholas Gilman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Massachusetts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Gorham" title="Nathaniel Gorham">Nathaniel Gorham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rufus_King" title="Rufus King">Rufus King</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Connecticut</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Samuel_Johnson" title="William Samuel Johnson">William Samuel Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Sherman" title="Roger Sherman">Roger Sherman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New York</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New Jersey</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Livingston" title="William Livingston">William Livingston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Brearley" title="David Brearley">David Brearley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Paterson_(judge)" title="William Paterson (judge)">William Paterson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Dayton" title="Jonathan Dayton">Jonathan Dayton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pennsylvania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Mifflin" title="Thomas Mifflin">Thomas Mifflin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Morris_(financier)" title="Robert Morris (financier)">Robert Morris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Clymer" title="George Clymer">George Clymer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Fitzsimons" title="Thomas Fitzsimons">Thomas Fitzsimons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jared_Ingersoll" title="Jared Ingersoll">Jared Ingersoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Wilson_(Founding_Father)" title="James Wilson (Founding Father)">James Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gouverneur_Morris" title="Gouverneur Morris">Gouverneur Morris</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Delaware</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Read_(American_politician,_born_1733)" title="George Read (American politician, born 1733)">George Read</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunning_Bedford_Jr." title="Gunning Bedford Jr.">Gunning Bedford Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dickinson" title="John Dickinson">John Dickinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Bassett_(Delaware_politician)" title="Richard Bassett (Delaware politician)">Richard Bassett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Broom" title="Jacob Broom">Jacob Broom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Maryland</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_McHenry" title="James McHenry">James McHenry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_of_St._Thomas_Jenifer" title="Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer">Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Carroll" title="Daniel Carroll">Daniel Carroll</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Virginia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Blair_Jr." title="John Blair Jr.">John Blair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North Carolina</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Blount" title="William Blount">William Blount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Dobbs_Spaight" title="Richard Dobbs Spaight">Richard Dobbs Spaight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Williamson" title="Hugh Williamson">Hugh Williamson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South Carolina</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Rutledge" title="John Rutledge">John Rutledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Cotesworth_Pinckney" title="Charles Cotesworth Pinckney">Charles Cotesworth Pinckney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Pinckney_(governor)" title="Charles Pinckney (governor)">Charles Pinckney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierce_Butler_(American_politician)" title="Pierce Butler (American politician)">Pierce Butler</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Georgia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Few" title="William Few">William Few</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Baldwin" title="Abraham Baldwin">Abraham Baldwin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Convention Secretary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Jackson_(secretary)" title="William Jackson (secretary)">William Jackson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Notes_of_Debates_in_the_Federal_Convention_of_1787" title="Notes of Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787">Notes of Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Shallus" title="Jacob Shallus">Jacob Shallus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Bibliography of the United States Constitution">Bibliography of the United States Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Founding Fathers of the United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Display<br />and legacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Archives_Building" title="National Archives Building">National Archives</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charters_of_Freedom" title="Charters of Freedom">Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independence_Mall_(Philadelphia)" class="mw-redirect" 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