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0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_humans" title="Sex differences in humans">Sex differences in humans</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Human.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Human.svg/100px-Human.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Human.svg/150px-Human.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Human.svg/200px-Human.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1060" data-file-height="1320" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="border-bottom: 1px #fafafa solid;"> Biology</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_differentiation_in_humans" title="Sexual differentiation in humans">Sexual differentiation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disorders_of_sex_development" title="Disorders of sex development">disorders</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_as_a_biological_variable" title="Sex as a biological variable">In research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_human_physiology" title="Sex differences in human physiology">Physiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism#Humans" title="Sexual dimorphism">Dimorphism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism_measures" title="Sexual dimorphism measures">Scientific measures</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="border-bottom: 1px #fafafa solid;"> <a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_medicine" title="Sex differences in medicine">Medicine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gender_disparities_in_health" title="Gender disparities in health">health</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_autoimmunity" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex differences in autoimmunity">Autoimmunity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_life_expectancy" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex differences in life expectancy">Life expectancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_disorders_and_gender" title="Mental disorders and gender">Mental disorders</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sex_and_gender_differences_in_autism" title="Sex and gender differences in autism">autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_depression" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex differences in depression">depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_schizophrenia" title="Sex differences in schizophrenia">schizophrenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_substance_abuse" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex differences in substance abuse">substance abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_differences_in_suicide" title="Gender differences in suicide">suicide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_stroke_care" title="Sex differences in stroke care">Stroke care</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="border-bottom: 1px #fafafa solid;"> <a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_of_sex_differences" title="Neuroscience of sex differences">Neuroscience</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_psychology" title="Sex differences in psychology">psychology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_cognition" title="Sex differences in cognition">Cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_coping" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex differences in coping">Coping</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Emotional expression</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gender_differences_in_aggression" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender differences in aggression">Aggression</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_emotional_intelligence" title="Sex differences in emotional intelligence">Emotional intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_empathy" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex differences in empathy">Empathy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gender_empathy_gap" title="Gender empathy gap">Gender empathy gap</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_intelligence" title="Sex differences in intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_memory" title="Sex differences in memory">Memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_narcissism" title="Sex differences in narcissism">Narcissism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurosexism" title="Neurosexism">Neurosexism</a></li> <li>Sexuality <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_disparity_in_sexual_relationships" title="Age disparity in sexual relationships">age disparity in relationships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_differences_in_sexual_attraction" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender differences in sexual attraction">attraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_sexual_desire" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex differences in sexual desire">desire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_differences_in_sexual_fantasy" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender differences in sexual fantasy">fantasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_jealousy" title="Sexual jealousy">jealousy</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="border-bottom: 1px #fafafa solid;"> Sociology and society</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_crime" title="Sex differences in crime">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_education" title="Sex differences in education">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_education_in_the_United_States" title="Sex differences in education in the United States">in the U.S.</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_inequality" title="Gender inequality">Gender inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_expendability" title="Male expendability">Greater male expendability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variability_hypothesis" title="Variability hypothesis">Greater male variability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_leadership" title="Sex differences in leadership">Leadership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_and_religion" title="Gender and religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_social_capital" title="Sex differences in social capital">Social capital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_differences_in_social_support" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender differences in social support">Social support</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_paradox" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender paradox">Sociolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender-equality_paradox" title="Gender-equality paradox">Gender-equality paradox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_survival_paradox" title="Health survival paradox">Health survival paradox</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Sex_differences" title="Template:Sex differences"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Sex_differences" title="Template talk:Sex differences"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Sex_differences" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Sex differences"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The study of the relationship between <b>gender and emotional expression</b> is the study of the differences between men and women in behavior that expresses <a href="/wiki/Emotion" title="Emotion">emotions</a>. These differences in <a href="/wiki/Emotional_expression" title="Emotional expression">emotional expression</a> may be primarily due to cultural expectations of <a href="/wiki/Femininity" title="Femininity">femininity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Masculinity" title="Masculinity">masculinity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Major_theories">Major theories</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_and_emotional_expression&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Major theories"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many psychologists reject the notion that men experience emotions less frequently than women do. Instead, researchers have suggested that men exhibit <i>restrictive <a href="/wiki/Emotionality" title="Emotionality">emotionality</a></i>. Restrictive emotionality refers to a tendency to inhibit the expression of certain emotions, and an unwillingness to self-disclose intimate feelings.<sup id="cite_ref-jansz_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jansz-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Men's restrictive emotionality has been shown to influence health, emotional appraisal, and overall identity. Furthermore, tendencies toward restrictive emotionality are correlated with an increased risk of certain anxiety disorders.<sup id="cite_ref-jansz_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jansz-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Research has suggested that women express emotions more frequently than men on average.<sup id="cite_ref-kring_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kring-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Multiple researchers have found that women cry more frequently, and for longer durations than men at similar ages.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Gender_differences" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender differences">gender differences</a> appear to peak in the most fertile years.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is possibly due to hormonal differences, as several studies have shown that certain sex hormones influence the way that emotions are expressed.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other researchers found this gender difference decreases over time. In <i>Handbook of Emotions</i>, Leslie R. Brody and Judith A. Hall report that this difference in emotional expression starts at a young age, as early as 4 and 6 years old, as girls begin to express more sadness and anxiety than their male counterparts.<sup id="cite_ref-brody_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brody-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Brody and Hall (2008) report that women generally smile, laugh, nod, and use hand gestures more than men do. The only known exception to this rule is that men more frequently express anger. However, all of these effects are not commonly observed until after preschool, suggesting that these differences might be the result of certain <a href="/wiki/Socialization" title="Socialization">socialization</a> processes.<sup id="cite_ref-jansz_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jansz-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Women are also more accurate at expressing their emotions, when "posing deliberately and when observed unobtrusively."<sup id="cite_ref-brody_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brody-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This increased expressiveness in emotional expression and is consistent across cultures, with women reporting more intense emotional experiences and more overt emotional expressions across 37 cultures.<sup id="cite_ref-fischer_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fischer-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It has been found that men and women each more accurately display gender-stereotypic expressions: men more accurately express anger, contempt, and happiness<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="Is happiness more accurately displayed by men, or by women? Sentence claims both. (November 2022)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup>, while women more accurately express fear and happiness.<sup id="cite_ref-brody_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brody-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other studies have shown that women show higher levels of expression accuracy and judgement of nonverbal emotional cues than men overall. These patterns are not consistent across cultures, suggesting that socialization influences gender differences in emotional expression. For example, research has suggested that in <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>, women convey anger and contempt better than men do.<sup id="cite_ref-brody_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brody-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Major_empirical_findings">Major empirical findings</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_and_emotional_expression&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Major empirical findings"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some research has shown that culture and context-specific gender roles have a stronger influence on emotional expression than do biological factors. In a 2002 paper, Wester et al. conclude: "In sum, empirical evidence suggests that girls are socialized to be emotional, nonaggressive, nurturing, and obedient, whereas boys are socialized to be unemotional, aggressive, achievement oriented, and self-reliant. Peers continue this process as children develop and mature in effect constraining how, where, why, and with whom certain emotions are expressed."<sup id="cite_ref-wester_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wester-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In one cross-cultural study, it was shown that in nearly all cultures, women generally cry more than men; however, the gender difference tends to be more significant in democratic and affluent countries.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another study suggests that people tend to exhibit more intense negative facial expressions in solitary conditions, and smile more when others are present. In this experiment, men and women did not differ in their anger expression in non-social conditions. However, women were more likely to express their anger in the solitary condition as opposed to the social condition. Men, on the other hand, seemed to be less concerned with appearing positive to others; they showed no difference in their expression of anger based on whether or not others were present.<sup id="cite_ref-derks_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-derks-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In another recent study, Coats and Feldman found that women who were more accurate at expressing happiness were judged as more popular, while men who were more accurate at expressing anger were judged as more popular.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This suggests that there are negative consequences for people who are less accurate at expressing gender-stereotypical emotions. </p><p>These consequences also extend to judging others' emotions. Studies have shown that there are negative social consequences for children who are deficient at judging gender-stereotypic nonverbal cues—angry nonverbal cues for boys, and happy, sad, and fearful nonverbal cues for girls. Communication of emotion involves both detection and expression of emotions or moods. The ability to detect non-verbal cues leads to successful communication of emotions. In <a href="/wiki/Computer-mediated_communication" title="Computer-mediated communication">computer-mediated communication</a> (CMC), the absence of body language and visibility restricts one's ability to correctly recognize others' <a href="/wiki/Emotion" title="Emotion">emotions</a>. For this reason, emoticons are widely used in online communication to replace non-verbal behaviors that emphasize or clarify one's feelings. Surprisingly, there is no static gender difference in the use of emoticons. In some studies, both men and women display an increase in emoticon use in the context of a mixed-gender group chat. Others show that men use more emoticons when interacting with women, while women show no change when interacting with men.<sup id="cite_ref-derks_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-derks-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nature_versus_nurture">Nature versus nurture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_and_emotional_expression&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Nature versus nurture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nature_versus_nurture" title="Nature versus nurture">Nature versus nurture</a></div> <p>The social-developmental hypothesis is one of the major arguments for the impact of nurture on emotional expression. The social-developmental theory explains gender differences in emotion expression through emphasizing "children's active role in their development of gendered behavior" through learning by watching adults or through interactions with their parents and peers.<sup id="cite_ref-chaplin_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chaplin-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This hypothesis points to the fact that infants are not born with the same differences in emotional expression, and gender differences generally grow more pronounced as children age. In a 2012 meta-analysis conducted by <a href="/wiki/Tara_M._Chaplin" title="Tara M. Chaplin">Tara M. Chaplin</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Amelia_Aldao&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Amelia Aldao (page does not exist)">Amelia Aldao</a>, researchers reviewed gender differences in emotion expression from the infancy period through adolescence in order to determine the impact of development and age on gender differences. Their findings support the notion that social factors in a child's development play a large role in the gender differences that later emerge, as "gender differences were not found in infancy…but they emerged by the toddler/preschool period and in childhood".<sup id="cite_ref-chaplin_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chaplin-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One possible explanation for this developmental difference comes from the child's parents. In many Western cultures, for example, parents discuss and express a broader range of emotions with their daughters than with their sons.<sup id="cite_ref-wester2_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wester2-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As children grow older, these patterns continue with their peers. </p><p>The second major argument in support of social influences on emotion expression involves the idea that a society's gender roles reinforce gender differences. <a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a> states that children grow up in the context of gender roles that naturally place them in role-specific situations, influencing their emotion expression in that context. Gender stereotypes in <a href="/wiki/Heteronormative" class="mw-redirect" title="Heteronormative">heteronormative</a> societies enforce expectations for women to suppress anger and contempt, but express other emotions using words and facial expressions; and discourage men from verbally expressing emotions, with the exception of anger or contempt.<sup id="cite_ref-wester2_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wester2-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As an adaptive feature, regulation of expression of emotion involves consideration of the social demands of any given situation. Studies have shown that "fewer gender differences in emotion expression may be found when children are with someone they trust and know well than when children are with an unfamiliar person".<sup id="cite_ref-chaplin_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chaplin-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Generally, people are trained to behave in a "socially acceptable" way around strangers or acquaintances, suggesting that the social context of an environment can shape the levels of emotion expression. </p><p>Biological factors also play a role in influencing emotion expression. One central biological argument is related to cognitive differences between genders. In a 2008 study using <a href="/wiki/Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Functional magnetic resonance imaging">functional magnetic resonance imaging</a> (fMRI) to monitor brain activity in participants, researchers found that men and women differ in neural responses when experiencing <a href="/wiki/Negative_emotion" class="mw-redirect" title="Negative emotion">negative emotions</a>. The authors of the study state: "Compared with women, men showed lesser increases in prefrontal regions that are associated with reappraisal, greater decreases in the amygdala, which is associated with emotional responding, and lesser engagement of ventral striatal regions, which are associated with reward processing."<sup id="cite_ref-mcrae_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mcrae-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The way that male and female brains respond to emotions likely impacts the expression of those emotions. </p><p>The biological roots of gender differences interact with the social environment in various ways. Biological theorists propose that females and males have innate differences that exist at birth, but unfold with age and maturation in response to interactions with their specific environments.<sup id="cite_ref-chaplin_14-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chaplin-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An important argument for this viewpoint is that "gender differences in emotion expression are the result of a combination of biologically based temperamental predispositions and the socialization of boys and girls to adopt gender-related display rules for emotion expression".<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has been suggested that even infant males display higher levels of activity and arousal than do infant girls as well as a lower ability for language and behavior inhibitory controls, which are biologically based characteristics. This "nature" argument interacts with "nurture" in that "parents and other socialization agents may respond to boys in ways that dampen emotional expressiveness…as a way to down-regulate their high emotional arousal and activity levels".<sup id="cite_ref-chaplin_14-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chaplin-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the other hand, girls are encouraged to utilize their communication skills to verbally express their emotions to parents and other adults, which would also highlight expression differences between genders. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Controversies">Controversies</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_and_emotional_expression&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Controversies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Emotions are complex and involve different components, such as physiological arousal, expressive behaviors, and conscious experience. While the expressive component of emotion has been widely studied, it remains unclear whether or not men and women differ in other aspects of emotion. Most researchers agree that women are more emotionally expressive, but not that they experience more emotions than men do.<sup id="cite_ref-kring_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kring-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some studies have shown that women are more likely to produce inauthentic smiles than men do, while others have shown the opposite. This debate is significant because emotion can be generated by adopting an action that is associated with a particular emotion, such as smiling and speaking softly.<sup id="cite_ref-brody_8-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brody-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A possible explanation is that both men and women's emotional expressiveness is susceptible to social factors. Men and women may be reinforced by social and cultural standards to express emotions differently, but it is not necessarily true in terms of experiencing emotions. For instance, studies suggest that women often occupy roles that conform to feminine display rules, which require them to amplify their emotional response to impress others.<sup id="cite_ref-derks_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-derks-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_and_emotional_expression&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Display_rules" title="Display rules">Display rules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_polarization" title="Gender polarization">Gender polarization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_emotional_intelligence" title="Sex differences in emotional intelligence">Sex differences in emotional intelligence</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_and_emotional_expression&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFWesterVogelPresslyHeesacker2002" class="citation journal cs1">Wester, S.; Vogel, D.; Pressly, P.; Heesacker, M. 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title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Emotions_(list)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Emotion" title="Emotion">Emotions</a> (<a href="/wiki/Emotion_classification" title="Emotion classification">list</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Emotion" title="Emotion">Emotions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acceptance" title="Acceptance">Acceptance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Admiration" title="Admiration">Admiration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adoration" title="Adoration">Adoration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_emotions" title="Aesthetic emotions">Aesthetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affection" title="Affection">Affection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychomotor_agitation" title="Psychomotor agitation">Agitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain" title="Pain">Agony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amusement" title="Amusement">Amusement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anger" title="Anger">Anger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angst" title="Angst">Angst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anguish" title="Anguish">Anguish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annoyance" title="Annoyance">Annoyance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anticipation" title="Anticipation">Anticipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anxiety" title="Anxiety">Anxiety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apathy" title="Apathy">Apathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arousal" title="Arousal">Arousal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interpersonal_attraction" title="Interpersonal attraction">Attraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Awe" title="Awe">Awe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belongingness" title="Belongingness">Belongingness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boredom" title="Boredom">Boredom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calmness" title="Calmness">Calmness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compassion" title="Compassion">Compassion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confidence" title="Confidence">Confidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confusion" title="Confusion">Confusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contempt" title="Contempt">Contempt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contentment" title="Contentment">Contentment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Courage" title="Courage">Courage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cruelty" title="Cruelty">Cruelty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curiosity" title="Curiosity">Curiosity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defeatism" title="Defeatism">Defeat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depression_(mood)" title="Depression (mood)">Depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desire" title="Desire">Desire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disappointment" title="Disappointment">Disappointment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disgust" title="Disgust">Disgust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distrust" title="Distrust">Distrust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doubt" title="Doubt">Doubt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecstasy_(emotion)" title="Ecstasy (emotion)">Ecstasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embarrassment" title="Embarrassment">Embarrassment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vicarious_embarrassment" title="Vicarious embarrassment">vicarious</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotion_work" title="Emotion work">Emotion work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empathy" title="Empathy">Empathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emptiness" title="Emptiness">Emptiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attention" title="Attention">Enthrallment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enthusiasm" title="Enthusiasm">Enthusiasm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Envy" title="Envy">Envy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euphoria" title="Euphoria">Euphoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stimulation" title="Stimulation">Excitement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith" title="Faith">Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fear" title="Fear">Fear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flow_(psychology)" title="Flow (psychology)">Flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frustration" title="Frustration">Frustration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gratification" title="Gratification">Gratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gratitude" title="Gratitude">Gratitude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greed" title="Greed">Greed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grief" title="Grief">Grief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guilt_(emotion)" title="Guilt (emotion)">Guilt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Happiness" title="Happiness">Happiness</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Joie_de_vivre" title="Joie de vivre">Joie de vivre</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hatred" title="Hatred">Hatred</a></li> <li><span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy"><a href="/wiki/Hiraeth" title="Hiraeth">Hiraeth</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homesickness" title="Homesickness">Homesickness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hope" title="Hope">Hope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horror_and_terror" title="Horror and terror">Horror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hostility" title="Hostility">Hostility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humiliation" title="Humiliation">Humiliation</a></li> <li><span title="Danish-language text"><i lang="da"><a href="/wiki/Hygge" title="Hygge">Hygge</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hysteria" title="Hysteria">Hysteria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ikigai" title="Ikigai"><i>Ikigai</i> (sense of purpose)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hedonism" title="Hedonism">Indulgence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infatuation" title="Infatuation">Infatuation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insecurity_(emotion)" title="Insecurity (emotion)">Insecurity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artistic_inspiration" title="Artistic inspiration">Inspiration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interest_(emotion)" title="Interest (emotion)">Interest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irritability" title="Irritability">Irritation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isolation_(psychology)" title="Isolation (psychology)">Isolation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jealousy" title="Jealousy">Jealousy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joy" title="Joy">Joy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kindness" title="Kindness">Kindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loneliness" title="Loneliness">Loneliness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Love" title="Love">Love</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Limerence" title="Limerence">limerence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Love_at_first_sight" title="Love at first sight">at first sight</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lust" title="Lust">Lust</a></li> <li><span title="Japanese-language text"><i lang="ja-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Mono_no_aware" title="Mono no aware">Mono no aware</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neglect" title="Neglect">Neglect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nostalgia" title="Nostalgia">Nostalgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outrage_(emotion)" title="Outrage (emotion)">Outrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic" title="Panic">Panic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passion_(emotion)" title="Passion (emotion)">Passion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pity" title="Pity">Pity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Self-pity" title="Self-pity">self-pity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pleasure" title="Pleasure">Pleasure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pride" title="Pride">Pride</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grandiosity" title="Grandiosity">grandiosity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hubris" title="Hubris">hubris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insult" title="Insult">insult</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vanity" title="Vanity">vanity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rage_(emotion)" title="Rage (emotion)">Rage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regret" title="Regret">Regret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_rejection" title="Social rejection">Rejection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relief_(emotion)" title="Relief (emotion)">Relief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remorse" title="Remorse">Remorse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resentment" title="Resentment">Resentment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revenge" title="Revenge">Revenge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sadness" title="Sadness">Sadness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Melancholia" title="Melancholia">melancholy</a></li></ul></li> <li><span title="Portuguese-language text"><i lang="pt"><a href="/wiki/Saudade" title="Saudade">Saudade</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Schadenfreude" title="Schadenfreude">Schadenfreude</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Sehnsucht" title="Sehnsucht">Sehnsucht</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentimentality" title="Sentimentality">Sentimentality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shame" title="Shame">Shame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acute_stress_reaction" title="Acute stress reaction">Shock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shyness" title="Shyness">Shyness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_connection" title="Social connection">Social connection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sorrow_(emotion)" title="Sorrow (emotion)">Sorrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spite_(sentiment)" title="Spite (sentiment)">Spite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_stress" title="Psychological stress">Stress</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chronic_stress" title="Chronic stress">chronic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffering" title="Suffering">Suffering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surprise_(emotion)" title="Surprise (emotion)">Surprise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sympathy" title="Sympathy">Sympathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trust_(social_science)" title="Trust (social science)">Trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wonder_(emotion)" title="Wonder (emotion)">Wonder</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sense_of_wonder" title="Sense of wonder">sense of wonder</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worry" title="Worry">Worry</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Plutchik-wheel.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Plutchik-wheel.svg/90px-Plutchik-wheel.svg.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="91" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Plutchik-wheel.svg/135px-Plutchik-wheel.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Plutchik-wheel.svg/180px-Plutchik-wheel.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="715" data-file-height="725" /></a></span><br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Plutchik_Dyads.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Plutchik_Dyads.svg/90px-Plutchik_Dyads.svg.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Plutchik_Dyads.svg/135px-Plutchik_Dyads.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Plutchik_Dyads.svg/180px-Plutchik_Dyads.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1357" data-file-height="1356" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Worldview" title="Worldview">Worldviews</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(contemporary)" title="Cynicism (contemporary)">Cynicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defeatism" title="Defeatism">Defeatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatalism" title="Fatalism">Fatalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misanthropy" title="Misanthropy">Misanthropy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimism" title="Optimism">Optimism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pessimism" title="Pessimism">Pessimism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recluse" title="Recluse">Reclusion</a></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Weltschmerz" title="Weltschmerz">Weltschmerz</a></i></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Affect <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affect_consciousness" title="Affect consciousness">consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affect_(education)" title="Affect (education)">in education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affect_measures" title="Affect measures">measures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affect_(psychology)" title="Affect (psychology)">in psychology</a></li></ul></li> <li>Affective <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affective_computing" title="Affective computing">computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affective_forecasting" title="Affective forecasting">forecasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affective_neuroscience" title="Affective neuroscience">neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affective_science" title="Affective science">science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affective_spectrum" title="Affective spectrum">spectrum</a></li></ul></li> <li>Affectivity <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Positive_affectivity" title="Positive affectivity">positive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_affectivity" title="Negative affectivity">negative</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_emotion" title="Appeal to emotion">Appeal to emotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amygdala_hijack" title="Amygdala hijack">Amygdala hijack</a></li> <li>Emotion <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_and_emotion" title="Art and emotion">and art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotion_and_memory" title="Emotion and memory">and memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_and_emotion" title="Music and emotion">and music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_psychology" title="Sex differences in psychology">and sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sleep_and_emotions" title="Sleep and emotions">and sleep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotion_classification" title="Emotion classification">classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_emotion" title="Evolution of emotion">evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressed_emotion" title="Expressed emotion">expressed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_accounts_of_emotion" title="Functional accounts of emotion">functional accounts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_emotion" title="Group emotion">group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeostatic_emotion" class="mw-redirect" title="Homeostatic emotion">homeostatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotion_in_animals" title="Emotion in animals">in animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotion_perception" title="Emotion perception">perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotion_recognition" title="Emotion recognition">recognition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emotion_recognition_in_conversation" title="Emotion recognition in conversation">in conversation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_self-regulation" title="Emotional self-regulation">regulation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interpersonal_emotion_regulation" title="Interpersonal emotion regulation">interpersonal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotion_work" title="Emotion work">work</a></li></ul></li> <li>Emotional <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_aperture" title="Emotional aperture">aperture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_bias" title="Emotional bias">bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_blackmail" title="Emotional blackmail">blackmail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_competence" title="Emotional competence">competence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_conflict" title="Emotional conflict">conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_contagion" title="Emotional contagion">contagion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_detachment" title="Emotional detachment">detachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_dysregulation" title="Emotional dysregulation">dysregulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_eating" title="Emotional eating">eating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_exhaustion" title="Emotional exhaustion">exhaustion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_expression" title="Emotional expression">expression</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">and gender</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_intelligence" title="Emotional intelligence">intelligence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bullying_and_emotional_intelligence" title="Bullying and emotional intelligence">and bullying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empathy_quotient" title="Empathy quotient">Empathy quotient</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_intimacy" title="Emotional intimacy">intimacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_isolation" title="Emotional isolation">isolation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_lability" title="Emotional lability">lability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_labor" title="Emotional labor">labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_lateralization" title="Emotional lateralization">lateralization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_literacy" title="Emotional literacy">literacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_prosody" title="Emotional prosody">prosody</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_reasoning" title="Emotional reasoning">reasoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_responsivity" title="Emotional responsivity">responsivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_security" class="mw-redirect" title="Emotional security">security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_symbiosis" title="Emotional symbiosis">symbiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_thought_method" title="Emotional thought method">thought method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_well-being" class="mw-redirect" title="Emotional well-being">well-being</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotionality" title="Emotionality">Emotionality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bounded_emotionality" title="Bounded emotionality">bounded</a></li></ul></li> <li>Emotions <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emotions_and_culture" title="Emotions and culture">and culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_emotions" title="History of emotions">history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotions_in_decision-making" title="Emotions in decision-making">in decision-making</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotions_in_the_workplace" title="Emotions in the workplace">in the workplace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotions_in_virtual_communication" title="Emotions in virtual communication">in virtual communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_emotions" title="Moral emotions">moral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-conscious_emotions" title="Self-conscious emotions">self-conscious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_emotions" title="Social emotions">social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_sharing_of_emotions" title="Social sharing of emotions">social sharing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_emotions" title="Sociology of emotions">sociology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feeling" title="Feeling">Feeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_affective_tone" title="Group affective tone">Group affective tone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interactions_between_the_emotional_and_executive_brain_systems" title="Interactions between the emotional and executive brain systems">Interactions between the emotional and executive brain systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jealousy_in_art" title="Jealousy in art">Jealousy in art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-emotion" title="Meta-emotion">Meta-emotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathognomy" title="Pathognomy">Pathognomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathos" title="Pathos">Pathos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_emotional_development" title="Social emotional development">Social emotional development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoic_passions" title="Stoic passions">Stoic passions</a></li> <li>Theory <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affect_theory" title="Affect theory">affect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appraisal_theory" title="Appraisal theory">appraisal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_constructed_emotion" title="Theory of constructed emotion">constructed emotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrete_emotion_theory" title="Discrete emotion theory">discrete emotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somatic_marker_hypothesis" title="Somatic marker hypothesis">somatic marker</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div><i>Italics</i> indicate emotion names in foreign languages</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gender_and_emotional_expression&oldid=1212808442">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gender_and_emotional_expression&oldid=1212808442</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" 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