CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>History of urban planning - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"487c7997-19f2-4cec-be39-34f9b764bf93","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"History_of_urban_planning","wgTitle":"History of urban planning","wgCurRevisionId":1252004014,"wgRevisionId":1252004014,"wgArticleId":46187086,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["CS1 errors: missing periodical","Webarchive template wayback links","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Use dmy dates from April 2015","Use American English from March 2015","All Wikipedia articles written in American English","Articles to be expanded from January 2024","All articles to be expanded","Articles needing additional references from March 2022","All articles needing additional references", "All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from November 2022","Articles with unsourced statements from November 2013","History of urban planning"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"History_of_urban_planning","wgRelevantArticleId":46187086,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":80000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false, "wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q19720696","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready", "wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="History of urban planning - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_urban_planning"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_urban_planning&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_urban_planning"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-History_of_urban_planning rootpage-History_of_urban_planning skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=History+of+urban+planning" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=History+of+urban+planning" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=History+of+urban+planning" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=History+of+urban+planning" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Prehistory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prehistory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Prehistory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prehistory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-East_Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#East_Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>East Asia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-East_Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Greco-Roman_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Greco-Roman_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Greco-Roman culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Greco-Roman_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medieval_Europe_(500–1400)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medieval_Europe_(500–1400)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Medieval Europe (500–1400)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medieval_Europe_(500–1400)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Renaissance_and_Baroque_Europe_(1400–1750)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Renaissance_and_Baroque_Europe_(1400–1750)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Renaissance and Baroque Europe (1400–1750)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Renaissance_and_Baroque_Europe_(1400–1750)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Enlightenment,_Europe_and_America_(1700–1800)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Enlightenment,_Europe_and_America_(1700–1800)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Enlightenment, Europe and America (1700–1800)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Enlightenment,_Europe_and_America_(1700–1800)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_urban_planning_(1800–onwards)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_urban_planning_(1800–onwards)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Modern urban planning (1800–onwards)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Modern_urban_planning_(1800–onwards)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Modern urban planning (1800–onwards) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Modern_urban_planning_(1800–onwards)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Urban_planning_profession_and_legislation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Urban_planning_profession_and_legislation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Urban planning profession and legislation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Urban_planning_profession_and_legislation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Garden_city_movement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Garden_city_movement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Garden city movement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Garden_city_movement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modernism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modernism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Modernism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modernism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-New_Towns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_Towns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>New Towns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_Towns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contemporary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contemporary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Contemporary</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Contemporary-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Contemporary subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Contemporary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Reaction_against_modernism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reaction_against_modernism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Reaction against modernism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reaction_against_modernism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Behaviorism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Behaviorism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Behaviorism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Behaviorism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-New_Urbanism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_Urbanism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>New Urbanism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_Urbanism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sustainable_development_and_sustainability" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sustainable_development_and_sustainability"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.4</span> <span>Sustainable development and sustainability</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sustainable_development_and_sustainability-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Collaborative_planning_in_the_United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Collaborative_planning_in_the_United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.5</span> <span>Collaborative planning in the United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Collaborative_planning_in_the_United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">History of urban planning</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 3 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-3" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">3 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%AE%D8%B7%D9%8A%D8%B7_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A" title="تاريخ التخطيط العمراني – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تاريخ التخطيط العمراني" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stadtbaugeschichte" title="Stadtbaugeschichte – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Stadtbaugeschichte" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_de_l%27urbanisme" title="Histoire de l'urbanisme – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Histoire de l'urbanisme" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q19720696#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/History_of_urban_planning" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:History_of_urban_planning" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/History_of_urban_planning"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_urban_planning&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_urban_planning&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/History_of_urban_planning"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_urban_planning&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_urban_planning&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/History_of_urban_planning" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/History_of_urban_planning" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Special pages</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_urban_planning&oldid=1252004014" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_urban_planning&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=History_of_urban_planning&id=1252004014&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FHistory_of_urban_planning"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FHistory_of_urban_planning"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=History_of_urban_planning&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_urban_planning&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q19720696" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p> Urban planning is a technical and political process concerned with the use of land and design of the urban environment, including air, water, and the infrastructure passing into and out of urban areas such as transportation and distribution networks. </p><p>The history of <a href="/wiki/Urban_planning" title="Urban planning">urban planning</a> runs parallel to the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_city" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the city">history of the city</a>, as planning is in evidence at some of the earliest known urban sites. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prehistory">Prehistory</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_urban_planning&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Prehistory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The pre-Classical and Classical periods saw a number of cities laid out according to fixed plans, though many tended to develop organically. Designed cities were characteristic of the <a href="/wiki/Minoan_civilization" title="Minoan civilization">Minoan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus Valley civilization">Harrapan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egyptian</a> <a href="/wiki/Civilisations" class="mw-redirect" title="Civilisations">civilisations</a> of the third millennium BC (see <a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_in_ancient_Egypt" title="Urban planning in ancient Egypt">Urban planning in ancient Egypt</a>). The first recorded description of urban planning appears in the <a href="/wiki/Epic_of_Gilgamesh" title="Epic of Gilgamesh">Epic of Gilgamesh</a>: "Go up on to the wall of <a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a> and walk around. Inspect the foundation platform and scrutinise the brickwork. Testify that its bricks are baked bricks, And that the Seven Counsellors must have laid its foundations. One square <a href="/wiki/Mile" title="Mile">mile</a> is city, one square mile is orchards, one square mile is claypits, as well as the open ground of <a href="/wiki/Ishtar" class="mw-redirect" title="Ishtar">Ishtar</a>'s temple.Three square miles and the open ground comprise Uruk. Look for the copper tablet-box, Undo its bronze lock, Open the door to its secret, Lift out the lapis lazuli tablet and read."<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Distinct characteristics of <a href="/wiki/Urban_planning" title="Urban planning">urban planning</a> from remains of the cities of <a href="/wiki/Harappa" title="Harappa">Harappa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lothal" title="Lothal">Lothal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dholavira" title="Dholavira">Dholavira</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mohenjo-daro" title="Mohenjo-daro">Mohenjo-daro</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_civilisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus Valley civilisation">Indus Valley civilisation</a> (in modern-day northwestern <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>) lead archeologists to interpret them as the earliest known examples of deliberately planned and managed cities.<sup id="cite_ref-Davreu1_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davreu1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kipfer229_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kipfer229-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The streets of many of these early cities were paved and laid out at right angles in a <a href="/wiki/Grid_plan" title="Grid plan">grid pattern</a>, with a hierarchy of streets from major boulevards to residential alleys. <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">Archaeological</a> evidence suggests that many Harrapan houses were laid out to protect from noise and to enhance residential privacy; many also had their own water wells, probably both for sanitary and for ritual purposes. These ancient cities were unique in that they often had drainage systems, seemingly tied to a well-developed ideal of urban <a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">sanitation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Davreu1_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davreu1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cities laid out on the <a href="/wiki/Grid_plan" title="Grid plan">grid plan</a> could have been an outgrowth of agriculture based on rectangular fields.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerica" title="Mesoamerica">Mesoamerican</a> cities in the <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_chronology#Postclassic_period_2" title="Mesoamerican chronology">late Postclassic period</a> had highly organized central portions, typically consisting of one or more public plazas bordered by public buildings. In contrast, the surrounding residential areas typically showed little or no signs of planning.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><span class="anchor" id="China"></span><span class="anchor" id="Japan"></span> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="East_Asia">East Asia</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_urban_planning&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: East Asia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Chinese_urban_planning" title="Ancient Chinese urban planning">Ancient Chinese urban planning</a> and <a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_in_China" title="Urban planning in China">Urban planning in China</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_urban_planning&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2024</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/History_of_urban_planning" title="Special:EditPage/History of urban planning">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">March 2022</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>China has a <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Chinese_urban_planning" title="Ancient Chinese urban planning">tradition of urban planning</a> dating back thousands of years. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>, some cities, such as <a href="/wiki/Nara_(city)" title="Nara (city)">Nara</a> and <a href="/wiki/Heian-kyo" class="mw-redirect" title="Heian-kyo">Heian-kyo</a>, followed classic Chinese planning principles;<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> later, during the feudal period, a type of town called <a href="/wiki/J%C5%8Dkamachi" title="Jōkamachi">Jōkamachi</a> emerged. Those were <a href="/wiki/Castle_town" title="Castle town">castle towns</a>, planned for - and oriented around - defense. Roads were laid out to make the paths to castles longer; the castles and other buildings were often situated in order to hide the castles through densely packed surrounding buildings. <a href="/wiki/Edo" title="Edo">Edo</a>, later <a href="/wiki/Tokyo" title="Tokyo">Tokyo</a>, is one example of a castle town. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Greco-Roman_culture">Greco-Roman culture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_urban_planning&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Greco-Roman culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plan_Pella-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Plan_Pella-en.svg/300px-Plan_Pella-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="386" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Plan_Pella-en.svg/450px-Plan_Pella-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Plan_Pella-en.svg/600px-Plan_Pella-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="389" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption>Map of <a href="/wiki/Pella" title="Pella">Pella</a>, showing the grid plan of the city</figcaption></figure> <p>Traditionally, the Greek philosopher <a href="/wiki/Hippodamus_of_Miletus" title="Hippodamus of Miletus">Hippodamus</a> (498–408 BC) is regarded as the first town planner and 'inventor' of the orthogonal urban layout. <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> called him "the father of city planning",<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and until well into the 20th century, he was indeed regarded as such.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> This is, however, only partly justified as Greek cities with orthogonal plans were built long before Hippodamus.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Hippodamian plan that was called after him is an orthogonal urban layout with more or less square street blocks. Archaeological finds from ancient Egypt—among others—demonstrate that Hippodamus cannot truly have been the inventor of this layout.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aristotle's critique and indeed ridicule of Hippodamus, which appears in <a href="/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)" title="Politics (Aristotle)"><i>Politics</i></a> 2. 8, is perhaps the first known example of a criticism of urban planning. </p><p>From about the late 8th century on, Greek city-states started to found colonies along the coasts of the Mediterranean, which were centred on newly created towns and cities with more or less regular orthogonal plans. Gradually, the new layouts became more regular.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the city of <a href="/wiki/Miletus" title="Miletus">Miletus</a> was destroyed by the Persians in 494 BC, it was rebuilt in a regular form that, according to tradition, was determined by the ideas of Hippodamus of Miletus.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Regular orthogonal plans particularly appear to have been laid out for new colonial cities and cities that were rebuilt in a short period of time after destruction. </p><p>Following in the tradition of Hippodamus about a century later, Alexander commissioned the architect <a href="/wiki/Dinocrates" title="Dinocrates">Dinocrates</a> to lay out his new city of <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a>, the grandest example of idealised urban planning of the ancient <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic world">Hellenistic world</a>, where the city's regularity was facilitated by its level site near a mouth of the Nile. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">ancient Romans</a> also employed regular orthogonal structures on which they molded their colonies.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They probably were inspired by Greek and Hellenic examples, as well as by regularly planned cities that were built by the <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_civilization" title="Etruscan civilization">Etruscans</a> in Italy.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (See <a href="/wiki/Marzabotto" title="Marzabotto">Marzabotto</a>.) The Roman engineer <a href="/wiki/Vitruvius" title="Vitruvius">Vitruvius</a> established principles of good design whose influence is still felt today.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Romans used a consolidated scheme for city planning, developed for civil convenience. The basic plan consisted of a central forum with city services, surrounded by a compact, rectilinear grid of streets. A river sometimes flowed near or through the city, providing water, transport, and sewage disposal.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hundreds of towns and cities were built by the Romans throughout their empire. Many European towns, such as <a href="/wiki/Turin" title="Turin">Turin</a>, preserve the remains of these schemes, which show the very logical way the Romans designed their cities. They would lay out the streets at right angles, in the form of a square grid. All roads were equal in width and length, except for two, which were slightly wider than the others. The <i><a href="/wiki/Decumanus_maximus" class="mw-redirect" title="Decumanus maximus">decumanus</a></i>, running east–west, and the <i><a href="/wiki/Cardo" title="Cardo">cardo</a></i>, running north–south, intersected in the middle to form the centre of the grid. All roads were made of carefully fitted flag stones and filled in with smaller, hard-packed rocks and pebbles. Bridges were constructed where needed. Each square marked by four roads was called an <i><a href="/wiki/Insula_(Roman_city)" title="Insula (Roman city)">insula</a></i>, the Roman equivalent of a modern <a href="/wiki/City_block" title="City block">city block</a>. Each insula was about 80 yards (73 m) square. As the city developed, it could eventually be filled with buildings of various shapes and sizes and criss-crossed with back roads and alleys. </p><p>The city may have been surrounded by a <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_defensive_walls" title="Ancient Roman defensive walls">wall</a> to protect it from invaders and to <a href="/wiki/Pomerium" title="Pomerium">mark the city limits</a>. Areas outside city limits were left open as farmland. At the end of each main road was a large gateway with watchtowers. A <a href="/wiki/Portcullis" title="Portcullis">portcullis</a> covered the opening when the city was under siege, and additional watchtowers were constructed along the city walls. An aqueduct was built outside the city walls. </p><p>The development of Greek and Roman urbanisation is relatively well-known, as there are relatively many written sources, and there has been much attention to the subject since the Romans and Greeks are generally regarded as the main ancestors of modern Western culture. It should not be forgotten, though, that there were also other cultures with more or less urban settlements in Europe, primarily of <a href="/wiki/Celts" title="Celts">Celtic</a> origin.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among these, there are also cases that appear to have been newly planned, such as the Lusatian town of <a href="/wiki/Biskupin" title="Biskupin">Biskupin</a> in Poland. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Medieval_Europe_(500–1400)"><span id="Medieval_Europe_.28500.E2.80.931400.29"></span>Medieval Europe (500–1400)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_urban_planning&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Medieval Europe (500–1400)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Elburg_after_cadastral_plan_1830.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Elburg_after_cadastral_plan_1830.jpg/436px-Elburg_after_cadastral_plan_1830.jpg" decoding="async" width="436" height="366" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Elburg_after_cadastral_plan_1830.jpg/654px-Elburg_after_cadastral_plan_1830.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Elburg_after_cadastral_plan_1830.jpg/872px-Elburg_after_cadastral_plan_1830.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3634" data-file-height="3051" /></a><figcaption>Plan of Elburg in The Netherlands, based on the cadastral plan of 1830. Elburg was founded in 1392 by Arent toe Boecop, steward of the duke of Gelre. Arent seems to have acted as a private entrepreneur. He had bought a piece of land next to the existing town, and he obtained permission from his lord to extend and rebuild the town, and to resettle the population of the surrounding area, selling the house lots to the settlers. The highly symmetrical layout is centred on a canalised river and an intersecting street. The symmetry is disturbed, however, by the church in the eastern corner and by the pre-existing street (the only curved one in the whole town) on the northwest side. The corner bastions and the wide outer ditch were added in the late 16th century.</figcaption></figure> <p>After the gradual disintegration and fall of the West-Roman empire in the 5th century and the devastation by the invasions of Huns, Germanic peoples, Byzantines, Moors, Magyars, and Normans in the next five centuries, little remained of urban culture in western and central Europe. In the 10th and 11th centuries, though, there appears to have been a general improvement in the political stability and economy. This made it possible for trade and craft to grow and for the monetary economy and urban culture to revive. Initially, urban culture recovered particularly in existing settlements, often in remnants of Roman towns and cities, but later on, ever more towns were created anew. Meanwhile, the population of western Europe increased rapidly and the utilised agricultural area grew with it. The agricultural areas of existing villages were extended and new villages and towns were created in uncultivated areas as cores for new reclamations.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Urban development in the early Middle Ages, characteristically focused on a fortress, a fortified abbey, or a (sometimes abandoned) Roman nucleus, occurred "like the annular rings of a tree",<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> whether in an extended village or the centre of a larger city. Since the new centre was often on high, defensible ground, the city plan took on an organic character, following the irregularities of <a href="/wiki/Topography" title="Topography">elevation contours</a> like the shapes that result from <a href="/wiki/Terrace_(agriculture)" class="mw-redirect" title="Terrace (agriculture)">agricultural terracing</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Caernarfon.1610_cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Caernarfon.1610_cropped.jpg/220px-Caernarfon.1610_cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Caernarfon.1610_cropped.jpg/330px-Caernarfon.1610_cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Caernarfon.1610_cropped.jpg/440px-Caernarfon.1610_cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1790" data-file-height="1149" /></a><figcaption>Caernarvon (Wales). Plan by John Speed, 1611. Caernarfon castle and town were re-founded by King Edward I of England in July 1283, during his second Welsh campaign to end the Second War of Independence.</figcaption></figure> <p>In the 9th to 14th centuries, many hundreds of new towns were built in Europe, and many others were enlarged with newly planned extensions. These new towns and town extensions have played a very important role in the shaping of Europe's geographical structures as they in modern times. New towns were founded in different parts of Europe from about the 9th century on, but most of them were realised from the 12th to 14th centuries, with a peak-period at the end of the 13th. All kinds of landlords, from the highest to the lowest rank, tried to found new towns on their estates, in order to gain economical, political or military power. The settlers of the new towns generally were attracted by fiscal, economic, and juridical advantages granted by the founding lord, or were forced to move from elsewhere from his estates. Most of the new towns were to remain rather small (as for instance the <a href="/wiki/Bastide" title="Bastide">bastides</a> of southwestern France), but some of them became important cities, such as <a href="/wiki/Cardiff" title="Cardiff">Cardiff</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leeds" title="Leeds">Leeds</a>, <a href="/wiki/%27s-Hertogenbosch" title="'s-Hertogenbosch">'s-Hertogenbosch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Montauban" title="Montauban">Montauban</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bilbao" title="Bilbao">Bilbao</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malm%C3%B6" title="Malmö">Malmö</a>, <a href="/wiki/L%C3%BCbeck" title="Lübeck">Lübeck</a>, <a href="/wiki/Munich" title="Munich">Munich</a>, <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bern" title="Bern">Bern</a>, <a href="/wiki/Klagenfurt" class="mw-redirect" title="Klagenfurt">Klagenfurt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alessandria" title="Alessandria">Alessandria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Warsaw" title="Warsaw">Warsaw</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sarajevo" title="Sarajevo">Sarajevo</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From the evidence of the preserved towns, it appears that the formal structure of many of these towns was willfully planned. The newly founded towns often show a marked regularity in their plan form, in the sense that the streets are often straight and laid out at right angles to one another, and that the house lots are rectangular, and originally largely of the same size.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One very clear and relatively extreme example is <a href="/wiki/Elburg" title="Elburg">Elburg</a> in the Netherlands, dating from the end of the 14th century. (see illustration) Looking at town plans such as the one of Elburg, it clearly appears that it is impossible to maintain that the straight street and the symmetrical, orthogonal town plan were new inventions from 'the Renaissance,' and, therefore, typical of 'modern times.' </p><p>The deep depression around the middle of the 14th century marked the end of the period of great urban expansion. Only in the parts of Europe where the process of urbanisation had started relatively late, as in eastern Europe, was it still to go on for one or two more centuries. It would not be until the Industrial Revolution that the same level of expansion of urban population would be reached again, although the number of newly created settlements would remain much lower than in the 12th and 13th centuries.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Renaissance_and_Baroque_Europe_(1400–1750)"><span id="Renaissance_and_Baroque_Europe_.281400.E2.80.931750.29"></span>Renaissance and Baroque Europe (1400–1750)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_urban_planning&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Renaissance and Baroque Europe (1400–1750)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Florentine_painter_-_The_Ideal_City_-_Walters_Art_Museum_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Florentine_painter_-_The_Ideal_City_-_Walters_Art_Museum_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/570px-Florentine_painter_-_The_Ideal_City_-_Walters_Art_Museum_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="570" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Florentine_painter_-_The_Ideal_City_-_Walters_Art_Museum_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/855px-Florentine_painter_-_The_Ideal_City_-_Walters_Art_Museum_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Florentine_painter_-_The_Ideal_City_-_Walters_Art_Museum_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/1140px-Florentine_painter_-_The_Ideal_City_-_Walters_Art_Museum_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6469" data-file-height="2343" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/The_Ideal_City_(painting)" title="The Ideal City (painting)">The Ideal City</a></i> (probably by <a href="/wiki/Fra_Carnevale" title="Fra Carnevale">Fra Carnevale</a>, c. 1480–1484) exemplifies <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> ideals of urban planning. The Roman archway and <a href="/wiki/Colosseum" title="Colosseum">colosseum</a> suggest the value of military victory and mass entertainment.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cinta_muraria_di_Palmanova.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Cinta_muraria_di_Palmanova.jpg/220px-Cinta_muraria_di_Palmanova.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="248" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Cinta_muraria_di_Palmanova.jpg/330px-Cinta_muraria_di_Palmanova.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Cinta_muraria_di_Palmanova.jpg/440px-Cinta_muraria_di_Palmanova.jpg 2x" data-file-width="519" data-file-height="584" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Palmanova" title="Palmanova">Palmanova</a>, a foritifed town Northeast Italy, built by the Venetian Republic from 1593, that is an example of a star fort of the late Renaissance, </figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Florence" title="Florence">Florence</a> was an early model of the new urban planning, which took on a star-shaped layout adapted from the new star fort, designed to resist cannon fire. This model was widely imitated, reflecting the enormous cultural power of Florence in this age; "[t]he Renaissance was hypnotised by one city type which for a century and a half – from Filarete to <a href="/wiki/Vincenzo_Scamozzi" title="Vincenzo Scamozzi">Scamozzi</a> – was impressed upon utopian schemes: this is the star-shaped city".<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Radial streets extend outward from a defined centre of military, communal or spiritual power. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Raffaello_-_Spozalizio_-_Web_Gallery_of_Art.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Raffaello_-_Spozalizio_-_Web_Gallery_of_Art.jpg/220px-Raffaello_-_Spozalizio_-_Web_Gallery_of_Art.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="315" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Raffaello_-_Spozalizio_-_Web_Gallery_of_Art.jpg/330px-Raffaello_-_Spozalizio_-_Web_Gallery_of_Art.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Raffaello_-_Spozalizio_-_Web_Gallery_of_Art.jpg/440px-Raffaello_-_Spozalizio_-_Web_Gallery_of_Art.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1417" data-file-height="2032" /></a><figcaption>The ideal centrally planned urban space: <i>Sposalizio</i> by <a href="/wiki/Raphael_Sanzio" class="mw-redirect" title="Raphael Sanzio">Raphael Sanzio</a>, 1504</figcaption></figure> <p>Only in ideal cities did a centrally planned structure stand at the heart, as in <a href="/wiki/Raphael_Santi" class="mw-redirect" title="Raphael Santi">Raphael</a>'s <i>Sposalizio</i> (<i>Illustration</i>) of 1504. As built, the unique example of a rationally planned <i>quattrocento</i> new city centre, that of <a href="/wiki/Vigevano" title="Vigevano">Vigevano</a> (1493–95), resembles a closed space instead, surrounded by arcading. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Filarete" title="Filarete">Filarete</a>'s ideal city, building on <a href="/wiki/Leon_Battista_Alberti" title="Leon Battista Alberti">Leon Battista Alberti</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/De_re_aedificatoria" title="De re aedificatoria">De re aedificatoria</a></i>, was named "<a href="/wiki/Filarete" title="Filarete">Sforzinda</a>" in compliment to his patron; its twelve-pointed shape, circumscribable by a "perfect" <a href="/wiki/Pythagoras" title="Pythagoras">Pythagorean figure</a>, the circle, took no heed of its undulating terrain in Filarete's manuscript.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This process occurred in cities, but ordinarily not in the industrial suburbs characteristic of this era (see Braudel, <i>The Structures of Everyday Life</i>), which remained disorderly and characterised by crowding and organic growth. </p><p>One of the most significant programmes of urban planning in the Baroque Period was Rome. Inspired by the ideal of the Renaissance city, <a href="/wiki/Pope_Sixtus_V" title="Pope Sixtus V">Pope Sixtus V</a>'s ambitious urban reform programme transformed the old environment to emulate the "long straight streets, wide regular spaces, uniformity and repetitiveness of structures, lavish use of commemorative and ornamental elements, and maximum visibility from both linear and circular perspective." The Pope set no limit to his plans, and achieved much in his short pontificate, always carried through at top speed: the completion of the dome of <a href="/wiki/St._Peter%27s_Basilica" title="St. Peter's Basilica">St. Peter's</a>; the <a href="/wiki/Loggia" title="Loggia">loggia</a> of Sixtus in the <a href="/wiki/Basilica_di_San_Giovanni_in_Laterano" class="mw-redirect" title="Basilica di San Giovanni in Laterano">Basilica di San Giovanni in Laterano</a>; the chapel of the Praesepe in <a href="/wiki/Santa_Maria_Maggiore" title="Santa Maria Maggiore">Santa Maria Maggiore</a>; additions or repairs to the <a href="/wiki/Quirinal" class="mw-redirect" title="Quirinal">Quirinal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lateran" title="Lateran">Lateran</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vatican_City" title="Vatican City">Vatican</a> palaces; the erection of four <a href="/wiki/Obelisk" title="Obelisk">obelisks</a>, including that in <a href="/wiki/Saint_Peter%27s_Square" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Peter's Square">Saint Peter's Square</a>; the opening of six streets; the restoration of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_aqueduct" title="Roman aqueduct">aqueduct</a> of <a href="/wiki/Septimius_Severus" title="Septimius Severus">Septimius Severus</a> ("<a href="/wiki/Acqua_Felice" title="Acqua Felice">Acqua Felice</a>"); the integration of the <a href="/wiki/Leonine_City" title="Leonine City">Leonine City</a> in Rome as XIV <a href="/wiki/Rione" class="mw-redirect" title="Rione">Rione</a> (<a href="/wiki/Borgo_(rione_of_Rome)" title="Borgo (rione of Rome)">Borgo</a>). </p><p>During this period, rulers often embarked on ambitious attempts at redesigning their capital cities as a showpiece for the grandeur of the nation. Disasters were often a major catalyst for planned reconstruction. An exception to this was in <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a> after the <a href="/wiki/Great_Fire_of_London" title="Great Fire of London">Great Fire of 1666</a> when, despite many radical rebuilding schemes from architects such as <a href="/wiki/John_Evelyn" title="John Evelyn">John Evelyn</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Wren" title="Christopher Wren">Christopher Wren</a>, no large-scale redesigning was achieved due to the complexities of rival ownership claims. However, improvements were made in hygiene and fire safety with wider streets, stone construction and access to the <a href="/wiki/Thames" class="mw-redirect" title="Thames">river</a>. The Great Fire did, however, stimulate thinking about urban design that influenced city planning in North America. The <a href="/wiki/Grand_Model_for_the_Province_of_Carolina" title="Grand Model for the Province of Carolina">Grand Model for the Province of Carolina</a>, developed in the aftermath of the Great Fire, established a template for colonial planning. The famous <a href="/wiki/Oglethorpe_Plan" title="Oglethorpe Plan">Oglethorpe Plan</a> for Savannah (1733) was in part influenced by the Grand Model. </p><p>Following the 1695 <a href="/wiki/Bombardment_of_Brussels_(1695)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bombardment of Brussels (1695)">bombardment of Brussels</a> by the French troops of King <a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV" title="Louis XIV">Louis XIV</a>, in which a large part of the city centre was destroyed, Governor <a href="/wiki/Maximilian_II_Emanuel,_elector_of_Bavaria" class="mw-redirect" title="Maximilian II Emanuel, elector of Bavaria">Max Emanuel</a> proposed using the reconstruction to completely change the layout and architectural style of the city. His plan was to transform the medieval city into a city of the new <a href="/wiki/Baroque" title="Baroque">Baroque</a> style, modelled on <a href="/wiki/Turin" title="Turin">Turin</a>, which from 1600 was transformed by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Emmanuel_I,_Duke_of_Savoy" title="Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy">Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy</a> into one of the earliest Baroque cities.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With a logical street layout, straight avenues offered long, uninterrupted views flanked by buildings of a uniform size. This plan was opposed by residents and municipal authorities, who wanted a rapid reconstruction, did not have the resources for grandiose proposals, and resented what they considered the imposition of a new, foreign, architectural style. In the actual reconstruction, the general layout of the city was conserved, but it was not identical to that before the cataclysm. Despite the necessity of rapid reconstruction and the lack of financial means, authorities did take several measures to improve traffic flow, sanitation, and the aesthetics of the city. Many streets were made as wide as possible to improve traffic flow. </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gaiola_pombalina.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Gaiola_pombalina.jpg/222px-Gaiola_pombalina.jpg" decoding="async" width="222" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Gaiola_pombalina.jpg/333px-Gaiola_pombalina.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Gaiola_pombalina.jpg/444px-Gaiola_pombalina.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="474" /></a><figcaption>Model of the <a href="/wiki/Seismology" title="Seismology">seismically</a> protective wooden structure, the "<a href="/wiki/Gaiola_(construction)" title="Gaiola (construction)">gaiola</a> pombalina" (pombaline cage), developed for the reconstruction of <a href="/wiki/Pombaline_Lower_Town" class="mw-redirect" title="Pombaline Lower Town">Pombaline Lower Town</a> </figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Enlightenment,_Europe_and_America_(1700–1800)"><span id="Enlightenment.2C_Europe_and_America_.281700.E2.80.931800.29"></span>Enlightenment, Europe and America (1700–1800)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_urban_planning&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Enlightenment, Europe and America (1700–1800)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_view_of_Savannah_as_it_stood_the_29th_of_March_1734.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/A_view_of_Savannah_as_it_stood_the_29th_of_March_1734.jpg/220px-A_view_of_Savannah_as_it_stood_the_29th_of_March_1734.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/A_view_of_Savannah_as_it_stood_the_29th_of_March_1734.jpg/330px-A_view_of_Savannah_as_it_stood_the_29th_of_March_1734.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/A_view_of_Savannah_as_it_stood_the_29th_of_March_1734.jpg/440px-A_view_of_Savannah_as_it_stood_the_29th_of_March_1734.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1538" /></a><figcaption>Illustration of <a href="/wiki/Savannah,_Georgia" title="Savannah, Georgia">Savannah, Georgia</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Oglethorpe_Plan" title="Oglethorpe Plan">Oglethorpe Plan</a> in 1734.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:L%27Enfant_plan.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/L%27Enfant_plan.svg/220px-L%27Enfant_plan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/L%27Enfant_plan.svg/330px-L%27Enfant_plan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/L%27Enfant_plan.svg/440px-L%27Enfant_plan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="3822" data-file-height="3093" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/L%27Enfant_Plan" title="L'Enfant Plan">L'Enfant Plan</a> for Washington, D.C., as revised by <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Ellicott" title="Andrew Ellicott">Andrew Ellicott</a> in 1792</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rue_Reaumur_101.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Rue_Reaumur_101.JPG/220px-Rue_Reaumur_101.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Rue_Reaumur_101.JPG/330px-Rue_Reaumur_101.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Rue_Reaumur_101.JPG/440px-Rue_Reaumur_101.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption>During the <a href="/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">Second French Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Georges-Eug%C3%A8ne_Haussmann" title="Georges-Eugène Haussmann">Haussmann</a> transformed the medieval city of <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a> into a modern capital, with long, straight, wide boulevards. The planning was influenced by many factors, not the least of which was the city's history of street revolutions.</figcaption></figure> <p>In contrast to the Great Fire of London, after the <a href="/wiki/1755_Lisbon_earthquake" title="1755 Lisbon earthquake">1755 Lisbon earthquake</a>, King <a href="/wiki/Joseph_I_of_Portugal" title="Joseph I of Portugal">Joseph I of Portugal</a> and his ministers immediately launched efforts to rebuild the city. The architect <a href="/wiki/Manuel_da_Maia" title="Manuel da Maia">Manuel da Maia</a> boldly proposed razing entire sections of the city and "laying out new streets without restraint". This last option was chosen by the king and his minister in spite of its emphasis on commerce and industry as opposed to religious and royal structures.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Keen to have a new and perfectly ordered city, the king commissioned the construction of big squares, rectilinear, large avenues and widened streets – the new <i>mottos</i> of Lisbon. The <a href="/wiki/Pombaline_style" title="Pombaline style">Pombaline</a> buildings were among the earliest <a href="/wiki/Seismology" title="Seismology">seismically</a> protected constructions in Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another significant urban plan from the Enlightenment period was that of Edinburgh's <a href="/wiki/New_Town,_Edinburgh" title="New Town, Edinburgh">New Town</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> built in stages between 1767 and 1850. The Age of Enlightenment had arrived in Edinburgh, and the outdated city fabric did not suit the professional and merchant classes who lived there. A design competition was held in January 1766 to find a suitably modern layout for the new suburb. It was won by 26-year-old James Craig, who proposed a simple axial grid, with a principal thoroughfare along the ridge linking two garden squares. The New Town was envisaged as a mainly residential suburb with a number of professional offices of domestic layout. It had few planned retail ground floors, however it did not take long for the commercial potential of the site to be realised. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1768_James_Craig_Map_of_New_Town,_Edinburgh,_Scotland_(First_Plan_of_New_Town)_-_Geographicus_-_Edinburgh-craig-1768.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/1768_James_Craig_Map_of_New_Town%2C_Edinburgh%2C_Scotland_%28First_Plan_of_New_Town%29_-_Geographicus_-_Edinburgh-craig-1768.jpg/570px-1768_James_Craig_Map_of_New_Town%2C_Edinburgh%2C_Scotland_%28First_Plan_of_New_Town%29_-_Geographicus_-_Edinburgh-craig-1768.jpg" decoding="async" width="570" height="400" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/1768_James_Craig_Map_of_New_Town%2C_Edinburgh%2C_Scotland_%28First_Plan_of_New_Town%29_-_Geographicus_-_Edinburgh-craig-1768.jpg/855px-1768_James_Craig_Map_of_New_Town%2C_Edinburgh%2C_Scotland_%28First_Plan_of_New_Town%29_-_Geographicus_-_Edinburgh-craig-1768.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/1768_James_Craig_Map_of_New_Town%2C_Edinburgh%2C_Scotland_%28First_Plan_of_New_Town%29_-_Geographicus_-_Edinburgh-craig-1768.jpg/1140px-1768_James_Craig_Map_of_New_Town%2C_Edinburgh%2C_Scotland_%28First_Plan_of_New_Town%29_-_Geographicus_-_Edinburgh-craig-1768.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5000" data-file-height="3508" /></a><figcaption>Craig's 1768 Plan for Edinburgh's <a href="/wiki/New_Town,_Edinburgh" title="New Town, Edinburgh">New Town</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_urban_planning_(1800–onwards)"><span id="Modern_urban_planning_.281800.E2.80.93onwards.29"></span>Modern urban planning (1800–onwards)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_urban_planning&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Modern urban planning (1800–onwards)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>From 1800 onwards, urban planning developed as a technical and legal occupation and in its complexity. <a href="/wiki/Regent_Street" title="Regent Street">Regent Street</a> was one of the first planned developments of London. An ordered structure of London streets, replacing the mediaeval layout, had been planned since just after the Great Fire of London (1666) when <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Wren" title="Christopher Wren">Sir Christopher Wren</a> and John Evelyn drew plans for rebuilding the city on the classical formal model. The street was designed by <a href="/wiki/John_Nash_(architect)" title="John Nash (architect)">John Nash</a> (who had been appointed to the Office of Woods and Forests in 1806 and previously served as an adviser to the Prince Regent) and by developer James Burton. The design was adopted by an Act of Parliament in 1813, which permitted the commissioners to borrow £600,000 for building and construction. The street was intended for commercial purposes and it was expected that most of the income would come from private capital. Nash took responsibility for design and valuation of all properties Construction of the road required demolishing numerous properties, disrupting trade and polluting the air with dust. Existing tenants had first offer to purchase leases on the new properties. </p><p>An even more ambitious reconstruction was carried out in <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a>. In 1852, <a href="/wiki/Georges-Eug%C3%A8ne_Haussmann" title="Georges-Eugène Haussmann">Georges-Eugène Haussmann</a> was commissioned to remodel the Medieval street plan of the city by demolishing swathes of the old quarters and laying out wide boulevards, extending outwards beyond the old city limits. Haussmann's project encompassed all aspects of urban planning, both in the centre of Paris and in the surrounding districts, with regulations imposed on building façades, public parks, sewers and water works, city facilities, and public monuments. Beyond aesthetic and sanitary considerations, the wide thoroughfares facilitated troop movement and policing.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A concurrent plan to extend <a href="/wiki/Barcelona" title="Barcelona">Barcelona</a> was based on a scientific analysis of the city and its modern requirements. It was drawn up by the Catalan engineer <a href="/wiki/Ildefons_Cerd%C3%A0" title="Ildefons Cerdà">Ildefons Cerdà</a> to fill the space beyond the city walls after they were demolished from 1854. He is credited with inventing the term '<a href="/wiki/Urbanisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Urbanisation">urbanisation</a>' and his approach was codified in his <i>Teoría General de la Urbanización</i> (<i>General Theory of Urbanisation</i>, 1867). Cerdà's <a href="/wiki/Eixample" title="Eixample">Eixample</a> (Catalan for 'extension') consisted of 550 regular blocks with chamfered corners to facilitate the movement of trams, crossed by three wider avenues. His objectives were to improve the health of the inhabitants, towards which the blocks were built around central gardens and orientated NW-SE to maximise the sunlight they received, and assist social integration.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Proposals were also developed at the same time from 1857 for Vienna's <a href="/wiki/Vienna_Ring_Road" title="Vienna Ring Road">Ringstrasse</a>. This grand boulevard was built to replace the city walls. In 1857, Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria issued the decree ordering the demolition of the city walls and moats. During the following years, a large number of opulent public and private buildings were erected. Similarly, Berlin finalized its "Bebauungsplan der Umgebungen Berlins" (<a href="/wiki/Hobrecht-Plan" title="Hobrecht-Plan">Binding Land-Use Plan for the Environs of Berlin</a>) in 1862, intended for a time frame of about 50 years. The plan not only covered the area around the cities of Berlin and Charlottenburg but also described the spatial regional planning of a large perimeter. The plan resulted in large areas of dense urban city blocks known as 'blockrand structures', with mixed-use buildings reaching to the street and offering a common-used courtyard, later often overbuilt with additional court structures to house more people. </p><p>Planning and architecture continued its paradigm shift at the turn of the 20th century. The industrialised cities of the 19th century had grown at a tremendous rate, with the pace and style of building often dictated by private business concerns. The evils of urban life for the working poor were becoming increasingly evident as a matter for public concern. The <a href="/wiki/Laissez-faire" title="Laissez-faire">laissez-faire</a> style of government management of the economy, in fashion for most of the <a href="/wiki/Victorian_era" title="Victorian era">Victorian era</a>, was starting to give way to a <a href="/wiki/Social_liberalism" title="Social liberalism">New Liberalism</a> that championed intervention on the part of the poor and disadvantaged beyond urban planning as a primarily aesthetic and technical concern as in the major urban planning programmes in European cities. Around 1900, theorists began developing urban planning models to mitigate the consequences of the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_age" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial age">industrial age</a>, by providing citizens, especially factory workers, with healthier environments. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wien_Parlament_um_1900.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Wien_Parlament_um_1900.jpg/220px-Wien_Parlament_um_1900.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Wien_Parlament_um_1900.jpg/330px-Wien_Parlament_um_1900.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Wien_Parlament_um_1900.jpg/440px-Wien_Parlament_um_1900.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3509" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>The <b><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Ring_Road" title="Vienna Ring Road">Vienna Ring Road</a></b> (<a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>: <i>Ringstraße</i>, lit. <i>ring road</i>) is a circular grand boulevard that serves as a <a href="/wiki/Ring_road" title="Ring road">ring road</a> around the historic <a href="/wiki/Innere_Stadt" title="Innere Stadt">Innere Stadt</a> (Inner Town) district of <a href="/wiki/Vienna" title="Vienna">Vienna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austria</a>. The road is located on sites where medieval city fortifications once stood, including high walls and the broad open field ramparts (<a href="/wiki/Glacis" title="Glacis">glacis</a>), criss-crossed by paths that lay before them.</figcaption></figure> <p>Modern <a href="/wiki/Zoning" title="Zoning">zoning</a> legislation and other tools such as compulsory purchase and land readjustment,<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which enabled planners to legally demarcate sections of cities for different functions or determine the shape and depth of urban blocks, originated in Prussia, and spread to Britain, the US, and Scandinavia.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">Public health</a> was cited as a rationale for keeping cities organized.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Urban_planning_profession_and_legislation">Urban planning profession and legislation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_urban_planning&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Urban planning profession and legislation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Urban planning became professionalised at this period, with input from <a href="/wiki/Utopia" title="Utopia">utopian</a> visionaries as well as from the practical minded infrastructure engineers and <a href="/wiki/Local_government" title="Local government">local councillors</a> combining to produce new design templates for political consideration. <a href="/wiki/Reinhard_Baumeister" title="Reinhard Baumeister">Reinhard Baumeister</a> was a German engineer and urban planner, the author of one of the earliest texts on urban planning Stadterweiterungen in technischer, baupolizeilicher und Wirtschaftlicher Beziehung (Town extensions: their links with technical and economic concerns and with building regulations) published in 1876. It was used as a textbook at the first urban planning course in Germany, at the college of technology in Aachen in 1880. </p><p>Similarly influential was <a href="/wiki/Josef_St%C3%BCbben" title="Josef Stübben">Josef Stübben</a>'s 1890 publication <i>Der Stadtebau</i>, published in 1890 and again in 1907 and 1924. Stübben served as the chief city planner of Cologne between 1881 and 1898 and was influential in his advocacy for the social objectives of city planning particularly for the urban poor.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The publication was never translated into English, but Stübben presented papers at numerous city planning conferences, including at the 1910 conference on city planning sponsored by the Royal Institute of British Architects, alongside Daniel Burnham, Ebenezer Howard, Patrick Geddes and Raymond Unwin. That same year the U.S. Senate published guidance on city planning that contained examples of German planning legislation directly influenced by Stübben. Whilst some theorists have recognised that American planning was primarily influenced by German and British practices, the German influence has not been as widely studied as a result of geopolitical tensions in and around the World Wars.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Legislation enabling the laying out of urban plans by municipalities and compulsory purchase powers were set out in the German Federal Building Line Act of 1875,<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but the 1794 Allgemeines Landrecht already gave the local state authority, namely the police, the right to indicate Fluchtlinien, i.e. the boundaries of areas which were to be reserved for streets. After the Prussian municipal reform of 1808 the Baupolizei became accountable to the municipal administration (with the important exception of Berlin), which thus also became responsible for the planning function.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Such tools were already widely used in France which from 1807 required settlements of over 2,000 inhabitants to prepare a compulsory easement plan setting out building lines and the width of the streets between them. In 1889, the architect and urban theorist <a href="/wiki/Camillo_Sitte" title="Camillo Sitte">Camillo Sitte</a> published <i>City Planning According to Artistic Principles</i>, in which he examined and documented the traditional, incremental approach to urbanism in Europe, with a close focus on public spaces in Italy and the Germanic countries. Sitte's work was hugely influential on European urbanism, and with five editions published between 1889 and 1922 was cited by planners from <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Unwin" title="Raymond Unwin">Raymond Unwin</a> to <a href="/wiki/Hendrik_Petrus_Berlage" class="mw-redirect" title="Hendrik Petrus Berlage">Berlage</a>. </p><p>In Britain, the <a href="/wiki/Town_and_Country_Planning_Association" title="Town and Country Planning Association">Town and Country Planning Association</a> was founded in 1899 and the first academic course on urban planning in Britain was offered by the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Liverpool" title="University of Liverpool">University of Liverpool</a> in 1909.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first official consideration of these new trends in Britain was embodied in the <a href="/wiki/Housing,_Town_Planning,_%26c._Act_1909" class="mw-redirect" title="Housing, Town Planning, &c. Act 1909">Housing and Town Planning Act of 1909</a> that compelled <a href="/wiki/Municipal_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Municipal government">local authorities</a> to introduce coherent systems of town planning across the country using the new principles of the 'garden city', and to ensure that all housing construction conformed to specific building standards,<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while similar yet more comprehensive legislation was enacted in the Netherlands under the Housing Act 1901, known as the <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Woningwet&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Woningwet (page does not exist)">Woningwet</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woningwet" class="extiw" title="nl:Woningwet">nl</a>]</span></i>. Following Britain's 1909 Act, <a href="/wiki/Surveying" title="Surveying">surveyors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Civil_engineer" title="Civil engineer">civil engineers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Architect" title="Architect">architects</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lawyer" title="Lawyer">lawyers</a> and others began working together within <a href="/wiki/Local_government" title="Local government">local government</a> in the UK to draw up schemes for the development of land and the idea of town planning as a new and distinctive area of expertise began to be formed. In 1910, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Adams_(architect)" title="Thomas Adams (architect)">Thomas Adams</a> was appointed as the first Town Planning Inspector at the <a href="/wiki/Local_Government_Board" title="Local Government Board">Local Government Board</a>, and began meeting with practitioners. The <a href="/wiki/Town_Planning_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="Town Planning Institute">Town Planning Institute</a> was established in 1914 with a mandate to advance the study of town-planning and civic design.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first university course in America was established at <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a> in 1924. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Garden_city_movement">Garden city movement</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_urban_planning&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Garden city movement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ciudad_lineal_de_Arturo_Soria.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Ciudad_lineal_de_Arturo_Soria.jpg/220px-Ciudad_lineal_de_Arturo_Soria.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="81" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Ciudad_lineal_de_Arturo_Soria.jpg/330px-Ciudad_lineal_de_Arturo_Soria.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Ciudad_lineal_de_Arturo_Soria.jpg/440px-Ciudad_lineal_de_Arturo_Soria.jpg 2x" data-file-width="611" data-file-height="226" /></a><figcaption>The concept of <a href="/wiki/Arturo_Soria" class="mw-redirect" title="Arturo Soria">Arturo Soria</a>'s of the <a href="/wiki/Linear_city_(Soria_design)" title="Linear city (Soria design)">linear city</a> model and the "linear city movement"</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lorategi-hiriaren_diagrama_1902.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Lorategi-hiriaren_diagrama_1902.jpg/220px-Lorategi-hiriaren_diagrama_1902.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="297" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Lorategi-hiriaren_diagrama_1902.jpg/330px-Lorategi-hiriaren_diagrama_1902.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Lorategi-hiriaren_diagrama_1902.jpg 2x" data-file-width="339" data-file-height="458" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ebenezer_Howard" title="Ebenezer Howard">Ebenezer Howard</a>'s influential 1902 diagram, illustrating urban growth through <a href="/wiki/Garden_city_movement" title="Garden city movement">garden city</a> "off-shoots"</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Meadway,_Hampstead_Garden_Suburb_-_geograph.org.uk_-_5350487.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Meadway%2C_Hampstead_Garden_Suburb_-_geograph.org.uk_-_5350487.jpg/220px-Meadway%2C_Hampstead_Garden_Suburb_-_geograph.org.uk_-_5350487.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Meadway%2C_Hampstead_Garden_Suburb_-_geograph.org.uk_-_5350487.jpg/330px-Meadway%2C_Hampstead_Garden_Suburb_-_geograph.org.uk_-_5350487.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Meadway%2C_Hampstead_Garden_Suburb_-_geograph.org.uk_-_5350487.jpg/440px-Meadway%2C_Hampstead_Garden_Suburb_-_geograph.org.uk_-_5350487.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="1728" /></a><figcaption>Hampstead Garden Suburb</figcaption></figure> <p>The first major urban planning theorist in Britain was Sir <a href="/wiki/Ebenezer_Howard" title="Ebenezer Howard">Ebenezer Howard</a>, who initiated the <a href="/wiki/Garden_city_movement" title="Garden city movement">garden city movement</a> in 1898. This was inspired by earlier planned communities built by industrial philanthropists in the countryside, such as <a href="/wiki/Cadbury" title="Cadbury">Cadburys</a>' <a href="/wiki/Bournville" title="Bournville">Bournville</a>, <a href="/wiki/W._H._Lever" class="mw-redirect" title="W. H. Lever">Lever's</a> <a href="/wiki/Port_Sunlight" title="Port Sunlight">Port Sunlight</a> and <a href="/wiki/George_Pullman" title="George Pullman">George Pullman</a>'s eponymous <a href="/wiki/Pullman,_Chicago" title="Pullman, Chicago">Pullman</a> in <a href="/wiki/Chicago" title="Chicago">Chicago</a>. All these settlements decentralised the working environment from the centre of the cities, and provided a healthy living space for the factory workers. Howard generalised this achievement into a planned movement for the country as a whole. He was also influenced by the work of economist <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Marshall" title="Alfred Marshall">Alfred Marshall</a> who argued in 1884 that industry needed a supply of labour that could in theory be supplied anywhere, and that companies have an incentive to improve workers living standards as the company bears much of the cost inflicted by the unhealthy urban conditions in the big cities.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Howard's ideas, although utopian, were also highly practical and were adopted around the world in the ensuing decades. His garden cities were intended to be planned, self-contained communities surrounded by parks, containing proportionate and separate areas of residences, industry, and agriculture. Inspired by the <a href="/wiki/Utopian" class="mw-redirect" title="Utopian">Utopian</a> novel <i><a href="/wiki/Looking_Backward" title="Looking Backward">Looking Backward</a></i> and <a href="/wiki/Henry_George" title="Henry George">Henry George</a>'s work <a href="/wiki/Progress_and_Poverty" title="Progress and Poverty">Progress and Poverty</a>, Howard published his book <i><a href="/wiki/Garden_Cities_of_To-morrow" title="Garden Cities of To-morrow">Garden Cities of To-morrow</a></i> in 1898, commonly regarded as the most important book in the history of urban planning.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His idealised garden city would house 32,000 people on a site of 6,000 acres (2,428 ha), planned on a <a href="/wiki/Concentric" class="mw-redirect" title="Concentric">concentric</a> pattern with open spaces, public parks and six radial <a href="/wiki/Boulevard" title="Boulevard">boulevards</a>, 120 ft (37 m) wide, extending from the centre. The garden city would be self-sufficient and when it reached full population, another garden city would be developed nearby. Howard envisaged a cluster of several garden cities as <a href="/wiki/Satellite_town" class="mw-redirect" title="Satellite town">satellites</a> of a central city of 50,000 people, linked by road and rail.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>He founded <a href="/wiki/Town_and_Country_Planning_Association" title="Town and Country Planning Association">First Garden City, Ltd.</a> in 1899 to create the first garden city at <a href="/wiki/Letchworth" title="Letchworth">Letchworth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hertfordshire" title="Hertfordshire">Hertfordshire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHardy19994_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHardy19994-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Donors to the project collected interest on their investment if the garden city generated profits through rents or, as Fishman calls the process, 'philanthropic land speculation'.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFainsteinCampbell200343_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFainsteinCampbell200343-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Howard tried to include working class cooperative organisations, which included over two million members, but could not win their financial support.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFainsteinCampbell200346_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFainsteinCampbell200346-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1904, <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Unwin" title="Raymond Unwin">Raymond Unwin</a>, a noted architect and town planner, along with his partner <a href="/wiki/Richard_Barry_Parker" title="Richard Barry Parker">Richard Barry Parker</a>, won the competition run by the First Garden City, Limited to plan Letchworth, an area 34 miles outside London.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHall200268_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHall200268-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unwin and Parker planned the town in the centre of the Letchworth estate with Howard's large agricultural greenbelt surrounding the town, and they shared Howard's notion that the working class deserved better and more affordable housing. However, the architects ignored Howard's symmetric design, instead replacing it with a more 'organic' design.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFainsteinCampbell200348_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFainsteinCampbell200348-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Welwyn_Garden_City" title="Welwyn Garden City">Welwyn Garden City</a>, also in <a href="/wiki/Hertfordshire" title="Hertfordshire">Hertfordshire</a> was also built on Howard's principles. His successor as chairman of the Garden City Association was <a href="/wiki/Frederic_Osborn" title="Frederic Osborn">Sir Frederic Osborn</a>, who extended the movement to regional planning.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The principles of the garden city were soon applied to the planning of city suburbs. The first such project was the <a href="/wiki/Hampstead_Garden_Suburb" title="Hampstead Garden Suburb">Hampstead Garden Suburb</a> founded by <a href="/wiki/Henrietta_Barnett" title="Henrietta Barnett">Henrietta Barnett</a><sup id="cite_ref-gayler_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gayler-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and planned by <a href="/wiki/Richard_Barry_Parker" title="Richard Barry Parker">Parker</a> and <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Unwin" title="Raymond Unwin">Unwin</a>. The scheme's utopian ideals were that it should be open to all classes of people with free access to woods and gardens and that the housing should be of low density with wide, tree-lined roads. The <a href="/wiki/Tudor_Walters_Committee" class="mw-redirect" title="Tudor Walters Committee">Tudor Walters Committee</a> that recommended the building of housing estates after <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> incorporated the ideas of Howard's disciple <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Unwin" title="Raymond Unwin">Raymond Unwin</a>, who demonstrated that homes could be built rapidly and economically whilst maintaining satisfactory standards for gardens, family privacy and internal spaces. Unwin diverged from Howard by proposing that the new developments should be peripheral 'satellites' rather than fully-fledged garden cities.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In North America, the Garden City movement was also popular, and evolved into the "Neighbourhood Unit" form of development. In the early 1900s, as cars were introduced to city streets for the first time, residents became increasingly concerned with the number of pedestrians being injured by car traffic. The response, seen first in <a href="/wiki/Radburn,_New_Jersey" title="Radburn, New Jersey">Radburn, New Jersey</a>, was the Neighbourhood Unit-style development, which oriented houses toward a common public path instead of the street. The neighbourhood is distinctively organised around a school, with the intention of providing children a safe way to walk to school.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Europe, Garden Cities were also promoted by a range of organisations including the International Garden Cities and Town Planning Association, the international branch of the British Garden Cities and Town Planning Association. The International Association held a series of conferences across Europe including in Brussels in 1919, Paris in 1922; Gothenburg in 1923; Amsterdam in 1924; New York in 1925, and finally Vienna in 1926. These congresses must have had a strong appeal to housing reformers and town planners with more than more than 300 for Gothenburg 1923; more than 500 for Amsterdam 1924; over 1,000 for Vienna 1926.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Belgium, France, Sweden, The Netherlands and Austria all experienced the influence of the garden city movement during this period. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modernism">Modernism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_urban_planning&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Modernism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plan_Voisin_model.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Plan_Voisin_model.jpg/220px-Plan_Voisin_model.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Plan_Voisin_model.jpg/330px-Plan_Voisin_model.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Plan_Voisin_model.jpg/440px-Plan_Voisin_model.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1818" data-file-height="1359" /></a><figcaption>Model of Le Corbusier's Plan Voisin from 1925.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Berlin_Hufeisensiedlung_UAV_04-2017.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Berlin_Hufeisensiedlung_UAV_04-2017.jpg/220px-Berlin_Hufeisensiedlung_UAV_04-2017.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Berlin_Hufeisensiedlung_UAV_04-2017.jpg/330px-Berlin_Hufeisensiedlung_UAV_04-2017.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Berlin_Hufeisensiedlung_UAV_04-2017.jpg/440px-Berlin_Hufeisensiedlung_UAV_04-2017.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3573" data-file-height="2680" /></a><figcaption>The <b>Hufeisensiedlung</b> ("Horseshoe Estate") is a housing estate in Berlin, built in 1925–33 designed by architect <a href="/wiki/Bruno_Taut" title="Bruno Taut">Bruno Taut</a>, municipal planning head and co-architect <a href="/wiki/Martin_Wagner_(architect)" title="Martin Wagner (architect)">Martin Wagner</a>, garden architect <a href="/wiki/Leberecht_Migge" title="Leberecht Migge">Leberecht Migge</a> and Neukölln gardens director Ottokar Wagler. </figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Weissenhof_Corbusier_03_cropped2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Weissenhof_Corbusier_03_cropped2.jpg/220px-Weissenhof_Corbusier_03_cropped2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Weissenhof_Corbusier_03_cropped2.jpg/330px-Weissenhof_Corbusier_03_cropped2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Weissenhof_Corbusier_03_cropped2.jpg/440px-Weissenhof_Corbusier_03_cropped2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2065" data-file-height="2065" /></a><figcaption>House 15 at the Weißenhofsiedlung designed by <a href="/wiki/Le_Corbusier" title="Le Corbusier">Le Corbusier</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Jeanneret" title="Pierre Jeanneret">Pierre Jeanerret</a> in 1928.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Partizanske4.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Partizanske4.jpg/220px-Partizanske4.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Partizanske4.jpg/330px-Partizanske4.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Partizanske4.jpg/440px-Partizanske4.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="1728" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Partiz%C3%A1nske" title="Partizánske">Partizánske</a> in <a href="/wiki/Slovakia" title="Slovakia">Slovakia</a> – an example of a typical planned industrial city founded in 1938 together with a shoemaking <a href="/wiki/Factory" title="Factory">factory</a> in which practically all adult inhabitants of the city were employed.</figcaption></figure><p>In the 1920s, the ideas of <a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">modernism</a> began to surface in urban planning, in particular promoted by the <i><a href="/wiki/Congr%C3%A8s_Internationaux_d%27Architecture_Moderne" title="Congrès Internationaux d'Architecture Moderne">Congrès Internationaux d'Architecture Moderne</a></i> from 1928. The influential <a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">modernist</a> architect <a href="/wiki/Le_Corbusier" title="Le Corbusier">Le Corbusier</a> presented his scheme for a "Contemporary City" for three million inhabitants (<a href="/wiki/Ville_Contemporaine" title="Ville Contemporaine">Ville Contemporaine</a>) in 1922. The centrepiece of this plan was the group of sixty-story <a href="/wiki/Cruciform" title="Cruciform">cruciform</a> skyscrapers, steel-framed office buildings encased in huge curtain walls of glass. These skyscrapers were set within large, rectangular, park-like green spaces. At the centre was a huge transportation hub that on different levels included depots for buses and trains, as well as highway intersections, and at the top, an airport. Le Corbusier had the fanciful notion that commercial airliners would land between the huge skyscrapers. He segregated pedestrian circulation paths from the roadways and glorified the automobile as a means of transportation. As one moved out from the central skyscrapers, smaller low-story, zig-zag apartment blocks (set far back from the street amid green space) housed the inhabitants. Le Corbusier hoped that politically minded industrialists in France would lead the way with their efficient <a href="/wiki/Scientific_management" title="Scientific management">Taylorist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fordism" title="Fordism">Fordist</a> strategies adopted from American industrial models to re-organise society.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1925, Le Corbusier exhibited his <a href="/wiki/Plan_Voisin" title="Plan Voisin">Plan Voisin</a>, in which he proposed to bulldoze most of central Paris north of the Seine and replace it with his sixty-story cruciform towers from the Contemporary City, placed within an orthogonal street grid and park-like green space. In the 1930s, Le Corbusier expanded and reformulated his ideas on urbanism, eventually publishing them in <i><a href="/wiki/Ville_Radieuse" title="Ville Radieuse">La Ville radieuse</a></i> (The Radiant City) in 1935. Perhaps the most significant difference between the Contemporary City and the Radiant City is that the latter abandoned the class-based stratification of the former; housing was now assigned according to family size, not economic position.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Le Corbusier's theories were sporadically adopted by the builders of <a href="/wiki/Public_housing" title="Public housing">public housing</a> in Europe and the United States. Many of his disciples became notable in their own right, including painter-architect <a href="/wiki/Nadir_Afonso" title="Nadir Afonso">Nadir Afonso</a>, who absorbed Le Corbusier's ideas into his own aesthetics theory. <a href="/wiki/L%C3%BAcio_Costa" title="Lúcio Costa">Lúcio Costa</a>'s city plan of <a href="/wiki/Bras%C3%ADlia" title="Brasília">Brasília</a> and the industrial city of <a href="/wiki/Zl%C3%ADn" title="Zlín">Zlín</a> planned by <a href="/wiki/Franti%C5%A1ek_Lydie_Gahura" title="František Lydie Gahura">František Lydie Gahura</a> in the Czech Republic are notable plans based on his ideas, while the architect himself produced the plan for <a href="/wiki/Chandigarh" title="Chandigarh">Chandigarh</a> in India. Le Corbusier's thinking also had been profoundly affected by the philosophy of Futurism and Constructivism in Russia at the turn of the 20th century. </p><p>Concurrently to the work of Le Corbusier, in Germany under the <a href="/wiki/Weimar_Republic" title="Weimar Republic">Weimar Republic</a>, a group of theorists group up around the <a href="/wiki/Bauhaus" title="Bauhaus">Bauhaus</a> and were actively involved in developing new housing projects in Frankfurt and other German cities including in Stuttgartt and Berlin. <b><a href="/wiki/New_Frankfurt" title="New Frankfurt">New Frankfurt</a></b> (German: <i><b>Neues Frankfurt</b></i>) was an affordable public housing program in <a href="/wiki/Frankfurt" title="Frankfurt">Frankfurt</a> started in 1925 and completed in 1930. The project was initiated by Frankfurt's mayor <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Landmann" title="Ludwig Landmann">Ludwig Landmann</a>, who hired the architect <a href="/wiki/Ernst_May" title="Ernst May">Ernst May</a> as a general manager of many communal departments. In Stuttgart, the <b><a href="/wiki/Weissenhof_Estate" title="Weissenhof Estate">Weissenhof Estate</a></b> (German: <i><b>Weißenhofsiedlung</b></i>) is a <a href="/wiki/Housing_estate" title="Housing estate">housing estate</a> built for the 1927 <i><a href="/wiki/Deutscher_Werkbund" title="Deutscher Werkbund">Deutscher Werkbund</a></i> exhibition. It was an international showcase of <a href="/wiki/Modern_architecture" title="Modern architecture">modern architecture</a>'s aspiration to provide cheap, simple, efficient, and good-quality housing. Two buildings designed by <a href="/wiki/Le_Corbusier" title="Le Corbusier">Le Corbusier</a> were designated a <a href="/wiki/World_Heritage_Site" title="World Heritage Site">World Heritage Site</a> in 2016 as part of <a href="/wiki/The_Architectural_Work_of_Le_Corbusier,_an_Outstanding_Contribution_to_the_Modern_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="The Architectural Work of Le Corbusier, an Outstanding Contribution to the Modern Movement">The Architectural Work of Le Corbusier, an Outstanding Contribution to the Modern Movement</a>. </p><p>Similarly, the <a href="/wiki/Berlin_Modernism_Housing_Estates" title="Berlin Modernism Housing Estates">Berlin Modernism Housing Estates</a>, now a <a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_India" title="List of World Heritage Sites in India">UNESCO World Heritage Site</a>, comprising six separate <a href="/wiki/Subsidized_housing" title="Subsidized housing">subsidized housing</a> estates in <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a>. Dating mainly from the years of the <a href="/wiki/Weimar_Republic" title="Weimar Republic">Weimar Republic</a> (1919–1933), when the city of <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a> was particularly progressive socially, politically and culturally, they are outstanding examples of the building reform movement that contributed to improving housing and living conditions for people with low incomes through innovative approaches to architecture and urban planning. The estates also provide exceptional examples of new urban and architectural typologies, featuring fresh design solutions, as well as technical and aesthetic innovations. <a href="/wiki/Bruno_Taut" title="Bruno Taut">Bruno Taut</a>, <a href="/wiki/Martin_Wagner_(architect)" title="Martin Wagner (architect)">Martin Wagner</a> and <a href="/wiki/Walter_Gropius" title="Walter Gropius">Walter Gropius</a> were among the leading architects of these projects which exercised considerable influence on the development of housing around the world. </p><p>Another important theorist was Sir <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Geddes" title="Patrick Geddes">Patrick Geddes</a> who understood the importance of taking the regional environment into account and the relationship between social issues and town planning, and foresaw the emergence of huge urban <a href="/wiki/Conurbation" title="Conurbation">conurbations</a>. In 1927, he was commissioned to plan the city of <a href="/wiki/Tel_Aviv" title="Tel Aviv">Tel Aviv</a>, then in <a href="/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine" title="Mandatory Palestine">Mandatory Palestine</a>. It consisted of about 40 blocks, sized around 150 metres squared. The block contained an inner small public garden, disposed into a windmill configuration of inner access roads, making it awkward for car traffic. The big blocks form a gently undulating street pattern, north–south commercial, east–west arranged to catch the sea breeze. This was a simple and efficient manner to modernise the historical fixed grid patterns. A series of shaded boulevards short cuts the system, with some public squares, accessing the sea front. The plan of the new town became a success. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_in_communist_countries" title="Urban planning in communist countries">Urban planning in communist countries</a> has often modeled itself on Western modernism, using the authority of the state to implement efficient urban designs produced in administrative centers. (In Russia this process was nominally decentralized after the end of the USSR, but Moscow remains the source of much of the country's urban planning expertise.)<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Germany under national socialism also undertook grandiose <a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_in_Nazi_Germany" title="Urban planning in Nazi Germany">schemes for urban redesign</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="New_Towns">New Towns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_urban_planning&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: New Towns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ebenezer Howard's urban planning concepts were only adopted on a large scale after <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. The damage brought on by the war provoked significant public interest in what post-war Britain would be like, which was encouraged by the government, who facilitated talk about a 'Better Britain' to boost morale. Post-war rebuilding initiatives saw new plans drafted for London, which, for the first time, addressed the issue of de-centralisation. Firstly, the County of London Plan 1943 recognised that displacement of population and employment was necessary if the city was to be rebuilt at a desirable density. Moreover, the Greater London Plan of 1944 went further by suggesting that over one million people would need to be displaced into a mixture of satellite suburbs, existing rural towns, and <a href="/wiki/New_towns_movement" title="New towns movement">new towns</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/New_Towns_Act_1946" class="mw-redirect" title="New Towns Act 1946">New Towns Act 1946</a> (<a href="/wiki/9_%26_10_Geo._6" class="mw-redirect" title="9 & 10 Geo. 6">9 & 10 Geo. 6</a>. c. 68) resulted in many <a href="/wiki/New_towns_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="New towns in the United Kingdom">New Towns being constructed in Britain</a> over the following decades.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Sweden the <a href="/wiki/Million_Programme" title="Million Programme">Million Programme</a> (<a href="/wiki/Swedish_language" title="Swedish language">Swedish</a>: <i>Miljonprogrammet</i>) was a large public housing program implemented in <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a> between 1965 and 1974 by the governing <a href="/wiki/Swedish_Social_Democratic_Party" title="Swedish Social Democratic Party">Swedish Social Democratic Party</a> to ensure the availability of affordable, high quality housing to all Swedish citizens. The program sought to construct one million new housing dwellings over a ten-year period, which it accomplished with the development of numerous new towns. France and The Netherlands undertook similar post-war growth programmes. </p><p>New towns were built in the United States from the 1960s – examples include <a href="/wiki/Reston,_Virginia" title="Reston, Virginia">Reston, Virginia</a>; <a href="/wiki/Columbia,_Maryland" title="Columbia, Maryland">Columbia, Maryland</a>; <a href="/wiki/Jonathan,_Minnesota" title="Jonathan, Minnesota">Jonathan, Minnesota</a> and <a href="/wiki/Riverside_Plaza" title="Riverside Plaza">Riverside Plaza</a>. This construction effort was combined with extensive federal government grants for <a href="/wiki/Slum_clearance" title="Slum clearance">slum clearance</a>, improved and increased housing and road construction and comprehensive <a href="/wiki/Urban_renewal" title="Urban renewal">urban renewal</a> projects. Other European countries such as France, Germany, Italy and Sweden also had some successes with new towns, especially as part of post-war reconstruction efforts. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Contemporary">Contemporary</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_urban_planning&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Contemporary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Urban planning has grown in prominence with rising <a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">urbanization</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reaction_against_modernism">Reaction against modernism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_urban_planning&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Reaction against modernism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By the late 1960s and early 1970s, many planners felt that modernism's clean lines and lack of human scale sapped vitality from the community, blaming them for high crime rates and social problems.<sup id="cite_ref-Smith_Morris_1997_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith_Morris_1997-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Modernist planning fell into decline in the 1970s when the construction of cheap, uniform <a href="/wiki/Tower_block" title="Tower block">tower blocks</a> ended in most countries, such as Britain and France. Since then many have been demolished and replaced by other housing types. Rather than attempting to eliminate all disorder, planning now concentrates on <a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">individualism</a> and diversity in society and the economy; this is the post-modernist era.<sup id="cite_ref-Smith_Morris_1997_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith_Morris_1997-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Minimally planned cities still exist. <a href="/wiki/Houston,_Texas" class="mw-redirect" title="Houston, Texas">Houston</a> is a large city (with a metropolitan population of 5.5 million) in a developed country without a comprehensive <a href="/wiki/Zoning" title="Zoning">zoning</a> ordinance. Houston does, however, restrict development densities and mandate parking, even though specific land uses are not regulated. Also, private-sector developers in Houston use subdivision covenants and <a href="/wiki/Restrictive_covenant" class="mw-redirect" title="Restrictive covenant">deed restrictions</a> to effect land-use restrictions resembling zoning laws. Houston voters have rejected comprehensive zoning ordinances three times since 1948. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_urban_planning&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Behaviorism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorist psychology</a> influenced urban planning especially in the 1960s and after, manifesting in such theories as <a href="/wiki/Defensible_space_theory" title="Defensible space theory">defensible space</a> and <a href="/wiki/Crime_prevention_through_environmental_design" title="Crime prevention through environmental design">crime prevention through environmental design</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="New_Urbanism">New Urbanism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_urban_planning&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: New Urbanism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/New_Urbanism" title="New Urbanism">New Urbanism</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jakriborg,_juni_2005_c.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Jakriborg%2C_juni_2005_c.jpg/220px-Jakriborg%2C_juni_2005_c.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Jakriborg%2C_juni_2005_c.jpg/330px-Jakriborg%2C_juni_2005_c.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Jakriborg%2C_juni_2005_c.jpg/440px-Jakriborg%2C_juni_2005_c.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Jakriborg" title="Jakriborg">Jakriborg</a> in Sweden, started in the late 1990s as a <a href="/wiki/New_Urbanism" title="New Urbanism">new urbanist</a> eco-friendly <a href="/wiki/Planned_community" title="Planned community">new town</a> near <a href="/wiki/Malm%C3%B6" title="Malmö">Malmö</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Various current movements in urban design seek to create <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_city" title="Sustainable city">sustainable urban</a> environments with long-lasting structures, buildings and a great liveability for its inhabitants. The most clearly defined form of <a href="/wiki/Walkability" title="Walkability">walkable</a> urbanism is known as the <i>Charter of <a href="/wiki/New_Urbanism" title="New Urbanism">New Urbanism</a></i>. It is an approach for successfully reducing environmental impacts by altering the built environment to create and preserve smart cities that support <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_transport" title="Sustainable transport">sustainable transport</a>. Residents in compact urban neighbourhoods drive fewer miles and have significantly lower environmental impacts across a range of measures compared with those living in <a href="/wiki/Urban_sprawl" title="Urban sprawl">sprawling</a> suburbs.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The concept of <a href="/wiki/Circular_flow_land_use_management" title="Circular flow land use management">Circular flow land use management</a> has also been introduced in Europe to promote sustainable land use patterns that strive for compact cities and a reduction of greenfield land taken by urban sprawl. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Doha_City,_UNCTAD_XIII_(7115125393).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Doha_City%2C_UNCTAD_XIII_%287115125393%29.jpg/220px-Doha_City%2C_UNCTAD_XIII_%287115125393%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Doha_City%2C_UNCTAD_XIII_%287115125393%29.jpg/330px-Doha_City%2C_UNCTAD_XIII_%287115125393%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Doha_City%2C_UNCTAD_XIII_%287115125393%29.jpg/440px-Doha_City%2C_UNCTAD_XIII_%287115125393%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="1995" /></a><figcaption>A road crossing at UNCTAD XIII in <a href="/wiki/Doha" title="Doha">Doha</a>, <a href="/wiki/Qatar" title="Qatar">Qatar</a>. Traffic in Qatar is separated into two roads, one serving each direction.</figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_architecture" title="Sustainable architecture">sustainable construction</a>, the recent movement of <a href="/wiki/New_Classical_Architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="New Classical Architecture">New Classical Architecture</a> promotes a sustainable approach towards urban construction that appreciates and develops <a href="/wiki/Smart_growth" title="Smart growth">smart growth</a>, walkability, <a href="/wiki/Vernacular_architecture" title="Vernacular architecture">architectural tradition</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Classical_architecture" title="Classical architecture">classical design</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Charter_of_the_New_Urbanism_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Charter_of_the_New_Urbanism-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Traditional_Architecture_Group_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Traditional_Architecture_Group-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is in contrast to <a href="/wiki/Modern_architecture" title="Modern architecture">modernist</a> and short-lived <a href="/wiki/International_Style_(architecture)" class="mw-redirect" title="International Style (architecture)">globally uniform</a> architecture, as well as opposing solitary <a href="/wiki/Housing_estate" title="Housing estate">housing estates</a> and <a href="/wiki/Urban_sprawl" title="Urban sprawl">suburban sprawl</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both trends started in the 1980s.<sup id="cite_ref-Fainstein_New_Directions_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fainstein_New_Directions-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Critics of New Urbanism have argued that its environmental aspect is too focused on transport and excessive <a href="/wiki/Individual_mobility" title="Individual mobility">individual mobility</a>. They say that the real problem with the unsustainable nature of modern cities is not just about cars and too much driving - it is about the entire urban metabolism of the city (of which auto-mobility is less than half of the overall <a href="/wiki/Ecological_footprint" title="Ecological footprint">ecological footprint</a> and accounts for about half of the GHG emissions/carbon footprint). They have also argued that land-use planning can do little to achieve sustainability without regulating the design and associated technology of the actual development within a zoned area. Distances and density are relatively unimportant, they claim; it is the total metabolism of the development that determines the environmental impact. Also, they say that the emphasis needs to shift from sustainability to resilience, and the spatial scope from the city to the whole urban region.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A further criticism is that the New Urbanist project of compacting urban form is a difficult and slow process. In the new global situation, with the horizontal, low-density growth irreversibly dominant, and climate change already happening, they say it would be wiser to focus efforts on the resilience of whole city-regions, retrofitting the existing sprawl for sustainability and self-sufficiency, and investing heavily in '<a href="/wiki/Green_infrastructure" title="Green infrastructure">green infrastructure</a>'.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sustainable_development_and_sustainability">Sustainable development and sustainability</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_urban_planning&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Sustainable development and sustainability"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_development" title="Sustainable development">Sustainable development</a> has emerged in recent decades as guiding themes for urban planning. This term was defined and advocated in 1987 report <i><a href="/wiki/Our_Common_Future" title="Our Common Future">Our Common Future</a></i>, published by the <a href="/wiki/Brundtland_Commission" title="Brundtland Commission">World Commission on Environment and Development</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hoddle_Map_1_1837.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Hoddle_Map_1_1837.JPG/220px-Hoddle_Map_1_1837.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Hoddle_Map_1_1837.JPG/330px-Hoddle_Map_1_1837.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Hoddle_Map_1_1837.JPG/440px-Hoddle_Map_1_1837.JPG 2x" data-file-width="714" data-file-height="488" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hoddle" title="Robert Hoddle">Robert Hoddle</a>'s survey of <a href="/wiki/Melbourne" title="Melbourne">Melbourne</a> in 1837. The layout of the city is referred to as the "<a href="/wiki/Hoddle_Grid" title="Hoddle Grid">Hoddle Grid</a>".</figcaption></figure> <p>Some planners argue that modern lifestyles use too many natural resources, <a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">polluting</a> or destroying <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystems</a>, increasing <a href="/wiki/Social_inequality" title="Social inequality">social inequality</a>, creating <a href="/wiki/Urban_heat_islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Urban heat islands">urban heat islands</a>, and causing <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>. Many urban planners, therefore, advocate <a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">sustainable</a> cities.<sup id="cite_ref-Fainstein_New_Directions_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fainstein_New_Directions-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Wheeler_Stephen_2004_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wheeler_Stephen_2004-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, sustainable development is a recent, controversial concept.<sup id="cite_ref-Wheeler_Stephen_2004_72-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wheeler_Stephen_2004-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wheeler, in his 2004 book, defines sustainable urban development as "development that improves the long-term social and ecological health of cities and towns." He sketches a 'sustainable' city's features: compact, efficient land use; less automobile use, yet better access; efficient resource use; less pollution and waste; the restoration of natural systems; good housing and living environments; a healthy social ecology; a sustainable economy; community participation and involvement; and preservation of local culture and wisdom.<sup id="cite_ref-Wheeler_Stephen_2004_72-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wheeler_Stephen_2004-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Urban_planners" class="mw-redirect" title="Urban planners">Urban planners</a> are now promoting a <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_city" title="Sustainable city">sustainable city</a> model, which consists of cities that are designed with consideration of environmental impacts, such as minimising the uses of energy, water, and the outputs of waste and pollution.<sup id="cite_ref-Fainstein_New_Directions_68-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fainstein_New_Directions-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Because of political and governance structures in most jurisdictions, sustainable planning measures must be widely supported before they can affect institutions and regions. Actual implementation is often a complex compromise.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b>Nature in cities</b> Often an integral party of sustainable cities is the <a href="/wiki/Incorporation_of_nature_within_a_city" class="mw-redirect" title="Incorporation of nature within a city">Incorporation of nature within a city</a>. </p><p><b>Car free</b> sustainability in city planning can include large <a href="/wiki/Pedestrian_zones" class="mw-redirect" title="Pedestrian zones">pedestrian zones</a> or be a totally <a href="/wiki/Carfree_city" title="Carfree city">Car free</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Collaborative_planning_in_the_United_States">Collaborative planning in the United States</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_urban_planning&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Collaborative planning in the United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Collaborative planning arose in the US in response to the inadequacy of traditional public participation techniques to provide real opportunities for the public to make decisions affecting their communities. Collaborative planning is a method designed to empower stakeholders by elevating them to the level of decision-makers through direct engagement and dialogue between stakeholders and public agencies, to solicit ideas, active involvement, and participation in the community planning process. Active public involvement can help planners achieve better outcomes by making them aware of the public's needs and preferences and by using local knowledge to inform projects. When properly administered, collaboration can result in more meaningful participation and better, more creative outcomes to persistent problems than traditional participation methods. It enables planners to make decisions that reflect community needs and values, it fosters faith in the wisdom and utility of the resulting project, and the community is given a personal stake in its success.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Experiences in <a href="/wiki/Portland,_Oregon" title="Portland, Oregon">Portland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Seattle" title="Seattle">Seattle</a> have demonstrated that successful collaborative planning depends on a number of interrelated factors: the process must be truly inclusive, with all stakeholders and affected groups invited to the table; the community must have final decision-making authority; full government commitment (of both financial and intellectual resources) must be manifest; participants should be given clear objectives by planning staff, who facilitate the process by providing guidance, consultancy, expert opinions, and research; and facilitators should be trained in conflict resolution and community organisation.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_urban_planning&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_urban_planning_articles" title="Index of urban planning articles">Index of urban planning articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_in_Nazi_Germany" title="Urban planning in Nazi Germany">Urban planning in Nazi Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_in_communist_countries" title="Urban planning in communist countries">Urban planning in communist countries</a></li> <li><i><b><small><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/COL-city_icon.png/28px-COL-city_icon.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/COL-city_icon.png/42px-COL-city_icon.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/COL-city_icon.png/56px-COL-city_icon.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Cities" title="Portal:Cities">Cities portal</a></small></b></i></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_urban_planning&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_urban_planning&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dalley 1989, p.120.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Davreu1-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Davreu1_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davreu1_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Davreu, Robert (1978). "Cities of Mystery: The Lost Empire of the Indus Valley". <i>The World's Last Mysteries</i>. (second edition). Sydney: Reader's Digest. pp. 121-129. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-909486-61-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-909486-61-7">978-0-909486-61-7</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kipfer229-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kipfer229_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kipfer, Barbara Ann (2000). <i>Encyclopedic Dictionary of Archaeology</i>. (Illustrated edition). New York: Springer. p. 229. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-3064-6158-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-3064-6158-3">978-0-3064-6158-3</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eran Ben-Joseph, "Codes and Standards"; in Weber & Crane (2012), p. 357: "Other excavations, such as those in the Indus Valley, at Mohenjo-Daro and at Harappa in Punjam, show that the valley had cities planned and built in rectangular blocks lined with two-story houses along broad, straight streets. Such evidence of the pervasive use of orthogonal arrangements tells of an enduring continuity of farm, village, and city. The farmer's custom of long narrow fields and right-angled boundaries carried easily to streets and squares. However, the innovative geometry of towns and cities was influenced more by the mechanics of supplying water and draining sewage than in the imposition of right-angled street corners."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith,_Michael_E.2005" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_E._Smith_(archaeologist)" title="Michael E. Smith (archaeologist)">Smith, Michael E.</a> (May 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.public.asu.edu/%7Emesmith9/1-CompleteSet/MES-05-CitySize.pdf">"City Size in Late Post-Classic Mesoamerica"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Journal of Urban History</i>. <b>31</b> (4). Beverley Hills, CA: <a href="/wiki/SAGE_Publications" class="mw-redirect" title="SAGE Publications">SAGE Publications</a>: 403–434. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0096144204274396">10.1177/0096144204274396</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1798556">1798556</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145452272">145452272</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 February</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Urban+History&rft.atitle=City+Size+in+Late+Post-Classic+Mesoamerica&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=403-434&rft.date=2005-05&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1798556&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145452272%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0096144204274396&rft.au=Smith%2C+Michael+E.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.public.asu.edu%2F%257Emesmith9%2F1-CompleteSet%2FMES-05-CitySize.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+urban+planning" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://kyotohumanities.jp/KyotoHistory/Jo-Bo_system.html">"Jo-Bo System of Heian-kyo - City Planning in Classical Japan"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Jo-Bo+System+of+Heian-kyo+-+City+Planning+in+Classical+Japan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fkyotohumanities.jp%2FKyotoHistory%2FJo-Bo_system.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+urban+planning" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)" title="Politics (Aristotle)">Politics</a></i> II</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livius.org/articles/concept/hippodamian-plan/">"Hippodamian Plan - Livius"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Hippodamian+Plan+-+Livius&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.livius.org%2Farticles%2Fconcept%2Fhippodamian-plan%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+urban+planning" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaden2001" class="citation journal cs1">Paden, Roger (1 February 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10903770124644">"The two professions of Hippodamus of Miletus"</a>. <i>Philosophy & Geography</i>. <b>4</b> (1): 25–48. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F10903770124644">10.1080/10903770124644</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1090-3771">1090-3771</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144920561">144920561</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophy+%26+Geography&rft.atitle=The+two+professions+of+Hippodamus+of+Miletus&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=25-48&rft.date=2001-02-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144920561%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1090-3771&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F10903770124644&rft.aulast=Paden&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfonline.com%2Fdoi%2Ffull%2F10.1080%2F10903770124644&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+urban+planning" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_in_ancient_Egypt" title="Urban planning in ancient Egypt">Urban planning in ancient Egypt</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kolb, Frank (1984). Die Stadt im Altertum. München: Verlag C.H. Beck. pp. 51-141: Morris, A.E.J. (1972). History of Urban Form. Prehistory to the Renaissance. London. pp. 22-23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hippodamus is also reported to have played an important role in the (re-)planning of the city of <a href="/wiki/Piraeus" title="Piraeus">Piraeus</a>, and he is also associated to Thurii and Rhodes. It seems that the importance of Hippodamus' ideas was not so much in the orthogonal plan, but rather in the distribution of functions and social classes across the city. (Kolb 1984, pp. 115-120; Cahill, Nicholas (2002). Household and City Organization at Olynthus. New Haven. par. 1.2)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Morris 1972, pp. 39-41, 51-60; Kolb 1984, pp. 169-238; Benevolo, Leonardo (1993). Die Geschichte der Stadt. Frankfurt am Main/New York. pp. 256-267.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Harris, W. (1989). "Invisible Cities: the Beginning of Etruscan Urbanization". Atti del Secondo Congresso Internazionale Etrusco. Roma, 1989. pp. 375-392. p. 85. The Etruscans were, in their turn, probably also influenced in this respect by Greek and Hellenic culture.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jerke, Porter & Lassar (2008), pp. 8–9: "In his [Mark Salette of Gehry Partners] view, the core qualities of good design—loosely based on principles laid down by Vitruvius in the first century B.C. and countless reconceptualizations since—generally are functionality and durability, contextual compatibility, and enduring respect and value."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVitrivius1914" class="citation book cs1">Vitrivius (1914). <i>The Ten Books on Architecture, Bk I</i>. Morris H. Morgan (translator). Harvard University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ten+Books+on+Architecture%2C+Bk+I&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1914&rft.au=Vitrivius&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+urban+planning" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Demandt, Alexander (1998) <i>Die Kelten</i>. München: Verlag Ch. Beck. In fact, many sites where the Romans created towns, such as Paris, Vienna and Bratislava, had previously been Celtic settlements of more or less urban character.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bartlett, Robert (1993) <i>The Making of Europe. Conquest, Colonization and Cultural Change 950-1350</i>. London/New York. pp. 5-60, 106-197; Gutkind, A.E. (1964) <i>International History of City Development. Vol.I: Urban Development in Central-Europe</i>. New York / London. pp. 13-20, 63.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Siegfried_Giedion" class="mw-redirect" title="Siegfried Giedion">Siegfried Giedion</a>, <i>Space, Time and Architecture</i> (1941) 1962, in reference to an air view (fig.8) of the medieval Italian town of Bagnocavallo. Giedion's source was Luigi Piccinati, "Urbanistica Medioevale" in <i>Urbanistica deal Antichità ad Oggi</i> (Florence 1943).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Boerefijn, Wim (2010) <i>The foundation, planning and building of new towns in the 13th and 14th centuries in Europe. An architectural-historical research into urban form and its creation</i>. Phd. thesis Universiteit van Amsterdam. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-9025157-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-9025157-8">978-90-9025157-8</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://dare.uva.nl/en/record/336940">[1]</a>).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Beresford,_Maurice" class="mw-redirect" title="Beresford, Maurice">Beresford, Maurice</a> (1967) <i>New Towns of the Middle Ages. Town Plantation in England, Wales and Gascony</i>. London; Gutkind, E.A. (1972) <i>International History of City Development. Vol.VII: Urban Development in East-Central Europe: Poland, Czechoslovakia and Hungary</i>. New York/Londen; Lavedan, Pierre & Jeanne Hugueney (1974) <i>L'Urbanisme au Moyen Age</i>. Geneva/Paris; Friedman, David (1988) <i>Florentine New Towns. Urban Design in the late Middle Ages</i>. New York/Cambridge (Mass.)/London; Lauret, Alain, Raymond Malebranche & Gilles Séraphin (1988) <i>Bastides, villes nouvelles du moyen-age</i>. Toulouse; Guidoni, Enrico (1992) <i>Storia dell'urbanistica. Il Duecento</i>. Roma/Bari.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Siegfried_Giedion" class="mw-redirect" title="Siegfried Giedion">Siegfried Giedion</a>, <i>Space, Time and Architecture</i> (1941) 1962 p 43.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The undulating terrace of housing makes its appearance surprisingly late: Giedion's example is <a href="/wiki/Lansdown_Crescent,_Bath" title="Lansdown Crescent, Bath">Lansdown Crescent, Bath</a>, 1794; Giedion 1962, fig. 83.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKlaiber1993" class="citation journal cs1">Klaiber, Susan (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/990765">"Review of Turin, 1564-1680: Urban Design, Military Culture, and the Creation of the Absolutist Capital; Military Architecture, Cartography, and the Representation of the Early Modern European City: A Checklist of Treatises on Fortification in the Newberry Library, Martha D. Pollak"</a>. <i>Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians</i>. <b>52</b> (1): 101–103. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F990765">10.2307/990765</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0037-9808">0037-9808</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/990765">990765</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Society+of+Architectural+Historians&rft.atitle=Review+of+Turin%2C+1564-1680%3A+Urban+Design%2C+Military+Culture%2C+and+the+Creation+of+the+Absolutist+Capital%3B+Military+Architecture%2C+Cartography%2C+and+the+Representation+of+the+Early+Modern+European+City%3A+A+Checklist+of+Treatises+on+Fortification+in+the+Newberry+Library%2C+Martha+D.+Pollak&rft.volume=52&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=101-103&rft.date=1993&rft.issn=0037-9808&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F990765%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F990765&rft.aulast=Klaiber&rft.aufirst=Susan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F990765&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+urban+planning" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Shrady, <i>The Last Day</i> pp. 152–155.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6226/">"Pombaline Lisbon"</a>. <i>UNESCO World Heritage Centre</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 October</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=UNESCO+World+Heritage+Centre&rft.atitle=Pombaline+Lisbon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwhc.unesco.org%2Fen%2Ftentativelists%2F6226%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+urban+planning" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/728/">"Old and New Towns of Edinburgh"</a>. <i>UNESCO World Heritage Centre</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 October</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=UNESCO+World+Heritage+Centre&rft.atitle=Old+and+New+Towns+of+Edinburgh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwhc.unesco.org%2Fen%2Flist%2F728%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+urban+planning" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Girouard, Mark, <i>Cities and People</i>, 1985, London, p. 285.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Busquets, Joan <i>Barcelona, the urban evolution of a compact city</i>, 2005, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-8447-204-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-88-8447-204-5">978-88-8447-204-5</a>, Harvard University, p. 122.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLarsson1997" class="citation journal cs1">Larsson, Gerhard (1 June 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0197397596000598">"Land readjustment: A tool for urban development"</a>. <i>Habitat International</i>. <b>21</b> (2): 141–152. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0197-3975%2896%2900059-8">10.1016/S0197-3975(96)00059-8</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0197-3975">0197-3975</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Habitat+International&rft.atitle=Land+readjustment%3A+A+tool+for+urban+development&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=141-152&rft.date=1997-06-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0197-3975%2896%2900059-8&rft.issn=0197-3975&rft.aulast=Larsson&rft.aufirst=Gerhard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FS0197397596000598&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+urban+planning" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eran Ben-Joseph, "Codes and Standards"; in Weber & Crane (2012), p. 359: "In their search for a scientific model for the American city, these newly formed experts looked overseas. According to Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr. (1870–1957), the president of the National Planning Conference and the first president of the American City Planning Institute (1917), the model was found in Prussia (Germany). After the Franco-Prussian war (1870–1871), many Prussian cities experienced uncontrolled buildup of inner-city factories and housing, followed by dangerous health hazards and pollution. Citizens protested the deteriorating environmental conditions. Thereupon, Prussian city officials responded with a zone system that assigned particular land uses to designated locations."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jason Corburn, "Reconnecting Urban Planning and Public Health"; in Weber & Crane (2012), p. 398: "Consistent with the emerging aesthetic and technocratic ideals of planning, tools to classify and segment city functions took hold and land-use zoning emerged as one such powerful tool. Local zoning ordinances were often couched as both protecting public health and benefiting private landowners. For example, in the landmark 1926 Supreme Court case <i>Village of Euclid, Ohio, et al. v. Ambler Reality Company</i>, zoning was characterized as promoting health: 'the exclusion of buildings devoted to business, trade, etc., from residential districts, bears a rational relation to the health and safety of the community...by excluding from residential areas the confusion and danger of fire, contagion and disorder, which in greater or less degree attach to the location of stores, shops, and factories' (272 U.S. 365, 392). Yet, there was little to no epidemiologic evidence at the time suggesting that health improvements would come about by physically separating land uses, and some have suggested that zoning tended to concentrate health hazards and perpetuate disadvantages in poor urban communities (Maantay 2001)".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSliwka2011" class="citation journal cs1">Sliwka, Ryszard (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ecowebtown.it/n_7/09.html">"Toronto's Waterfront: Hybrid Landscapes and Infrastructures of Desire"</a>. <i>Magazine of Sustainable Design (Quadrimestrale on line sul progetto di città sostenibile) Edizione SCUT, Università Chieti-Pescara</i>. <b>7</b>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Magazine+of+Sustainable+Design+%28Quadrimestrale+on+line+sul+progetto+di+citt%C3%A0+sostenibile%29+Edizione+SCUT%2C+Universit%C3%A0+Chieti-Pescara&rft.atitle=Toronto%27s+Waterfront%3A+Hybrid+Landscapes+and+Infrastructures+of+Desire&rft.volume=7&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Sliwka&rft.aufirst=Ryszard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ecowebtown.it%2Fn_7%2F09.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+urban+planning" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStubben2008" class="citation book cs1">Stubben, Josef (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://urbanism.uchicago.edu/content/joseph-st%C3%BCbbens-city-building"><i>City Building (Der Stadtebau) - English Translate</i></a>. MIT Roch Library. pp. Forward - Emily Talen and Julia Koschinsky.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=City+Building+%28Der+Stadtebau%29+-+English+Translate&rft.pages=Forward+-+Emily+Talen+and+Julia+Koschinsky&rft.pub=MIT+Roch+Library&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Stubben&rft.aufirst=Josef&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Furbanism.uchicago.edu%2Fcontent%2Fjoseph-st%25C3%25BCbbens-city-building&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+urban+planning" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFranck1921" class="citation book cs1">Franck, H. Heinrich (1921). <i>Die Verwertung von synthetischen Fettsäureestern als Kunstspeisefette</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-663-07056-6">10.1007/978-3-663-07056-6</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-663-06143-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-663-06143-4"><bdi>978-3-663-06143-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Die+Verwertung+von+synthetischen+Fetts%C3%A4ureestern+als+Kunstspeisefette&rft.date=1921&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-663-07056-6&rft.isbn=978-3-663-06143-4&rft.aulast=Franck&rft.aufirst=H.+Heinrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+urban+planning" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHall2003" class="citation book cs1">Hall, Thomas (16 December 2003). <i>Planning Europe's Capital Cities</i>. Routledge. p. 389. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-203-44956-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-203-44956-1"><bdi>978-0-203-44956-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Planning+Europe%27s+Capital+Cities&rft.pages=389&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2003-12-16&rft.isbn=978-0-203-44956-1&rft.aulast=Hall&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+urban+planning" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/619445/urban-planning">"urban planning"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=urban+planning&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F619445%2Furban-planning&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+urban+planning" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/transformingsociety/towncountry/towns/overview/townplanning/">"The birth of town planning"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+birth+of+town+planning&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.parliament.uk%2Fabout%2Fliving-heritage%2Ftransformingsociety%2Ftowncountry%2Ftowns%2Foverview%2Ftownplanning%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+urban+planning" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rtpi.org.uk/about-the-rtpi/">RTPI.org.uk, <i>About the RTPI</i></a>. Retrieved 17 January 2013</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeter_Hall,_Mark_Tewdwr-Jones2010" class="citation book cs1">Peter Hall, Mark Tewdwr-Jones (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LFLydtcQf54C"><i>Urban and Regional Planning</i></a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-203-86142-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-203-86142-4"><bdi>978-0-203-86142-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Urban+and+Regional+Planning&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-203-86142-4&rft.au=Peter+Hall%2C+Mark+Tewdwr-Jones&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLFLydtcQf54C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+urban+planning" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rudi.net/node/6597">"To-morrow: A Peaceful Path to Real Reform"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=To-morrow%3A+A+Peaceful+Path+to+Real+Reform&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rudi.net%2Fnode%2F6597&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+urban+planning" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoodall1987" class="citation cs2">Goodall, B (1987), <i>Dictionary of Human Geography</i>, London: Penguin</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Human+Geography&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=1987&rft.aulast=Goodall&rft.aufirst=B&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+urban+planning" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHardy19994-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHardy19994_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHardy1999">Hardy 1999</a>, p. 4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFainsteinCampbell200343-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFainsteinCampbell200343_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFainsteinCampbell2003">Fainstein & Campbell 2003</a>, p. 43.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFainsteinCampbell200346-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFainsteinCampbell200346_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFainsteinCampbell2003">Fainstein & Campbell 2003</a>, p. 46.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHall200268-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHall200268_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHall2002">Hall 2002</a>, p. 68.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFainsteinCampbell200348-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFainsteinCampbell200348_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFainsteinCampbell2003">Fainstein & Campbell 2003</a>, p. 48.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110727123822/http://www.tcpa.org.uk/data/files/18991999.pdf"><i>History 1899–1999</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, TCPA, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tcpa.org.uk/data/files/18991999.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 27 July 2011</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+1899%E2%80%931999&rft.pub=TCPA&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tcpa.org.uk%2Fdata%2Ffiles%2F18991999.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+urban+planning" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-gayler-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-gayler_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGayler1996" class="citation book cs1">Gayler, Hih J. (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5NQhXsuCCTgC&q=%22hampstead+garden+suburb+%22+shops%22&pg=PA176"><i>Geographical excursions in London</i></a>. University Press of America. p. 176. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7618-0328-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7618-0328-7"><bdi>978-0-7618-0328-7</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 August</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Geographical+excursions+in+London&rft.pages=176&rft.pub=University+Press+of+America&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-7618-0328-7&rft.aulast=Gayler&rft.aufirst=Hih+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5NQhXsuCCTgC%26q%3D%2522hampstead%2Bgarden%2Bsuburb%2B%2522%2Bshops%2522%26pg%3DPA176&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+urban+planning" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHall2002" class="citation book cs1">Hall, Peter (2002). <i>Cities of Tomorrow</i>. Oxford: Blackwell. p. 74. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-23252-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-23252-0"><bdi>978-0-631-23252-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cities+of+Tomorrow&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=74&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-631-23252-0&rft.aulast=Hall&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+urban+planning" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carol Ann Christensen, <i>The American garden city and the new towns movement</i> (1986).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Daniel Schaffer, <i>Garden Cities for America: The Radburn Experience</i> (Temple University Press, 1982)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeertse2008" class="citation journal cs1">Geertse, Michel (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rgdoi.net/10.13140/RG.2.1.1850.6728">"Garden Cities to the World! The International Propagation of the Garden City Idea 1913-1926"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.13140%2FRG.2.1.1850.6728">10.13140/RG.2.1.1850.6728</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Garden+Cities+to+the+World%21+The+International+Propagation+of+the+Garden+City+Idea+1913-1926&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.13140%2FRG.2.1.1850.6728&rft.aulast=Geertse&rft.aufirst=Michel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frgdoi.net%2F10.13140%2FRG.2.1.1850.6728&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+urban+planning" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Evenson, Norma. <i>Le Corbusier: The Machine and the Grand Design.</i> George Braziller, Pub: New York, 1969 (p.7).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert Fishman, Urban Utopias in the Twentieth Century: Ebenezer Howard, Frank Lloyd Wright, and Le Corbusier (Cambridge, MA: <a href="/wiki/MIT_Press" title="MIT Press">MIT Press</a>, 1982), 231.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Friedman, "Varieties of Planning Experience: Toward a Globalized Planning Culture?"; in Weber & Crane (2012).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cuthbert (2006), p. 56: "Rationalist architecture and urbanism reached its zenith in its coincidence with functionalist social science and the eugenic strategies of fascism, particularly with Hitler and his architect Albert Speer, and with Mussolini (Marcello Piacentini, Giuseppi Terragni)."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Osborn, J and Whittick, A. 1977. 'New Towns: Their Origins, Achievements, and Progress'. Third Ed. Leonard Hill, London. First Pub 1963.pp 55</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Osborn, J and Whittick, A. 1977. 'New Towns: Their Origins, Achievements, and Progress'. Third Ed. Leonard Hill, London. First Pub 1963.pp56.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hall, P and Ward, C. 1998. 'Sociable Cities: the Legacy of Ebenezer Howard'. John Wiley and Sons, Chichester pp. 41-69.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rachel Weber & Randall Crane, "Planning as Scholarship: Origins and Prospects"; in Weber & Crane (2012).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Smith_Morris_1997-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Smith_Morris_1997_62-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Smith_Morris_1997_62-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Smith Morris et al. <i>British Town Planning and Urban Design</i>, 1997, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-582-23496-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-582-23496-3">978-0-582-23496-3</a>, Longman, Singapore.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cuthbert (2006), pp. 102–104.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ewing, R <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.smartgrowthamerica.org/gcindex.html">"Growing Cooler - the Evidence on Urban Development and Climate Change"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101224212241/http://smartgrowthamerica.org/gcindex.html">Archived</a> 24 December 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Retrieved on: 2009-03-16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Charter_of_the_New_Urbanism-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Charter_of_the_New_Urbanism_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cnu.org/charter">"Charter of the New Urbanism"</a>. Cnu.org<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 August</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Charter+of+the+New+Urbanism&rft.pub=Cnu.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnu.org%2Fcharter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+urban+planning" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Traditional_Architecture_Group-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Traditional_Architecture_Group_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180305215635/http://www.traditionalarchitecture.co.uk/aims.html">"Beauty, Humanism, Continuity between Past and Future"</a>. Traditional Architecture Group. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.traditionalarchitecture.co.uk/aims.html">the original</a> on 5 March 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 March</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Beauty%2C+Humanism%2C+Continuity+between+Past+and+Future&rft.pub=Traditional+Architecture+Group&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.traditionalarchitecture.co.uk%2Faims.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+urban+planning" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aia.org/SiteObjects/files/smartgrowth05.pdf">Issue Brief: Smart-Growth: Building Livable Communities</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181119170943/https://www.aia.org/SiteObjects/files/smartgrowth05.pdf">Archived</a> 19 November 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. American Institute of Architects. Retrieved on 2014-03-23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fainstein_New_Directions-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fainstein_New_Directions_68-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fainstein_New_Directions_68-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fainstein_New_Directions_68-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFainstein2000" class="citation book cs1">Fainstein, Susan S (2000). <i>New Directions in Planning Theory</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+Directions+in+Planning+Theory&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Fainstein&rft.aufirst=Susan+S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+urban+planning" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bogunovich, D <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://unitec.researchbank.ac.nz/bitstream/handle/10652/2169/SD%26P.pdf?sequence=1">"From planning sustainable cities to designing resilient urban regions "</a>. Retrieved on: 2014-12-06.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bogunovich, D <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://unitec.researchbank.ac.nz/handle/10652/2167">"Urban Sustainability 2.0: Resilient regions, sustainable sprawl and green infrastructure"</a>. Retrieved on: 2014-12-06.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jerke, Porter & Lassar (2008), p. 11: "Recognition that the economic and social future of the planet would require maintaining the integrity of natural systems led, in the 1980s, to international efforts to promote economic development that respects the functions of national systems while advancing social equity. The Brundtland Commission, a United Nations entity, formulated a mission statement for sustainable development in its 1987 report that expresses the guiding spirit of sustainability: 'development that integrates environmental, economic, and social concerns and can meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.' This mission statement has launched a multitude of activities and interests focused on overcoming issues such as international trade barriers, widespread poverty, overpopulation, and climate change."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wheeler_Stephen_2004-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wheeler_Stephen_2004_72-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wheeler_Stephen_2004_72-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wheeler_Stephen_2004_72-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWheeler2004" class="citation book cs1">Wheeler, Stephen (2004). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cityreader0000lega"><i>Planning Sustainable and Livable Cities</i></a></span>. New York: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-27173-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-27173-8"><bdi>978-0-415-27173-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Planning+Sustainable+and+Livable+Cities&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-415-27173-8&rft.aulast=Wheeler&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcityreader0000lega&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+urban+planning" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Oregon_Ballot_Measures_37_(2004)_and_49_(2007)" class="mw-redirect" title="Oregon Ballot Measures 37 (2004) and 49 (2007)">Oregon Ballot Measures 37 (2004) and 49 (2007)</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFInnesBooher2000" class="citation journal cs1">Innes, Judith; Booher, David (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://escholarship.org/uc/item/3r34r38h">"Public Participation in Planning: New Strategies for the 21st Century"</a>. <i>Working Paper 2000-2007</i>. University of California, Berkeley: Institute of Urban and Regional Development.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Working+Paper+2000-2007&rft.atitle=Public+Participation+in+Planning%3A+New+Strategies+for+the+21st+Century&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Innes&rft.aufirst=Judith&rft.au=Booher%2C+David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fescholarship.org%2Fuc%2Fitem%2F3r34r38h&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+urban+planning" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShandasMesser2008" class="citation journal cs1">Shandas, Vivek; Messer, W. Barry (2008). "Fostering Green Communities Through Civic Engagement, Community-Based Environmental Stewardship in the Portland Area". <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_the_American_Planning_Association" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of the American Planning Association">Journal of the American Planning Association</a></i>. <b>74</b> (4): 408–418. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01944360802291265">10.1080/01944360802291265</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:56276489">56276489</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Planning+Association&rft.atitle=Fostering+Green+Communities+Through+Civic+Engagement%2C+Community-Based+Environmental+Stewardship+in+the+Portland+Area&rft.volume=74&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=408-418&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F01944360802291265&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A56276489%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Shandas&rft.aufirst=Vivek&rft.au=Messer%2C+W.+Barry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+urban+planning" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSirianni2007" class="citation journal cs1">Sirianni, Carmen (2007). "Neighborhood Planning as Collaborative Democratic Design". <i>Journal of the American Planning Association</i>. <b>73</b> (4): 373–387. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01944360708978519">10.1080/01944360708978519</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154320789">154320789</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Planning+Association&rft.atitle=Neighborhood+Planning+as+Collaborative+Democratic+Design&rft.volume=73&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=373-387&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F01944360708978519&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154320789%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Sirianni&rft.aufirst=Carmen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+urban+planning" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_urban_planning&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Allmendinger, Phil and Michael Gunder, 2005, "Applying Lacanian Insight and a Dash of Derridean Deconstruction to Planning's 'Dark Side'," Planning Theory, vol. 4, pp. 87–112.</li> <li>Atmospheric Environment Volume 35, Issue 10, April 2001, Pages 1717–1727. "Traffic pollution in a downtown site of Buenos Aires City"</li> <li>Cuthbert, Alexander R. (2006). <i>The Form of Cities: Political Economy and Urban Design.</i> Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-1639-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-1639-8">978-1-4051-1639-8</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephanie_Dalley" title="Stephanie Dalley">Dalley, Stephanie</a>, 1989, <i>Myths from Mesopotamia: Creation, the Flood, Gilgamesh, and Others</i>, Oxford World's Classics, London, pp. 39–136</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFainsteinCampbell2003" class="citation book cs1">Fainstein, Susan S.; Campbell, Scott (2003). <i>Readings in planning theory</i> (2nd ed.). John Wiley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780631223474" title="Special:BookSources/9780631223474"><bdi>9780631223474</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Readings+in+planning+theory&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=John+Wiley&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9780631223474&rft.aulast=Fainstein&rft.aufirst=Susan+S.&rft.au=Campbell%2C+Scott&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+urban+planning" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Garvin, Alexander (2002). <i>The American City: What Works and What Doesn't</i>. New York: McGraw Hill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-137367-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-137367-8"><bdi>978-0-07-137367-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+American+City%3A+What+Works+and+What+Doesn%27t&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=McGraw+Hill&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-07-137367-8&rft.au=Garvin%2C+Alexander&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+urban+planning" class="Z3988"></span> (A standard text for many college and graduate courses in city planning in America)</li> <li>Gunder, Michael, 2003, "Passionate Planning for the Others' Desire: An Agonistic Response to the Dark Side of Planning," Progress in Planning, Vol. 60, no. 3, October, pp. 235–319.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHardy1999" class="citation book cs1">Hardy, Dennis (1999). <i>Tomorrow & Tomorrow, 1899–1999: the TCPA's First Hundred Years, and the Next</i>. London: Town and Country Planning Association.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tomorrow+%26+Tomorrow%2C+1899%E2%80%931999%3A+the+TCPA%27s+First+Hundred+Years%2C+and+the+Next&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Town+and+Country+Planning+Association&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Hardy&rft.aufirst=Dennis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+urban+planning" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li>Hoch, Charles, Linda C. Dalton and Frank S. So, editors (2000). <i>The Practice of Local Government Planning</i>, Intl City County Management Assn; 3rd edition. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87326-171-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87326-171-5">978-0-87326-171-5</a> (The "Green Book")</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_James_(academic)" title="Paul James (academic)">James, Paul</a>; Holden, Meg; Lewin, Mary; Neilson, Lyndsay; Oakley, Christine; Truter, Art; Wilmoth, David (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/7207756">"Managing Metropolises by Negotiating Mega-Urban Growth"</a>. In Harald Mieg and Klaus Töpfer (ed.). <i>Institutional and Social Innovation for Sustainable Urban Development</i>. Routledge.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Managing+Metropolises+by+Negotiating+Mega-Urban+Growth&rft.btitle=Institutional+and+Social+Innovation+for+Sustainable+Urban+Development&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=James&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft.au=Holden%2C+Meg&rft.au=Lewin%2C+Mary&rft.au=Neilson%2C+Lyndsay&rft.au=Oakley%2C+Christine&rft.au=Truter%2C+Art&rft.au=Wilmoth%2C+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F7207756&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+urban+planning" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Jerke, Dennis; Douglas R. Porter; and Terry J. Lassar (2008). <i>Urban Design and the Bottom Line: Optimizing the Return on Perception</i>. Washington, DC: <a href="/wiki/Urban_Land_Institute" title="Urban Land Institute">Urban Land Institute</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87420-996-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87420-996-9">978-0-87420-996-9</a>.</li> <li>Kemp, Roger L. and Carl J. Stephani (2011). "Cities Going Green: A Handbook of Best Practices." McFarland and Co., Inc., Jefferson, NC, USA, and London, England, UK. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7864-5968-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7864-5968-1">978-0-7864-5968-1</a>.</li> <li>Oke, T. R. (1982). "The energetic basis of the urban heat island". Quarterly Journal of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Meteorological_Society" title="Royal Meteorological Society">Royal Meteorological Society</a> 108: 1–24.</li> <li>Pløger, John, 2001, "Public Participation and the Art of Governance," Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design, vol. 28, no. 2, pp. 219–241.</li> <li>Roy, Ananya, 2008, "Post-Liberalism: On the Ethico-Politics of Planning," Planning Theory, vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 92–102.</li> <li>Santamouris, Matheos (2006). Environmental Design of Urban Buildings: An Integrated Approach.</li> <li>Shrady, Nicholas, <i>The Last Day: Wrath, Ruin & Reason in The Great Lisbon Earthquake of 1755</i>, Penguin, 2008, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-311460-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-311460-4">978-0-14-311460-4</a></li> <li>Tang, Wing-Shing, 2000, "Chinese Urban Planning at Fifty: An Assessment of the Planning Theory Literature," Journal of Planning Literature, vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 347–366.</li> <li>Tunnard, Christopher and Boris Pushkarev (1963). <i>Man-Made America: Chaos or Control?: An Inquiry into Selected Problems of Design in the Urbanized Landscape</i>, <a href="/wiki/New_Haven" class="mw-redirect" title="New Haven">New Haven</a>: <a href="/wiki/Yale_University" title="Yale University">Yale University</a> Press. (This book won the <a href="/wiki/National_Book_Award" title="National Book Award">National Book Award</a>, strictly America; a time capsule of photography and design approach.)</li> <li>Weber, Rachel, and Randall Crane (2012). <i>The Oxford Handbook of Urban Planning</i>. Oxford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-537499-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-537499-5">978-0-19-537499-5</a></li> <li>Wheeler, Stephen (2004). "Planning Sustainable and Livable Cities", Routledge; 3rd edition.</li> <li>Yiftachel, Oren, 1995, "The Dark Side of Modernism: Planning as Control of an Ethnic Minority," in Sophie Watson and Katherine Gibson, eds., Postmodern Cities and Spaces (Oxford and Cambridge, MA: Blackwell), pp. 216–240.</li> <li>Yiftachel, Oren, 1998, "Planning and Social Control: Exploring the Dark Side," Journal of Planning Literature, vol. 12, no. 4, May, pp. 395–406.</li> <li>Yiftachel, Oren, 2006, "Re-engaging Planning Theory? Towards South-Eastern Perspectives," Planning Theory, vol. 5, no. 3, pp. 211–222.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_urban_planning&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.library.cornell.edu/Reps/DOCS/"><i>Urban Planning, 1794-1918: An International Anthology of Articles, Conference Papers, and Reports</i></a>, Selected, Edited, and Provided with Headnotes by John W. Reps, Professor Emeritus, Cornell University.</li> <li><i>City Planning According to Artistic Principles</i>, <a href="/wiki/Camillo_Sitte" title="Camillo Sitte">Camillo Sitte</a>, 1889</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://opticosdesign.com/missing-middle-housing-responding-to-the-demand-for-walkable-urban-living-2/"><i>Missing Middle Housing: Responding to the Demand for Walkable Urban Living</i></a> by Daniel Parolek of Opticos Design, Inc., 2012</li> <li>Kemp, Roger L. and Carl J. Stephani (2011). "Cities Going Green: A Handbook of Best Practices." McFarland and Co., Inc., Jefferson, NC, USA, and London, England, UK. (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7864-5968-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7864-5968-1">978-0-7864-5968-1</a>).</li> <li><i>Tomorrow: A Peaceful Path to Real Reform</i>, <a href="/wiki/Ebenezer_Howard" title="Ebenezer Howard">Ebenezer Howard</a>, 1898</li> <li><i>The Improvement of Towns and Cities</i>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Mulford_Robinson" title="Charles Mulford Robinson">Charles Mulford Robinson</a>, 1901</li> <li><i>Town Planning in practice</i>, Raymond Unwin, 1909</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Principles_of_Scientific_Management" title="The Principles of Scientific Management">The Principles of Scientific Management</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Winslow_Taylor" title="Frederick Winslow Taylor">Frederick Winslow Taylor</a>, 1911</li> <li><i>Cities in Evolution</i>, <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Geddes" title="Patrick Geddes">Patrick Geddes</a>, 1915</li> <li><i>The Image of the City</i>, <a href="/wiki/Kevin_A._Lynch" title="Kevin A. Lynch">Kevin Lynch</a>, 1960</li> <li><i>The Concise Townscape</i>, <a href="/wiki/Gordon_Cullen" title="Gordon Cullen">Gordon Cullen</a>, 1961</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Death_and_Life_of_Great_American_Cities" title="The Death and Life of Great American Cities">The Death and Life of Great American Cities</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Jane_Jacobs" title="Jane Jacobs">Jane Jacobs</a>, 1961</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_City_in_History" title="The City in History">The City in History</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Mumford" title="Lewis Mumford">Lewis Mumford</a>, 1961</li> <li><i>The City is the Frontier</i>, Charles Abrams, Harper & Row Publishing, New York, 1965.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Pattern_Language" title="A Pattern Language">A Pattern Language</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Alexander" title="Christopher Alexander">Christopher Alexander</a>, Sara Ishikawa and <a href="/wiki/Murray_Silverstein" title="Murray Silverstein">Murray Silverstein</a>, 1977</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=G3hPAAAAMAAJ&q=What+do+planners+do%3F&dq=What+do+planners+do%3F"><i>What Do Planners Do?: Power, Politics, and Persuasion</i></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150525223406/http://www.uic.edu/cuppa/upp/faculty/hoch.html">Charles Hoch</a>, American Planning Association, 1994. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-918286-91-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-918286-91-8">978-0-918286-91-8</a></li> <li><i>Planning the Twentieth-Century American City</i>, Christopher Silver and Mary Corbin Sies (Eds.), <a href="/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University_Press" title="Johns Hopkins University Press">Johns Hopkins University Press</a>, 1996</li> <li>"The City Shaped: Urban Patterns and Meanings Through History", <a href="/wiki/Spiro_Kostof" title="Spiro Kostof">Spiro Kostof</a>, 2nd Edition, Thames and Hudson Ltd, 1999 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-500-28099-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-500-28099-7">978-0-500-28099-7</a></li> <li><i>The American City: A Social and Cultural History</i>, Daniel J. Monti Jr., Oxford, England and Malden, Massachusetts: <a href="/wiki/Blackwell_Publishers" class="mw-redirect" title="Blackwell Publishers">Blackwell Publishers</a>, 1999. 391 pp. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55786-918-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55786-918-0">978-1-55786-918-0</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081226232823/http://islandpress.org/bookstore/details.php?isbn=9781559638531"><i>Urban Development: The Logic Of Making Plans</i></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140615033738/http://www.urban.uiuc.edu/faculty/hopkins/">Lewis D. Hopkins</a>, Island Press, 2001. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55963-853-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55963-853-1">978-1-55963-853-1</a></li> <li><i>Readings in Planning Theory</i>, Susan Fainstein and Scott Campbell, Oxford, England and Malden, Massachusetts: <a href="/wiki/Blackwell_Publishers" class="mw-redirect" title="Blackwell Publishers">Blackwell Publishers</a>, 2003.</li> <li>Taylor, Nigel, (2007), <i>Urban Planning Theory since 1945</i>, London, Sage.</li> <li><i>Planning for the Unplanned: Recovering from Crises in Megacities</i>, by Aseem Inam (published by Routledge USA, 2005). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-95130-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-95130-2">978-0-415-95130-2</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoeing2019" class="citation journal cs1">Boeing, Geoff (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs41109-019-0189-1">"Urban spatial order: street network orientation, configuration, and entropy"</a>. <i>Applied Network Science</i>. <b>4</b> (1): 1–19. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1808.00600">1808.00600</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs41109-019-0189-1">10.1007/s41109-019-0189-1</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2364-8228">2364-8228</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Applied+Network+Science&rft.atitle=Urban+spatial+order%3A+street+network+orientation%2C+configuration%2C+and+entropy&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-19&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1808.00600&rft.issn=2364-8228&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs41109-019-0189-1&rft.aulast=Boeing&rft.aufirst=Geoff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%252Fs41109-019-0189-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+urban+planning" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_urban_planning&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://planninghistory.org">International Planning History Society</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReps2002" class="citation web cs1">Reps, John W. (27 November 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://urbanplanning.library.cornell.edu/DOCS/homepage.htm">"Urban Planning, 1794-1918: An International Anthology of Articles, Conference Papers, and Reports"</a>. <i>Research Guides</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Research+Guides&rft.atitle=Urban+Planning%2C+1794-1918%3A+An+International+Anthology+of+Articles%2C+Conference+Papers%2C+and+Reports&rft.date=2002-11-27&rft.aulast=Reps&rft.aufirst=John+W.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Furbanplanning.library.cornell.edu%2FDOCS%2Fhomepage.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+urban+planning" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Urban_planning" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Urban_Planning" title="Template:Urban Planning"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Urban_Planning" title="Template talk:Urban Planning"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Urban_Planning" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Urban Planning"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Urban_planning" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning" title="Urban planning">Urban planning</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_of_urban_planning" title="Theories of urban planning">Theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_urban_planning_articles" title="Index of urban planning articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_urban_planning" title="Outline of urban planning">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_area" title="Urban area">Urban area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/City" title="City">City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_area" title="Metropolitan area">Metropolitan area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suburb" title="Suburb">Suburb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_use" title="Land use">Land use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planning" title="Planning">Planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planning_and_zoning_commission" title="Planning and zoning commission">Planning and zoning commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Growth_management" title="Growth management">Growth management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Urbanism_Day" title="World Urbanism Day">World Urbanism Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_market_area" title="Labor market area">Labor market area</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major<br />branches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land-use_planning" title="Land-use planning">Land-use planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comprehensive_planning" title="Comprehensive planning">Comprehensive planning</a> (US)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History of urban planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_planning" title="Spatial planning">Spatial planning</a> (Eur)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redevelopment" title="Redevelopment">Redevelopment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_design" title="Urban design">Urban design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_green_space" title="Urban green space">Urban green space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urbanism" title="Urbanism">Urbanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Rural</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_development" title="Conservation development">Conservation development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preservation_development" title="Preservation development">Preservation development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_housing" title="Rural housing">Rural housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Village_design_statement" title="Village design statement">Village design statement</a> (UK)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Regional_planning" title="Regional planning">Regional planning</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Regional_Planning_Association_of_America" title="Regional Planning Association of America">Regional Planning Association of America</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Environmental_planning" title="Environmental planning">Environmental planning</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_design" title="Environmental design">Environmental design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_assessment" title="Environmental impact assessment">Environmental impact assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recreation_resource_planning" title="Recreation resource planning">Recreation resource planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_development" title="Sustainable development">Sustainable development</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Transportation_planning" title="Transportation planning">Transportation planning</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_forecasting" title="Transportation forecasting">Transportation forecasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trip_distribution" title="Trip distribution">Trip distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rational_planning_model" title="Rational planning model">Rational planning model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transit-oriented_development" title="Transit-oriented development">Transit-oriented development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_transportation_planner" title="Professional transportation planner">Professional transportation planner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_freight_distribution" title="Urban freight distribution">Urban freight distribution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Economic_development" title="Economic development">Economic development</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Community_economic_development" title="Community economic development">Community economic development</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts/ <br />theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Athens_Charter" title="Athens Charter">Athens Charter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Car-free_movement" title="Car-free movement">Car-free movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/City_Beautiful_movement" title="City Beautiful movement">City Beautiful movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark-sky_movement" title="Dark-sky movement">Dark-sky movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garden_city_movement" title="Garden city movement">Garden city movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_planning" title="Indigenous planning">Indigenous planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NIMBY" title="NIMBY">NIMBY</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Urbanism" title="New Urbanism">New Urbanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Settlement_movement" title="Settlement movement">Settlement movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smart_growth" title="Smart growth">Smart growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(architecture)" title="Structuralism (architecture)">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_towns" class="mw-redirect" title="Transition towns">Transition towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/YIMBY_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="YIMBY movement">YIMBY</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Theories_of_urban_planning" title="Theories of urban planning">Theories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Collaborative_planning" class="mw-redirect" title="Collaborative planning">Collaborative planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Context_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Context theory">Context theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekistics" title="Ekistics">Ekistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principles_of_Intelligent_Urbanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Principles of Intelligent Urbanism">Intelligent urbanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livable_streets" class="mw-redirect" title="Livable streets">Livable streets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_urbanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Market urbanism">Market urbanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_planning" class="mw-redirect" title="Radical planning">Radical planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_renewal" title="Urban renewal">Urban renewal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Category:Cities_by_type" title="Category:Cities by type">Cities by type</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Company_town" title="Company town">Company town</a> / <a href="/wiki/Monotown" title="Monotown">Monotown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commuter_town" title="Commuter town">Commuter town</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghost_town" title="Ghost town">Ghost town</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_city" title="Global city">Global city</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_community" title="Mining community">Mining community</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pit_village" title="Pit village">Pit village</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Man_camp" title="Man camp">Man camp</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Logging_camp" title="Logging camp">Logging camp</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Model_village" title="Model village">Model village</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planned_community" title="Planned community">Planned community</a> (New town)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intentional_community" title="Intentional community">Intentional community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arcology" title="Arcology">Arcology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_village" title="Urban village">Urban village</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boomtown" title="Boomtown">Boomtown</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affordable_housing" title="Affordable housing">Affordable housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cityscape" title="Cityscape">Cityscape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cluster_development" title="Cluster development">Cluster development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complete_Communities" class="mw-redirect" title="Complete Communities">Complete Communities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_community" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation community">Conservation community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creative_city" title="Creative city">Creative city</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eminent_domain" title="Eminent domain">Eminent domain</a> (US)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filtering_(housing)" title="Filtering (housing)">Filtering (housing)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gentrification" title="Gentrification">Gentrification</a> / <a href="/wiki/Brusselization" title="Brusselization">Brusselization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infill" title="Infill">Infill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthy_city" title="Healthy city">Healthy cities</a> / <a href="/wiki/Healthy_community_design" title="Healthy community design">Healthy community design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LEED-ND" class="mw-redirect" title="LEED-ND">LEED-ND</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leapfrog_development" title="Leapfrog development">Leapfrog development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed-use_development" title="Mixed-use development">Mixed-use development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Model_Cities_Program" title="Model Cities Program">Model cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permeability_(spatial_and_transport_planning)" title="Permeability (spatial and transport planning)">Permeability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Placemaking" title="Placemaking">Placemaking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planning_gain" title="Planning gain">Planning gain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planning_Permission" class="mw-redirect" title="Planning Permission">Planning Permission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_flight" title="Rural flight">Rural flight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temporary_use" title="Temporary use">Temporary use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_place" title="Third place">Third place</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tract_housing" title="Tract housing">Tract housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transferable_development_rights" title="Transferable development rights">Transferable development rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_decay" title="Urban decay">Urban decay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_growth_boundary" title="Urban growth boundary">Urban growth boundary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_sprawl" title="Urban sprawl">Urban sprawl</a> / <a href="/wiki/Peri-urbanisation" title="Peri-urbanisation">Peri-urbanisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_vitality" title="Urban vitality">Urban vitality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">Urbanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verticalization" title="Verticalization">Verticalization</a> / <a href="/wiki/High-rise" class="mw-redirect" title="High-rise">High-rise urbanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoning" title="Zoning">Zoning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Urban_planner" title="Urban planner">Theorists/<br />practitioners</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9s_Duany" title="Andrés Duany">Andrés Duany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarence_Perry" title="Clarence Perry">Clarence Perry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarence_Stein" title="Clarence Stein">Clarence Stein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colin_Buchanan_(town_planner)" title="Colin Buchanan (town planner)">Colin Buchanan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Burnham" title="Daniel Burnham">Daniel Burnham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Appleyard" title="Donald Appleyard">Donald Appleyard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ebenezer_Howard" title="Ebenezer Howard">Ebenezer Howard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Bacon_(architect)" title="Edmund Bacon (architect)">Edmund Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Benveniste" title="Guy Benveniste">Guy Benveniste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ian_McHarg" title="Ian McHarg">Ian McHarg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Rouse" title="James Rouse">James Rouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konstantinos_Apostolos_Doxiadis" class="mw-redirect" title="Konstantinos Apostolos Doxiadis">Konstantinos Doxiadis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kevin_A._Lynch" title="Kevin A. Lynch">Kevin A. Lynch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Le_Corbusier" title="Le Corbusier">Le Corbusier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loretta_Lees" title="Loretta Lees">Loretta Lees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Calthorpe" title="Peter Calthorpe">Peter Calthorpe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Geddes" title="Patrick Geddes">Patrick Geddes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Unwin" title="Raymond Unwin">Raymond Unwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Adams_(architect)" title="Thomas Adams (architect)">Thomas Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_urban_theorists" title="List of urban theorists">List of urban theorists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_urban_planners" title="List of urban planners">List of urban planners</a></li></ul> <ul><li class="mw-empty-elt"></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Critics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Farrelly" title="Elizabeth Farrelly">Elizabeth Farrelly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jane_Jacobs" title="Jane Jacobs">Jane Jacobs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Howard_Kunstler" title="James Howard Kunstler">James Howard Kunstler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewis_Mumford" title="Lewis Mumford">Lewis Mumford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randal_O%27Toole" title="Randal O'Toole">Randal O'Toole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Training</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_education" title="Urban planning education">Planning education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Planning_Accreditation_Board" title="Planning Accreditation Board">Planning Accreditation Board</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graduate_real_estate_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Graduate real estate education">Real estate education</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Professional_planning_institutes" title="Category:Professional planning institutes">Professional organizations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Places</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Countries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_in_Australia" title="Urban planning in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_in_China" title="Urban planning in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="Urban planning in the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_in_Russia" title="Urban planning in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_planning_in_Serbia" title="Spatial planning in Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_in_Singapore" title="Urban planning in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Town_and_country_planning_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Town and country planning in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_of_Barcelona" title="Urban planning of Barcelona">Barcelona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_of_Shanghai" title="Urban planning of Shanghai">Shanghai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_of_Sydney" title="Urban planning of Sydney">Sydney</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_in_Africa" title="Urban planning in Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_in_communist_countries" title="Urban planning in communist countries">Communist countries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_in_Nazi_Germany" title="Urban planning in Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_in_ancient_Egypt" title="Urban planning in ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related<br />disciplines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture" title="Architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_engineering" title="Civil engineering">Civil engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_economics" title="Development economics">Development economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_ecology" title="Urban ecology">Urban ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_economics" title="Urban economics">Urban economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_development" title="Land development">Land development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_architecture" title="Landscape architecture">Landscape architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_spatial_planning" title="Marine spatial planning">Marine spatial planning </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">Public health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_policy" title="Public policy">Public policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_estate_development" title="Real estate development">Real estate development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Social sciences">Social sciences</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/COL-city_icon.png/28px-COL-city_icon.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/COL-city_icon.png/42px-COL-city_icon.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/COL-city_icon.png/56px-COL-city_icon.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Cities" title="Portal:Cities">Cities portal</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Urban_planning" title="Category:Urban planning">Category</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_planned_cities" title="List of planned cities">List of planned cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_planning_journals" title="List of planning journals">List of planning journals</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Urban_planning" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Urban planning"><b>Commons</b></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Environmental_social_science" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Environmental_social_science" title="Template:Environmental social science"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Environmental_social_science" title="Template talk:Environmental social science"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Environmental_social_science" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Environmental social science"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Environmental_social_science" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Environmental_social_science" title="Environmental social science">Environmental social science</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_anthropology" title="Ecological anthropology">Ecological anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">Ecological economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_anthropology" title="Environmental anthropology">Environmental anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_crime" title="Environmental crime">Environmental crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_economics" title="Environmental economics">Environmental economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_communication" title="Environmental communication">Environmental communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_history" title="Environmental history">Environmental history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_politics" title="Environmental politics">Environmental politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_psychology" title="Environmental psychology">Environmental psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_sociology" title="Environmental sociology">Environmental sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_ecology" title="Human ecology">Human ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_geography" title="Human geography">Human geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ecology" title="Political ecology">Political ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_science" title="Regional science">Regional science</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sustainable_development.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Sustainable_development.svg/150px-Sustainable_development.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="96" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Sustainable_development.svg/225px-Sustainable_development.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Sustainable_development.svg/300px-Sustainable_development.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="326" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agroecology" title="Agroecology">Agroecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthrozoology" title="Anthrozoology">Anthrozoology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_geography" title="Behavioral geography">Behavioral geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_studies" title="Community studies">Community studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">Demography</a></li> <li>Design <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_design" title="Ecological design">ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_design" title="Environmental design">environmental</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_humanities" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecological humanities">Ecological humanities</a></li> <li>Economics <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Energy_economics" title="Energy economics">energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermoeconomics" title="Thermoeconomics">thermo</a></li></ul></li> <li>Environmental <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_education" title="Environmental education">education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_ethics" title="Environmental ethics">ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_law" title="Environmental law">law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_science" title="Environmental science">science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_studies" title="Environmental studies">studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_justice" title="Environmental justice">justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_racism" title="Environmental racism">racism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnobiology" title="Ethnobiology">Ethnobiology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethnobotany" title="Ethnobotany">botany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnoecology" title="Ethnoecology">ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnozoology" title="Ethnozoology">zoology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry" title="Forestry">Forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_ecology" title="Industrial ecology">Industrial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_geography" title="Integrated geography">Integrated geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permaculture" title="Permaculture">Permaculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_sociology" title="Rural sociology">Rural sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexecology" title="Sexecology">Sexecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science,_technology_and_society" class="mw-redirect" title="Science, technology and society">Science, technology and society</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Science_studies" title="Science studies">science studies</a></li></ul></li> <li>Sustainability <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability_science" title="Sustainability science">science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability_studies" title="Sustainability studies">studies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_ecology" title="Systems ecology">Systems ecology</a></li> <li>Urban <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_ecology" title="Urban ecology">ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_geography" title="Urban geography">geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_metabolism" title="Urban metabolism">metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_studies" title="Urban studies">studies</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applied</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Architecture <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_architecture" title="Landscape architecture">landscape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_architecture" title="Sustainable architecture">sustainable</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecopsychology" title="Ecopsychology">Ecopsychology</a></li> <li>Engineering <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_engineering" title="Ecological engineering">ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_engineering" title="Environmental engineering">environmental</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_criminology" title="Green criminology">Green criminology</a></li> <li>Health <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_health" title="Environmental health">environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_epidemiology" title="Environmental epidemiology">epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Occupational safety and health">occupational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">public</a></li></ul></li> <li>Management <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_resources_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental resources management">environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisheries_management" title="Fisheries management">fisheries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_forest_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Sustainable forest management">forest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_resource_management" title="Natural resource management">natural resource</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management" title="Waste management">waste</a></li></ul></li> <li>Planning <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_planning" title="Environmental planning">environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land-use_planning" title="Land-use planning">land use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_planning" title="Regional planning">regional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_planning" title="Spatial planning">spatial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning" title="Urban planning">urban</a></li></ul></li> <li>Policy <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Energy_policy" title="Energy policy">energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_policy" title="Environmental policy">environmental</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Environment" title="Portal:Environment">Environment portal</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Environmental_social_science" title="Category:Environmental social science">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Environmental_social_science_concepts" title="Category:Environmental social science concepts">Concepts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_degrees" title="List of environmental degrees">Degrees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_social_science_journals" title="List of environmental social science journals">Journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environment_research_institutes" class="mw-redirect" title="List of environment research institutes">Research institutes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Environmental_social_scientists" title="Category:Environmental social scientists">Scholars</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Real_estate_developments" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Real_estate_developments" title="Template:Real estate developments"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Real_estate_developments" title="Template talk:Real estate developments"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Real_estate_developments" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Real estate developments"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Real_estate_developments" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Real_estate_development" title="Real estate development">Real estate developments</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Planned_commercial_developments" title="Category:Planned commercial developments">Commercial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airport" title="Airport">Airport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_park" title="Business park">Business park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_area" title="Commercial area">Commercial area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed-use_development" title="Mixed-use development">Mixed-use development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Office_building" class="mw-redirect" title="Office building">Office building</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Port" title="Port">Port</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inland_port" title="Inland port">inland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_center_(retail)" title="Power center (retail)">Power center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retail_park" title="Retail park">Retail park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riverfront" title="Riverfront">Riverfront</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shopping_center" title="Shopping center">Shopping center</a> (<a href="/wiki/Shopping_mall" title="Shopping mall">Shopping mall</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_shopping_streets_and_districts_by_city" title="List of shopping streets and districts by city">Shopping streets and districts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Planned_industrial_developments" title="Category:Planned industrial developments">Industrial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Business_cluster" title="Business cluster">Business cluster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_district" title="Industrial district">Industrial district</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_park" title="Industrial park">Industrial park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_technology_centers" title="List of technology centers">Technology centers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Planned_residential_developments" title="Category:Planned residential developments">Residential</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrihood" title="Agrihood">Agrihood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boarding_house" title="Boarding house">Boarding house</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bungalow_court" title="Bungalow court">Bungalow court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/City_block" title="City block">City block</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Closed_community" title="Closed community">Closed community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Company_town" title="Company town">Company town</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_community" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation community">Conservation community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_home" title="Executive home">Executive home</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golf_course_community" title="Golf course community">Golf course community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gated_community" title="Gated community">Gated community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_estate" title="Housing estate">Housing estate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intentional_community" title="Intentional community">Intentional community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luxury_apartment" title="Luxury apartment">Luxury apartment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McMansion" title="McMansion">McMansion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed-use_development" title="Mixed-use development">Mixed-use development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Model_dwellings_company" title="Model dwellings company">Model dwellings for the poor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multifamily_residential" title="Multifamily residential">Multifamily residential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penthouse_apartment" title="Penthouse apartment">Penthouse apartment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_community" title="Private community">Private community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_housing" title="Public housing">Public housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airpark" title="Airpark">Residential airpark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Residential_area" title="Residential area">Residential area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retirement_community" title="Retirement community">Retirement community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revenue_house" title="Revenue house">Revenue house</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rooming_house" title="Rooming house">Rooming house</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single-room_occupancy" title="Single-room occupancy">Single-room occupancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subdivision_(land)" title="Subdivision (land)">Subdivision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tract_housing" title="Tract housing">Tract housing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Science/education</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Campus" title="Campus">Campus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_research_parks" title="List of research parks">Research park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_campus" title="Satellite campus">Satellite campus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_park" title="Science park">Science park</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Planned_municipal_developments" title="Category:Planned municipal developments">Municipal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arcology" title="Arcology">Arcology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civic_center" title="Civic center">Civic center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garden_city_movement" title="Garden city movement">Garden city movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Model_village" title="Model village">Model village</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_planned_cities" title="List of planned cities">Planned cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planned_community" title="Planned community">Planned community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_green_space" title="Urban green space">Urban green space</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_park" title="Urban park">parks</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Building" title="Building">Buildings</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_building_types" title="List of building types">types</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apartment" title="Apartment">Apartment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House" title="House">House</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_house_types" title="List of house types">types</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skyscraper" title="Skyscraper">Skyscraper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tower_block" title="Tower block">Tower block</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Villa" title="Villa">Villa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brownfield_land" title="Brownfield land">Brownfield land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cemetery" title="Cemetery">Cemetery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Residential_cluster_development" title="Residential cluster development">Residential cluster development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction" title="Construction">Construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Context_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Context theory">Context theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eminent_domain" title="Eminent domain">Eminent domain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenfield_land" title="Greenfield land">Greenfield land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greyfield_land" title="Greyfield land">Greyfield land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundscraper" title="Groundscraper">Groundscraper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land-use_planning" title="Land-use planning">Land-use planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_non-building_structure_types" title="List of non-building structure types">Nonbuilding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NIMBY" title="NIMBY">NIMBY</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Park" title="Park">Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parking" title="Parking">Parking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planning_permission" title="Planning permission">Planning permission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Playground" title="Playground">Playground</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redevelopment" title="Redevelopment">Redevelopment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_planning" title="Regional planning">Regional planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_design" title="Urban design">Urban design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning" title="Urban planning">Urban planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/YIMBY" title="YIMBY">YIMBY</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoning" title="Zoning">Zoning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Big_single-family_home_2.jpg/16px-Big_single-family_home_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Big_single-family_home_2.jpg/24px-Big_single-family_home_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Big_single-family_home_2.jpg/32px-Big_single-family_home_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="604" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Housing" title="Portal:Housing">Housing portal</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q19720696#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh2008100819">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007552007505171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_urban_planning&oldid=1252004014">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_urban_planning&oldid=1252004014</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Category</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_urban_planning" title="Category:History of urban planning">History of urban planning</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_errors:_missing_periodical" title="Category:CS1 errors: missing periodical">CS1 errors: missing periodical</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_April_2015" title="Category:Use dmy dates from April 2015">Use dmy dates from April 2015</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_American_English_from_March_2015" title="Category:Use American English from March 2015">Use American English from March 2015</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_Wikipedia_articles_written_in_American_English" title="Category:All Wikipedia articles written in American English">All Wikipedia articles written in American English</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_to_be_expanded_from_January_2024" title="Category:Articles to be expanded from January 2024">Articles to be expanded from January 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_to_be_expanded" title="Category:All articles to be expanded">All articles to be expanded</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_needing_additional_references_from_March_2022" title="Category:Articles needing additional references from March 2022">Articles needing additional references from March 2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_needing_additional_references" title="Category:All articles needing additional references">All articles needing additional references</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_November_2022" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from November 2022">Articles with unsourced statements from November 2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_November_2013" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from November 2013">Articles with unsourced statements from November 2013</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 19 October 2024, at 07:42<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_urban_planning&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-zvhrd","wgBackendResponseTime":137,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.106","walltime":"1.381","ppvisitednodes":{"value":7764,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":171863,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":5283,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":16,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":13,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":211939,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1091.682 1 -total"," 32.86% 358.708 1 Template:Reflist"," 11.92% 130.162 7 Template:Navbox"," 11.60% 126.647 17 Template:ISBN"," 11.40% 124.473 10 Template:Cite_journal"," 10.41% 113.678 1 Template:Land-use_planning"," 10.03% 109.459 1 Template:Short_description"," 7.32% 79.925 17 Template:Catalog_lookup_link"," 6.90% 75.332 13 Template:Cite_book"," 6.16% 67.205 2 Template:Pagetype"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.590","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":11244751,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFBoeing2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFainstein2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFainsteinCampbell2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFranck1921\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGayler1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGeertse2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoodall1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHall2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHall2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHardy1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFInnesBooher2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKlaiber1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLarsson1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPaden2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeter_Hall,_Mark_Tewdwr-Jones2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReps2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShandasMesser2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSirianni2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSliwka2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith,_Michael_E.2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStubben2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVitrivius1914\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWheeler2004\"] = 1,\n [\"China\"] = 1,\n [\"Japan\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Anchor\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation\"] = 2,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 13,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 10,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 10,\n [\"Convert\"] = 3,\n [\"Developments\"] = 1,\n [\"Environmental social science\"] = 1,\n [\"Expand section\"] = 1,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 17,\n [\"Ill\"] = 1,\n [\"Land-use planning\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 2,\n [\"Portal-inline\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 5,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Unreferenced section\"] = 1,\n [\"Use American English\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 2,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"small\",\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-9nxpb","timestamp":"20241122150249","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"History of urban planning","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/History_of_urban_planning","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q19720696","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q19720696","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2015-03-21T12:56:34Z","dateModified":"2024-10-19T07:42:33Z","headline":"aspect of history"}</script> </body> </html>