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class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Phonotactics </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Phonotactics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Phonotactics subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Phonotactics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Syllable_structure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Syllable_structure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Syllable structure </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Syllable_structure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Onset" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Onset"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.1 Onset </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Onset-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Other_onsets" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_onsets"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.1.1 Other onsets </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_onsets-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nucleus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nucleus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.2 Nucleus </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nucleus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coda" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coda"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.3 Coda </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coda-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Syllable-level_patterns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Syllable-level_patterns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Syllable-level patterns </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Syllable-level_patterns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Word-level_patterns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Word-level_patterns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Word-level patterns </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Word-level_patterns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prosody" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prosody"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Prosody </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Prosody-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Prosody subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Prosody-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Prosodic_stress" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prosodic_stress"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Prosodic stress </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prosodic_stress-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rhythm" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rhythm"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Rhythm </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rhythm-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Intonation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intonation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Intonation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Intonation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History_of_English_pronunciation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_of_English_pronunciation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 History of English pronunciation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_of_English_pronunciation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Controversial_issues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Controversial_issues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Controversial issues </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Controversial_issues-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Controversial issues subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Controversial_issues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Velar_nasal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Velar_nasal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Velar nasal </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Velar_nasal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vowel_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vowel_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Vowel system </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vowel_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" 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Available in 21 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-21" aria-hidden="true" > 21 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonologie_der_englischen_Sprache" title="Phonologie der englischen Sprache – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Phonologie der englischen Sprache" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%B5%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D9%84%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D9%86%D8%AC%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="علم الأصوات للغة الإنجليزية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="علم الأصوات للغة الإنجليزية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BF_%E0%A6%A7%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC" title="ইংরেজি ধ্বনিতত্ত্ব – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ইংরেজি ধ্বনিতত্ত্ব" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonologia_de_l%27angl%C3%A8s" title="Fonologia de l'anglès – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Fonologia de l'anglès" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonologie_angli%C4%8Dtiny" title="Fonologie angličtiny – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Fonologie angličtiny" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seinyddiaeth_y_Saesneg" title="Seinyddiaeth y Saesneg – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Seinyddiaeth y Saesneg" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aussprache_der_englischen_Sprache" title="Aussprache der englischen Sprache – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Aussprache der englischen Sprache" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonolog%C3%ADa_del_ingl%C3%A9s" title="Fonología del inglés – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Fonología del inglés" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonologio_de_la_angla" title="Fonologio de la angla – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Fonologio de la angla" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AC%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C_%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="واج‌شناسی انگلیسی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="واج‌شناسی انگلیسی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prononciation_de_l%27anglais" title="Prononciation de l'anglais – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Prononciation de l'anglais" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%98%81%EC%96%B4_%EC%9D%8C%EC%9A%B4%EB%A1%A0" title="영어 음운론 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="영어 음운론" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonologia_della_lingua_inglese" title="Fonologia della lingua inglese – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Fonologia della lingua inglese" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angl%C5%B3_kalbos_fonologija" title="Anglų kalbos fonologija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Anglų kalbos fonologija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B9%E1%80%82%E1%80%9C%E1%80%AD%E1%80%95%E1%80%BA_%E1%80%BF%E1%80%9B%E1%80%97%E1%80%B1%E1%80%92" title="အင်္ဂလိပ် ဿရဗေဒ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="အင်္ဂလိပ် ဿရဗေဒ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingliz_fonologiyasi" title="Ingliz fonologiyasi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Ingliz fonologiyasi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonologia_i_fonetyka_j%C4%99zyka_angielskiego" title="Fonologia i fonetyka języka angielskiego – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Fonologia i fonetyka języka angielskiego" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Фонология английского языка – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Фонология английского языка" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_phonology" title="English phonology – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="English phonology" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" 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</div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=IPA_chart_for_English&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="IPA chart for English">IPA chart for English</a>)</div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Phonology of the English language</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output 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pronunciation</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Historical stages</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_English_phonology" title="Old English phonology">Old English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_English_phonology" title="Middle English phonology">Middle English</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English" title="Phonological history of English">General development</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_Old_English" title="Phonological history of Old English">In Old English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_Scots" title="Phonological history of Scots">In Scots</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_vowels" title="Phonological history of English vowels">Development of vowels</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pronunciation_of_English_%E2%9F%A8a%E2%9F%A9" title="Pronunciation of English ⟨a⟩">A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_close_back_vowels" title="Phonological history of English close back vowels">Close back</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_close_front_vowels" title="Phonological history of English close front vowels">Close front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_diphthongs" title="Phonological history of English diphthongs">Diphthongs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Vowel_Shift" title="Great Vowel Shift">Great Vowel Shift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_open_back_vowels" title="Phonological history of English open back vowels">Open back</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English-language_vowel_changes_before_historic_/l/" title="English-language vowel changes before historic /l/">Pre-L</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English-language_vowel_changes_before_historic_/r/" title="English-language vowel changes before historic /r/">Pre-R</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Development of consonants</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_consonants" title="Phonological history of English consonants">Single consonants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_consonant_clusters" title="Phonological history of English consonant clusters">Clusters</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Variable features</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cot%E2%80%93caught_merger" title="Cot–caught merger">Cot–caught merger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drawl" title="Drawl">Drawl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flapping" title="Flapping">Flapping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H-dropping" title="H-dropping">H-dropping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L-vocalization" title="L-vocalization">L-vocalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pronunciation_of_English_%E2%9F%A8ng%E2%9F%A9" title="Pronunciation of English ⟨ng⟩">NG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pronunciation_of_English_/r/" title="Pronunciation of English /r/">R</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhoticity_in_English" title="Rhoticity in English">Rhoticity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T-glottalization" title="T-glottalization">T-glottalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pronunciation_of_English_%E2%9F%A8th%E2%9F%A9" title="Pronunciation of English ⟨th⟩">TH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pronunciation_of_English_%E2%9F%A8wh%E2%9F%A9" title="Pronunciation of English ⟨wh⟩">WH</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Related topics</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_English" title="History of English">History of English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_orthography" title="English orthography">Spelling</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">This article contains <a href="/wiki/Phonetic_transcription" title="Phonetic transcription">phonetic transcriptions</a> in the <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">International Phonetic Alphabet</a> (IPA). For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">Help:IPA</a>. For the distinction between [ ], / / and ⟨ ⟩, see <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet#Brackets_and_transcription_delimiters" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters</a>.</div></div> </div> <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> phonology is the system of speech sounds used in spoken English. Like many other languages, English has wide variation in <a href="/wiki/Pronunciation" title="Pronunciation">pronunciation</a>, both <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_English_language" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the English language">historically</a> and from <a href="/wiki/List_of_dialects_of_the_English_language" class="mw-redirect" title="List of dialects of the English language">dialect to dialect</a>. In general, however, the regional dialects of English share a largely similar (but not identical) <a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">phonological</a> system. Among other things, most dialects have <a href="/wiki/Vowel_reduction" title="Vowel reduction">vowel reduction</a> in <a href="/wiki/Unstressed" class="mw-redirect" title="Unstressed">unstressed</a> <a href="/wiki/Syllable" title="Syllable">syllables</a> and a complex set of <a href="/wiki/Phonological_feature" class="mw-redirect" title="Phonological feature">phonological features</a> that distinguish <a href="/wiki/Fortis_and_lenis" title="Fortis and lenis">fortis and lenis</a> <a href="/wiki/Consonant" title="Consonant">consonants</a> (<a href="/wiki/Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">stops</a>, <a href="/wiki/Affricate" title="Affricate">affricates</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fricative" title="Fricative">fricatives</a>). Phonological analysis of English often concentrates on <a href="/wiki/Prestige_(sociolinguistics)" title="Prestige (sociolinguistics)">prestige</a> or <a href="/wiki/Standard_language" title="Standard language">standard</a> accents, such as <a href="/wiki/Received_Pronunciation" title="Received Pronunciation">Received Pronunciation</a> for <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a>, <a href="/wiki/General_American" class="mw-redirect" title="General American">General American</a> for the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Australian_English" title="Australian English">General Australian</a> for <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>. Nevertheless, many other dialects of English are spoken, which have developed differently from these standardized accents, particularly regional dialects. Descriptions of standardized reference accents provide only a limited guide to the phonology of other dialects of English. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonemes">Phonemes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_phonology&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Phonemes">edit</a>]</div> A <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phoneme</a> of a language or dialect is an <a href="/wiki/Abstraction" title="Abstraction">abstraction</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Speech_sound" class="mw-redirect" title="Speech sound">speech sound</a> or of a group of different sounds that are all perceived to have the same function by speakers of that particular language or dialect. For example, the English word through consists of three phonemes: the initial "th" sound, the "r" sound, and a vowel sound. The phonemes in that and many other English words do not always correspond directly to the letters used to spell them (English <a href="/wiki/Orthography" title="Orthography">orthography</a> is not as strongly <a href="/wiki/Phonemic_orthography" title="Phonemic orthography">phonemic</a> as that of many other languages). The number and distribution of phonemes in English vary from dialect to dialect, and also depend on the interpretation of the individual researcher. The number of consonant phonemes is generally put at 24 (or slightly more depending on the dialect). The number of vowels is subject to greater variation; in the system presented on this page there are 20–25 vowel phonemes in <a href="/wiki/Received_Pronunciation" title="Received Pronunciation">Received Pronunciation</a>, 14–16 in <a href="/wiki/General_American" class="mw-redirect" title="General American">General American</a> and 19–21 in <a href="/wiki/Australian_English" title="Australian English">Australian English</a>. The pronunciation keys used in dictionaries generally contain a slightly greater number of symbols than this, to take account of certain sounds used in foreign words and certain noticeable distinctions that may not be—strictly speaking—phonemic. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consonants">Consonants</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_phonology&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Consonants">edit</a>]</div> The following table shows the 24 consonant phonemes found in most dialects of English, plus /x/, whose distribution is more limited. <a href="/wiki/Fortis_and_lenis" title="Fortis and lenis">Fortis</a> consonants are always <a href="/wiki/Voicelessness" title="Voicelessness">voiceless</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">aspirated</a> in <a href="/wiki/Syllable_onset" class="mw-redirect" title="Syllable onset">syllable onset</a> (except in clusters beginning with /s/ or /ʃ/), and sometimes also <a href="/wiki/Glottalization" title="Glottalization">glottalized</a> to an extent in <a href="/wiki/Syllable_coda" class="mw-redirect" title="Syllable coda">syllable coda</a> (most likely to occur with /t/, see <a href="/wiki/T-glottalization" title="T-glottalization">T-glottalization</a>), while lenis consonants are always <a href="/wiki/Unaspirated_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Unaspirated consonant">unaspirated</a> and un-glottalized, and generally partially or fully <a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced</a>. The alveolars are usually <a href="/wiki/Apical_consonant" title="Apical consonant">apical</a>, i.e. pronounced with the tip of the tongue touching or approaching the roof of the mouth, though some speakers produce them <a href="/wiki/Laminal_consonant" title="Laminal consonant">laminally</a>, i.e. with the blade of the tongue.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERogers200020-1">[1]</a> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2"> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labial</a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Dental_consonant" title="Dental consonant">Dental</a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">Alveolar</a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Postalveolar_consonant" title="Postalveolar consonant">Post- alveolar</a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a> </th> <th scope="col"><a href="/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">Glottal</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">Nasal</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a><a href="#cite_note-syllabic-5">[a]</a> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a><a href="#cite_note-syllabic-5">[a]</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_nasal" title="Voiced velar nasal">ŋ</a> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2" scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Plosive" title="Plosive">Plosive</a> </th> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Fortis_and_lenis" title="Fortis and lenis">fortis</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless postalveolar affricate">tʃ</a> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Fortis_and_lenis" title="Fortis and lenis">lenis</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiced bilabial plosive">b</a> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiced postalveolar affricate">dʒ</a> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2" scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Fricative" title="Fricative">Fricative</a> </th> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Fortis_and_lenis" title="Fortis and lenis">fortis</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiceless labiodental fricative">f</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_fricative" title="Voiceless dental fricative">θ</a><a href="#cite_note-th-6">[b]</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless postalveolar fricative">ʃ</a> </td> <td> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a>)<a href="#cite_note-10">[c]</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[d]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Fortis_and_lenis" title="Fortis and lenis">lenis</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiced labiodental fricative">v</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_fricative" title="Voiced dental fricative">ð</a><a href="#cite_note-th-6">[b]</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiced alveolar fricative">z</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiced postalveolar fricative">ʒ</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Approximant" title="Approximant">Approximant</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[e]</a> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a><a href="#cite_note-syllabic-5">[a]</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar approximant">r</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[f]</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a><a href="#cite_note-23">[g]</a> </td> <td>w </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-syllabic-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-syllabic_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-syllabic_5-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-syllabic_5-2">c</a> Some varieties of English have <a href="/wiki/Syllabic_consonant" title="Syllabic consonant">syllabic consonants</a> in some words, principally [l̩, m̩, n̩], for example at the end of bottle, rhythm and button. In such cases, no phonetic vowel is pronounced between the last two consonants, and the last consonant forms a <a href="/wiki/Syllable" title="Syllable">syllable</a> on its own. Syllabic consonants are generally transcribed with a vertical line under the consonant letter, so that phonetic transcription of bottle and button in <abbr title="General American">GA</abbr> would be [ˈbɑɾl̩] and [ˈbʌʔn̩]. In theory, such consonants could be analyzed as individual phonemes. However, this would add several extra consonant phonemes to the inventory for English,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoach2009100–1-2">[2]</a> and phonologists prefer to identify syllabic nasals and <a href="/wiki/Liquid_consonant" title="Liquid consonant">liquids</a> phonemically as /ə<a href="/wiki/Consonant" title="Consonant">C</a>/.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKreidler200484-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells198255-4">[4]</a> Thus button is phonemically /ˈbʌtən/ or /ˈbatən/ and bottle is phonemically /ˈbɒtəl/, /ˈbɑtəl/, or /ˈbɔtəl/. </li> <li id="cite_note-th-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-th_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-th_6-1">b</a> /θ, ð/ are realized as stops in accents affected by <a href="/wiki/Th-stopping" title="Th-stopping">th-stopping</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Hiberno-English" title="Hiberno-English">Hiberno-English</a>, the <a href="/wiki/New_York_accent" title="New York accent">New York accent</a>, and <a href="/wiki/South_Asian_English" title="South Asian English">South Asian English</a>. They are merged with /f, v/ in accents affected by <a href="/wiki/Th-fronting" title="Th-fronting">th-fronting</a>, such as some varieties of <a href="/wiki/Cockney" title="Cockney">Cockney</a> and <a href="/wiki/African_American_Vernacular_English" class="mw-redirect" title="African American Vernacular English">African American Vernacular English</a>. See <a href="/wiki/Pronunciation_of_English_%E2%9F%A8th%E2%9F%A9" title="Pronunciation of English ⟨th⟩">Pronunciation of English ⟨th⟩</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> The <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">voiceless velar fricative</a> /x/ is mainly used in <a href="/wiki/Hiberno-English" title="Hiberno-English">Hiberno-English</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scottish_English" title="Scottish English">Scottish</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_African_English" title="South African English">South African</a> and <a href="/wiki/Welsh_English" title="Welsh English">Welsh English</a>; words with /x/ in Scottish accents tend to be pronounced with /k/ in other dialects. The velar fricative sometimes appears in recent <a href="/wiki/Loanword" title="Loanword">loanwords</a> such as chutzpah. Under the influence of <a href="/wiki/Welsh_language" title="Welsh language">Welsh</a> and <a href="/wiki/Afrikaans" title="Afrikaans">Afrikaans</a>, the actual phonetic realization of /x/ in Welsh English and White South African English is uvular [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_fricative" title="Voiceless uvular fricative">χ</a>], rather than velar [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a>].<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982389,_619-7">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETench1990132-8">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowerman2004939-9">[7]</a> Dialects do not necessarily agree on the exact words in which /x/ appears; for instance, in Welsh English it appears in loanwords from Welsh (such as <a href="/wiki/Amlwch" title="Amlwch">Amlwch</a> /ˈæmlʊx/), whereas in White South African English it appears only in loanwords from Afrikaans or <a href="/wiki/Xhosa_language" title="Xhosa language">Xhosa</a> (such as gogga /ˈxɒxə/ 'insect').<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982389,_619-7">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowerman2004939-9">[7]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> This sound may not be a phoneme in <a href="/wiki/H-dropping" title="H-dropping">H-dropping</a> dialects. </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> In some conservative accents in Scotland, Ireland, the southern United States, and New England, the digraph ⟨wh⟩ in words like which and whine represents a voiceless w sound [ʍ], a <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labio-velar_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless labio-velar approximant">voiceless labiovelar fricative</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGimson2008230-12">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcMahon200231-13">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiegerich199236-14">[10]</a> or <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labio-velar_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless labio-velar approximant">approximant</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefoged200668-15">[11]</a> which contrasts with the voiced w of witch and wine. In most dialects, this sound is lost, and is pronounced as a voiced w (the <a href="/wiki/Wine%E2%80%93whine_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Wine–whine merger">wine–whine merger</a>). Phonemically this sound may be analysed as a consonant cluster /hw/, rather than as a separate phoneme */ʍ/, so which and whine are transcribed phonemically as /hwɪtʃ/ and /hwaɪn/. This does not mean that such speakers actually pronounce [h] followed by [w]: this phonemic transcription /hw/ is simply a convenient way of representing a single sound [ʍ] when such dialects are not analysed as having an extra phoneme.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoach200943-16">[12]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> This phoneme is conventionally transcribed with the basic Latin letter ⟨r⟩ (the IPA symbol for the <a href="/wiki/Alveolar_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolar trill">alveolar trill</a>), even though its pronunciation is usually a <a href="/wiki/Postalveolar_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Postalveolar approximant">postalveolar approximant</a> [ɹ̠]. The trill exists but is rare, found only in some <a href="/wiki/Scottish_English" title="Scottish English">Scottish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Welsh_English" title="Welsh English">Welsh</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGarrettCouplandWilliams200373-18">[13]</a> <a href="/wiki/South_African_English_phonology" class="mw-redirect" title="South African English phonology">South African</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowerman2004940-19">[14]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indian_English" title="Indian English">Indian</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpitzbardt197631-20">[15]</a> dialects. See <a href="/wiki/Pronunciation_of_English_/r/" title="Pronunciation of English /r/">Pronunciation of English /r/</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> The sound at the beginning of huge in most British accents<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Connor1973151-22">[16]</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_fricative" title="Voiceless palatal fricative">voiceless palatal fricative</a> [ç], but this is analysed phonemically as the consonant cluster /hj/ so that huge is transcribed /hjuːdʒ/. As with /hw/, this does not mean that speakers pronounce [h] followed by [j]; the phonemic transcription /hj/ is simply a convenient way of representing the single sound [ç].<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoach200943-16">[12]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Yod-dropping" class="mw-redirect" title="Yod-dropping">yod-dropping</a> found in the <a href="/wiki/Norfolk_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Norfolk dialect">Norfolk dialect</a> means that the traditional Norfolk pronunciation of huge is [hʊudʒ] and not [çuːdʒ]. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Consonant_examples">Consonant examples</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_phonology&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Consonant examples">edit</a>]</div> The following table shows typical examples of the occurrence of the above consonant phonemes in words, using <a href="/wiki/Minimal_pair" title="Minimal pair">minimal pairs</a> where possible. <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Fortis_and_lenis" title="Fortis and lenis">Fortis</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Fortis_and_lenis" title="Fortis and lenis">Lenis</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a>/</td> <td>pit </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiced bilabial plosive">b</a>/</td> <td>bit </td></tr> <tr> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a>/</td> <td>tin </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a>/</td> <td>din </td></tr> <tr> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a>/</td> <td>cut </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a>/</td> <td>gut </td></tr> <tr> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless postalveolar affricate">tʃ</a>/</td> <td>cheap </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiced postalveolar affricate">dʒ</a>/</td> <td>jeep </td></tr> <tr> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiceless labiodental fricative">f</a>/</td> <td>fat </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiced labiodental fricative">v</a>/</td> <td>vat </td></tr> <tr> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_fricative" title="Voiceless dental fricative">θ</a>/</td> <td>thigh </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_fricative" title="Voiced dental fricative">ð</a>/</td> <td>thy </td></tr> <tr> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a>/</td> <td>sap </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiced alveolar fricative">z</a>/</td> <td>zap </td></tr> <tr> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless postalveolar fricative">ʃ</a>/</td> <td>shin / dilution </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiced postalveolar fricative">ʒ</a>/</td> <td>delusion </td></tr> <tr> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a>/</td> <td>loch </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a>/</td> <td>ham </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a>/</td> <td>hum </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a>/</td> <td>Hun </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_nasal" title="Voiced velar nasal">ŋ</a>/</td> <td>hung </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a>/</td> <td>your </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a>/</td> <td>wore </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced postalveolar approximant">r</a>/</td> <td>rump </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a>/</td> <td>lump </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sonorants">Sonorants</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_phonology&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Sonorants">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>The pronunciation of /l/ varies by dialect: <ul><li>Received Pronunciation has two main allophones of /l/: the clear or plain [l] (the "light L"), and the <a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental,_alveolar_and_postalveolar_lateral_approximants#Velarized_alveolar_lateral_approximant" title="Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar lateral approximants">dark</a> or <a href="/wiki/Velarization" title="Velarization">velarized</a> [ɫ] (the "dark L"). The clear variant is used before vowels when they are in the same syllable, and the dark variant when the /l/ precedes a consonant or is in syllable-final position before silence.</li> <li>In South Wales, Ireland, and the Caribbean, /l/ is usually clear, and in North Wales, Scotland, Australia, and New Zealand it is usually dark.</li> <li>In General American and Canada, /l/ is generally dark, but to varying degrees: before stressed vowels it is neutral or only slightly velarized.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982490-24">[17]</a> In southern U.S. accents it is noticeably clear between vowels, and in some other positions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982550-25">[18]</a></li> <li>In urban accents of Southern England, as well as New Zealand and some parts of the United States, /l/ can be pronounced as an approximant or <a href="/wiki/Semivowel" title="Semivowel">semivowel</a> ([w], [o], [ʊ]) at the end of a syllable (<a href="/wiki/L-vocalization" title="L-vocalization">l-vocalization</a>).</li></ul></li> <li>Depending on dialect, /r/ has at least the following allophones in varieties of English around the world (see <a href="/wiki/Pronunciation_of_English_/r/" title="Pronunciation of English /r/">Pronunciation of English /r/</a>): <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Postalveolar_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Postalveolar approximant">postalveolar approximant</a> [ɹ̠] (the most common realization of the /r/ phoneme, occurring in most dialects, RP and General American included)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retroflex_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Retroflex approximant">retroflex approximant</a> [ɻ] (occurs in most Irish dialects and some American dialects)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labiodental_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Labiodental approximant">labiodental approximant</a> [ʋ] (occurs in south-east England and some London accents; known as <a href="/wiki/R-labialization" class="mw-redirect" title="R-labialization">r-labialization</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_flap" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolar flap">alveolar flap</a> [ɾ] (occurs in most Scottish, Welsh,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollinsMees199091-26">[19]</a> <a href="/wiki/Indian_English" title="Indian English">Indian</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpitzbardt197631-20">[15]</a> and some South African dialects, some conservative dialects in England and Ireland; not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Flapping" title="Flapping">flapping</a> of /t/ and /d/)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolar trill">alveolar trill</a> [r] (occurs in some very conservative Scottish dialects and some <a href="/wiki/Indian_English" title="Indian English">Indian</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_African_English_phonology" class="mw-redirect" title="South African English phonology">South African</a> and Welsh accents)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpitzbardt197631-20">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowerman2004940-19">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGarrettCouplandWilliams200373-18">[13]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voiced_uvular_fricative" title="Voiced uvular fricative">voiced uvular fricative</a> [ʁ] (occurs in northern Northumbria, largely disappeared; known as the <a href="/wiki/Northumbrian_burr" title="Northumbrian burr">Northumbrian burr</a>)</li></ul></li> <li>In most dialects /r/ is <a href="/wiki/Labialized" class="mw-redirect" title="Labialized">labialized</a> [ɹ̠ʷ] in many positions, as in reed [ɹ̠ʷiːd] and tree [t̠ɹ̠̊ʷiː]; in the latter case, the /t/ may be slightly labialized as well.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefoged200155-27">[20]</a></li> <li>In some <a href="/wiki/Rhoticity_in_English" title="Rhoticity in English">rhotic accents</a>, such as General American, /r/ when not followed by a vowel is realized as an <a href="/wiki/R-colored_vowel" title="R-colored vowel">r-coloring</a> of the preceding vowel or its coda: nurse [ˈnɚs], butter [ˈbʌɾɚ].</li> <li>The distinctions between the nasals are <a href="/wiki/Phoneme#Neutralization" title="Phoneme">neutralized</a> in some environments. For example, before a final /p/, /t/ or /k/ there is nearly always only one nasal sound that can appear in each case: [m], [n] or [ŋ] respectively (as in the words limp, lint, link – note that the n of link is pronounced [ŋ]). This effect can even occur across syllable or word boundaries, particularly in stressed syllables: synchrony is pronounced [ˈsɪŋkɹəni] whereas synchronic may be pronounced with either [sɪŋ-] or [sɪn-]. For other possible syllable-final combinations, see <a href="#Coda">§ Coda</a> in the Phonotactics section below.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Obstruents">Obstruents</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_phonology&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Obstruents">edit</a>]</div> In most dialects, the fortis stops and affricate /p, t, tʃ, k/ have various different allophones, and are distinguished from the lenis stops and affricate /b, d, dʒ, ɡ/ by several phonetic features.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECelce-MurciaBrintonGoodwin199662–67-28">[21]</a> <ul><li>The allophones of the fortes /p, t, tʃ, k/ include: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aspiration_(phonetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aspiration (phonetics)">aspirated</a> [pʰ, tʰ, kʰ] when they occur in the onset of a <a href="/wiki/Lexical_stress" class="mw-redirect" title="Lexical stress">stressed</a> syllable, as in potato. In clusters involving a following liquid, the aspiration typically manifests as the devoicing of this liquid. These sounds are unaspirated [p, t, k] after /s/ within the same syllable, as in stan, span, scan, and at the ends of syllables, as in mat, map, mac.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoach200926–28-29">[22]</a> The voiceless fricatives are nearly always unaspirated, but a notable exception is English-speaking areas of Wales, where they are often aspirated.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982388-30">[23]</a></li> <li>In many accents of English, fortis stops /p, t, k, tʃ/ are <a href="/wiki/Glottalization" title="Glottalization">glottalized</a> in some positions. That may be heard either as a glottal stop preceding the oral closure ("pre-glottalization" or "glottal reinforcement") or as a substitution of the glottal stop [ʔ] for the oral stop (glottal replacement). /tʃ/ can be only pre-glottalized. Pre-glottalization normally occurs in British and American English when the fortis consonant phoneme is followed by another consonant or when the consonant is in final position. Thus football and catching are often pronounced [ˈfʊʔtbɔːl] and [ˈkæʔtʃɪŋ], respectively. Even more frequently, glottal replacement happens in such cases involving /t/, so that football is pronounced [ˈfʊʔbɔːl]. In addition, however, glottal replacement is increasingly common in British English when /t/ occurs between vowels if the preceding vowel is stressed; thus better is often pronounced by younger speakers as [ˈbeʔə].<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGimson2008179–180-31">[24]</a> Such <a href="/wiki/T-glottalization" title="T-glottalization">t-glottalization</a> also occurs in many British regional accents, including <a href="/wiki/Cockney_English" class="mw-redirect" title="Cockney English">Cockney</a>, where it can also occur at the end of words, and where /p/ and /k/ are sometimes treated the same way.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982323-32">[25]</a></li> <li>For some RP-speakers, final voiceless stops, especially /k/, may become ejectives.<a href="#cite_note-33">[26]</a></li></ul></li> <li>Among stops, both fortes and lenes: <ul><li>May have <a href="/wiki/No_audible_release" title="No audible release">no audible release</a> [p̚, b̚, t̚, d̚, k̚, ɡ̚] in the word-final position.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECelce-MurciaBrintonGoodwin199664-34">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECruttenden2014173–182-35">[28]</a> These allophones are more common in North America than Great Britain.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECelce-MurciaBrintonGoodwin199664-34">[27]</a></li> <li>Almost always have a masked release before another plosive or affricate (as in rubbed [ˈɹʌˑb̚d̥]), i.e. the release of the first stop is made after the closure of the second stop. This also applies when the following stop is <a href="/wiki/Homorganic_consonants" class="mw-redirect" title="Homorganic consonants">homorganic</a> (articulated in the same place), as in top player.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECruttenden2014170_and_173–182-36">[29]</a> A notable exception is <a href="/wiki/Welsh_English" title="Welsh English">Welsh English</a> in which stops are usually released in that environment.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982388-30">[23]</a></li> <li>The affricates /tʃ, dʒ/ have a mandatory fricative release in all environments.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECruttenden2014190-37">[30]</a></li></ul></li> <li>Very often in the United States and Canada and less frequently in Australia<a href="#cite_note-38">[31]</a> and New Zealand,<a href="#cite_note-39">[32]</a> both /t/ and /d/ can be <a href="/wiki/Flapping" title="Flapping">pronounced as a voiced flap</a> [ɾ] in certain positions: when they come between a preceding stressed vowel (possibly with intervening /r/) and precede an unstressed vowel or <a href="/wiki/Syllabic_consonant" title="Syllabic consonant">syllabic</a> /l/. Examples include water, bottle, petal, peddle (the last two words sound alike when flapped). The flap may even appear at word boundaries, as in put it on. When the combination /nt/ appears in such positions, some American speakers pronounce it as a <a href="/wiki/Nasalization" title="Nasalization">nasalized</a> flap that may become indistinguishable from /n/, so winter [ˈwɪɾ̃ɚ] may be pronounced similarly or identically to winner [ˈwɪnɚ].<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982252-40">[33]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yod-coalescence" class="mw-redirect" title="Yod-coalescence">Yod-coalescence</a> is a process that <a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(sound_change)" title="Palatalization (sound change)">palatalizes</a> the <a href="/wiki/Consonant_cluster" title="Consonant cluster">clusters</a> /dj/, /tj/, /sj/ and /zj/ into [dʒ], [tʃ], [ʃ] and [ʒ] respectively, frequently occurring with clusters that would be considered to span a syllable boundary.<a href="#cite_note-41">[34]</a> <ul><li>Yod-coalescence in stressed syllables, such as in tune and dune, occurs in <a href="/wiki/Australian_English_phonology" title="Australian English phonology">Australian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cockney#Cockney_speech" title="Cockney">Cockney</a>, <a href="/wiki/Estuary_English" title="Estuary English">Estuary English</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hiberno-English" title="Hiberno-English">Hiberno-English</a> (some speakers), <a href="/wiki/Newfoundland_English" title="Newfoundland English">Newfoundland English</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_African_English" title="South African English">South African English</a>, and to a certain extent in <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_English" title="New Zealand English">New Zealand English</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scottish_English" title="Scottish English">Scottish English</a> (many speakers). This can lead to additional homophony; for instance, dew and due come to be pronounced the same as Jew.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBauerWarren2005596-42">[35]</a></li> <li>In certain varieties such as <a href="/wiki/Australian_English" title="Australian English">Australian English</a>, South African English, and New Zealand English, /sj/ and /zj/ in stressed syllables can coalesce into [ʃ] and [ʒ], respectively. In Australian English for example, assume is pronounced [əˈʃʉːm] by some speakers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982207-43">[36]</a> Furthermore, some British, Canadian, American, New Zealand and Australian speakers may change the /s/ sound to /ʃ/ before /tr/,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurian2007-44">[37]</a> so that a word having a cluster of ⟨str⟩ like in strewn would be pronounced [ʃtruːn].<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHay200837-45">[38]</a></li></ul></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Postalveolar_consonant" title="Postalveolar consonant">postalveolar consonants</a> /tʃ, dʒ, ʃ, ʒ/ are strongly <a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">labialized</a>: [tʃʷ dʒʷ ʃʷ ʒʷ].<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollinsMees201386,_93-46">[39]</a></li> <li>In addition to /tʃ, dʒ/, the sequences /ts, dz, tr, dr, tθ, dð, pf, bv/ also have affricate-like realizations in certain positions (as in cats, roads, tram, dram, eighth, behind them, cupful, obvious; see also <a href="#Onset">§ Onset</a>), but usually only /tʃ, dʒ/ are considered to constitute the monophonemic affricates of English because (among other reasons) only they are found in all of morpheme-initial, -‍internal, and -‍final positions, and native speakers typically perceive them as single units.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECruttenden2014186–8-47">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells198248–9-48">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollinsMees201386–7-49">[42]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vowels">Vowels</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_phonology&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Vowels">edit</a>]</div> English, much like other Germanic languages, has a particularly large number of vowel phonemes, and in addition the <a href="/wiki/Vowel" title="Vowel">vowels</a> of English differ considerably between dialects. Consequently, corresponding vowels may be transcribed with various symbols depending on the dialect under consideration. When considering English as a whole, <a href="/wiki/Lexical_set" title="Lexical set">lexical sets</a> are often used, each named by a word containing the vowel or vowels in question. For example, the <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r920966791">.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps{font-variant:small-caps}.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps-smaller{font-size:85%}</style>LOT set consists of words which, like lot, have /ɒ/ in <a href="/wiki/Received_Pronunciation" title="Received Pronunciation">Received Pronunciation</a> and /ɑ/ in <a href="/wiki/General_American" class="mw-redirect" title="General American">General American</a>. The "<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">LOT vowel" then refers to the vowel that appears in those words in whichever dialect is being considered, or (at a greater level of <a href="/wiki/Abstraction" title="Abstraction">abstraction</a>) to a <a href="/wiki/Diaphoneme" title="Diaphoneme">diaphoneme</a>, which represents this interdialectal correspondence. A commonly-used system of lexical sets, devised by <a href="/wiki/John_C._Wells" title="John C. Wells">John C. Wells</a>, is presented below; for each set, the corresponding phonemes are given for RP and General American, using the notation that will be used on this page. <div style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top; margin-right: 1em;"> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <caption class="nowrap">Full monophthongs </caption> <tbody><tr> <th><abbr title="Wells standard lexical set">LS</abbr> </th> <th><abbr title="Received Pronunciation">RP</abbr> </th> <th><abbr title="General American">GA</abbr> </th></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">TRAP </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">æ</a> </td> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Near-open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Near-open front unrounded vowel">æ</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">BATH </td> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Open_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Open back unrounded vowel">ɑː</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">PALM </td> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Open_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Open back unrounded vowel">ɑ</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">LOT </td> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Open-mid back rounded vowel">ɒ</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">CLOTH </td> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Open-mid back rounded vowel">ɔ</a>, <a href="/wiki/Open_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Open back unrounded vowel">ɑ</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">THOUGHT </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">ɔː</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">KIT </td> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Near-close_near-front_unrounded_vowel" title="Near-close near-front unrounded vowel">ɪ</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">DRESS </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid front unrounded vowel">e</a><a href="#cite_note-rpdress-50">[a]</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid front unrounded vowel">ɛ</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">STRUT </td> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid back unrounded vowel">ʌ</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">FOOT </td> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_central_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid central rounded vowel">ʊ</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> </div> <div style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top; margin-right: 1em;"> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <caption class="nowrap">Potential[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] diphthongs<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982140,_147,_299-51">[43]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th><abbr title="Wells standard lexical set">LS</abbr> </th> <th><abbr title="Received Pronunciation">RP</abbr> </th> <th><abbr title="General American">GA</abbr> </th></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">FACE </td> <td colspan="2">eɪ </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">GOAT </td> <td>əʊ </td> <td>oʊ </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">FLEECE </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">iː</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">i</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">GOOSE </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Close_central_rounded_vowel" title="Close central rounded vowel">uː</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> </div> <div style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top; margin-right: 1em;"> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <caption class="nowrap">Full diphthongs </caption> <tbody><tr> <th><abbr title="Wells standard lexical set">LS</abbr> </th> <th><abbr title="Received Pronunciation">RP</abbr> </th> <th><abbr title="General American">GA</abbr> </th></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">PRICE </td> <td colspan="2">aɪ </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">CHOICE </td> <td colspan="2">ɔɪ </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">MOUTH </td> <td colspan="2">aʊ </td></tr></tbody></table> </div> <div style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top; margin-right: 1em;"> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <caption class="nowrap">Vowels before historical /r/ </caption> <tbody><tr> <th><abbr title="Wells standard lexical set">LS</abbr> </th> <th><abbr title="Received Pronunciation">RP</abbr> </th> <th><abbr title="General American">GA</abbr> </th></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">NURSE </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mid_central_vowel" title="Mid central vowel">ɜː</a> </td> <td>ɜr </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">START </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Open_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Open back unrounded vowel">ɑː</a> </td> <td>ɑr </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">NORTH </td> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">ɔː</a> </td> <td>ɔr </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">FORCE </td> <td>ɔr, oʊr </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">NEAR </td> <td>ɪə </td> <td>ɪr </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">SQUARE </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid front unrounded vowel">ɛː</a> </td> <td>ɛr </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">CURE </td> <td>ʊə, <a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">ɔː</a> </td> <td>ʊr </td></tr></tbody></table> </div> <div style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <caption class="nowrap">Reduced vowels </caption> <tbody><tr> <th><abbr title="Wells standard lexical set">LS</abbr> </th> <th><abbr title="Received Pronunciation">RP</abbr> </th> <th><abbr title="General American">GA</abbr> </th></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">COMMA </td> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Mid_central_vowel" title="Mid central vowel">ə</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mid_central_vowel" title="Mid central vowel">ə</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">LETTER </td> <td>ər </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">HAPPY </td> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">i</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> </div> For a table that shows the pronunciations of these vowels in a wider range of English accents, see <a href="/wiki/Sound_correspondences_between_English_accents" title="Sound correspondences between English accents">Sound correspondences between English accents</a>. The following tables show the vowel phonemes of three standard varieties of English. The notation system used here for Received Pronunciation (RP) is fairly standard; the others less so. The feature descriptions given here (front, close, etc.) are abstracted somewhat; the actual pronunciations of these vowels are somewhat more accurately conveyed by the <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a> symbols used (see <a href="/wiki/Vowel" title="Vowel">Vowel</a> for a chart indicating the meanings of these symbols; though note also the points listed below the following tables). The symbols given in the table are traditional but redirect to their modern implementation. <div style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top; margin-right: 1em;"> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <caption>Received Pronunciation<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoach2004242-52">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECruttenden2014-53">[45]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="3"> </th> <th rowspan="2" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a> </th> <th rowspan="2" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Central_vowel" title="Central vowel">Central</a> </th> <th colspan="4"><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">unrounded </th> <th colspan="2">rounded </th></tr> <tr> <th>short </th> <th>long </th> <th>short </th> <th>long </th> <th>short </th> <th>long </th> <th>short </th> <th>long </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Near-close_near-front_unrounded_vowel" title="Near-close near-front unrounded vowel">ɪ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">iː</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_central_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid central rounded vowel">ʊ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Close_central_rounded_vowel" title="Close central rounded vowel">uː</a><a href="#cite_note-rpsymbols-54">[b]</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">ɔː</a><a href="#cite_note-rpsymbols-54">[b]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Mid_vowel" title="Mid vowel">Mid</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid front unrounded vowel">e</a><a href="#cite_note-rpdress-50">[a]</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid front unrounded vowel">ɛː</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mid_central_vowel" title="Mid central vowel">ə</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mid_central_vowel" title="Mid central vowel">ɜː</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid back unrounded vowel">ʌ</a> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Open-mid back rounded vowel">ɒ</a><a href="#cite_note-rpsymbols-54">[b]</a> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">æ</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Open_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Open back unrounded vowel">ɑː</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Diphthong" title="Diphthong">Diphthongs</a> </th> <td colspan="8">eɪ   aɪ   ɔɪ   aʊ   əʊ   ɪə   ʊə </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Triphthong" title="Triphthong">Triphthongs</a> </th> <td colspan="8">(eɪə   aɪə   ɔɪə   aʊə   əʊə) </td></tr></tbody></table> </div> <div style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top; margin-right: 1em;"> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <caption>General American </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Central_vowel" title="Central vowel">Central</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th>lax </th> <th>tense </th> <th>lax </th> <th>tense </th> <th>lax </th> <th>tense </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Near-close_near-front_unrounded_vowel" title="Near-close near-front unrounded vowel">ɪ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">i</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Near-close_near-back_rounded_vowel" title="Near-close near-back rounded vowel">ʊ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Mid_vowel" title="Mid vowel">Mid</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid front unrounded vowel">ɛ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">eɪ</a><a href="#cite_note-face-goat-55">[c]</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mid_central_vowel" title="Mid central vowel">ə</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/R-colored_vowel" title="R-colored vowel">ɜ</a>)<a href="#cite_note-schwa-58">[d]</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Open-mid_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid back unrounded vowel">ʌ</a>)<a href="#cite_note-schwa-58">[d]</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Mid back rounded vowel">oʊ</a><a href="#cite_note-face-goat-55">[c]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Near-open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Near-open front unrounded vowel">æ</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Open_central_unrounded_vowel" title="Open central unrounded vowel">ɑ</a> </td> <td> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Open_back_rounded_vowel" title="Open back rounded vowel">ɔ</a>)<a href="#cite_note-59">[e]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Diphthong" title="Diphthong">Diphthongs</a> </th> <td colspan="6">aɪ   ɔɪ   aʊ </td></tr></tbody></table> </div> <div style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <caption>General Australian </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Central_vowel" title="Central vowel">Central</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th>short </th> <th>long </th> <th>short </th> <th>long </th> <th>short </th> <th>long </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Near-close_near-front_unrounded_vowel" title="Near-close near-front unrounded vowel">ɪ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">iː</a> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Close_central_rounded_vowel" title="Close central rounded vowel">ʉː</a><a href="#cite_note-rpsymbols-54">[b]</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Near-close_near-back_rounded_vowel" title="Near-close near-back rounded vowel">ʊ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">oː</a><a href="#cite_note-rpsymbols-54">[b]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Mid_vowel" title="Mid vowel">Mid</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">e</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">eː</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mid_central_vowel" title="Mid central vowel">ə</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_central_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid central unrounded vowel">ɜː</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Open-mid back rounded vowel">ɔ</a><a href="#cite_note-rpsymbols-54">[b]</a> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Near-open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Near-open front unrounded vowel">æ</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Near-open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Near-open front unrounded vowel">æː</a>)<a href="#cite_note-60">[f]</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Open_central_unrounded_vowel" title="Open central unrounded vowel">a</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Open_central_unrounded_vowel" title="Open central unrounded vowel">aː</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Diphthong" title="Diphthong">Diphthongs</a> </th> <td colspan="6">æɪ   ɑɪ   oɪ   æɔ   əʉ   ɪə   (ʊə)<a href="#cite_note-62">[g]</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-rpdress-50">^ <a href="#cite_ref-rpdress_50-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-rpdress_50-1">b</a> The modern RP vowel /e/ is pronounced very similar to the corresponding GenAm phoneme /ɛ/. The difference between them is simply a matter of transcription convention (the way they are transcribed in RP reflects a more conservative pronunciation). </li> <li id="cite_note-rpsymbols-54">^ <a href="#cite_ref-rpsymbols_54-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-rpsymbols_54-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-rpsymbols_54-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-rpsymbols_54-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-rpsymbols_54-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-rpsymbols_54-5">f</a> The modern RP vowels /uː/, /ɔː/ and /ɒ/ are very similar to the corresponding Australian phonemes /ʉː/, /oː/ and /ɔ/. The difference between them lies mostly in transcription (the way they are transcribed in RP is more conservative). </li> <li id="cite_note-face-goat-55">^ <a href="#cite_ref-face-goat_55-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-face-goat_55-1">b</a> Although the notation /eɪ oʊ/ are used for the vowels of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">FACE and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">GOAT respectively in General American, they are analysed as phonemic monophthongs and frequently transcribed as /e o/ in the literature. </li> <li id="cite_note-schwa-58">^ <a href="#cite_ref-schwa_58-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-schwa_58-1">b</a> General American does not have the opposition between /ɜr/ and /ər/; therefore, the vowels in further /ˈfɜrðər/ are typically realized with the same segmental quality as [ˈfɚðɚ].<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982121-56">[46]</a> This also makes the words forward /ˈfɔrwərd/ and foreword /ˈfɔrwɜrd/ <a href="/wiki/Homophone" title="Homophone">homophonous</a> as [ˈfɔɹwɚd].<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982121-56">[46]</a> Therefore, /ɜ/ is not a true phoneme in General American but merely a different notation of /ə/ preserved for when this phoneme precedes /r/ and is stressed—a convention adopted in literature to facilitate comparisons with other accents.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982480–1-57">[47]</a> What is historically /ʌr/, as in hurry, is also pronounced [ɚ] (see <a href="/wiki/Hurry%E2%80%93furry_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Hurry–furry merger">hurry–furry merger</a>), so /ʌ/, /ɜ/ and /ə/ are all <a href="/wiki/Phonemic_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Phonemic merger">neutralized</a> before /r/. Furthermore, some analyze /ʌ/ as an allophone of /ə/ that surfaces when stressed, so /ʌ/, /ɜ/ and /ə/ may be considered to be in complementary distribution and thus comprising one phoneme.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982480–1-57">[47]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> Many North American speakers do not distinguish /ɔ/ from /ɑ/ and merge them into /ɑ/, except before /r/ (see <a href="/wiki/Cot%E2%80%93caught_merger" title="Cot–caught merger">cot–caught merger</a>). </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> Australian has the <a href="/wiki/Bad%E2%80%93lad_split" class="mw-redirect" title="Bad–lad split">bad–lad split</a>, with distinctive short and long variants in various words of the <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">TRAP set: a long phoneme /æː/ in words like bad contrasts with a short /æ/ in words like lad. (A similar split is found in the accents of some speakers in southern England.) </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> The vowel /ʊə/ is often omitted from descriptions of Australian, as for most speakers it has split into the long monophthong /oː/ (e.g. poor, sure) or the sequence /ʉːə/ (e.g. cure, lure).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoxPalethorpe2007-61">[48]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> The differences between these tables can be explained as follows: <ul><li>General American lacks a phoneme corresponding to RP /ɒ/ (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">LOT, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">CLOTH), instead using /ɑ/ in the <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">LOT words and generally /ɔ/ in the <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">CLOTH words. In a few North American accents, namely in <a href="/wiki/Eastern_New_England_English" title="Eastern New England English">Eastern New England</a> (<a href="/wiki/Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a>) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">LOT words do not have the vowel of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">PALM (the <a href="/wiki/Father%E2%80%93bother_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Father–bother merger">father–bother merger</a> has not occurred) but instead merge with <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">CLOTH/THOUGHT.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982473–474-63">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELabovAshBoberg200613,_171–173-64">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoods1993170–171-65">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKiefteKay-Raining_Bird201063–64,_67-66">[52]</a></li> <li>Although the notation /ʌ/ is used for the vowel of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">STRUT in RP and General American, the actual pronunciation in RP may be closer to a near-open central vowel [<a href="/wiki/Near-open_central_vowel" title="Near-open central vowel">ɐ</a>], especially among older speakers. In modern RP, this vowel is increasingly realized as [<a href="/wiki/Open-mid_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid back unrounded vowel">ʌ</a>] to avoid the clash with the lowered variety of /æ/ in the [<a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">a</a>] region (the <a href="/wiki/Trap%E2%80%93strut_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Trap–strut merger">trap–strut merger</a>). In General American, /ʌ/ is invariably realized as [<a href="/wiki/Open-mid_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid back unrounded vowel">ʌ</a>], whereas [<a href="/wiki/Near-open_central_vowel" title="Near-open central vowel">ɐ</a>] does not appear in this context.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982132-67">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERocaJohnson1999135-68">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECruttenden2014122-69">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindsey201922-70">[56]</a></li> <li>RP transcriptions use ⟨e⟩ rather than ⟨ɛ⟩ largely for convenience and historical tradition; it does not necessarily represent a different sound from the General American phoneme, as the <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">DRESS vowel is generally realized as [ɛ] in modern RP.<a href="#cite_note-upton-71">[57]</a></li> <li>The different notations used for the vowel of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">GOAT in RP and General American (/əʊ/ and /oʊ/) reflect a difference in the most common phonetic realizations of that vowel.</li> <li>The triphthongs given in the RP table are usually regarded as sequences of two phonemes (a diphthong plus /ə/); however, in RP, these sequences frequently undergo <a href="/wiki/Smoothing_(phonetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Smoothing (phonetics)">smoothing</a> into single diphthongs or even monophthongs.</li> <li>The different notations used here for some of the Australian vowels reflect the phonetic realization of those vowels in Australian: a central [<a href="/wiki/Close_central_rounded_vowel" title="Close central rounded vowel">ʉː</a>] rather than [<a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">uː</a>] in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">GOOSE, a more closed [<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">e</a>] rather than [<a href="/wiki/Open-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid front unrounded vowel">ɛ</a>] in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">DRESS, a close-mid [<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">oː</a>] rather than traditional RP's [<a href="/wiki/Mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Mid back rounded vowel">ɔː</a>] in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">THOUGHT, an open-mid [<a href="/wiki/Open-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Open-mid back rounded vowel">ɔ</a>] rather than traditional RP's [<a href="/wiki/Open_back_rounded_vowel" title="Open back rounded vowel">ɒ</a>] in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">LOT, an opener [<a href="/wiki/Open_central_unrounded_vowel" title="Open central unrounded vowel">a</a>] rather than somewhat closer [<a href="/wiki/Open-mid_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid back unrounded vowel">ʌ</a>] in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">STRUT, a central [<a href="/wiki/Open_central_unrounded_vowel" title="Open central unrounded vowel">aː</a>] rather a back [<a href="/wiki/Open_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Open back unrounded vowel">ɑː</a>] in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">CALM and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">START, and somewhat different pronunciations of most of the diphthongs. Note that central [<a href="/wiki/Close_central_rounded_vowel" title="Close central rounded vowel">ʉː</a>] in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">GOOSE, close-mid [<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">oː</a>] in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">THOUGHT and open-mid [<a href="/wiki/Open-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Open-mid back rounded vowel">ɔ</a>] in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">LOT are standard realizations in modern RP and the difference between modern RP and Australian English in these vowels lies almost only in transcription, rather than pronunciation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECruttenden2014126,_133-72">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoach2004242-52">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoxFletcher2017[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidZBs3DwAAQBAJpgPA65_65]-73">[59]</a></li> <li>Both Australian /eː/ and RP /ɛː/ are long monophthongs, the difference between them being in tongue height: Australian /eː/ is close-mid [<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">eː</a>], whereas the corresponding RP vowel is open-mid [<a href="/wiki/Open-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid front unrounded vowel">ɛː</a>].<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECruttenden2014118-74">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoxFletcher2017[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidZBs3DwAAQBAJpgPA65_65]-73">[59]</a></li></ul> Other points to be noted are these: <ul><li>The vowel /æ/ is generally pronounced more open, approaching [a], by modern RP speakers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindsey201928-75">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECruttenden2014119–120-76">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-upton-71">[57]</a> In American speech, however, there is a tendency for it to become more closed, tenser and even diphthongized (to something like [eə]), particularly in certain environments, such as before a <a href="/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">nasal consonant</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982129-77">[63]</a> though younger speakers of some varieties are lowering /æ/ like RP speakers (see <a href="/wiki/Canadian_shift" class="mw-redirect" title="Canadian shift">Canadian shift</a>). Some American accents, for example those of <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Baltimore" title="Baltimore">Baltimore</a>, make a marginal phonemic distinction between /æ/ and /eə/, although the two occur largely in mutually exclusive environments. See <a href="/wiki//%C3%A6/_raising" title="/æ/ raising">/æ/ raising</a>.</li> <li>A significant number of words (the <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">BATH group) have /æ/ in General American, but /ɑː/ in RP. The pronunciation varies between /æ/ and /aː/ in Australia, with speakers from <a href="/wiki/South_Australia" title="South Australia">South Australia</a> using /aː/ more extensively than speakers from other regions.</li> <li>In General American and Canadian (which are <a href="/wiki/Rhotic_and_non-rhotic_accents" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhotic and non-rhotic accents">rhotic accents</a>, where /r/ is pronounced in positions where it does not precede a vowel), many of the vowels can be <a href="/wiki/R-colored_vowel" title="R-colored vowel">r-colored</a> by way of realization of a following /r/. This is often transcribed phonetically using a vowel symbol with an added retroflexion <a href="/wiki/Diacritic" title="Diacritic">diacritic</a> ⟨ ˞ ⟩; thus the symbol [ɚ] has been created for an r-colored <a href="/wiki/Schwa" class="mw-redirect" title="Schwa">schwa</a> (sometimes called schwar) as in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">LETTER, and the vowel of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">START can be modified to make [ɑ˞] so that the word start may be transcribed [stɑ˞t]. Alternatively, the <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">START sequence might be written [stɑɚt] to indicate an r-colored offglide. The vowel of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">NURSE is generally always r-colored in these dialects, and this can be written [ɚ] (or as a syllabic [ɹ̩]).</li> <li>In modern RP and other dialects, many words from the <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">CURE group are coming to be pronounced by an increasing number of speakers with the <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">NORTH vowel (so sure is often pronounced like shore).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoach2004240-78">[64]</a></li> <li>The vowels of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">FLEECE and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">GOOSE are commonly pronounced as narrow diphthongs, approaching [ɪi] and [ʊu], in RP. Near-RP speakers may have particularly marked diphthongization of the type [əi] and [əu ~ əʉ], respectively. In General American, the pronunciation varies between a monophthong and a diphthong.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982140,_147,_299-51">[43]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Allophones_of_vowels">Allophones of vowels</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_phonology&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Allophones of vowels">edit</a>]</div> Listed here are some of the significant cases of <a href="/wiki/Allophony" class="mw-redirect" title="Allophony">allophony</a> of vowels found within standard English dialects. <ul><li>Vowels are shortened when followed in a syllable by a voiceless (<a href="/wiki/Fortis_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fortis consonant">fortis</a>) consonant.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollinsMees201358-79">[65]</a> This is known as <a href="/wiki/Clipping_(phonetics)" title="Clipping (phonetics)">pre-fortis clipping</a>. Thus in the following word pairs the first item has a shortened vowel while the second has a normal length vowel: 'right' /raɪt/ – 'ride' /raɪd/; 'face' /feɪs/ – 'phase' /feɪz/; 'advice' /ədvaɪs/ – 'advise' /ədvaɪz/.</li> <li>In many accents of English, <a href="/wiki/Tenseness" title="Tenseness">tense</a> vowels undergo <a href="/wiki/Vowel_breaking" title="Vowel breaking">breaking</a> before /l/, resulting in pronunciations like [pʰiəɫ] for peel, [pʰuəɫ] for pool, [pʰeəɫ] for pail, and [pʰoəɫ] for pole.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]</li> <li>In RP, the vowel /əʊ/ may be pronounced more back, as [ɒʊ], before syllable-final /l/, as in goal. In standard Australian English the vowel /əʉ/ is similarly backed to [ɔʊ] before /l/. A similar phenomenon may occur in <a href="/wiki/Southern_American_English" title="Southern American English">Southern American English</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]</li> <li>The vowel /ə/ is often pronounced [ɐ] in open syllables.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGimson2008132-80">[66]</a></li> <li>The <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">PRICE and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">MOUTH diphthongs may be pronounced with a less open starting point when followed by a <a href="/wiki/Voiceless" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless">voiceless</a> consonant;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECelce-MurciaBrintonGoodwin199666-81">[67]</a> this is chiefly a feature of Canadian speech (<a href="/wiki/Canadian_raising" title="Canadian raising">Canadian raising</a>), but is also found in parts of the United States.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982149-82">[68]</a> Thus writer may be distinguished from rider even when <a href="/wiki/Flapping" title="Flapping">flapping</a> causes the /t/ and /d/ to be pronounced identically.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Unstressed_syllables">Unstressed syllables</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_phonology&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Unstressed syllables">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Stress_and_vowel_reduction_in_English" title="Stress and vowel reduction in English">Stress and vowel reduction in English</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Unstressed_syllable" class="mw-redirect" title="Unstressed syllable">Unstressed syllables</a> in English may contain almost any vowel, but in practice vowels in stressed and unstressed syllables tend to use different inventories of phonemes. In particular, long vowels are used less often in unstressed syllables than stressed syllables. Additionally there are certain sounds—characterized by <a href="/wiki/Central_vowel" title="Central vowel">central</a> position and weakness—that are particularly often found as the nuclei of unstressed syllables. These include: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Schwa" class="mw-redirect" title="Schwa">schwa</a>, [ə], as in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">COMMA and (in non-rhotic dialects) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">LETTER (<a href="/wiki/Rhoticity_in_English#Comma–letter_merger" title="Rhoticity in English"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">COMMA–<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">LETTER merger</a>); also in many other positions such as about, photograph, paddock, etc. This sound is essentially restricted to unstressed syllables exclusively. In the approach presented here it is identified as a phoneme /ə/, although other analyses do not have a separate phoneme for schwa and regard it as a reduction or neutralization of other vowels in syllables with the lowest degree of stress.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/R-colored_schwa" class="mw-redirect" title="R-colored schwa">r-colored schwa</a>, [ɚ], as in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">LETTER in General American and some other rhotic dialects, which can be identified with the underlying sequence /ər/.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syllabic_consonant" title="Syllabic consonant">syllabic consonants</a>: [l̩] as in bottle, [n̩] as in button, [m̩] as in rhythm. These may be phonemized either as a plain consonant or as a schwa followed by a consonant; for example button may be represented as /ˈbʌtn̩/ or /ˈbʌtən/ (see above under <a href="#Consonants">Consonants</a>).</li> <li>[ɨ̞], as in roses and making. This can be identified with the phoneme /ɪ/, although in unstressed syllables it may be pronounced more centrally, and for some speakers (particularly in Australian and New Zealand and some American English) it is merged with /ə/ in these syllables (<a href="/wiki/Weak_vowel_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Weak vowel merger">weak vowel merger</a>). Among speakers who retain the distinction there are many cases where <a href="/wiki/Free_variation" title="Free variation">free variation</a> between /ɪ/ and /ə/ is found, as in the second syllable of typical. (The <a href="/wiki/OED" class="mw-redirect" title="OED">OED</a> has recently adopted the symbol ⟨ᵻ⟩ to indicate such cases.)</li> <li>[ʉ̞], as in argument, today, for which similar considerations apply as in the case of [ɨ̞]. (The symbol ⟨ᵿ⟩ is sometimes used in these cases, similarly to ⟨ᵻ⟩.) Some speakers may also have a rounded schwa, [ɵ̞], used in words like omission [ɵ̞ˈmɪʃən].<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBolinger1986347–360-83">[69]</a></li> <li>[i], as in happy, coffee, in many dialects (others have [ɪ] in this position).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWindsor_Lewis1990-84">[70]</a> The phonemic status of this [i] is not easy to establish. Some authors consider it to correspond phonemically with a close front vowel that is neither the vowel of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">KIT nor that of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">FLEECE; it occurs chiefly in contexts where the contrast between these vowels is neutralized,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKreidler200482–3-85">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCully2009123–4-86">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoach200966–8-87">[73]</a> implying that it represents an <a href="/wiki/Archiphoneme" class="mw-redirect" title="Archiphoneme">archiphoneme</a>, which may be written /i/. Many speakers, however, do have a contrast in pairs of words like studied and studded or taxis and taxes; the contrast may be [i] vs. [ɪ], [ɪ] vs. [ə] or [i] vs. [ə], and thus some authors consider that the happY-vowel should be identified phonemically either with the vowel of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">KIT or that of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">FLEECE, depending on the speaker.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells201453-88">[74]</a> See also <a href="/wiki/Happy-tensing" class="mw-redirect" title="Happy-tensing">happy-tensing</a>.</li> <li>[u], as in influence, to each. This is the back rounded counterpart to [i] described above; its phonemic status is treated in the same works as cited there.</li></ul> <a href="/wiki/Vowel_reduction" title="Vowel reduction">Vowel reduction</a> in unstressed syllables is a significant feature of English. Syllables of the types listed above often correspond to a syllable containing a different vowel ("full vowel") used in other forms of the same <a href="/wiki/Morpheme" title="Morpheme">morpheme</a> where that syllable is stressed. For example, the first o in photograph, being stressed, is pronounced with the <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">GOAT vowel, but in photography, where it is unstressed, it is reduced to schwa. Also, certain common words (a, an, of, for, etc.) are pronounced with a schwa when they are unstressed, although they have different vowels when they are in a stressed position (see <a href="/wiki/Weak_and_strong_forms_in_English" class="mw-redirect" title="Weak and strong forms in English">Weak and strong forms in English</a>). Some unstressed syllables, however, retain full (unreduced) vowels, i.e. vowels other than those listed above. Examples are the /æ/ in ambition and the /aɪ/ in finite. Some phonologists regard such syllables as not being fully unstressed (they may describe them as having tertiary stress); some dictionaries have marked such syllables as having <a href="/wiki/Secondary_stress" title="Secondary stress">secondary stress</a>. However linguists such as Ladefoged<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefoged2006-89">[75]</a> and <a href="#CITEREFBolinger1986">Bolinger (1986)</a> regard this as a difference purely of vowel quality and not of stress,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBolinger1986351-90">[76]</a> and thus argue that vowel reduction itself is phonemic in English. Examples of words where vowel reduction seems to be distinctive for some speakers<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBolinger1986348-91">[77]</a> include chickaree vs. chicory (the latter has the reduced vowel of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">HAPPY, whereas the former has the <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">FLEECE vowel without reduction), and Pharaoh vs. farrow (both have the <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">GOAT vowel, but in the latter word it may reduce to [ɵ]). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Lexical_stress">Lexical stress</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_phonology&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Lexical stress">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Stress_and_vowel_reduction_in_English" title="Stress and vowel reduction in English">Stress and vowel reduction in English</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Stress_(linguistics)" title="Stress (linguistics)">Lexical stress</a> is phonemic in English. For example, the noun increase and the verb increase are distinguished by the positioning of the stress on the first syllable in the former, and on the second syllable in the latter. (See <a href="/wiki/Initial-stress-derived_noun" title="Initial-stress-derived noun">initial-stress-derived noun</a>.) Stressed syllables in English are louder than non-stressed syllables, as well as being longer and having a higher pitch. In traditional approaches, in any English word consisting of more than one <a href="/wiki/Syllable" title="Syllable">syllable</a>, each syllable is ascribed one of three degrees of stress: primary, secondary or unstressed. Ordinarily, in each such word there will be exactly one syllable with primary stress, possibly one syllable having secondary stress, and the remainder are unstressed (unusually-long words may have multiple syllables with secondary stress). For example, the word amazing has primary stress on the second syllable, while the first and third syllables are unstressed, whereas the word organization has primary stress on the fourth syllable, secondary stress on the first, and the second, third, and fifth unstressed. This is often shown in pronunciation keys using the <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a> symbols for primary and secondary stress (which are ˈ and ˌ respectively), placed before the syllables to which they apply. The two words just given may therefore be represented (in <a href="/wiki/Received_Pronunciation" title="Received Pronunciation">RP</a>) as /əˈmeɪzɪŋ/ and /ˌɔːɡənaɪˈzeɪʃən/. Some analysts identify an additional level of stress (tertiary stress). This is generally ascribed to syllables that are pronounced with less force than those with secondary stress, but nonetheless contain a "full" or "unreduced" vowel (vowels that are considered to be reduced are listed under <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Unstressed_syllables">English phonology § Unstressed syllables</a> above). Hence the third syllable of organization, if pronounced with /aɪ/ as shown above (rather than being reduced to /ɪ/ or /ə/), might be said to have tertiary stress. (The precise identification of secondary and tertiary stress differs between analyses; dictionaries do not generally show tertiary stress, although some have taken the approach of marking all syllables with unreduced vowels as having at least secondary stress.) In some analyses, then, the concept of lexical stress may become conflated with that of vowel reduction. An approach that attempts to separate both is provided by <a href="/wiki/Peter_Ladefoged" title="Peter Ladefoged">Peter Ladefoged</a>, who states that it is possible to describe English with only one degree of stress, as long as <a href="/wiki/Unstressed_vowel" class="mw-redirect" title="Unstressed vowel">unstressed syllables</a> are phonemically distinguished for <a href="/wiki/Vowel_reduction" title="Vowel reduction">vowel reduction</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefoged2006§5.4-92">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefoged198083-93">[79]</a> In this approach, the distinction between primary and secondary stress is regarded as a phonetic or prosodic detail rather than a phonemic feature – primary stress is seen as an example of the predictable "tonic" stress that falls on the final stressed syllable of a <a href="/wiki/Prosodic_unit" title="Prosodic unit">prosodic unit</a>. For more details of this analysis, see <a href="/wiki/Stress_and_vowel_reduction_in_English" title="Stress and vowel reduction in English">Stress and vowel reduction in English</a>. For stress as a prosodic feature (emphasis of particular words within utterances), see <a href="#Prosodic_stress">§ Prosodic stress</a> below. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonotactics">Phonotactics</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_phonology&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Phonotactics">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Phonotactics" title="Phonotactics">Phonotactics</a> is the study of the sequences of phonemes that occur in languages and the sound structures that they form. In this study it is usual to represent consonants in general with the letter C and vowels with the letter V, so that a syllable such as 'be' is described as having CV structure. The <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a> symbol used to show a division between syllables is the full stop ⟨.⟩. Syllabification is the process of dividing continuous speech into discrete syllables, a process in which the position of a syllable division is not always easy to decide upon. Most languages of the world syllabify CVCV and CVCCV sequences as /CV.CV/ and /CVC.CV/ or /CV.CCV/, with consonants preferentially acting as the onset of a syllable containing the following vowel. According to one view, English is unusual in this regard, in that stressed syllables attract following consonants, so that ˈCVCV and ˈCVCCV syllabify as /ˈCVC.V/ and /ˈCVCC.V/, as long as the consonant cluster CC is a possible syllable coda; in addition, /r/ preferentially syllabifies with the preceding vowel even when both syllables are unstressed, so that CVrV occurs as /CVr.V/. This is the analysis used in the <a href="/wiki/Longman_Pronunciation_Dictionary" class="mw-redirect" title="Longman Pronunciation Dictionary">Longman Pronunciation Dictionary</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells199076–86-94">[80]</a> However, this view is not widely accepted, as explained in the following section. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Syllable_structure">Syllable structure</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_phonology&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Syllable structure">edit</a>]</div> English allows clusters of up to three consonants in the syllable onset and up to four consonants in the syllable coda,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen200491-95">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJakielskiGildersleeve-Neumann2018198-96">[82]</a> giving a general syllable structure of (C)3V(C)4, a potential example being strengths /strɛŋkθs/ (although this word has variant pronunciations with only 3 coda consonants, such as /strɛŋθs/). A five-consonant coda may occur in the word angsts, but this is a highly exceptional case, as the word is both infrequent and not always pronounced with five final segments<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJakielskiGildersleeve-Neumann2018198-96">[82]</a> (it can be analyzed as a VC4 syllable<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen200491-95">[81]</a> /æŋsts/ rather than as VC5 /æŋksts/). From the phonetic point of view, the analysis of syllable structures is a complex task: because of widespread occurrences of articulatory overlap, English speakers rarely produce an audible release of individual consonants in consonant clusters.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZsiga2003404-97">[83]</a> This coarticulation can lead to articulatory gestures that seem very much like deletions or complete assimilations. For example, hundred pounds may sound like [hʌndɹɪb paʊndz] and jumped back (in slow speech, [dʒʌmptbæk]) may sound like [dʒʌmpbæk], but X-ray<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowmanGoldstein1990-98">[84]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Electropalatography" title="Electropalatography">electropalatographic</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarry1991-99">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarry1992-100">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENolan1992-101">[87]</a> studies demonstrate that inaudible and possibly weakened contacts or lingual gestures may still be made. Thus the second /d/ in hundred pounds does not entirely assimilate to a labial place of articulation, rather the labial gesture co-occurs with the alveolar one; the "missing" [t] in jumped back may still be articulated, though not heard. Division into syllables is a difficult area, and different theories have been proposed. A widely accepted approach is the maximal onset principle:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESelkirk1982-102">[88]</a> this states that, subject to certain constraints, any consonants in between vowels should be assigned to the following syllable. Thus the word leaving should be divided /ˈliː.vɪŋ/ rather than */ˈliːv.ɪŋ/, and hasty is /ˈheɪ.sti/ rather than */ˈheɪs.ti/ or */ˈheɪst.i/. However, when such a division results in an onset cluster that is not allowed in English, the division must respect this. Thus if the word extra were divided */ˈɛ.kstrə/ the resulting onset of the second syllable would be /kstr/, a cluster that does not occur initially in English. The division /ˈɛk.strə/ is therefore preferred. If assigning a consonant or consonants to the following syllable would result in the preceding syllable ending in an unreduced short vowel, this is avoided. Thus the word lemma should be divided /ˈlɛm.ə/ and not */ˈlɛ.mə/, even though the latter division gives the maximal onset to the following syllable. In some cases, no solution is completely satisfactory: for example, in British English (RP) the word hurry could be divided /ˈhʌ.ri/ or /ˈhʌr.i/, but the former would result in an analysis with a syllable-final /ʌ/ (which is held to be non-occurring) while the latter would result in a syllable final /r/ (which is said not to occur in this accent). Some phonologists have suggested a compromise analysis where the consonant in the middle belongs to both syllables, and is described as <a href="/wiki/Ambisyllabicity" class="mw-redirect" title="Ambisyllabicity">ambisyllabic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiegerich1992172-103">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris1994198-104">[90]</a> In this way, it is possible to suggest an analysis of hurry that comprises the syllables /hʌr/ and /ri/, the medial /r/ being ambisyllabic. Where the division coincides with a word boundary, or the boundary between elements of a compound word, it is not usual in the case of dictionaries to insist on the maximal onset principle in a way that divides words in a counter-intuitive way; thus the word hardware would be divided /ˈhɑː.dweə/ by the maximal onset principle, but dictionaries prefer the division /ˈhɑːd.weə/.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGimson2008258–9-105">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiegerich1992167–70-106">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKreidler200476–8-107">[93]</a> In the approach used by the <a href="/wiki/Longman_Pronunciation_Dictionary" class="mw-redirect" title="Longman Pronunciation Dictionary">Longman Pronunciation Dictionary</a>, Wells<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells199076–86-94">[80]</a> claims that consonants syllabify with the preceding rather than following vowel when the preceding vowel is the nucleus of a more salient syllable, with stressed syllables being the most salient, reduced syllables the least, and full unstressed vowels ("secondary stress") intermediate. But there are lexical differences as well, frequently but not exclusively with compound words. For example, in dolphin and selfish, Wells argues that the stressed syllable ends in /lf/, but in shellfish, the /f/ belongs with the following syllable: /ˈdɒlf.ɪn, ˈself.ɪʃ/ → [ˈdɒlfɪ̈n, ˈselfɪ̈ʃ], but /ˈʃel.fɪʃ/ → [ˈʃelˑfɪʃ], where the /l/ is a little longer and the /ɪ/ is not reduced. Similarly, in toe-strap Wells argues that the second /t/ is a full plosive, as usual in syllable onset, whereas in toast-rack the second /t/ is in many dialects reduced to the unreleased allophone it takes in syllable codas, or even elided: /ˈtoʊ.stræp/, /ˈtoʊst.ræk/ → [ˈtoˑʊstɹæp, ˈtoʊs(t̚)ɹæk]; likewise nitrate /ˈnaɪtr.eɪt/ → [ˈnaɪtɹ̥eɪt] with a voiceless /r/ (and for some people an affricated tr as in tree), vs night-rate /ˈnaɪt.reɪt/ → [ˈnaɪt̚ɹeɪt] with a voiced /r/. Cues of syllable boundaries include aspiration of syllable onsets and (in the US) flapping of coda /t, d/ (a tease /ə.ˈtiːz/ → [əˈtʰiːz] vs. at ease /ət.ˈiːz/ → [əɾˈiːz]), epenthetic stops like [t] in syllable codas (fence /ˈfens/ → [ˈfents] but inside /ɪn.ˈsaɪd/ → [ɪnˈsaɪd]), and r-colored vowels when the /r/ is in the coda vs. labialization when it is in the onset (key-ring /ˈkiː.rɪŋ/ → [ˈkiːɹʷɪŋ] but fearing /ˈfiːr.ɪŋ/ → [ˈfɪəɹɪŋ]). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Onset">Onset</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_phonology&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Onset">edit</a>]</div> The following can occur as the <a href="/wiki/Syllable_onset" class="mw-redirect" title="Syllable onset">onset</a>: <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <td>All single-consonant phonemes except /ŋ/ </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Stop plus approximant other than /j/: /pl/, /bl/, /kl/, /ɡl/, /pr/, /br/, /tr/,<a href="#cite_note-tr-dr-112">[a]</a> /dr/,<a href="#cite_note-tr-dr-112">[a]</a> /kr/, /ɡr/, /tw/, /dw/, /ɡw/, /kw/, /pw/ </td> <td>play, blood, clean, glove, prize, bring, tree,<a href="#cite_note-tr-dr-112">[a]</a> dream,<a href="#cite_note-tr-dr-112">[a]</a> crowd, green, twin, dwarf, Guam, quick, puissance </td></tr> <tr> <td>Voiceless fricative or /v/ plus approximant other than /j/:<a href="#cite_note-115">[b]</a> /fl/, /sl/, /θl/,<a href="#cite_note-latinized-greek-116">[c]</a> /ʃl/, /fr/, /θr/, /ʃr/, /hw/,<a href="#cite_note-wine-whine-117">[d]</a> /sw/, /θw/, /vw/ </td> <td>floor, sleep, thlipsis,<a href="#cite_note-latinized-greek-116">[c]</a> schlep, friend, three, shrimp, what,<a href="#cite_note-wine-whine-117">[d]</a> swoon, thwart, voilà </td></tr> <tr> <td>Consonant other than /r/ or /w/ plus /j/ (before /uː/ or its modified/reduced forms):<a href="#cite_note-yod-118">[e]</a> /pj/, /bj/, /tj/,<a href="#cite_note-yod-118">[e]</a> /dj/,<a href="#cite_note-yod-118">[e]</a> /kj/, /ɡj/, /mj/, /nj/,<a href="#cite_note-yod-118">[e]</a> /fj/, /vj/, /θj/,<a href="#cite_note-yod-118">[e]</a> /sj/,<a href="#cite_note-yod-118">[e]</a> /zj/,<a href="#cite_note-yod-118">[e]</a> /hj/, /lj/<a href="#cite_note-yod-118">[e]</a> </td> <td>pure, beautiful, tube,<a href="#cite_note-yod-118">[e]</a> during,<a href="#cite_note-yod-118">[e]</a> cute, argue, music, new,<a href="#cite_note-yod-118">[e]</a> few, view, thew,<a href="#cite_note-yod-118">[e]</a> suit,<a href="#cite_note-yod-118">[e]</a> Zeus,<a href="#cite_note-yod-118">[e]</a> huge, lurid<a href="#cite_note-yod-118">[e]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>/s/ plus voiceless stop:<a href="#cite_note-sh-119">[f]</a> /sp/, /st/, /sk/ </td> <td>speak, stop, skill </td></tr> <tr> <td>/s/ plus nasal other than /ŋ/:<a href="#cite_note-sh-119">[f]</a> /sm/, /sn/ </td> <td>smile, snow </td></tr> <tr> <td>/s/ plus voiceless non-sibilant fricative:<a href="#cite_note-latinized-greek-116">[c]</a> /sf/, /sθ/ </td> <td>sphere, sthenic </td></tr> <tr> <td>/s/ plus voiceless stop plus approximant:<a href="#cite_note-sh-119">[f]</a> /spl/, /skl/,<a href="#cite_note-latinized-greek-116">[c]</a> /spr/, /str/, /skr/, /skw/, /spj/, /stj/,<a href="#cite_note-yod-118">[e]</a> /skj/ </td> <td>split, sclera, spring, street, scream, square, spew, student,<a href="#cite_note-yod-118">[e]</a> skewer </td></tr> <tr> <td>/s/ plus nasal plus approximant: /smj/ /snj/ </td> <td>smew, snew<a href="#cite_note-snj-120">[g]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>/s/ plus voiceless non-sibilant fricative plus approximant:<a href="#cite_note-latinized-greek-116">[c]</a> /sfr/ </td> <td>sphragistics </td></tr></tbody></table> Notes: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-tr-dr-112">^ <a href="#cite_ref-tr-dr_112-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-tr-dr_112-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-tr-dr_112-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-tr-dr_112-3">d</a> For certain speakers, /tr/ and /dr/ tend to affricate, so that tree resembles "chree", and dream resembles "jream".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1990?-108">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERead1986?-109">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley2006-110">[96]</a> This is sometimes transcribed as [tʃɹ] and [dʒɹ], respectively, but the pronunciation varies, and may, for example, be closer to [tʂ] and [dʐ]<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaković2006-111">[97]</a> or with a fricative release similar in quality to the rhotic, i.e. [tɹ̝̊ɹ̥], [dɹ̝ɹ], or [tʂɻ], [dʐɻ]. </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> Some northern and insular Scottish dialects, particularly in <a href="/wiki/Shetland" title="Shetland">Shetland</a>, preserve onsets such as /ɡn/ (as in gnaw), /kn/ (as in knock), and /wr/ or /vr/ (as in write).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlake199267-113">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcColl_Millar200763–64-114">[99]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-latinized-greek-116">^ <a href="#cite_ref-latinized-greek_116-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-latinized-greek_116-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-latinized-greek_116-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-latinized-greek_116-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-latinized-greek_116-4">e</a> Words beginning in unusual consonant clusters that originated in Latinized Greek loanwords tend to drop the first phoneme, as in */bd/, */fθ/, */ɡn/, */hr/, */kn/, */ks/, */kt/, */kθ/, */mn/, */pn/, */ps/, */pt/, */tm/, and */θm/, which have become /d/ (bdellium), /θ/ (phthisis), /n/ (gnome), /r/ (rhythm), /n/ (cnidoblast), /z/ (xylophone), /t/ (ctenophore), /θ/ (chthonic), /n/ (mnemonic), /n/ (pneumonia), /s/ (psychology), /t/ (pterodactyl), /m/ (tmesis), and /m/ (asthma). In some other words with these or other similar consonant clusters, the leading consonant has split off into a separate syllable; for instance, */kθ/ becoming /kə.θ/ (Cthulhu) or */fθ/ or */pθ/ becoming /pə.θ/ (phthalate). However, the onsets /sf/, /sfr/, /skl/, /sθ/, and /θl/ have remained intact. </li> <li id="cite_note-wine-whine-117">^ <a href="#cite_ref-wine-whine_117-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-wine-whine_117-1">b</a> The onset /hw/ is simplified to /w/ in the majority of dialects (<a href="/wiki/Wine%E2%80%93whine_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Wine–whine merger">wine–whine merger</a>). </li> <li id="cite_note-yod-118">^ <a href="#cite_ref-yod_118-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-yod_118-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-yod_118-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-yod_118-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-yod_118-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-yod_118-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-yod_118-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-yod_118-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-yod_118-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-yod_118-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-yod_118-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-yod_118-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-yod_118-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-yod_118-13">n</a> <a href="#cite_ref-yod_118-14">o</a> <a href="#cite_ref-yod_118-15">p</a> <a href="#cite_ref-yod_118-16">q</a> Clusters ending /j/ typically occur before /uː/ and before the CURE vowel (General American /ʊr/, RP /ʊə/); they may also come before the reduced forms /ʊ/ (as in argument) or /ə/ (as in some American pronunciations of pure and cure), and can occur before other vowels in loanwords (for instance, before /oʊ/ in jalapeño) or mimetic words (for instance, before, variably, /ɑ/, /æ/, or /ɛ/ in nyah-nyah). There is an ongoing sound change (<a href="/wiki/Yod-dropping" class="mw-redirect" title="Yod-dropping">yod-dropping</a>) by which /j/ as the final consonant in a <a href="/wiki/Consonant_cluster" title="Consonant cluster">cluster</a> is being lost. In RP, words with /sj/ and /lj/ can usually be pronounced with or without this sound, e.g. [suːt] or [sjuːt]. For some speakers of English, including some British speakers, the sound change is more advanced, and, so, for example, General American does not (except in loans or mimetic words) contain the onsets /tj/, /dj/, /nj/, /θj/, /sj/, /stj/, /zj/, or /lj/. Words that would otherwise begin in these onsets drop the /j/: e.g. tube (/tub/), during (/ˈdɜrɪŋ/), new (/nu/), Thule (/ˈθuli/), suit (/sut/), student (/ˈstudənt/), Zeus (/zus/), lurid (/ˈlʊrəd/). In word-medial position, these sequences can still be found in American English between a stressed and unstressed vowel (as in annual /ˈænjuəl/, failure /ˈfeɪljər/), but the consonants can be analyzed in this context as falling in separate syllables, and so not constituting a syllable onset. In some dialects, such <a href="/wiki/Welsh_English" title="Welsh English">Welsh English</a>, /j/ may occur in more combinations; for example in /tʃj/ (chew), /dʒj/ (Jew), /ʃj/ (sure), and /slj/ (slew). </li> <li id="cite_note-sh-119">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sh_119-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sh_119-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sh_119-2">c</a> Many clusters beginning with /ʃ/ and paralleling native clusters beginning with /s/ are found initially in German and Yiddish loanwords, such as /ʃl/, /ʃp/, /ʃt/, /ʃm/, /ʃn/, /ʃpr/, /ʃtr/ (in words such as <a href="/wiki/Schlep" class="mw-redirect" title="Schlep">schlep</a>, spiel, shtick, schmuck, <a href="/wiki/Schnapps" title="Schnapps">schnapps</a>, Shprintzen's, strudel). /ʃw/ is found initially in the Hebrew loanword <a href="/wiki/Schwa" class="mw-redirect" title="Schwa">schwa</a>. Before /r/, however, the native cluster is /ʃr/. The opposite cluster /sr/ is found in loanwords such as Sri Lanka, but this can be nativized by changing it to /ʃr/. </li> <li id="cite_note-snj-120"><a href="#cite_ref-snj_120-0">^</a> the dialectical past tense of to snow, or the band with the same name </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Other_onsets">Other onsets</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_phonology&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Other onsets">edit</a>]</div> Certain English onsets appear only in contractions: e.g. /zbl/ ('sblood), and /zw/ or /dzw/ ('swounds or 'dswounds). Some, such as /pʃ/ (pshaw), /fw/ (fwoosh), or /vr/ (vroom), can occur in <a href="/wiki/Interjection" title="Interjection">interjections</a>. An archaic voiceless fricative plus nasal exists, /fn/ (fnese), as does an archaic /snj/ (snew). Several additional onsets occur in <a href="/wiki/Loan_word" class="mw-redirect" title="Loan word">loan words</a> (with varying degrees of anglicization) such as /bw/ (bwana), /mw/ (moiré), /nw/ (noire), /tsw/ (zwitterion), /zw/ (zwieback), /dv/ (Dvorak), /kv/ (kvetch), /ʃv/ (schvartze), /tv/ (Tver), /tsv/ (Zwickau), /kʃ/ (Kshatriya), /sɡl/ (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sglods" class="extiw" title="wikt:sglods">sglods</a>), /tl/ (Tlaloc), /vl/ (Vladimir), /zl/ (zloty), /tsk/ (Tskhinvali), /hm/ (Hmong), /km/ (Khmer), and /ŋ/ (Nganasan). Some clusters of this type can be converted to regular English phonotactics by simplifying the cluster: e.g. /(d)z/ (dziggetai), /(h)r/ (Hrolf), /kr(w)/ (croissant), /(ŋ)w/ (<a href="/wiki/Nguyen#Pronunciation" title="Nguyen">Nguyen</a>), /(p)f/ (pfennig), /(f)θ/ (phthalic), /(t)s/ (tsunami), /(ǃ)k/ (!kung), and /k(ǁ)/ (Xhosa). Others can be replaced by native clusters differing only in <a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voice</a>: /zb ~ sp/ (sbirro), and /zɡr ~ skr/ (sgraffito). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Nucleus">Nucleus</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_phonology&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Nucleus">edit</a>]</div> The following can occur as the <a href="/wiki/Syllable_nucleus" class="mw-redirect" title="Syllable nucleus">nucleus</a>: <ul><li>All vowel sounds</li> <li>/m/, /n/ and /l/ in certain situations (see below under <a href="#Word-level_patterns">word-level patterns</a>)</li> <li>/r/ in <a href="/wiki/Rhotic_and_non-rhotic_accents" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhotic and non-rhotic accents">rhotic varieties</a> of English (e.g. <a href="/wiki/General_American" class="mw-redirect" title="General American">General American</a>) in certain situations (see below under <a href="#Word-level_patterns">word-level patterns</a>)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Coda">Coda</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_phonology&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Coda">edit</a>]</div> Most (in theory, all) of the following except those that end with /s/, /z/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /tʃ/ or /dʒ/ can be extended with /s/ or /z/ representing the <a href="/wiki/Morpheme" title="Morpheme">morpheme</a> -s/-z. Similarly, most (in theory, all) of the following except those that end with /t/ or /d/ can be extended with /t/ or /d/ representing the morpheme -t/-d. <a href="#CITEREFWells1990">Wells (1990)</a> argues that a variety of syllable codas are possible in English, even /ntr, ndr/ in words like entry /ˈɛntr.i/ and sundry /ˈsʌndr.i/, with /tr, dr/ being treated as affricates along the lines of /tʃ, dʒ/. He argues that the traditional assumption that pre-vocalic consonants form a syllable with the following vowel is due to the influence of languages like French and Latin, where syllable structure is CVC.CVC regardless of stress placement. Disregarding such contentious cases, which do not occur at the ends of words, the following sequences can occur as the <a href="/wiki/Syllable_coda" class="mw-redirect" title="Syllable coda">coda</a>: <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <td>The single consonant phonemes except /h/, /w/, /j/ and, in <a href="/wiki/Rhotic_and_non-rhotic_accents" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhotic and non-rhotic accents">non-rhotic varieties</a>, /r/</td> <td>  </td></tr> <tr> <td>Lateral approximant plus stop or affricate: /lp/, /lb/, /lt/, /ld/, /ltʃ/, /ldʒ/, /lk/</td> <td>help, bulb, belt, hold, belch, indulge, milk </td></tr> <tr> <td>In rhotic varieties, /r/ plus stop or affricate: /rp/, /rb/, /rt/, /rd/, /rtʃ/, /rdʒ/, /rk/, /rɡ/</td> <td>harp, orb, fort, beard, arch, large, mark, morgue </td></tr> <tr> <td>Lateral approximant + fricative: /lf/, /lv/, /lθ/, /ls/, /lz/, /lʃ/, (/lð/)</td> <td>golf, solve, wealth, else, bells, Welsh, (stealth (v.)) </td></tr> <tr> <td>In rhotic varieties, /r/ + fricative: /rf/, /rv/, /rθ/, /rð/, /rs/, /rz/, /rʃ/</td> <td>dwarf, carve, north, birth (v.), force, Mars, marsh </td></tr> <tr> <td>Lateral approximant + nasal: /lm/, /ln/</td> <td>film, kiln </td></tr> <tr> <td>In rhotic varieties, /r/ + nasal or lateral: /rm/, /rn/, /rl/</td> <td>arm, born, snarl </td></tr> <tr> <td>Nasal + <a href="/wiki/Homorganic" class="mw-redirect" title="Homorganic">homorganic</a> stop or affricate: /mp/, /nt/, /nd/, /ntʃ/, /ndʒ/, /ŋk/; some varieties also allow /ŋg/</td> <td>jump, tent, end, lunch, lounge, pink, sing </td></tr> <tr> <td>Nasal + fricative: /mf/, /mz/, /mθ/, (/nf/), /nθ/, (/ns/), /nz/, /ŋz/; some varieties also allow /ŋθ/</td> <td>triumph, Thames, warmth, (saunf), month, (prince), bronze, songs, length, strength </td></tr> <tr> <td>Voiceless fricative plus voiceless stop: /ft/, /sp/, /st/, /sk/, /ʃt/, /θt/</td> <td>left, crisp, lost, ask, smashed, smithed </td></tr> <tr> <td>Voiced fricative plus voiced stop: /zd/, /ðd/</td> <td>blazed, writhed </td></tr> <tr> <td>Two or three voiceless fricatives: /fθ/, /fθs/</td> <td>fifth, fifths </td></tr> <tr> <td>Two voiceless stops: /pt/, /kt/</td> <td>opt, act </td></tr> <tr> <td>Two voiceless stops + fricative: /pts/, /kts/</td> <td>opts, acts </td></tr> <tr> <td>Stop plus fricative: /pθ/, /ps/, /bz/, /tθ/, /ts/, /dθ/, /dz/, /ks/, /gz/</td> <td>depth, lapse, ebbs, eighth, klutz, width, adze, box, eggs </td></tr> <tr> <td>Lateral approximant + two or three consonants: /lmd/, /lpt/, /lps/, /lfθ/, /lts/, /lst/, /lkt/, /lks/</td> <td>filmed, sculpt, alps, twelfth,<a href="#cite_note-121">[a]</a> waltz, whilst, mulct, calx </td></tr> <tr> <td>In rhotic varieties, /r/ + two consonants: /rmd/, /rmθ/, /rpt/, /rps/, /rnd/, /rts/, /rst/, /rld/, /rkt/, /rks/</td> <td>farmed, warmth, excerpt, corpse, mourned, quartz, horst, world, infarct, irks </td></tr> <tr> <td>Nasal + homorganic stop + stop or fricative: /mpt/, /mps/, /nts/, /ntθ/, /ŋkt/, /ŋks/, /ŋkθ/ in some varieties</td> <td>prompt, glimpse, chintz, thousandth, distinct, jinx, length </td></tr> <tr> <td>Nasal + homorganic stop + two fricatives: /ntθs/</td> <td>thousandths </td></tr> <tr> <td>Nasal + non-homorganic stop: /mt/, /md/, /ŋd/</td> <td>dreamt, hemmed, hanged </td></tr> <tr> <td>Three obstruents: /ksθ/, /kst/</td> <td>sixth, next </td></tr> <tr> <td>Four obstruents: /ksθs/, /ksθt/, /ksts/</td> <td>sixths, sixthed, texts </td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li>Notes:</li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> The pronunciation of twelfth varies and can be /twɛlfθ/ or /twɛlθ/. </li> </ol></div></div> For some speakers, a fricative before /θ/ is elided so that these never appear phonetically: /fɪfθ/ becomes [fɪθ], /sɪksθ/ becomes [sɪkθ], /twɛlfθ/ becomes [twɛlθ]. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Syllable-level_patterns">Syllable-level patterns</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_phonology&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Syllable-level patterns">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Syllables may consist of a single vowel, meaning that onset and coda are not mandatory.</li> <li>The consonant /ŋ/ does not occur in syllable-initial position (most speakers do not maintain it even in loans like <a href="/wiki/Ngorongoro_Conservation_Area" title="Ngorongoro Conservation Area">Ngorongoro</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nguyen" title="Nguyen">Nguyen</a>).</li> <li>The consonant /h/ does not occur in syllable-final position.</li> <li>Onset clusters ending in /j/ are followed by /uː/ or its variants (see <a href="#Onset">§ Onset</a> note e above).</li> <li>Long vowels and diphthongs are not found before /ŋ/, except for the mimetic words boing and oink, unassimilated foreign words such as Burmese aung and proper names such as <a href="/wiki/Taung" title="Taung">Taung</a>, and American-type pronunciations of words like strong (which have /ɔŋ/ or /ɑŋ/). The short vowels /ɛ, ʊ/ occur before /ŋ/ only in assimilated non-native words such as <a href="/wiki/Ginseng" title="Ginseng">ginseng</a> and <a href="/wiki/Song_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Song Dynasty">Song</a> (name of a Chinese dynasty) or non-finally in some dialects in words like strength and length as well as in varieties without the <a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_close_back_vowels#Foot–strut_split" title="Phonological history of English close back vowels">foot-strut split</a>.</li> <li>/ʊ/ is rare in syllable-initial position (although in the northern half of England, [ʊ] is used for /ʌ/ and is common at the start of syllables).</li> <li>Stop + /w/ before /uː, ʊ, ʌ, aʊ/ (all presently or historically /u(ː)/) are excluded.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClementsKeyser198320-122">[100]</a></li> <li>Sequences of /s/ + C1 + V̆ + C1, where C1 is a consonant other than /t/ and V̆ is a short vowel, are virtually nonexistent.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClementsKeyser198321-123">[101]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Word-level_patterns">Word-level patterns</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_phonology&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Word-level patterns">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>/ə/ does not occur in stressed syllables, unless it is merged with another vowel as in some varieties.</li> <li>/ʒ/ does not occur in word-initial position in native English words, although it can occur syllable-initially as in luxurious /lʌɡˈʒʊəriəs/ in American English, and at the start of borrowed words such as genre.</li> <li>/m/, /n/, /l/ and, in <a href="/wiki/Rhotic_and_non-rhotic_accents" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhotic and non-rhotic accents">rhotic varieties</a>, /r/ can be the syllable nucleus (i.e. a <a href="/wiki/Syllabic_consonant" title="Syllabic consonant">syllabic consonant</a>) in an unstressed syllable following another consonant, especially /t/, /d/, /s/ or /z/. Such syllables are often analyzed phonemically as having an underlying /ə/ as the nucleus. See above under <a href="#Consonants">Consonants</a>.</li> <li>The short vowels are <a href="/wiki/Checked_and_free_vowels" title="Checked and free vowels">checked vowels</a>, in that they cannot occur without a coda in a word-final stressed syllable. (This does not apply to /ə/, which does not occur in stressed syllables as mentioned above.)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prosody">Prosody</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_phonology&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Prosody">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Prosody_(linguistics)" title="Prosody (linguistics)">prosodic</a> features of English – stress, rhythm, and intonation – can be described as follows. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prosodic_stress">Prosodic stress</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_phonology&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Prosodic stress">edit</a>]</div> Prosodic stress is extra stress given to words or syllables when they appear in certain positions in an utterance, or when they receive special emphasis. According to Ladefoged's analysis (as referred to under <a href="#Lexical_stress">§ Lexical stress</a> above), English normally has prosodic stress on the final stressed syllable in an <a href="/wiki/Intonation_unit" class="mw-redirect" title="Intonation unit">intonation unit</a>. This is said to be the origin of the distinction traditionally made at the lexical level between primary and secondary stress: when a word like admiration (traditionally transcribed as something like /ˌædmɪˈreɪʃən/) is spoken in isolation, or at the end of a sentence, the syllable ra (the final stressed syllable) is pronounced with greater force than the syllable ad, although when the word is not pronounced with this final intonation there may be no difference between the levels of stress of these two syllables. Prosodic stress can shift for various <a href="/wiki/Pragmatics" title="Pragmatics">pragmatic</a> functions, such as focus or contrast. For instance, in the dialogue Is it brunch tomorrow? No, it's dinner tomorrow, the extra stress shifts from the last stressed syllable of the sentence, tomorrow, to the last stressed syllable of the emphasized word, dinner. Grammatical <a href="/wiki/Function_word" title="Function word">function words</a> are usually prosodically unstressed, although they can acquire stress when emphasized (as in Did you find the cat? Well, I found a cat). Many English function words have distinct strong and weak pronunciations; for example, the word a in the last example is pronounced /eɪ/, while the more common unstressed a is pronounced /ə/. See <a href="/wiki/Weak_and_strong_forms_in_English" class="mw-redirect" title="Weak and strong forms in English">Weak and strong forms in English</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rhythm">Rhythm</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_phonology&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Rhythm">edit</a>]</div> English is claimed to be a <a href="/wiki/Timing_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Timing (linguistics)">stress-timed</a> language. That is, stressed syllables tend to appear with a more or less regular rhythm, while non-stressed syllables are shortened to accommodate this. For example, in the sentence One make of car is better than another, the syllables one, make, car, bett- and -noth- will be stressed and relatively long, while the other syllables will be considerably shorter. The theory of stress-timing predicts that each of the three unstressed syllables in between bett- and -noth- will be shorter than the syllable of between make and car, because three syllables must fit into the same amount of time as that available for of. However, it should not be assumed that all varieties of English are stress-timed in this way. The English spoken in the West Indies,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollinsMees2013138-124">[102]</a> in Africa<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982644-125">[103]</a> and in India<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982630–1-126">[104]</a> are probably better characterized as <a href="/wiki/Isochrony" title="Isochrony">syllable-timed</a>, though the lack of an agreed scientific test for categorizing an accent or language as stress-timed or syllable-timed may lead one to doubt the value of such a characterization.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoach198273–9-127">[105]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Intonation">Intonation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_phonology&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Intonation">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Intonation_(linguistics)#English" title="Intonation (linguistics)">Intonation (linguistics) § English</a></div> Phonological contrasts in intonation can be said to be found in three different and independent domains. In the work of Halliday<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalliday196718–24-128">[106]</a> the following names are proposed: <ul><li>Tonality for the distribution of continuous speech into tone groups.</li> <li>Tonicity for the placing of the principal accent on a particular syllable of a word, making it the tonic syllable. This is the domain also referred to as <a href="/wiki/Stress_(linguistics)#Prosodic_stress" title="Stress (linguistics)">prosodic stress</a> or <a href="/wiki/Sentence_stress" class="mw-redirect" title="Sentence stress">sentence stress</a>.</li> <li>Tone for the choice of pitch movement on the tonic syllable. (The use of the term tone in this sense should not be confused with the <a href="/wiki/Tone_(linguistics)" title="Tone (linguistics)">tone</a> of tone languages, such as Chinese.)</li></ul> These terms ("the Three Ts") have been used in more recent work,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETench1996-129">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells2006-130">[108]</a> though they have been criticized for being difficult to remember.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoach2009144-131">[109]</a> American systems such as <a href="/wiki/ToBI" title="ToBI">ToBI</a> also identify contrasts involving boundaries between intonation phrases (Halliday's tonality), placement of pitch accent (tonicity), and choice of tone or tones associated with the pitch accent (tone). Example of phonological contrast involving placement of intonation unit boundaries (boundary marked by comma): <div><ol style="list-style-type:lower-alpha"><li>Those who ran quickly, escaped. (the only people who escaped were those who ran quickly)</li><li>Those who ran, quickly escaped. (the people who ran escaped quickly)</li></ol></div> Example of phonological contrast involving placement of tonic syllable (marked by capital letters): <div><ol style="list-style-type:lower-alpha"><li>I have plans to LEAVE. (= I am planning to leave)</li><li>I have PLANS to leave. (= I have some drawings to leave)</li></ol></div> Example of phonological contrast (British English) involving choice of tone (\ = falling tone, \/ = fall-rise tone) <div><ol style="list-style-type:lower-alpha"><li>She didn't break the record because of the \ WIND. (= she did not break the record, because the wind held her up)</li><li>She didn't break the record because of the \/ WIND. (= she did break the record, but not because of the wind)</li></ol></div> There is typically a contrast involving tone between <a href="/wiki/Wh-question" class="mw-redirect" title="Wh-question">wh-questions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yes/no_question" class="mw-redirect" title="Yes/no question">yes/no questions</a>, the former having a falling tone (e.g. "Where did you \PUT it?") and the latter a rising tone (e.g. "Are you going /OUT?"), though studies of spontaneous speech have shown frequent exceptions to this rule.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown1990122–3-132">[110]</a> <a href="/wiki/Tag_questions" class="mw-redirect" title="Tag questions">Tag questions</a> asking for information are said to carry rising tones (e.g. "They are coming on Tuesday, /AREN'T they?") while those asking for confirmation have falling tone (e.g. "Your name's John, \ISN'T it."). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_of_English_pronunciation">History of English pronunciation</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_phonology&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: History of English pronunciation">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English" title="Phonological history of English">Phonological history of English</a></div> The pronunciation system of English has undergone many changes throughout the history of the language, from the <a href="/wiki/Old_English_phonology" title="Old English phonology">phonological system of Old English</a>, to <a href="/wiki/Middle_English_phonology" title="Middle English phonology">that of Middle English</a>, through to that of the present day. Variation between <a href="/wiki/English_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="English dialects">dialects</a> has always been significant. Former pronunciations of many words are reflected in their spellings, as <a href="/wiki/English_orthography" title="English orthography">English orthography</a> has generally not kept pace with phonological changes since the Middle English period. The English consonant system has been relatively stable over time, although <a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_consonants" title="Phonological history of English consonants">a number of significant changes</a> have occurred. Examples include the loss (in most dialects) of the [ç] and [x] sounds still reflected by the ⟨gh⟩ in words like night and taught, and the splitting of voiced and voiceless allophones of fricatives into separate phonemes (such as the two different <a href="/wiki/Pronunciation_of_English_%E2%9F%A8th%E2%9F%A9" title="Pronunciation of English ⟨th⟩">phonemes represented by ⟨th⟩</a>). There have also been many <a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_consonant_clusters" title="Phonological history of English consonant clusters">changes in consonant clusters</a>, mostly reductions, for instance those that produced the usual modern pronunciations of such letter combinations as ⟨wr-⟩, ⟨kn-⟩ and <a href="/wiki/English_wh" class="mw-redirect" title="English wh">⟨wh-⟩</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_vowels" title="Phonological history of English vowels">development of vowels</a> has been much more complex. One of the most notable series of changes is that known as the <a href="/wiki/Great_Vowel_Shift" title="Great Vowel Shift">Great Vowel Shift</a>, which began around the late 14th century. Here the [iː] and [uː] in words like price and mouth became diphthongized, and other long vowels became higher: [eː] became [iː] (as in meet), [aː] became [eː] and later [eɪ] (as in name), [oː] became [uː] (as in goose), and [ɔː] became [oː] and later [oʊ] (in RP now [əʊ]; as in bone). These shifts are responsible for the modern pronunciations of many written vowel combinations, including those involving a <a href="/wiki/Silent_e" title="Silent e">silent final ⟨e⟩</a>. Many other changes in vowels have taken place over the centuries (see the separate articles on the <a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_low_back_vowels" class="mw-redirect" title="Phonological history of English low back vowels">low back</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_high_back_vowels" class="mw-redirect" title="Phonological history of English high back vowels">high back</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_high_front_vowels" class="mw-redirect" title="Phonological history of English high front vowels">high front</a> vowels, <a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_short_A" class="mw-redirect" title="Phonological history of English short A">short A</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_diphthongs" title="Phonological history of English diphthongs">diphthongs</a>). These various changes mean that many words that formerly rhymed (and may be expected to rhyme based on their spelling) no longer do.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECercignani1975513–8-133">[111]</a> For example, in <a href="/wiki/William_Shakespeare" title="William Shakespeare">Shakespeare</a>'s time, following the Great Vowel Shift, food, good and blood all had the vowel [uː], but in modern pronunciation good has been shortened to [ʊ], while blood has been shortened and lowered to [ʌ] in most accents. In other cases, words that were formerly distinct have come to be pronounced the same – examples of such mergers include <a href="/wiki/Meet%E2%80%93meat_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Meet–meat merger">meet–meat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pane%E2%80%93pain_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Pane–pain merger">pane–pain</a> and <a href="/wiki/Toe%E2%80%93tow_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Toe–tow merger">toe–tow</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Controversial_issues">Controversial issues</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_phonology&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Controversial issues">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Velar_nasal">Velar nasal</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_phonology&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Velar nasal">edit</a>]</div> The phonemic status of the velar nasal consonant [ŋ] is disputed; one analysis claims that the only nasal phonemes in English are /m/ and /n/, while [ŋ] is an allophone of /n/ found before velar consonants. Evidence in support of this analysis is found in accents of the north-west Midlands of England where [ŋ] is found only before /k/ or /ɡ/, with sung being pronounced as [sʌŋɡ]. However, in most other accents of English sung is pronounced [sʌŋ], producing a three-way phonemic contrast sum – sun – sung /sʌm sʌn sʌŋ/ and supporting the analysis of the phonemic status of /ŋ/. In support of treating the velar nasal as an allophone of /n/, <a href="#CITEREFSapir1925">Sapir (1925)</a> claims on psychological grounds that [ŋ] did not form part of a series of three nasal consonants: "no naïve English-speaking person can be made to feel in his bones that it belongs to a single series with m and n. ... It still feels like ƞg."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESapir192549-134">[112]</a> More recent writers have indicated that analyses of [ŋ] as an allophone of /n/ may still have merit, even though [ŋ] may appear both with and without a following velar consonant; in such analyses, an underlying /ɡ/ that is <a href="/wiki/Elision" title="Elision">deleted</a> by a <a href="/wiki/Phonological_rule" title="Phonological rule">phonological rule</a> would account for occurrences of [ŋ] not followed by a velar consonant.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells198260–63-135">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoach200946–48,_51–54-136">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiegerich1992297–300-137">[115]</a> Thus the phonemic representation of sing would be /sɪnɡ/ and that of singer is /sɪnɡə/; in order to reach the phonetic form [sɪŋ] and [sɪŋə], it is necessary to apply a rule that changes /n/ to [ŋ] before /k/ or /ɡ/, then a second rule that deletes /ɡ/ when it follows [ŋ]. <ul><li>1. /n/ → [ŋ] / ____ velar consonant</li> <li>2. /ɡ/ → ∅ / [ŋ] _____</li></ul> These produce the following results: <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Word </th> <th>Underlying phonological form </th> <th>Phonetic form </th></tr> <tr> <td>sing </td> <td>/sɪnɡ/ </td> <td>[sɪŋ] </td></tr> <tr> <td>singer </td> <td>/ˈsɪnɡər/ </td> <td>['sɪŋər] </td></tr> <tr> <td>singing </td> <td>/ˈsɪnɡɪnɡ/ </td> <td>['sɪŋɪŋ] </td></tr> </tbody></table> However, these rules do not predict the following phonetic forms: <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Word </th> <th>Underlying phonological form </th> <th>Phonetic form </th></tr> <tr> <td>anger </td> <td>/ˈænɡər/ </td> <td>['æŋɡər] </td></tr> <tr> <td>finger </td> <td>/ˈfɪnɡər/ </td> <td>['fɪŋɡər] </td></tr> <tr> <td>hunger </td> <td>/ˈhʌnɡər/ </td> <td>['hʌŋɡər] </td></tr> </tbody></table> In the above cases, the /ɡ/ is not deleted. The words are all single <a href="/wiki/Morpheme" title="Morpheme">morphemes</a>, unlike singer and singing which are composed of two morphemes, sing plus -er or -ing. Rule 2 can be amended to include a symbol # for a morpheme boundary (including word boundary): 2. /ɡ/ → ∅ / [ŋ] ___ # This rule then applies to sing, singer and singing but not to anger, finger, or hunger. According to this rule, the words hangar ('shed for aircraft'), which contains no internal morpheme boundary, and hanger ('object for hanging clothes'), which comprises two morphemes, are expected to constitute a minimal pair as hangar [ˈhæŋɡə] versus hanger [ˈhæŋə]; in actuality, their pronunciations are not consistently distinguished in this manner, as hangar is frequently pronounced [ˈhæŋə]. Additionally, there are exceptions in the form of comparative and superlative forms of adjectives, where Rule 2 must be prevented from applying. The ending -ish is another possible exception. <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Word </th> <th>Underlying phonological form </th> <th>Phonetic form </th></tr> <tr> <td>long </td> <td>/lɒnɡ/ </td> <td>[lɒŋ] </td></tr> <tr> <td>longer </td> <td>/ˈlɒnɡər/ </td> <td>['lɒŋɡər] </td></tr> <tr> <td>longest </td> <td>/ˈlɒnɡɪst/ </td> <td>['lɒŋɡəst] </td></tr> <tr> <td>longish </td> <td>/ˈlɒnɡɪʃ/ </td> <td>['lɒŋɡɪʃ] or ['lɒŋɪʃ] </td></tr> </tbody></table> As a result, there is, in theory, a minimal pair consisting of longer ([lɒŋɡər] 'more long') and longer ([lɒŋər] 'person who longs'), though it is doubtful that native speakers make this distinction regularly.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESobkowiak199695–6-138">[116]</a> Names of persons and places, and loanwords, are less predictable. Singapore may be pronounced with or without [ɡ]; bungalow usually has [ɡ]; and Inge may or may not have [ɡ].<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells2008-139">[117]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vowel_system">Vowel system</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_phonology&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Vowel system">edit</a>]</div> It is often stated that English has a particularly large number of vowel phonemes and that there are 20 vowel phonemes in Received Pronunciation,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Connor1973153-140">[118]</a> 14–16 in General American, and 20–21 in Australian English. These numbers, however, reflect just one of many possible phonological analyses. A number of "biphonemic" analyses have proposed that English has a basic set of short (sometimes called "simple" or "checked") vowels, each of which can be shown to be a phoneme and can be combined with another phoneme to form long vowels and diphthongs. One of these biphonemic analyses asserts that diphthongs and long vowels may be interpreted as comprising a short vowel linked to a consonant. The fullest exposition of this approach is found in <a href="#CITEREFTragerSmith1951">Trager & Smith (1951)</a>, where all long vowels and diphthongs ("complex nuclei") are made up of a short vowel combined with either /j/ (for which the authors use the symbol ⟨y⟩), /w/ or /h/ (plus /r/ for <a href="/wiki/Rhotic_consonant" title="Rhotic consonant">rhotic</a> accents), each thus comprising two phonemes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETragerSmith195120-141">[119]</a> Using this system, the word bite would be transcribed /bajt/, bout as /bawt/, bar as /bar/ and bra as /brah/. One attraction that the authors claim for this analysis is that it regularizes the distribution of the consonants /j/, /w/, and /h/ (as well as /r/ in non-rhotic accents), which would otherwise not be found in syllable-final position. <a href="#CITEREFTragerSmith1951">Trager & Smith (1951)</a> suggest nine simple vowel phonemes to allow them to represent all the accents of American and British English they surveyed, symbolized /i, e, æ/ (front vowels); /ᵻ, ə, a/ (central vowels); and /u, o, ɔ/ (back vowels). The analysis from <a href="#CITEREFTragerSmith1951">Trager & Smith (1951)</a> came out of a desire to build an "<a href="/wiki/Diasystem" title="Diasystem">overall system</a>" to accommodate all English dialects, with dialectal distinctions arising from differences in the ordering of phonological rules,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavis19731-142">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllen1977169,_226-143">[121]</a> as well as in the presence or absence of such rules.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESaporta1965218–219-144">[122]</a> Another category of biphonemic analyses of English treats long vowels and diphthongs as conjunctions of two vowels. Such analyses, as found in <a href="#CITEREFSweet1877">Sweet (1877)</a> or <a href="#CITEREFKreidler2004">Kreidler (2004)</a> for example, are less concerned with dialectal variation. In <a href="#CITEREFMacCarthy1957">MacCarthy (1957)</a>, for example, there are seven basic vowels and these may be doubled (<a href="/wiki/Gemination" title="Gemination">geminated</a>) to represent long vowels, as shown in the table below: <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Short vowel </th> <th>Long vowel </th></tr> <tr> <td>i (bit) </td> <td>ii (beet) </td></tr> <tr> <td>e (bet) </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>a (cat) </td> <td>aa (cart) </td></tr> <tr> <td>o (cot) </td> <td>oo (caught) </td></tr> <tr> <td>u (pull) </td> <td>uu (pool) </td></tr> <tr> <td>ə (collect) </td> <td>əə (curl) </td></tr></tbody></table> Some of the short vowels may also be combined with /i/ (/ei/ bay, /ai/ buy, /oi/ boy), with /u/ (/au/ bough, /ou/ beau) or with /ə/ (/iə/ peer, /eə/ pair, /uə/ poor). The vowel inventory of English RP in MacCarthy's system therefore totals only seven phonemes. Analyses such as these could also posit six vowel phonemes, if the vowel of the final syllable in comma is considered to be an unstressed allophone of that of strut. These seven vowels might be symbolized /i/, /e/, /a/, /o/, /u/, /ʌ/ and /ə/. Six or seven vowels is a figure that would put English much closer to the average number of vowel phonemes in other languages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoach200999–100-145">[123]</a> A radically different approach to the English vowel system was proposed by <a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a> and <a href="/wiki/Morris_Halle" title="Morris Halle">Halle</a>. Their <a href="/wiki/The_Sound_Pattern_of_English" title="The Sound Pattern of English">Sound Pattern of English</a> (<a href="#CITEREFChomskyHalle1968">Chomsky & Halle 1968</a>) proposed that English has lax and tense vowel phonemes, which are operated on by a complex set of phonological rules to transform underlying phonological forms into surface phonetic representations. This generative analysis is not easily comparable with conventional analyses, but the total number of vowel phonemes proposed falls well short of the figure of 20 often claimed as the number of English vowel phonemes. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_phonology&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_English_phonology" title="Australian English phonology">Australian English phonology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_orthography" title="English orthography">English orthography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_pronunciation_of_Greek_letters" class="mw-redirect" title="English pronunciation of Greek letters">English pronunciation of Greek letters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_American" class="mw-redirect" title="General American">General American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-native_pronunciations_of_English" title="Non-native pronunciations of English">Non-native pronunciations of English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_English_phonology" title="Old English phonology">Old English phonology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perception_of_English_/r/_and_/l/_by_Japanese_speakers" title="Perception of English /r/ and /l/ by Japanese speakers">Perception of English /r/ and /l/ by Japanese speakers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_development" title="Phonological development">Phonological development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_vowels" title="Phonological history of English vowels">Phonological history of English vowels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_consonants" title="Phonological history of English consonants">Phonological history of English consonants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pronunciation_of_English_%E2%9F%A8th%E2%9F%A9" title="Pronunciation of English ⟨th⟩">Pronunciation of English ⟨th⟩</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Received_Pronunciation" title="Received Pronunciation">Received Pronunciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_accents_of_English" title="Regional accents of English">Regional accents of English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhoticity_in_English" title="Rhoticity in English">Rhoticity in English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T-glottalization" title="T-glottalization">T-glottalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R-colored_vowel" title="R-colored vowel">R-colored vowel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet_chart_for_English_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="International Phonetic Alphabet chart for English dialects">International Phonetic Alphabet chart for English dialects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Splits_and_mergers_in_English_phonology" title="Category:Splits and mergers in English phonology">Category:Splits and mergers in English phonology</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_phonology&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-upper-alpha"> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_phonology&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_phonology&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERogers200020-1"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERogers200020_1-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRogers2000">Rogers (2000)</a>, p. 20. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoach2009100–1-2"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoach2009100–1_2-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoach2009">Roach (2009)</a>, pp. 100–1. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKreidler200484-3"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKreidler200484_3-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKreidler2004">Kreidler (2004)</a>, p. 84. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells198255-4"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells198255_4-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWells1982">Wells (1982)</a>, p. 55. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982389,_619-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1982389,_619_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1982389,_619_7-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWells1982">Wells (1982)</a>, pp. 389, 619. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETench1990132-8"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETench1990132_8-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTench1990">Tench (1990)</a>, p. 132. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowerman2004939-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBowerman2004939_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBowerman2004939_9-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBowerman2004">Bowerman (2004)</a>, p. 939. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGimson2008230-12"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGimson2008230_12-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGimson2008">Gimson (2008)</a>, p. 230. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcMahon200231-13"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcMahon200231_13-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcMahon2002">McMahon (2002)</a>, p. 31. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiegerich199236-14"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiegerich199236_14-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGiegerich1992">Giegerich (1992)</a>, p. 36. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefoged200668-15"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefoged200668_15-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLadefoged2006">Ladefoged (2006)</a>, p. 68. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoach200943-16">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoach200943_16-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoach200943_16-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoach2009">Roach (2009)</a>, p. 43. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGarrettCouplandWilliams200373-18">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGarrettCouplandWilliams200373_18-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGarrettCouplandWilliams200373_18-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGarrettCouplandWilliams2003">Garrett, Coupland & Williams (2003)</a>, p. 73. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowerman2004940-19">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBowerman2004940_19-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBowerman2004940_19-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBowerman2004">Bowerman (2004)</a>, p. 940. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESpitzbardt197631-20">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpitzbardt197631_20-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpitzbardt197631_20-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpitzbardt197631_20-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFSpitzbardt1976">Spitzbardt (1976)</a>, p. 31. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Connor1973151-22"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connor1973151_22-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFO'Connor1973">O'Connor (1973)</a>, p. 151. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982490-24"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1982490_24-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWells1982">Wells (1982)</a>, p. 490. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982550-25"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1982550_25-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWells1982">Wells (1982)</a>, p. 550. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECollinsMees199091-26"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECollinsMees199091_26-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCollinsMees1990">Collins & Mees (1990)</a>, p. 91. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefoged200155-27"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefoged200155_27-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLadefoged2001">Ladefoged (2001)</a>, p. 55. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECelce-MurciaBrintonGoodwin199662–67-28"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECelce-MurciaBrintonGoodwin199662–67_28-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCelce-MurciaBrintonGoodwin1996">Celce-Murcia, Brinton & Goodwin (1996)</a>, pp. 62–67. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoach200926–28-29"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoach200926–28_29-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoach2009">Roach (2009)</a>, pp. 26–28. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982388-30">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1982388_30-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1982388_30-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWells1982">Wells (1982)</a>, p. 388. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGimson2008179–180-31"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGimson2008179–180_31-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGimson2008">Gimson (2008)</a>, pp. 179–180. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982323-32"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1982323_32-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWells1982">Wells (1982)</a>, p. 323. </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rP0-MfE4zbA">EJECTIVE CONSONANTS in ENGLISH: Why do English speakers pronounce /k/ like that?</a>, 26 June 2020, retrieved 2023-05-04</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=EJECTIVE+CONSONANTS+in+ENGLISH%3A+Why+do+English+speakers+pronounce+%2Fk%2F+like+that%3F&rft.date=2020-06-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DrP0-MfE4zbA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+phonology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li 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id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells2008-139"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells2008_139-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWells2008">Wells (2008)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Connor1973153-140"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connor1973153_140-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFO'Connor1973">O'Connor (1973)</a>, p. 153. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETragerSmith195120-141"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETragerSmith195120_141-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTragerSmith1951">Trager & Smith (1951)</a>, p. 20. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavis19731-142"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavis19731_142-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDavis1973">Davis (1973)</a>, p. 1. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllen1977169,_226-143"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllen1977169,_226_143-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllen1977">Allen (1977)</a>, pp. 169, 226. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESaporta1965218–219-144"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESaporta1965218–219_144-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSaporta1965">Saporta (1965)</a>, pp. 218–219. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoach200999–100-145"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoach200999–100_145-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoach2009">Roach 2009</a>, pp. 99–100. </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_phonology&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 33em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllen1977" class="citation cs2">Allen, Harold B. (1977), "Regional dialects, 1945–1974", American Speech, 52 (3/4): 163–261, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F455241">10.2307/455241</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/455241">455241</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Speech&rft.atitle=Regional+dialects%2C+1945%E2%80%931974&rft.volume=52&rft.issue=3%2F4&rft.pages=163-261&rft.date=1977&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F455241&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F455241%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Allen&rft.aufirst=Harold+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+phonology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaković2006" class="citation cs2">Baković, Eric (2006), "The jug trade", <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080905164208/http://camba.ucsd.edu/phonoloblog/index.php/2006/01/31/the-jug-trade/">Phonoloblog</a>, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://camba.ucsd.edu/phonoloblog/index.php/2006/01/31/the-jug-trade/">the original</a> on 2008-09-05</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+jug+trade&rft.btitle=Phonoloblog&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Bakovi%C4%87&rft.aufirst=Eric&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcamba.ucsd.edu%2Fphonoloblog%2Findex.php%2F2006%2F01%2F31%2Fthe-jug-trade%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+phonology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarry1991" class="citation cs2">Barry, M (1991), "Temporal Modelling of Gestures in Articulatory Assimilation", Proceedings of the 12th International Congress of Phonetic Sciences, Aix-en-Provence</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Temporal+Modelling+of+Gestures+in+Articulatory+Assimilation&rft.btitle=Proceedings+of+the+12th+International+Congress+of+Phonetic+Sciences&rft.place=Aix-en-Provence&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Barry&rft.aufirst=M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+phonology" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Citation" title="Template:Citation">citation</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarry1992" class="citation cs2">Barry, M (1992), "Palatalisation, Assimilation and Gestural Weakening in Connected Speech", Speech Communication, pp. vol.11, 393–400</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Palatalisation%2C+Assimilation+and+Gestural+Weakening+in+Connected+Speech&rft.btitle=Speech+Communication&rft.pages=vol.11%2C+393-400&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=Barry&rft.aufirst=M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+phonology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBauerWarren2005" class="citation cs2">Bauer, L.; Warren, P. (2005), "New Zealand English: phonology", in Schneider, Edgar Werner; Kortmann, Bernd (eds.), A Handbook of Varieties of English, Mouton De Gruyter</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=New+Zealand+English%3A+phonology&rft.btitle=A+Handbook+of+Varieties+of+English&rft.pub=Mouton+De+Gruyter&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Bauer&rft.aufirst=L.&rft.au=Warren%2C+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+phonology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlake1992" class="citation cs2">Blake, Norman, ed. (1992), The Cambridge History of the English Language, vol. 2, Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781139055529" title="Special:BookSources/9781139055529"><bdi>9781139055529</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+the+English+Language&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=9781139055529&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+phonology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBolinger1986" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Dwight_Bolinger" title="Dwight Bolinger">Bolinger, Dwight</a> (1986), Intonation and Its Parts: Melody in Spoken English, Stanford University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8047-1241-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-8047-1241-7"><bdi>0-8047-1241-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Intonation+and+Its+Parts%3A+Melody+in+Spoken+English&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=0-8047-1241-7&rft.aulast=Bolinger&rft.aufirst=Dwight&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+phonology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowerman2004" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-long-vol">Bowerman, Sean (2004), "White South African English: phonology", in Schneider, Edgar W.; Burridge, Kate; Kortmann, Bernd; Mesthrie, Rajend; Upton, Clive (eds.), A handbook of varieties of English, vol. 1: Phonology, Mouton de Gruyter, pp. 931–942, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-11-017532-0" title="Special:BookSources/3-11-017532-0"><bdi>3-11-017532-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=White+South+African+English%3A+phonology&rft.btitle=A+handbook+of+varieties+of+English&rft.pages=931-942&rft.pub=Mouton+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=3-11-017532-0&rft.aulast=Bowerman&rft.aufirst=Sean&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+phonology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBradley2006" class="citation cs2">Bradley, Travis (2006), "Prescription Jugs", <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080905164548/http://camba.ucsd.edu/phonoloblog/index.php/2006/05/06/prescription-jugs/">Phonoloblog</a>, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://camba.ucsd.edu/phonoloblog/index.php/2006/05/06/prescription-jugs/">the original</a> on 2008-09-05</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Prescription+Jugs&rft.btitle=Phonoloblog&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Bradley&rft.aufirst=Travis&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcamba.ucsd.edu%2Fphonoloblog%2Findex.php%2F2006%2F05%2F06%2Fprescription-jugs%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+phonology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrowmanGoldstein1990" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Catherine_Browman" title="Catherine Browman">Browman, Catherine P.</a>; Goldstein, Louis (1990), "Tiers in Articulatory Phonology, with Some Implications for Casual Speech", in Kingston, John C.; Beckman, Mary E. (eds.), Papers in Laboratory Phonology I: Between the Grammar and Physics of Speech, New York: Cambridge University Press, pp. 341–376</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Tiers+in+Articulatory+Phonology%2C+with+Some+Implications+for+Casual+Speech&rft.btitle=Papers+in+Laboratory+Phonology+I%3A+Between+the+Grammar+and+Physics+of+Speech&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=341-376&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=Browman&rft.aufirst=Catherine+P.&rft.au=Goldstein%2C+Louis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+phonology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown1990" class="citation cs2">Brown, G. (1990), Listening to Spoken English, Longman</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Listening+to+Spoken+English&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+phonology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCelce-MurciaBrintonGoodwin1996" class="citation cs2">Celce-Murcia, M.; Brinton, D.; Goodwin, J. (1996), Teaching Pronunciation: A Reference for Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, Cambridge University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Teaching+Pronunciation%3A+A+Reference+for+Teachers+of+English+to+Speakers+of+Other+Languages&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Celce-Murcia&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Brinton%2C+D.&rft.au=Goodwin%2C+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+phonology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCercignani1975" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Fausto_Cercignani" title="Fausto Cercignani">Cercignani, Fausto</a> (1975), "English Rhymes and Pronunciation in the Mid-Seventeenth Century", English Studies, 56 (6): 513–518, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00138387508597728">10.1080/00138387508597728</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=English+Studies&rft.atitle=English+Rhymes+and+Pronunciation+in+the+Mid-Seventeenth+Century&rft.volume=56&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=513-518&rft.date=1975&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00138387508597728&rft.aulast=Cercignani&rft.aufirst=Fausto&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+phonology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChomskyHalle1968" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky, Noam</a>; <a href="/wiki/Morris_Halle" title="Morris Halle">Halle, Morris</a> (1968), The Sound Pattern of English, New York: Harper & Row</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sound+Pattern+of+English&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Harper+%26+Row&rft.date=1968&rft.aulast=Chomsky&rft.aufirst=Noam&rft.au=Halle%2C+Morris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+phonology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClementsKeyser1983" class="citation cs2">Clements, G.N.; Keyser, S. 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(2018), Phonetic Science for Clinical Practice, Plural Publishing, Inc., <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781597567312" title="Special:BookSources/9781597567312"><bdi>9781597567312</bdi></a>, <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2017037176">2017037176</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Phonetic+Science+for+Clinical+Practice&rft.pub=Plural+Publishing%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2017037176&rft.isbn=9781597567312&rft.aulast=Jakielski&rft.aufirst=Kathy+J.&rft.au=Gildersleeve-Neumann%2C+Christina+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+phonology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKiefteKay-Raining_Bird2010" class="citation cs2">Kiefte, Michael; Kay-Raining Bird, Elizabeth (2010), "Canadian Maritime English", in Schreier, Daniel; Trudgill, Peter; Schneider, Edgar W.; Williams, Jeffrey P. 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(2009), The Sound Structure of English, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sound+Structure+of+English&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=McCully&rft.aufirst=C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+phonology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcMahon2002" class="citation cs2">McMahon, A. (2002), An Introduction to English Phonology, Edinburgh</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+English+Phonology&rft.pub=Edinburgh&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=McMahon&rft.aufirst=A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+phonology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNolan1992" class="citation cs2">Nolan, Francis (1992), "The Descriptive Role of Segments: Evidence from Assimilation.", in Docherty, Gerard J.; Ladd, D. 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(1973), Phonetics, Pelican, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-1402-1560-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-1402-1560-3"><bdi>0-1402-1560-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Phonetics&rft.pub=Pelican&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=0-1402-1560-3&rft.aulast=O%27Connor&rft.aufirst=J.D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+phonology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRead1986" class="citation cs2">Read, Charles (1986), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/childrenscreativ0000read">Children's Creative Spelling</a>, Routledge, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7100-9802-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-7100-9802-2"><bdi>0-7100-9802-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Children%27s+Creative+Spelling&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=0-7100-9802-2&rft.aulast=Read&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fchildrenscreativ0000read&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+phonology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoach1982" class="citation cs2">Roach, Peter (1982), "On the distinction between 'stress-timed' and 'syllable-timed' languages", in Crystal, David (ed.), Linguistic Controversies, Arnold</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=On+the+distinction+between+%27stress-timed%27+and+%27syllable-timed%27+languages&rft.btitle=Linguistic+Controversies&rft.pub=Arnold&rft.date=1982&rft.aulast=Roach&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+phonology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoach2004" class="citation cs2">Roach, Peter (2004), "British English: Received Pronunciation", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 34 (2): 239–245, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100304001768">10.1017/S0025100304001768</a> (inactive 2024-11-01)</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+International+Phonetic+Association&rft.atitle=British+English%3A+Received+Pronunciation&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=239-245&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0025100304001768&rft.aulast=Roach&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+phonology" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Citation" title="Template:Citation">citation</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_DOI_inactive_as_of_November_2024" title="Category:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024">link</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoach2009" class="citation cs2">Roach, Peter (2009), English Phonetics and Phonology: A Practical Course, 4th Ed., Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-78613-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-78613-3"><bdi>978-0-521-78613-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=English+Phonetics+and+Phonology%3A+A+Practical+Course%2C+4th+Ed.&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-521-78613-3&rft.aulast=Roach&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+phonology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRocaJohnson1999" class="citation cs2">Roca, Iggy; Johnson, Wyn (1999), A Course in Phonology, Blackwell Publishing</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Course+in+Phonology&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishing&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Roca&rft.aufirst=Iggy&rft.au=Johnson%2C+Wyn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+phonology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRogers2000" class="citation cs2">Rogers, Henry (2000), The Sounds of Language: An Introduction to Phonetics, Pearson, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-31787776-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-31787776-9"><bdi>978-1-31787776-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sounds+of+Language%3A+An+Introduction+to+Phonetics&rft.pub=Pearson&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-1-31787776-9&rft.aulast=Rogers&rft.aufirst=Henry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+phonology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSapir1925" class="citation cs2">Sapir, Edward (1925), "Sound patterns in language", Language, 1 (37): 37–51, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F409004">10.2307/409004</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/409004">409004</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Language&rft.atitle=Sound+patterns+in+language&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=37&rft.pages=37-51&rft.date=1925&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F409004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F409004%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Sapir&rft.aufirst=Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+phonology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaporta1965" class="citation cs2">Saporta, Sol (1965), "Ordered rules, dialect differences, and historical processes", Language, 41 (2): 218–224, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F411875">10.2307/411875</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/411875">411875</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Language&rft.atitle=Ordered+rules%2C+dialect+differences%2C+and+historical+processes&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=218-224&rft.date=1965&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F411875&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F411875%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Saporta&rft.aufirst=Sol&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+phonology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSelkirk1982" class="citation cs2">Selkirk, E. 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Wells">Wells, John C.</a> (1982), Accents of English, Vol. 1: An Introduction (pp. i–xx, 1–278), Vol. 2: The British Isles (pp. i–xx, 279–466), Vol. 3: Beyond the British Isles (pp. i–xx, 467–674), Cambridge University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9780511611759">10.1017/CBO9780511611759</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9780511611766">10.1017/CBO9780511611766</a>, <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" class="mw-redirect" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-52129719-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-52129719-2">0-52129719-2</a><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fde.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+phonology&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Accents+of+English&rft.aulast=Wells&rft.aufirst=John+C.&rft.date=1982&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.volume=1%3A+An+Introduction&rft.isbn=0-52129719-2"> , <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-52128540-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-52128540-2">0-52128540-2</a><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fde.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+phonology&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Accents+of+English&rft.aulast=Wells&rft.aufirst=John+C.&rft.date=1982&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.volume=2%3A+The+British+Isles&rft.isbn=0-52128540-2&rft_id=info:doi/10.1017%2FCBO9780511611759"> , <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-52128541-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-52128541-0">0-52128541-0</a><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fde.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+phonology&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Accents+of+English&rft.aulast=Wells&rft.aufirst=John+C.&rft.date=1982&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.volume=3%3A+Beyond+the+British+Isles&rft.isbn=0-52128541-0&rft_id=info:doi/10.1017%2FCBO9780511611759"> </cite></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWells1990" class="citation cs2">Wells, John C. (1990), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/wells/syllabif.htm">"Syllabification and allophony"</a>, in Ramsaran, Susan (ed.), Studies in the Pronunciation of English: A Commemorative Volume in Honour of A. C. Gimson, London: Routledge, pp. 76–86, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-07180-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-07180-2"><bdi>978-0-415-07180-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Syllabification+and+allophony&rft.btitle=Studies+in+the+Pronunciation+of+English%3A+A+Commemorative+Volume+in+Honour+of+A.+C.+Gimson&rft.place=London&rft.pages=76-86&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-415-07180-2&rft.aulast=Wells&rft.aufirst=John+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.phon.ucl.ac.uk%2Fhome%2Fwells%2Fsyllabif.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+phonology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWells2006" class="citation cs2">Wells, John C. (2006), English Intonation, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=English+Intonation&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Wells&rft.aufirst=John+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+phonology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWells2008" class="citation cs2">Wells, John C. (2008), Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (3rd ed.), Longman, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4058-8118-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4058-8118-0"><bdi>978-1-4058-8118-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Longman+Pronunciation+Dictionary&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-4058-8118-0&rft.aulast=Wells&rft.aufirst=John+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+phonology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWells2014" class="citation cs2">Wells, John C. (2014), Sounds Interesting, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sounds+Interesting&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Wells&rft.aufirst=John+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+phonology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWindsor_Lewis1990" class="citation cs2">Windsor Lewis, Jack (1990), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.yek.me.uk/happyland.html">"Happy land Reconnoitred: The unstressed word-final -y vowel in General British pronunciation"</a>, in Ramsaran, Susan (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ov4WCgAAQBAJ">Studies in the Pronunciation of English: A Commemorative Volume in Honour of A. C. Gimson</a>, London: Routledge, pp. 159–167, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-07180-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-07180-2"><bdi>978-0-415-07180-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Happy+land+Reconnoitred%3A+The+unstressed+word-final+-y+vowel+in+General+British+pronunciation&rft.btitle=Studies+in+the+Pronunciation+of+English%3A+A+Commemorative+Volume+in+Honour+of+A.+C.+Gimson&rft.place=London&rft.pages=159-167&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-415-07180-2&rft.aulast=Windsor+Lewis&rft.aufirst=Jack&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.yek.me.uk%2Fhappyland.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+phonology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoods1993" class="citation cs2">Woods, Howard B. (1993), "A synchronic study of English spoken in Ottawa: Is Canadian English becoming more American?", in Clarke, Sandra (ed.), Focus on Canada, John Benjamins Publishing, pp. 151–178, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-272-7681-1" title="Special:BookSources/90-272-7681-1"><bdi>90-272-7681-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+synchronic+study+of+English+spoken+in+Ottawa%3A+Is+Canadian+English+becoming+more+American%3F&rft.btitle=Focus+on+Canada&rft.pages=151-178&rft.pub=John+Benjamins+Publishing&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=90-272-7681-1&rft.aulast=Woods&rft.aufirst=Howard+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+phonology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWyld1936" class="citation cs2">Wyld, H.C. (1936), A History of Modern Colloquial English, Blackwell</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Modern+Colloquial+English&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=1936&rft.aulast=Wyld&rft.aufirst=H.C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+phonology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZsiga2003" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Zsiga" title="Elizabeth Zsiga">Zsiga, Elizabeth</a> (2003), "Articulatory Timing in a Second Language: Evidence from Russian and English", Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 25: 399–432, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0272263103000160">10.1017/s0272263103000160</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:5998807">5998807</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Studies+in+Second+Language+Acquisition&rft.atitle=Articulatory+Timing+in+a+Second+Language%3A+Evidence+from+Russian+and+English&rft.volume=25&rft.pages=399-432&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0272263103000160&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A5998807%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Zsiga&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+phonology" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_phonology&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBacsfalvi2010" class="citation journal cs1">Bacsfalvi, P. (2010). "Attaining the lingual components of /r/ with ultrasound for three adolescents with cochlear implants". Canadian Journal of Speech-Language Pathology and Audiology. 3 (34): 206–217.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Canadian+Journal+of+Speech-Language+Pathology+and+Audiology&rft.atitle=Attaining+the+lingual+components+of+%2Fr%2F+with+ultrasound+for+three+adolescents+with+cochlear+implants&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=34&rft.pages=206-217&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Bacsfalvi&rft.aufirst=P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+phonology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBallLowryMcInnis2006" class="citation journal cs1">Ball, M.; Lowry, O.; McInnis, L. (2006). "Distributional and stylistic variation in /r/-misarticulations: A case study". Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics. 2–3 (20).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Clinical+Linguistics+%26+Phonetics&rft.atitle=Distributional+and+stylistic+variation+in+%2Fr%2F-misarticulations%3A+A+case+study&rft.volume=2%E2%80%933&rft.issue=20&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Ball&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Lowry%2C+O.&rft.au=McInnis%2C+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+phonology" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Campbell, F., Gick, B., Wilson, I., Vatikiotis-Bateson, E. (2010), "Spatial and Temporal Properties of Gestures in North American English /r/". Child's Language and Speech, 53 (1): 49–69</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCercignani1981" class="citation cs2">Cercignani, Fausto (1981), Shakespeare's Works and Elizabethan Pronunciation, Oxford: Clarendon Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shakespeare%27s+Works+and+Elizabethan+Pronunciation&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.aulast=Cercignani&rft.aufirst=Fausto&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+phonology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrystal1969" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/David_Crystal" title="David Crystal">Crystal, David</a> (1969), Prosodic Systems and Intonation in English, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Prosodic+Systems+and+Intonation+in+English&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1969&rft.aulast=Crystal&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+phonology" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Dalcher Villafaña, C., Knight, R.A., Jones, M.J., (2008), "Cue Switching in the Perception of Approximants: Evidence from Two English Dialects". University of Pennsylvania Working Papers in Linguistics, 14 (2): 63–64</li> <li>Espy-Wilson, C. (2004), "Articulatory Strategies, speech Acoustics and Variability". From Sound to Sense June 11 – June 13 at MIT: 62–63</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFudge1984" class="citation cs2">Fudge, Erik C. (1984), English Word-stress, London: Allen and Unwin</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=English+Word-stress&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Allen+and+Unwin&rft.date=1984&rft.aulast=Fudge&rft.aufirst=Erik+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+phonology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGimson1962" class="citation cs2">Gimson, A.C. (1962), An Introduction to the Pronunciation of English, London: Edward Arnold</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+the+Pronunciation+of+English&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Edward+Arnold&rft.date=1962&rft.aulast=Gimson&rft.aufirst=A.C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+phonology" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Hagiwara, R., Fosnot, S. M., & Alessi, D. M. (2002). "Acoustic phonetics in a clinical setting: A case study of /r/-distortion therapy with surgical intervention". Clinical linguistics & phonetics, 16 (6): 425–441.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHalliday1970" class="citation cs2">Halliday, M.A.K. (1970), A Course in Spoken English: Intonation, London: Oxford University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Course+in+Spoken+English%3A+Intonation&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1970&rft.aulast=Halliday&rft.aufirst=M.A.K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+phonology" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Hoff, Erika, (2009), Language Development. Scarborough, Ontario. Cengage Learning, 2005.</li> <li>Howard, S. (2007), "The interplay between articulation and prosody in children with impaired speech: Observations from electropalatographic and perceptual analysis". International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 9 (1): 20–35.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKingdon1958" class="citation cs2">Kingdon, Roger (1958), The Groundwork of English Intonation, London: Longman</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Groundwork+of+English+Intonation&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=1958&rft.aulast=Kingdon&rft.aufirst=Roger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+phonology" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Locke, John L., (1983), Phonological Acquisition and Change. New York, United States. Academic Press, 1983. Print.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'ConnorArnold1961" class="citation cs2">O'Connor, J. D.; Arnold, Gordon Frederick (1961), Intonation of Colloquial English, London: Longman</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Intonation+of+Colloquial+English&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=1961&rft.aulast=O%27Connor&rft.aufirst=J.+D.&rft.au=Arnold%2C+Gordon+Frederick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+phonology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPike1945" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Lee_Pike" title="Kenneth Lee Pike">Pike, Kenneth Lee</a> (1945), The Intonation of American English, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Intonation+of+American+English&rft.place=Ann+Arbor&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=1945&rft.aulast=Pike&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+Lee&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+phonology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSharfBenson1982" class="citation journal cs1">Sharf, Donald J.; Benson, Peter J. (1982-04-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1121/1.387652">"Identification of synthesized /r–w/ continua for adult and child speakers"</a>. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 71 (4): 1008–1015. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1982ASAJ...71.1008S">1982ASAJ...71.1008S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1121%2F1.387652">10.1121/1.387652</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7085977">7085977</a>. Retrieved 2024-06-07.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=J.+Acoust.+Soc.+Am.&rft.atitle=Identification+of+synthesized+%2Fr%E2%80%93w%2F+continua+for+adult+and+child+speakers&rft.volume=71&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=1008-1015&rft.date=1982-04-01&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F7085977&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1121%2F1.387652&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1982ASAJ...71.1008S&rft.aulast=Sharf&rft.aufirst=Donald+J.&rft.au=Benson%2C+Peter+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1121%2F1.387652&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+phonology" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWise1957" class="citation cs2">Wise, Claude Merton (1957), Applied Phonetics, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Applied+Phonetics&rft.place=Englewood+Cliffs%2C+NJ&rft.pub=Prentice-Hall&rft.date=1957&rft.aulast=Wise&rft.aufirst=Claude+Merton&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+phonology" class="Z3988"></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_phonology&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox 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href="https://www.dynamicdialects.ac.uk/accent-map/">University of Glasgow Dynamic Dialects Accent Map</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://slatona.com/en/ipa/chart/en">IPA Phonetics Chart of English</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Template:Language_nouns" title="Template:Language nouns">Nouns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_prepositions" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:Language prepositions">Prepositions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_pronouns" title="Template:Language pronouns">Pronouns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_verbs" title="Template:Language verbs">Verbs</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">A–E</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abkhaz_phonology" title="Abkhaz phonology">Abkhaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acehnese_phonology" title="Acehnese phonology">Acehnese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adyghe_phonology" title="Adyghe phonology">Adyghe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrikaans_phonology" title="Afrikaans phonology">Afrikaans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Sign_Language_phonology" title="American Sign Language phonology">American Sign Language</a></li> <li>Arabic <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_phonology" title="Arabic phonology">Modern Standard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Arabic_phonology" title="Egyptian Arabic phonology">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hejazi_Arabic_phonology" title="Hejazi Arabic phonology">Hejazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levantine_Arabic_phonology" title="Levantine Arabic phonology">Levantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moroccan_Arabic#Phonology" title="Moroccan Arabic">Moroccan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Arabic_phonology" title="Tunisian Arabic phonology">Tunisian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avestan_phonology" title="Avestan phonology">Avestan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_phonology" title="Belarusian phonology">Belarusian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengali_phonology" title="Bengali phonology">Bengali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_phonology" title="Bulgarian phonology">Bulgarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_phonology" title="Burmese phonology">Burmese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catalan_phonology" title="Catalan phonology">Catalan</a></li> <li>Chinese <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese_phonology" title="Standard Chinese phonology">Mandarin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese_phonology" title="Cantonese phonology">Cantonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hokkien_phonology" title="Hokkien phonology">Hokkien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Wu_phonology" title="Northern Wu phonology">Northern Wu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Chinese_phonology" title="Old Chinese phonology">Old</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Chinese_phonology" title="Historical Chinese phonology">Historical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chukchi_phonology" title="Chukchi phonology">Chukchi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_phonology" title="Cornish phonology">Cornish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_phonology" title="Czech phonology">Czech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_phonology" title="Danish phonology">Danish</a></li> <li>Dutch <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_phonology" title="Dutch phonology">Standard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orsmaal-Gussenhoven_dialect_phonology" title="Orsmaal-Gussenhoven dialect phonology">Orsmaal-Gussenhoven dialect</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_English_phonology" title="Australian English phonology">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_American_English" title="General American English">General American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_English_phonology" title="New Zealand English phonology">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Received_Pronunciation" title="Received Pronunciation">Received Pronunciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_American_English_regional_phonology" title="North American English regional phonology">Regional North American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_South_African_English_phonology" title="White South African English phonology">White South African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Canadian_English" title="Standard Canadian English">Standard Canadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_English_phonology" title="Old English phonology">Old</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_English_phonology" title="Middle English phonology">Middle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esperanto_phonology" title="Esperanto phonology">Esperanto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estonian_phonology" title="Estonian phonology">Estonian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">F–L</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Faroese_phonology" title="Faroese phonology">Faroese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_phonology" title="Finnish phonology">Finnish</a></li> <li>French <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_phonology" title="French phonology">Parisian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quebec_French_phonology" title="Quebec French phonology">Quebec</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galician_phonology" title="Galician phonology">Galician</a></li> <li>German <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Standard_German_phonology" title="Standard German phonology">Standard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernese_German_phonology" title="Bernese German phonology">Bernese</a></li></ul></li> <li>Greek <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Greek_phonology" title="Modern Greek phonology">Standard Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_phonology" title="Ancient Greek phonology">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek_phonology" title="Koine Greek phonology">Koine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenlandic_phonology" title="Greenlandic phonology">Greenlandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gujarati_phonology" title="Gujarati phonology">Gujarati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_phonology" title="Hawaiian phonology">Hawaiian</a></li> <li>Hebrew <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew_phonology" title="Modern Hebrew phonology">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew#Phonology" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiberian_Hebrew#Phonology" title="Tiberian Hebrew">Tiberian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritan_Hebrew#Phonology" title="Samaritan Hebrew">Samaritan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindustani_phonology" title="Hindustani phonology">Hindustani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_phonology" title="Hungarian phonology">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icelandic_phonology" title="Icelandic phonology">Icelandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ingrian_phonology" title="Ingrian phonology">Ingrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inuit_phonology" title="Inuit phonology">Inuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_phonology" title="Irish phonology">Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_phonology" title="Italian phonology">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_phonology" title="Japanese phonology">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kiowa_phonology" title="Kiowa phonology">Kiowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konkani_phonology" title="Konkani phonology">Konkani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_phonology" title="Korean phonology">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_phonology" title="Kurdish phonology">Kurdish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_phonology" title="Kyrgyz phonology">Kyrgyz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latgalian_phonology" title="Latgalian phonology">Latgalian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_phonology_and_orthography" title="Latin phonology and orthography">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latvian_phonology" title="Latvian phonology">Latvian</a></li> <li>Limburgish <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maastrichtian_dialect_phonology" title="Maastrichtian dialect phonology">Maastrichtian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_phonology" title="Lithuanian phonology">Lithuanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luxembourgish_phonology" title="Luxembourgish phonology">Luxembourgish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">M–S</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_phonology" title="Macedonian phonology">Macedonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malay_phonology" title="Malay phonology">Malay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maldivian_phonology" title="Maldivian phonology">Maldivian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%81ori_phonology" title="Māori phonology">Māori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marathi_phonology" title="Marathi phonology">Marathi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massachusett_phonology" title="Massachusett phonology">Massachusett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medumba_phonology" title="Medumba phonology">Medumba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navajo_phonology" title="Navajo phonology">Navajo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepali_phonology" title="Nepali phonology">Nepali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_phonology" title="Norwegian phonology">Norwegian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occitan_phonology" title="Occitan phonology">Occitan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ojibwe_phonology" title="Ojibwe phonology">Ojibwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Saxon_phonology" title="Old Saxon phonology">Old Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oromo_phonology" title="Oromo phonology">Oromo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottawa_phonology" title="Ottawa phonology">Ottawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pashto_phonology" title="Pashto phonology">Pashto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_phonology" title="Persian phonology">Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_phonology" title="Polish phonology">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_phonology" title="Portuguese phonology">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_phonology" title="Proto-Indo-European phonology">Proto-Indo-European</a></li> <li>Ripuarian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colognian_phonology" title="Colognian phonology">Colognian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerkrade_dialect_phonology" title="Kerkrade dialect phonology">Kerkrade dialect</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_phonology" title="Romanian phonology">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_phonology" title="Russian phonology">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sardinian_phonology" title="Sardinian phonology">Sardinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_Scots" title="Phonological history of Scots">Scots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic_phonology_and_orthography" title="Scottish Gaelic phonology and orthography">Scottish Gaelic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbo-Croatian_phonology" title="Serbo-Croatian phonology">Serbo-Croatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovak_phonology" title="Slovak phonology">Slovak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovene_phonology" title="Slovene phonology">Slovene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_phonology" title="Somali phonology">Somali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sotho_phonology" title="Sotho phonology">Sotho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_phonology" title="Spanish phonology">Spanish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_dialects_and_varieties" title="Spanish dialects and varieties">Dialects and varieties</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_phonology" title="Swedish phonology">Swedish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">T–Z</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tagalog_phonology" title="Tagalog phonology">Tagalog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_phonology" title="Tamil phonology">Tamil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taos_phonology" title="Taos phonology">Taos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_phonology" title="Turkish phonology">Turkish</a></li> <li><a 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3.77% 114.315 90 Template:IPA_link"," 3.66% 110.996 1 Template:Short_description"," 3.24% 98.282 1 Template:English_phonology_topics"," 3.18% 96.301 1 Template:Sidebar"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.970","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":10609926,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAllen1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBacsfalvi2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBaković2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBallLowryMcInnis2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarry1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarry1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBauerWarren2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlake1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBolinger1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBowerman2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBradley2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrowmanGoldstein1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrown1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCelce-MurciaBrintonGoodwin1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCercignani1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCercignani1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChomskyHalle1968\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClementsKeyser1983\"] = 1,\n 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