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id="toc-Substance_use-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Substances" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Substances"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Substances</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Substances-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Depressants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Depressants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.1</span> <span>Depressants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Depressants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Alcohol" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alcohol"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.1.1</span> <span>Alcohol</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alcohol-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Alcohol-related_programmes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-5"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alcohol-related_programmes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.1.1.1</span> <span>Alcohol-related programmes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alcohol-related_programmes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Opioids" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Opioids"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.1.2</span> <span>Opioids</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Opioids-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Heroin_maintenance_programmes_(HAT)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-5"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Heroin_maintenance_programmes_(HAT)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.1.2.1</span> <span>Heroin maintenance programmes (HAT)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Heroin_maintenance_programmes_(HAT)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Naloxone_distribution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-5"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Naloxone_distribution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.1.2.2</span> <span>Naloxone distribution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Naloxone_distribution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medication_assisted_treatment_(MAT):_Opioid_agonist_therapy_(OAT)_and_Opioid_substitution_therapy_(OST)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-5"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medication_assisted_treatment_(MAT):_Opioid_agonist_therapy_(OAT)_and_Opioid_substitution_therapy_(OST)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.1.2.3</span> <span>Medication assisted treatment (MAT): Opioid agonist therapy (OAT) and Opioid substitution therapy (OST)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medication_assisted_treatment_(MAT):_Opioid_agonist_therapy_(OAT)_and_Opioid_substitution_therapy_(OST)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cannabis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cannabis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.1.3</span> <span>Cannabis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cannabis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Psychedelics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Psychedelics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.2</span> <span>Psychedelics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Psychedelics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stimulants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stimulants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.3</span> <span>Stimulants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stimulants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Tobacco" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tobacco"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.3.1</span> <span>Tobacco</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tobacco-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Routes_of_administration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Routes_of_administration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Routes of administration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Routes_of_administration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Needle_exchange_programmes_(NEP)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Needle_exchange_programmes_(NEP)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.1</span> <span>Needle exchange programmes (NEP)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Needle_exchange_programmes_(NEP)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Supervised_injection_sites_(SIS)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Supervised_injection_sites_(SIS)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.1.1</span> <span>Supervised injection sites (SIS)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Supervised_injection_sites_(SIS)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Safer_supply" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Safer_supply"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Safer supply</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Safer_supply-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sex" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sex"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Sex</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Sex-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Sex subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Sex-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Safer_sex_programmes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Safer_sex_programmes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Safer sex programmes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Safer_sex_programmes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legalized_prostitution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legalized_prostitution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Legalized prostitution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legalized_prostitution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sex-work_and_HIV" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sex-work_and_HIV"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Sex-work and HIV</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sex-work_and_HIV-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decriminalisation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decriminalisation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Decriminalisation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decriminalisation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Criticism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet 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Available in 24 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-24" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">24 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%AF_%D9%85%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B6%D8%B1%D8%B1" title="الحد من الضرر – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الحد من الضرر" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reducci%C3%B3_dels_danys" title="Reducció dels danys – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Reducció dels danys" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimalizace_rizik" title="Minimalizace rizik – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Minimalizace rizik" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skadesreduktion" title="Skadesreduktion – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Skadesreduktion" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schadensminimierung_(Abh%C3%A4ngigkeitssyndrom)" title="Schadensminimierung (Abhängigkeitssyndrom) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Schadensminimierung (Abhängigkeitssyndrom)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kahjude_v%C3%A4hendamine" title="Kahjude vähendamine – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Kahjude vähendamine" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reducci%C3%B3n_del_da%C3%B1o" title="Reducción del daño – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Reducción del daño" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malpliigo_de_dama%C4%9Do" title="Malpliigo de damaĝo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Malpliigo de damaĝo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalte_murrizketa" title="Kalte murrizketa – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Kalte murrizketa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%87%D8%B4_%D8%A2%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%A8" title="کاهش آسیب – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کاهش آسیب" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9duction_des_risques_sanitaires" title="Réduction des risques sanitaires – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Réduction des risques sanitaires" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riduzione_del_danno" title="Riduzione del danno – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Riduzione del danno" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kait%C4%93jumu_mazino%C5%A1i_pas%C4%81kumi" title="Kaitējumu mazinoši pasākumi – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Kaitējumu mazinoši pasākumi" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%8F%E3%83%BC%E3%83%A0%E3%83%BB%E3%83%AA%E3%83%80%E3%82%AF%E3%82%B7%E3%83%A7%E3%83%B3" title="ハーム・リダクション – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ハーム・リダクション" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skadereduksjon" title="Skadereduksjon – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Skadereduksjon" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redukcja_szk%C3%B3d" title="Redukcja szkód – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Redukcja szkód" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redu%C3%A7%C3%A3o_de_danos" title="Redução de danos – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Redução de danos" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="Снижение вреда – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Снижение вреда" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%9A%D0%B5%D1%9A%D0%B5_%D1%88%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B5" title="Смањење штете – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Смањење штете" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%A4ihteiden_haittojen_v%C3%A4hent%C3%A4minen" title="Päihteiden haittojen vähentäminen – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Päihteiden haittojen vähentäminen" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skadereduktion" title="Skadereduktion – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Skadereduktion" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bawas-perwisyo" title="Bawas-perwisyo – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Bawas-perwisyo" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F_%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8" title="Зниження шкоди – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Зниження шкоди" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" 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.hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Harm_principle" title="Harm principle">Harm principle</a> or <a href="/wiki/Conflict_resolution" title="Conflict resolution">Conflict resolution</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:U._Dist._needle_exchange_06.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/U._Dist._needle_exchange_06.jpg/220px-U._Dist._needle_exchange_06.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/U._Dist._needle_exchange_06.jpg/330px-U._Dist._needle_exchange_06.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/U._Dist._needle_exchange_06.jpg/440px-U._Dist._needle_exchange_06.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Needle_exchange_program" class="mw-redirect" title="Needle exchange program">Needle exchange programs</a> provide people who inject substances with new needles and injection equipment to reduce the harm (e.g., HIV infection) from needle drug use.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Drug_paraphernalia_for_sale_-_harm_reduction.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Drug_paraphernalia_for_sale_-_harm_reduction.jpg/220px-Drug_paraphernalia_for_sale_-_harm_reduction.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Drug_paraphernalia_for_sale_-_harm_reduction.jpg/330px-Drug_paraphernalia_for_sale_-_harm_reduction.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Drug_paraphernalia_for_sale_-_harm_reduction.jpg/440px-Drug_paraphernalia_for_sale_-_harm_reduction.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2344" data-file-height="3121" /></a><figcaption>Drug paraphernalia available from a harm reduction NGO at a mobile <a href="/wiki/Supervised_injection_site" title="Supervised injection site">supervised injection site</a> in Berlin, Germany.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Harm reduction</b>, or <b>harm minimization</b>, refers to a range of intentional practices and <a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">public health</a> policies designed to lessen the negative social and/or physical consequences associated with various human behaviors, both legal and illegal.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Harm reduction is used to decrease negative consequences of <a href="/wiki/Recreational_drug_use" title="Recreational drug use">recreational drug use</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sexual_activity" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexual activity">sexual activity</a> without requiring abstinence, recognizing that those unable or unwilling to stop can still make positive change to protect themselves and others.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Harm reduction is most commonly applied to approaches that reduce adverse consequences from drug use, and harm reduction programs now operate across a range of services and in different regions of the world. As of 2020, some 86 countries had one or more programs using a harm reduction approach to substance use, primarily aimed at reducing blood-borne infections resulting from use of contaminated injecting equipment.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Needle-exchange programmes reduce the likelihood of people who use heroin and other substances sharing the syringes and using them more than once. Syringe-sharing often leads to the spread of infections such as HIV or <a href="/wiki/Hepatitis_C" title="Hepatitis C">hepatitis C</a>, which can easily spread from person to person through the reuse of syringes contaminated with infected blood. <a href="/wiki/Needle_and_syringe_programme" class="mw-redirect" title="Needle and syringe programme">Needle and syringe programmes</a> (NSP) and <a href="/wiki/Opioid_Agonist_Therapy_(OAT)" class="mw-redirect" title="Opioid Agonist Therapy (OAT)">Opioid Agonist Therapy (OAT)</a> outlets in some settings offer basic primary health care. <a href="/wiki/Supervised_injection_sites" class="mw-redirect" title="Supervised injection sites">Supervised injection sites</a> are legally sanctioned, medically supervised facilities designed to provide a safe, hygienic, and stress-free environment for people who use substances. The facilities provide sterile injection equipment, information about substances and basic health care, treatment referrals, and access to medical staff. </p><p>Opioid agonist therapy (OAT) is the medical procedure of using a harm-reducing opioid that produces significantly less euphoria, such as <a href="/wiki/Methadone" title="Methadone">methadone</a> or <a href="/wiki/Buprenorphine" title="Buprenorphine">buprenorphine</a> to reduce opioid cravings in people who use illegal <a href="/wiki/Opioid" title="Opioid">opioids</a>, such as heroin; buprenorphine and methadone are taken under medical supervision. Another approach is heroin assisted treatment, in which medical prescriptions for pharmaceutical heroin (diacetylmorphine) are provided to people who are dependent on heroin. </p><p>Media campaigns inform drivers of the dangers of <a href="/wiki/Drunk_driving" title="Drunk driving">driving drunk</a>. Most people who recreationally consume alcohol are now aware of these dangers and safe ride techniques like '<a href="/wiki/Designated_driver" title="Designated driver">designated drivers</a>' and free taxicab programmes are reducing the number of drunk-driving crashes. Many schools now provide <a href="/wiki/Safer_sex" class="mw-redirect" title="Safer sex">safer sex</a> education to teen and pre-teen students, who may engage in sexual activity. Since some adolescents are going to have sex, a harm-reductionist approach supports a sexual education which emphasizes the use of protective devices like <a href="/wiki/Condoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Condoms">condoms</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dental_dam" title="Dental dam">dental dams</a> to protect against unwanted pregnancy and the transmission of <a href="/wiki/Sexually_transmitted_infections" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexually transmitted infections">STIs</a>. Since 1999, some countries have legalized or decriminalized prostitution, such as <a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Germany" title="Prostitution in Germany">Germany</a> (2002) and <a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_New_Zealand" title="Prostitution in New Zealand">New Zealand</a> (2003). </p><p>Many street-level harm-reduction strategies have succeeded in reducing HIV transmission in <a href="/wiki/Injecting_drug_user" class="mw-redirect" title="Injecting drug user">people who inject substances</a> and sex-workers.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid16360791_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid16360791-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> HIV education, HIV testing, condom use, and safer-sex negotiation greatly decreases the risk of acquiring and transmitting the HIV virus.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid16360791_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid16360791-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-4"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Substance_use">Substance use</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Responsible_drug_use" title="Responsible drug use">Responsible drug use</a> and <a href="/wiki/Drug_liberalization" title="Drug liberalization">Drug liberalization</a></div> <p>In the case of <a href="/wiki/Recreational_drug_use" title="Recreational drug use">recreational substance use</a>, harm reduction is put forward as a useful perspective alongside the more conventional approaches of <a href="/wiki/Demand_reduction" title="Demand reduction">demand</a> and <a href="/wiki/Supply_reduction" title="Supply reduction">supply reduction</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-marlatt_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-marlatt-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many advocates argue that prohibitionist laws criminalise people for suffering from a disease and cause harm for example, by obliging people who use substances to obtain substances of unknown purity from unreliable criminal sources at high prices, thereby increasing the risk of overdose and death.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The web forum <a href="/wiki/Bluelight_(web_forum)" title="Bluelight (web forum)">Bluelight</a> allows users to share information and first-hand experience reports about various psychoactive substances and harm reduction practices.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The website <a href="/wiki/Erowid" title="Erowid">Erowid</a> collects and publishes information and first-hand experience reports about all kinds of substances to educate people who use or may use substances.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While the vast majority of harm reduction initiatives are educational campaigns or facilities that aim to reduce substance-related harm, a unique social enterprise was launched in Denmark in September 2013 to reduce the financial burden of illicit substance use for people with a drug dependence. Michael Lodberg Olsen, who was previously involved with the establishment of a substance consumption facility in Denmark, announced the founding of the <i>Illegal</i> magazine that will be sold by people who use substances in <a href="/wiki/Copenhagen" title="Copenhagen">Copenhagen</a> and the district of Vesterbro, who will be able to direct the profits from sales towards drug procurement. Olsen explained: "No one has solved the problem of drug addiction, so is it not better that people find the money to buy their drugs this way than through crime and prostitution?"<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Substances">Substances</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Depressants">Depressants</h4></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Alcohol">Alcohol</h5></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Fomepizole" title="Fomepizole">Fomepizole</a> and <a href="/wiki/Denatured_alcohol#Toxicity" title="Denatured alcohol">Denatured alcohol § Toxicity</a></div> <p>Traditionally, <a href="/wiki/Homeless_shelter" title="Homeless shelter">homeless shelters</a> ban <a href="/wiki/Alcoholic_beverage" title="Alcoholic beverage">alcohol</a>. In 1997, as the result of an <a href="/wiki/Inquest" title="Inquest">inquest</a> into the deaths of two people experiencing homelessness who recreationally used alcohol two years earlier, <a href="/wiki/Toronto" title="Toronto">Toronto</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Seaton_House" title="Seaton House">Seaton House</a> became the first homeless shelter in Canada to operate a "wet shelter" on a "managed alcohol" principle in which clients are served a glass of wine once an hour unless staff determine that they are too inebriated to continue. Previously, people experiencing homelessness who consumed excessive amounts of alcohol opted to stay on the streets often seeking alcohol from unsafe sources such as mouthwash, rubbing alcohol or industrial products which, in turn, resulted in frequent use of <a href="/wiki/Emergency_department" title="Emergency department">emergency medical facilities</a>. The programme has been duplicated in other Canadian cities, and a study of <a href="/wiki/Ottawa" title="Ottawa">Ottawa</a>'s "wet shelter" found that emergency room visit and police encounters by clients were cut by half.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The study, published in the <i><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Medical_Association_Journal" title="Canadian Medical Association Journal">Canadian Medical Association Journal</a></i> in 2006, found that serving people experiencing long-term homelessness and who consume excessive amounts of alcohol controlled doses of alcohol also reduced their overall alcohol consumption. Researchers found that programme participants cut their alcohol use from an average of 46 drinks a day when they entered the programme to an average of 8 drinks and that their visits to emergency rooms dropped from 13.5 to an average of 8 per month, while encounters with the police fall from 18.1 to an average of 8.8.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid16389236_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid16389236-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Downtown Emergency Service Center (DESC),<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in <a href="/wiki/Seattle" title="Seattle">Seattle</a>, Washington, operates several <a href="/wiki/Housing_First" title="Housing First">Housing First</a> programmes which utilize the harm reduction model. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Washington" title="University of Washington">University of Washington</a> researchers, partnering with DESC, found that providing housing and support services for homeless alcoholics costs taxpayers less than leaving them on the street, where taxpayer money goes towards police and emergency health care. Results of the study funded by the Substance Abuse Policy Research Program (SAPRP) of the <a href="/wiki/Robert_Wood_Johnson_Foundation" title="Robert Wood Johnson Foundation">Robert Wood Johnson Foundation</a><sup id="cite_ref-SAPRPpressRelease_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SAPRPpressRelease-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> appeared in the <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_the_American_Medical_Association" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of the American Medical Association">Journal of the American Medical Association</a></i> in April 2009.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This first controlled assessment in the U.S. of the effectiveness of Housing First, specifically targeting chronically homeless alcoholics, showed that the programme saved taxpayers more than $4 million over the first year of operation. During the first six months, the study reported an average cost-savings of 53 percent (even after considering the cost of administering the housing's 95 residents)—nearly $2,500 per month per person in health and social services, compared to the per month costs of a wait-list control group of 39 homeless people. Further, despite the fact residents are not required to be abstinent or in treatment for alcohol use, stable housing also results in reduced drinking among people experiencing homelessness who recreationally use alcohol. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading6"><h6 id="Alcohol-related_programmes">Alcohol-related programmes</h6></div> <p>A high amount of media coverage exists informing people of the dangers of <a href="/wiki/Drunk_driving" title="Drunk driving">driving drunk</a>. Most people who recreationally consume alcohol are now aware of these dangers and safe ride techniques like '<a href="/wiki/Designated_driver" title="Designated driver">designated drivers</a>' and free taxicab programmes are reducing the number of drunk-driving crashes. Many cities have free-ride-home programmes during holidays involving high amounts of alcohol use, and some bars and clubs will provide a visibly drunk patron with a free cab ride. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/New_South_Wales" title="New South Wales">New South Wales</a> groups of licensees have formed local liquor accords and collectively developed, implemented and promoted a range of harm minimisation programmes including the aforementioned 'designated driver' and 'late night patron transport' schemes. Many of the transport schemes are free of charge to patrons, to encourage them to avoid drink-driving and at the same time reduce the impact of noisy patrons loitering around late night venues. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Moderation_Management" title="Moderation Management">Moderation Management</a> is a programme which helps drinkers to cut back on their consumption of alcohol by encouraging safe drinking behaviour. </p><p>Harm reduction in alcohol dependency could be instituted by use of <a href="/wiki/Naltrexone" title="Naltrexone">naltrexone</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Volpicelli1992_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Volpicelli1992-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Opioids">Opioids</h5></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading6"><h6 id="Heroin_maintenance_programmes_(HAT)"><span id="Heroin_maintenance_programmes_.28HAT.29"></span>Heroin maintenance programmes (HAT)</h6></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Heroin_assisted_treatment" class="mw-redirect" title="Heroin assisted treatment">Heroin assisted treatment</a></div> <p>Providing medical prescriptions for pharmaceutical heroin (diacetylmorphine) to heroin-dependent people has been employed in some countries to address problems associated with the illicit use of the drug, as potential benefits exist for the individual and broader society. Evidence has indicated that this form of treatment can greatly improve the health and social circumstances of participants, while also reducing costs incurred by criminalisation, incarceration and health interventions.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Switzerland, <a href="/wiki/Heroin_assisted_treatment" class="mw-redirect" title="Heroin assisted treatment">heroin assisted treatment</a> is an established programme of the national health system. Several dozen centres exist throughout the country and heroin-dependent people can administer heroin in a controlled environment at these locations. The Swiss heroin maintenance programme is generally regarded as a successful and valuable component of the country's overall approach to minimising the harms caused by illicit drug use.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a 2008 <a href="/wiki/Swiss_referendum,_November_2008#Revision_of_the_federal_statute_on_narcotics" class="mw-redirect" title="Swiss referendum, November 2008">national referendum</a>, a majority of 68 per cent voted in favour of continuing the Swiss programme.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a> has studied medically supervised heroin maintenance.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A German study of long-term heroin addicts demonstrated that <a href="/wiki/Diamorphine" class="mw-redirect" title="Diamorphine">diamorphine</a> was significantly more effective than <a href="/wiki/Methadone" title="Methadone">methadone</a> in keeping patients in treatment and in improving their health and social situation.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many participants were able to find employment, some even started a family after years of homelessness and delinquency.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since then, treatment had continued in the cities that participated in the pilot study, until heroin maintenance was permanently included into the national health system in May 2009.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As of 2021, the country offers heroin-assisted treatment by prescribing medical-grade heroin is typically prescribed in combination with methadone and <a href="/wiki/Psychosocial" title="Psychosocial">psychosocial</a> counseling.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A heroin maintenance programme has existed in the United Kingdom (UK) since the 1920s, as drug addiction was seen as an individual health problem. Addiction to opiates was rare in the 1920s and was mostly limited to either middle-class people who had easy access due to their profession, or people who had become addicted as a side effect of medical treatment. In the 1950s and 1960s a small number of doctors contributed to an alarming increase in the number of people who are experiencing addiction in the U.K. through excessive prescribing—the U.K. switched to more restrictive drug legislation as a result.<sup id="cite_ref-rachel_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rachel-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the British government is again moving towards a consideration of heroin prescription as a legitimate component of the National Health Service (NHS). Evidence has shown that methadone maintenance is not appropriate for all people who are dependent on opioids and that heroin is a viable maintenance drug that has shown equal or better rates of success.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A committee appointed by the Norwegian government completed an evaluation of research reports on heroin maintenance treatment that were available internationally. In 2011 the committee concluded that the presence of numerous uncertainties and knowledge gaps regarding the effects of heroin treatment meant that it could not recommend the introduction of heroin maintenance treatment in Norway.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Critics of heroin maintenance programmes object to the high costs of providing heroin to people who use it. The British heroin study cost the British government £15,000 per participant per year, roughly equivalent to average person who uses heroin's expense of £15,600 per year.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Drug Free Australia<sup id="cite_ref-DrugFreeAustralia_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DrugFreeAustralia-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> contrast these ongoing maintenance costs with Sweden's investment in, and commitment to, a drug-free society where a policy of compulsory rehabilitation of people who are experiencing drug addiction is integral, which has yielded to one of the lowest reported illicit drug use levels in the developed world,<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a model in which successfully rehabilitated people who use substances present no further maintenance costs to their community, as well as reduced ongoing health care costs.<sup id="cite_ref-DrugFreeAustralia_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DrugFreeAustralia-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/King%27s_Health_Partners" title="King's Health Partners">King's Health Partners</a> notes that the cost of providing free heroin for a year is about one-third of the cost of placing the person in prison for a year.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged May 2011">dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-KHP_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KHP-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading6"><h6 id="Naloxone_distribution">Naloxone distribution</h6></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Naloxone" title="Naloxone">Naloxone</a> is a drug used to counter an overdose from the effect of <a href="/wiki/Opioid" title="Opioid">opioids</a>; for example, a heroin or <a href="/wiki/Morphine" title="Morphine">morphine</a> overdose. Naloxone displaces the opioid molecules from the brain's receptors and reverses the <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_depression" class="mw-redirect" title="Respiratory depression">respiratory depression</a> caused by an overdose within two to eight minutes.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> (WHO) includes naloxone on their "<a href="/wiki/WHO_Model_List_of_Essential_Medicines" title="WHO Model List of Essential Medicines">List of Essential Medicines</a>", and recommends its availability and utilization for the reversal of opioid overdoses.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Formal programs in which the opioid <a href="/wiki/Inverse_agonist" title="Inverse agonist">inverse agonist</a> drug naloxone is distributed have been trialled and implemented. Established programs distribute naloxone, as per WHO's minimum standards, to people who use substances and their peers, family members, police, prisons, and others. These treatment programs and harm reduction centres operate in Afghanistan, Australia, Canada, China, Germany, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Norway, Russia, Spain, Tajikistan, the United Kingdom (UK), the United States (US), Vietnam,<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> India, Thailand, Kyrgyzstan,<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Denmark and Estonia.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many reviews of the literature support the effectiveness of naloxone based interventions in reducing overdose deaths where it is available at the time of the overdose event.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This effectiveness has been explained in a <a href="/wiki/Realist_Evaluation" title="Realist Evaluation">Realist Evaluation</a> which explained the effectiveness through <a href="/wiki/Bystander_effect" title="Bystander effect">bystander effect</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_identity_theory" title="Social identity theory">social identity theory</a>, and skills training such that universal access to training supports social identity and in-group norms (of people who use drugs), which supports the conditions for the success of a peer-to-peer distribution model of naloxone-based interventions. Stigma and stigmatising attitudes reduced the effectiveness of naloxone based interventions.<sup id="cite_ref-hrjrealistreview_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hrjrealistreview-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading6"><h6 id="Medication_assisted_treatment_(MAT):_Opioid_agonist_therapy_(OAT)_and_Opioid_substitution_therapy_(OST)"><span id="Medication_assisted_treatment_.28MAT.29:_Opioid_agonist_therapy_.28OAT.29_and_Opioid_substitution_therapy_.28OST.29"></span>Medication assisted treatment (MAT): Opioid agonist therapy (OAT) and Opioid substitution therapy (OST)</h6></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Medication_assisted_treatment" class="mw-redirect" title="Medication assisted treatment">Medication assisted treatment</a> (MAT) is the prescription of legal, prescribed opioids or other drugs, often long-acting, to diminish the use of illegal opioids. Many types of MAT exist, including opioid agonist therapy (OAT) where a safer opioid agonist is employed or opioid substitution therapy (OST) which employs partial opioid agonists. However, MAT, OAT, OST are often used synonymously.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Opioid_agonist_therapy" title="Opioid agonist therapy">Opioid agonist therapy</a> (OAT) involves the use of a full opioid agonist treatment like methadone and is generally taken daily at a <a href="/wiki/Methadone_clinic" title="Methadone clinic">clinic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-NEPOD_Report_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NEPOD_Report-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Opioid_substitution_therapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Opioid substitution therapy">Opioid substitution therapy</a> (OST) involves the use of the partial agonist <a href="/wiki/Buprenorphine" title="Buprenorphine">buprenorphine</a> or a combination of buprenorphine/naloxone (brand name <a href="/wiki/Suboxone" class="mw-redirect" title="Suboxone">Suboxone</a>). Oral/sublingual formulations of buprenorphine incorporate the opioid antagonist naloxone to prevent people from crushing the tablets and injecting them.<sup id="cite_ref-NEPOD_Report_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NEPOD_Report-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike methadone treatment, buprenorphine therapy can be prescribed month-to-month and obtained at a traditional <a href="/wiki/Pharmacy" title="Pharmacy">pharmacy</a> rather than a clinic.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The driving principle behind OAT/OST is the program's capacity to facilitate a resumption of stability in the person's life, while they experience reduced symptoms of <a href="/wiki/Drug_withdrawal" title="Drug withdrawal">withdrawal</a> symptoms and less intense <a href="/wiki/Craving_(withdrawal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Craving (withdrawal)">drug cravings</a>; however, a strong euphoric effect is not experienced as a result of the treatment drug.<sup id="cite_ref-NEPOD_Report_46-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NEPOD_Report-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In some countries, such as Switzerland, Austria, and Slovenia, patients are treated with slow-release morphine when methadone is deemed inappropriate due to the individual's circumstances. In Germany, <a href="/wiki/Dihydrocodeine" title="Dihydrocodeine">dihydrocodeine</a> has been used <a href="/wiki/Off-label_use" title="Off-label use">off-label</a> in OAT for many years, however it is no longer frequently prescribed for this purpose. Extended-release dihydrocodeine is again in current use in Austria for this reason.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Research into the usefulness of <a href="/wiki/Piritramide" title="Piritramide">piritramide</a>, extended-release <a href="/wiki/Hydromorphone" title="Hydromorphone">hydromorphone</a> (including polymer implants lasting up to 90 days), <a href="/wiki/Dihydroetorphine" title="Dihydroetorphine">dihydroetorphine</a> and other substances for OAT is at various stages in a number of countries.<sup id="cite_ref-NEPOD_Report_46-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NEPOD_Report-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2020 in Vancouver, Canada, health authorities began vending machine dispensing of hydromorphone tablets as a response to elevated rates of fatal overdose from street drugs contaminated with fentanyl and fentanyl analogues.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In some countries (not the US, UK, Canada, or Australia),<sup id="cite_ref-NEPOD_Report_46-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NEPOD_Report-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> regulations enforce a limited time period for people on OAT/OST programs that conclude when a stable economic and psychosocial situation is achieved. (Patients with <a href="/wiki/HIV" title="HIV">HIV/AIDS</a> or <a href="/wiki/Hepatitis_C" title="Hepatitis C">hepatitis C</a> are usually excluded from this requirement.) In practice, 40–65% of patients maintain complete abstinence from opioids while receiving opioid agonist therapy, and 70–95% are able to reduce their use significantly, while experiencing a concurrent elimination or reduction in medical (improper <a href="/wiki/Diluent" title="Diluent">diluents</a>, non-<a href="/wiki/Sterilization_(microbiology)" title="Sterilization (microbiology)">sterile</a> injecting equipment), psychosocial (<a href="/wiki/Mental_health" title="Mental health">mental health</a>, relationships), and legal (arrest and <a href="/wiki/Imprisonment" title="Imprisonment">imprisonment</a>) issues that can arise from the use of illicit opioids.<sup id="cite_ref-NEPOD_Report_46-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NEPOD_Report-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>OAT/OST outlets in some settings also offer basic primary health care. These are known as 'targeted primary health care outlet'—as these outlets primarily target people who inject drugs and/or 'low-threshold health care outlet'—as these reduce common barriers clients often face when they try to access health care from the conventional health care outlets.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For accessing sterile injecting equipment clients frequently visit NSP outlets, and for receiving pharmacotherapy (e.g. methadone, buprenorphine) they visit OST clinics; these frequent visits are used opportunistically to offer much needed health care.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These targeted outlets have the potential to mitigate clients' perceived barriers to access to healthcare delivered in traditional settings. The provision of accessible, acceptable and opportunistic services which are responsive to the needs of this population is valuable, facilitating a reduced reliance on inappropriate and cost-ineffective emergency department care.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Cannabis">Cannabis</h5></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Cannabis_(drug)" title="Cannabis (drug)">Cannabis (drug)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Legal_issues_of_cannabis" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal issues of cannabis">Legal issues of cannabis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Health_issues_and_the_effects_of_cannabis" class="mw-redirect" title="Health issues and the effects of cannabis">Health issues and the effects of cannabis</a></div> <p>Specific harms associated with cannabis include increased crash-rate while <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_cannabis#Effects_on_driving" title="Effects of cannabis">driving under intoxication</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cannabis_dependence" class="mw-redirect" title="Cannabis dependence">dependence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Long-term_effects_of_cannabis#Psychosis" title="Long-term effects of cannabis">psychosis</a>, detrimental psychosocial outcomes for adolescents who use substances, and <a href="/wiki/Cannabis-associated_respiratory_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Cannabis-associated respiratory disease">respiratory disease</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some safer cannabis usage campaigns including the UKCIA (United Kingdom Cannabis Internet Activists) encourage methods of consumption shown to cause less physical damage to a person's body, including oral (eating) consumption, vaporization, the usage of bongs which cool and to some extent filters the smoke, and smoking the cannabis without mixing it with tobacco. </p><p>The fact that cannabis possession carries prison sentences in most developed countries is also pointed out as a problem by <a href="/wiki/European_Monitoring_Centre_for_Drugs_and_Drug_Addiction" class="mw-redirect" title="European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction">European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction</a> (EMCDDA), as the consequences of a conviction for otherwise law-abiding people who use substances arguably is more harmful than any harm from the substance itself. For example, by adversely affecting employment opportunities, impacting civil rights,<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and straining personal relationships.<sup id="cite_ref-emcdda-cannabis_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-emcdda-cannabis-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some people like <a href="/wiki/Ethan_Nadelmann" title="Ethan Nadelmann">Ethan Nadelmann</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Drug_Policy_Alliance" title="Drug Policy Alliance">Drug Policy Alliance</a> have suggested that organized marijuana legalization would encourage safe use and reveal the factual adverse effects from exposure to this herb's individual chemicals.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The way the laws concerning cannabis are enforced is also very selective, even discriminatory. Statistics show that the socially disadvantaged, immigrants and ethnic minorities have significantly higher arrest rates.<sup id="cite_ref-emcdda-cannabis_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-emcdda-cannabis-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Drug <a href="/wiki/Decriminalisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Decriminalisation">decriminalisation</a>, such as allowing the possession of small amounts of cannabis and possibly its cultivation for personal use, would alleviate these harms.<sup id="cite_ref-emcdda-cannabis_58-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-emcdda-cannabis-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Where decriminalisation has been implemented, such as in several states in Australia and United States, as well as in <a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portugal</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a> no, or only very small adverse effects have been shown on population cannabis usage rate.<sup id="cite_ref-emcdda-cannabis_58-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-emcdda-cannabis-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The lack of evidence of increased use indicates that such a policy shift does not have adverse effects on cannabis-related harm while, at the same time, decreasing enforcement costs.<sup id="cite_ref-emcdda-cannabis_58-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-emcdda-cannabis-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the last few years certain strains of the <a href="/wiki/Cannabis" title="Cannabis">cannabis</a> plant with higher concentrations of <a href="/wiki/THC" class="mw-redirect" title="THC">THC</a> and <a href="/wiki/Drug_tourism" class="mw-redirect" title="Drug tourism">drug tourism</a> have challenged the former policy in the Netherlands and led to a more restrictive approach; for example, a ban on selling cannabis to tourists in <a href="/wiki/Cannabis_coffee_shop" class="mw-redirect" title="Cannabis coffee shop">coffeeshops</a> suggested to start late 2011.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sale and possession of cannabis is still illegal in Portugal<sup id="cite_ref-Emdrug_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Emdrug-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and possession of cannabis is a federal crime in the United States. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Psychedelics">Psychedelics</h4></div> <p>The Zendo Project conducted by the <a href="/wiki/Multidisciplinary_Association_for_Psychedelic_Studies" title="Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies">Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies</a> uses principles from <a href="/wiki/Psychedelic_therapy" title="Psychedelic therapy">psychedelic therapy</a> to provide safe places and emotional support for people having difficult experiences on psychedelic drugs at select festivals such as <a href="/wiki/Burning_Man" title="Burning Man">Burning Man</a>, <a href="/wiki/Boom_Festival" title="Boom Festival">Boom Festival</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lightning_in_a_Bottle" title="Lightning in a Bottle">Lightning in a Bottle</a> without medical or <a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement" title="Law enforcement">law enforcement</a> intervention.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Stimulants">Stimulants</h4></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Office_on_Drugs_and_Crime" title="United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime">United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime</a> states, "While medical models of treatment for individuals with alcohol or opioid use disorders are well accepted and implemented worldwide, in most countries there is no parallel, long-term medical model of treatment for individuals with stimulant use disorders."<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The neglect of stimulant-users has been widely considered to be related to the popularity of stimulants among systemically-oppressed groups, such as methamphetamine use among gay men and transgender people, and crack cocaine use among Black people.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Crack_epidemic_in_the_United_States" title="Crack epidemic in the United States">crack epidemic in the United States</a> demonstrates a discrepancy between sentencing lengths of crack cocaine and heroin users, with crack users imprisoned for longer periods of time than heroin users. In 2012, 88% of imprisonments from crack cocaine were of African American people.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Stimulant users have increasingly been at risk for opioid overdose since 2006, due to the nonconsensual presence of fentanyl in their substances.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Tobacco">Tobacco</h5></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tobacco_harm_reduction" title="Tobacco harm reduction">Tobacco harm reduction</a></div> <p>Tobacco harm reduction describes actions taken to lower the health risks associated with using tobacco, especially combustible forms, without abstaining completely from tobacco and nicotine. Some of these measures include switching to safer (lower tar) cigarettes, switching to <a href="/wiki/Snus" title="Snus">snus</a> or <a href="/wiki/Dipping_tobacco" title="Dipping tobacco">dipping tobacco</a>, or using a non-tobacco nicotine delivery systems. In recent years, the growing use of <a href="/wiki/Electronic_cigarette" title="Electronic cigarette">electronic cigarettes</a> (or vaping) for <a href="/wiki/Smoking_cessation" title="Smoking cessation">smoking cessation</a>, whose long-term safety remains uncertain, has sparked an ongoing controversy among medical and public health between those who seek to restrict and discourage all use until more is known and those who see them as a useful approach for harm reduction, whose risks are most unlikely to equal those of smoking tobacco.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Their usefulness in tobacco harm reduction as a substitute for <a href="/wiki/Tobacco_products" class="mw-redirect" title="Tobacco products">tobacco products</a> is unclear",<sup id="cite_ref-Drummond2014_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Drummond2014-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but in an effort to <a href="/wiki/Tobacco_control_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Tobacco control movement">decrease tobacco related death and disease</a>, they have a potential to be part of the strategy.<sup id="cite_ref-Cahn2011_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cahn2011-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Routes_of_administration">Routes of administration</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Needle_exchange_programmes_(NEP)"><span id="Needle_exchange_programmes_.28NEP.29"></span>Needle exchange programmes (NEP)</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:800px-Caernarfon_womens_toilets.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/800px-Caernarfon_womens_toilets.jpg/220px-800px-Caernarfon_womens_toilets.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="271" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/800px-Caernarfon_womens_toilets.jpg/330px-800px-Caernarfon_womens_toilets.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/800px-Caernarfon_womens_toilets.jpg 2x" data-file-width="433" data-file-height="533" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Wastebin" class="mw-redirect" title="Wastebin">bin</a> allowing for safe disposal of <a href="/wiki/Syringe" title="Syringe">needles</a> in a <a href="/wiki/Washroom" class="mw-redirect" title="Washroom">public toilet</a> in <a href="/wiki/Caernarfon" title="Caernarfon">Caernarfon</a>, Wales</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Needle-exchange_programme" class="mw-redirect" title="Needle-exchange programme">Needle-exchange programme</a></div> <p>The use of some illicit drugs can involve hypodermic needles. In some areas (notably in many parts of the US), these are available solely by prescription. Where availability is limited, people who use heroin and other substances frequently share the syringes and use them more than once or participate in unsafe practices such as <a href="/wiki/Flashblood" title="Flashblood">blood flashing</a>. As a result, infections such as HIV or <a href="/wiki/Hepatitis_C" title="Hepatitis C">hepatitis C</a> can spread from person to person through the reuse of syringes contaminated with infected blood.<sup id="cite_ref-flashbloodnyt_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-flashbloodnyt-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The principles of harm reduction propose that syringes should be easily available or at least available through a needle and syringe programmes (NSP). Where syringes are provided in sufficient quantities, rates of HIV are much lower than in places where supply is restricted. In many countries people who use substances are supplied equipment free of charge, others require payment or an exchange of dirty needles for clean ones, hence the name. </p><p>A 2010 review found insufficient evidence that NSP prevents transmission of the hepatitis C virus, tentative evidence that it prevents transmission of HIV and sufficient evidence that it reduces self-reported injecting risk behaviour.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid20219055_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid20219055-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has been shown in the many evaluations of needle-exchange programmes that in areas where clean syringes are more available, illegal drug use is no higher than in other areas. Needle exchange programmes have reduced HIV incidence by 33% in <a href="/wiki/New_Haven" class="mw-redirect" title="New Haven">New Haven</a> and 70% in New York City.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid11251723_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid11251723-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Melbourne, Australia inner-city suburbs of Richmond and Abbotsford are locations in which the use and dealing of heroin has been concentrated for a protracted time period. Research organisation the Burnet Institute completed the 2013 'North Richmond Public Injecting Impact Study' in collaboration with the Yarra Drug and Health Forum, City of Yarra and North Richmond Community Health Centre and recommended 24-hour access to sterile injecting equipment due to the ongoing "widespread, frequent and highly visible" nature of illicit drug use in the areas. During the period between 2010 and 2012 a four-fold increase in the levels of inappropriately discarded injecting equipment was documented for the two suburbs. In the local government area the City of Yarra, of which Richmond and Abbotsford are parts of, 1550 syringes were collected each month from public syringe disposal bins in 2012. Furthermore, ambulance callouts for heroin overdoses were 1.5 times higher than for other Melbourne areas in the period between 2011 and 2012 (a total of 336 overdoses), and drug-related arrests in North Richmond were also three times higher than the state average. The Burnet Institute's researchers interviewed health workers, residents and local traders, in addition to observing the drug scene in the most frequented North Richmond public injecting locations.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 28 May 2013, the Burnet Institute stated in the media that it recommends 24-hour access to sterile injecting equipment in the Melbourne suburb of Footscray after the area's drug culture continues to grow after more than ten years of intense law enforcement efforts. The institute's research concluded that public injecting behaviour is frequent in the area and inappropriately discarding injecting paraphernalia has been found in carparks, parks, footpaths and drives. Furthermore, people who inject drugs have broken open syringe disposal bins to reuse discarded injecting equipment.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The British public body, the <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_for_Health_and_Care_Excellence" title="National Institute for Health and Care Excellence">National Institute for Health and Care Excellence</a> (NICE), introduced a new recommendation in early April 2014 due to an increase in the presentation of the number of young people who inject steroids at UK needle exchanges. NICE previously published needle exchange guidelines in 2009, in which needle and syringe services are not advised for people under the age of 18 years, but the organisation's director Professor Mike Kelly explained that a "completely different group" of people were presenting at programs. In the updated guidance, NICE recommended the provision of specialist services for "rapidly increasing numbers of steroid users", and that needles should be provided to people under the age of 18—a first for NICE—following reports of 15-year-old steroid injectors seeking to develop their muscles.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Supervised_injection_sites_(SIS)"><span id="Supervised_injection_sites_.28SIS.29"></span>Supervised injection sites (SIS)</h5></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Clandinjectkit.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Clandinjectkit.JPG/220px-Clandinjectkit.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Clandinjectkit.JPG/330px-Clandinjectkit.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Clandinjectkit.JPG/440px-Clandinjectkit.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3056" data-file-height="2292" /></a><figcaption>A clandestine kit containing materials to inject drugs</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Who_needs_a_virtual_world%3F.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Who_needs_a_virtual_world%3F.jpg/220px-Who_needs_a_virtual_world%3F.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Who_needs_a_virtual_world%3F.jpg/330px-Who_needs_a_virtual_world%3F.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Who_needs_a_virtual_world%3F.jpg/440px-Who_needs_a_virtual_world%3F.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2800" data-file-height="1861" /></a><figcaption>Injection kit obtained from a needle-exchange programme</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Supervised_injection_site" title="Supervised injection site">Supervised injection site</a></div> <p><i>Supervised injection sites</i> (SIS), or <i>Drug consumption rooms</i> (DCR), are legally sanctioned, medically supervised facilities designed to address public nuisance associated with drug use and provide a hygienic and stress-free environment for drug consumers. </p><p>The facilities provide sterile injection equipment, information about drugs and basic health care, treatment referrals, and access to medical staff. Some offer counseling, hygienic and other services of use to itinerant and impoverished individuals. Most programmes prohibit the sale or purchase of illegal drugs. Many require identification cards. Some restrict access to local residents and apply other admission criteria, such as they have to be people who inject substances, but generally in Europe they do not exclude people with substance use disorders who consume their substances through other means. </p><p>The Netherlands had the first staffed injection room, although they did not operate under explicit legal support until 1996. Instead, the first center where it was legal to inject drugs was in Berne, Switzerland, opened 1986. In 1994, Germany opened its first site. Although, as in the Netherlands they operated in a "gray area", supported by the local authorities and with consent from the police until the Bundestag provided a legal exemption in 2000.<sup id="cite_ref-dolan_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dolan-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Europe, Luxembourg, Spain and Norway have opened facilities after year 2000.<sup id="cite_ref-emcdda-dcr_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-emcdda-dcr-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Sydney" title="Sydney">Sydney</a>'s Medically Supervised Injecting Center (MSIC) was established in May 2001 as a trial and Vancouver's <a href="/wiki/Insite" title="Insite">Insite</a> opened in September 2003.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2010, after a nine-year trial, the Sydney site was confirmed as a permanent public health facility.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ABCSimmons2010-09-16_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ABCSimmons2010-09-16-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As of late 2009 there were a total of 92 professionally supervised injection facilities in 61 cities.<sup id="cite_ref-emcdda-dcr_78-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-emcdda-dcr-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In North American, as of 2023 there are supervised injection sites operating in a number of Canadian cities,<sup id="cite_ref-canada-map_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-canada-map-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and two in United States. The sites in United States opened in 2021.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction's latest <a href="/wiki/Systematic_review" title="Systematic review">systematic review</a> from April 2010 did not find any evidence to support concerns that DCR might "encourage drug use, delay treatment entry or aggravate problems of local drug markets."<sup id="cite_ref-emcdda-dcr_78-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-emcdda-dcr-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jürgen Rehm and Benedikt Fischer explained that while evidence show that DCR are successful, that "interpretation is limited by the weak designs applied in many evaluations, often represented by the lack of adequate control groups." Concluding that this "leaves the door open for alternative interpretations of data produced and subsequent ideological debate."<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The EMCDDA review noted that research into the effects of the facilities "faces methodological challenges in taking account of the effects of broader local policy or ecological changes", still they concluded "that the facilities reach their target population and provide immediate improvements through better hygiene and safety conditions for injectors." Further that "the availability of safer injecting facilities does not increase levels of drug use or risky patterns of consumption, nor does it result in higher rates of local drug acquisition crime." While its usage is "associated with self-reported reductions in injecting risk behaviour such as syringe sharing, and in public drug use" and "with increased uptake of <a href="/wiki/Drug_detoxification" title="Drug detoxification">detoxification</a> and <a href="/wiki/Drug_rehabilitation" title="Drug rehabilitation">treatment services</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-emcdda-dcr_78-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-emcdda-dcr-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, "a lack of studies, as well as methodological problems such as isolating the effect from other interventions or low coverage of the risk population, evidence regarding DCRs—while encouraging—is insufficient for drawing conclusions with regard to their effectiveness in reducing HIV or hepatitis C virus (HCV) incidence." Concluding with that "there is suggestive evidence from modelling studies that they may contribute to reducing drug-related deaths at a city level where coverage is adequate, the review-level evidence of this effect is still insufficient."<sup id="cite_ref-emcdda-dcr_78-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-emcdda-dcr-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Critics of this intervention, such as drug prevention advocacy organisations, Drug Free Australia and <a href="/wiki/Real_Women_of_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Real Women of Canada">Real Women of Canada</a><sup id="cite_ref-ABCSimmons2010-09-16_83-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ABCSimmons2010-09-16-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> point to the most rigorous evaluations,<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> those of Sydney and Vancouver. Two of the centers, in Sydney, Australia and Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada cost $2.7 million<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and $3 million per annum to operate respectively,<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> yet Canadian mathematical modeling, where there was caution about validity, indicated just one life saved from fatal overdose per annum for Vancouver,<sup id="cite_ref-hc-sc.gc.ca_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hc-sc.gc.ca-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while the Drug Free Australia analysis demonstrates the Sydney facility statistically takes more than a year to save one life.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Expert Advisory Committee of the Canadian Government studied claims by journal studies for reduced HIV transmission by Insite but "were not convinced that these assumptions were entirely valid."<sup id="cite_ref-hc-sc.gc.ca_92-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hc-sc.gc.ca-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Sydney facility showed no improvement in public injecting and discarded needles beyond improvements caused by a coinciding heroin drought,<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while the Vancouver facility had an observable impact.<sup id="cite_ref-hc-sc.gc.ca_92-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hc-sc.gc.ca-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Drug dealing and loitering around the facilities were evident in the Sydney evaluation,<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but not evident for the Vancouver facility.<sup id="cite_ref-hc-sc.gc.ca_92-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hc-sc.gc.ca-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Safer_supply">Safer supply</h3></div> <p><b>Safer supply</b> programs prescribe medications (including stimulants, opioids, and benzodiazepines) to people at high risk of overdose. This is meant to provide a safer alternative to an illegal drug supply that contains high levels of <a href="/wiki/Fentanyl" title="Fentanyl">fentanyl</a> and other dangerous chemicals.<sup id="cite_ref-canada_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-canada-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The structure of such programs is more flexible than <a href="/wiki/Opioid_agonist_therapy" title="Opioid agonist therapy">opioid agonist therapy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-canada_97-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-canada-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The drugs dispensed by these programs can result in <a href="/wiki/Substance_intoxication" title="Substance intoxication">intoxication</a>, unlike <a href="/wiki/Methadone" title="Methadone">methadone</a> or <a href="/wiki/Buprenorphine" title="Buprenorphine">buprenorphine</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-joseph_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-joseph-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Safer supply projects exist in a number of Canadian cities.<sup id="cite_ref-canada-map_84-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-canada-map-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Critics of these programs point to the risk of <a href="/wiki/Drug_diversion" title="Drug diversion">drug diversion</a> and argue that patients should be encouraged to enter <a href="/wiki/Drug_rehabilitation" title="Drug rehabilitation">drug rehabilitation</a> programs instead of being given drugs.<sup id="cite_ref-joseph_98-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-joseph-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sex">Sex</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Safer_sex_programmes">Safer sex programmes</h3></div> <p>Many schools now provide <a href="/wiki/Safer_sex" class="mw-redirect" title="Safer sex">safer sex</a> education to teen and pre-teen students, who may engage in sexual activity. Since some adolescents are going to have sex, a harm-reductionist approach supports a sexual education which emphasizes the use of protective devices like <a href="/wiki/Condoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Condoms">condoms</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dental_dam" title="Dental dam">dental dams</a> to protect against unwanted pregnancy and the transmission of <a href="/wiki/Sexually_transmitted_infections" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexually transmitted infections">STIs</a>. This runs contrary to <a href="/wiki/Sexual_abstinence" title="Sexual abstinence">abstinence</a>-only sex education, which teaches that educating children about sex can encourage them to engage in it. </p><p>These programmes have been found to decrease risky sexual behaviour and prevent <a href="/wiki/Sexually_transmitted_infection" title="Sexually transmitted infection">sexually transmitted infections</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They also reduce rates of unwanted pregnancies.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Abstinence-only_sex_education" title="Abstinence-only sex education">Abstinence-only</a> programmes do not appear to affect HIV risks in developed countries with no evidence available for other areas.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Legalized_prostitution">Legalized prostitution</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Legality_of_prostitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Legality of prostitution">Legality of prostitution</a></div> <p>Since 1999, some countries have legalized prostitution, such as <a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Germany" title="Prostitution in Germany">Germany</a> (2002) and <a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_New_Zealand" title="Prostitution in New Zealand">New Zealand</a> (2003). However, in most countries the practice is prohibited. Gathering accurate statistics on prostitution and human trafficking is extremely difficult. This has resulted in proponents of legalization claiming that it reduces organized crime rates while opponents claim exactly the converse. The <a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_the_Netherlands" title="Prostitution in the Netherlands">Dutch prostitution policy</a>, which is one of the most liberal in the world, has gone back and forth on the issue several times. In the period leading up to 2015 up to a third of officially sanctioned work places had been closed down again after reports of human trafficking. Prostitutes themselves are generally opposed to what they see as "theft of their livelihood".<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Legal prostitution means prostitutes can contact police in instances of abuse or violence without fear of arrest or prosecution because of what they are doing being illegal. A legal and regulated system can also provide licensed brothels as opposed to prostitutes working on the streets, in which the owners or staff of the premises can call the police in instances of violence against sex workers without fear of workers or the business facing criminal charges or being shut down. Legal and regulated prostitution can require prostitutes to undergo regular health checks for sexually transmitted infections (STIs) by law. Sex workers in Nevada for instance have to get monthly tests for syphilis and HIV and weekly tests for gonorrhea and chlamydia.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sex-work_and_HIV">Sex-work and HIV</h3></div> <p>Despite the depth of knowledge of HIV/AIDS, rapid transmission has occurred globally in sex workers.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid11251723_73-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid11251723-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The relationship between these two variables greatly increases the risk of transmission among these populations, and also to anyone associated with them, such as their sexual partners, their children, and eventually the population at large.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid11251723_73-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid11251723-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many street-level harm-reduction strategies have succeeded in reducing HIV transmission in <a href="/wiki/Injecting_drug_user" class="mw-redirect" title="Injecting drug user">injecting drug users</a> and sex-workers.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid16360791_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid16360791-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> HIV education, HIV testing, condom use, and safer-sex negotiation greatly decreases the risk to the disease.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid16360791_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid16360791-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Peer education as a harm reduction strategy has especially reduced the risk of HIV infection, such as in Chad, where this method was the most cost-effective per infection prevented.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid16360791_5-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid16360791-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Decriminalisation as a harm-reduction strategy gives the ability to treat substance use disorder solely as a public health issue rather than a criminal activity. This enables other harm-reduction strategies to be employed, which results in a lower incidence of HIV infection.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid163607913_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid163607913-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One of the first harm reduction models was called the "Mersey Harm Reduction Model" in 1980s Liverpool, and the success of utilizing outreach workers, distribution of education, and providing clean equipment to drug users was shown in the fact that an HIV epidemic did not happen in Mersey.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The AIDS epidemic, which began in the 80s and peaked in 1995, further complicated the politicization of drug users and drug use in the US. The implementation of harm reduction faced much resistance within the US due to the demonization of particular drugs associated with stigmatized groups, such as sex workers and drug-injecting users.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Decriminalisation">Decriminalisation</h2></div> <p>Decriminalisation as a harm-reduction strategy gives the ability to treat substance use disorder solely as a public health issue rather than a criminal activity. This enables other harm-reduction strategies to be employed, which results in a lower incidence of HIV infection.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid16360791_5-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid16360791-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism">Criticism</h2></div> <p>Critics, such as <a href="/wiki/Drug_Free_America_Foundation" title="Drug Free America Foundation">Drug Free America Foundation</a> and other members of network <i>International Task Force on Strategic Drug Policy</i>, state that a risk posed by harm reduction is by creating the perception that certain behaviours can be partaken of safely, such as illicit drug use, that it may lead to an increase in that behaviour by people who would otherwise be deterred. The signatories of the drug prohibitionist network International Task Force on Strategic Drug Policy stated that they oppose drug use harm reduction "...strategies as endpoints that promote the false notion that there are safe or responsible ways to use drugs. That is, strategies in which the primary goal is to enable drug users to maintain addictive, destructive, and compulsive behavior by misleading users about some drug risks while ignoring others."<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2008, the <a href="/wiki/World_Federation_Against_Drugs" title="World Federation Against Drugs">World Federation Against Drugs</a> stated that while "...some organizations and local governments actively advocate the legalization of drugs and promote policies such as "harm reduction" that accept drug use and do not help people who use substances to become free from substance use. This undermines the international efforts to limit the supply of and demand for drugs." The Federation states that harm reduction efforts often end up being "drug legalization or other inappropriate relaxation efforts, a policy approach that violates the UN Conventions."<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Critics furthermore reject harm reduction measures for allegedly trying to establish certain forms of drug use as acceptable in society. The Drug Prevention Network of Canada states that harm reduction has "...come to represent a philosophy in which illicit substance use is seen as largely unpreventable, and increasingly, as a feasible and acceptable lifestyle as long as use is not 'problematic<span style="padding-right:.15em;">'</span>", an approach which can increase "acceptance of drug use into the mainstream of society". They say harm reduction "...sends the wrong message to ... children and youth" about drug use.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2008, the Declaration of World Forum Against Drugs criticized harm reduction policies that "...accept drug use and do not help drug users to become free from drug abuse", which the group say undermines "...efforts to limit the supply of and demand for drugs." They state that harm reduction should not lead to less efforts to reduce drug demand.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Pope <a href="/wiki/Benedict_XVI" class="mw-redirect" title="Benedict XVI">Benedict XVI</a> criticised harm reduction policies with regards to HIV/AIDS, saying that it was "a tragedy that cannot be overcome by money alone, that cannot be overcome through the distribution of condoms, which even aggravates the problems".<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This position was in turn widely criticised for misrepresenting and oversimplifying the role of condoms in preventing infections.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aubri_Esters" title="Aubri Esters">Aubri Esters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bluelight_(web_forum)" title="Bluelight (web forum)">Bluelight (web forum)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demand_reduction" title="Demand reduction">Demand reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erowid" title="Erowid">Erowid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harm_reduction_in_the_United_States" title="Harm reduction in the United States">Harm reduction in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-threshold_treatment_programs" class="mw-redirect" title="Low-threshold treatment programs">Low-threshold treatment programs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitigation" title="Mitigation">Mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supervised_injection_site" title="Supervised injection site">Supervised injection site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supply_reduction" title="Supply reduction">Supply reduction</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMarshallB.R._Smith2016" class="citation book cs1">Marshall, Zack; B.R. Smith, Christopher (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/952337014"><i>Critical Approaches to Harm Reduction: Conflict, Institutionalization, (de-)politicization, and Direct Action</i></a>. New York: Nova Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-63484-902-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-63484-902-9"><bdi>978-1-63484-902-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/952337014">952337014</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240225060222/https://search.worldcat.org/title/952337014">Archived</a> from the original on 25 February 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 April</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Critical+Approaches+to+Harm+Reduction%3A+Conflict%2C+Institutionalization%2C+%28de-%29politicization%2C+and+Direct+Action&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Nova+Publishers&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F952337014&rft.isbn=978-1-63484-902-9&rft.aulast=Marshall&rft.aufirst=Zack&rft.au=B.R.+Smith%2C+Christopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F952337014&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHarm+reduction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.opensocietyfoundations.org/explainers/what-harm-reduction"><i>What is Harm Reduction?</i></a>. New York: Open Society Foundations. June 2021. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230727170818/https://www.opensocietyfoundations.org/explainers/what-harm-reduction">Archived</a> from the original on 27 July 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+is+Harm+Reduction%3F&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Open+Society+Foundations&rft.date=2021-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.opensocietyfoundations.org%2Fexplainers%2Fwhat-harm-reduction&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHarm+reduction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarm_Reduction_International" class="citation web cs1">Harm Reduction International. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hri.global/what-is-harm-reduction">"What Is Harm Reduction?"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220110173243/https://www.hri.global/what-is-harm-reduction">Archived</a> from the original on 10 January 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 January</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+Is+Harm+Reduction%3F&rft.au=Harm+Reduction+International&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hri.global%2Fwhat-is-harm-reduction&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHarm+reduction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hri.global/files/2021/03/04/Global_State_HRI_2020_BOOK_FA_Web.pdf"><i>Global State of Harm Reduction 2020</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. London: Harm Reduction International. 2021. pp. 18–23. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230314234720/https://www.hri.global/files/2021/03/04/Global_State_HRI_2020_BOOK_FA_Web.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 14 March 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Global+State+of+Harm+Reduction+2020&rft.place=London&rft.pages=18-23&rft.pub=Harm+Reduction+International&rft.date=2021&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hri.global%2Ffiles%2F2021%2F03%2F04%2FGlobal_State_HRI_2020_BOOK_FA_Web.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHarm+reduction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid16360791-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pmid16360791_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pmid16360791_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pmid16360791_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pmid16360791_5-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pmid16360791_5-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pmid16360791_5-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRekart_ML2005" class="citation journal cs1">Rekart ML (December 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170106161054/http://www.fopme.scuegypt.edu.eg/projects/e-talc/html/content/lancet/PIIS014067360567732X.pdf">"Sex-work harm reduction"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Lancet</i>. <b>366</b> (9503): 2123–2134. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0140-6736%2805%2967732-X">10.1016/S0140-6736(05)67732-X</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16360791">16360791</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:11448309">11448309</a></span>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 September</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Declaration+of+World+Forum+Against+Drugs&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wfad08.org%2F_downloads%2F_pdf%2FDeclaration%2520of%2520World%2520Forum%2520Against%2520Drugs.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHarm+reduction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130615144646/http://www.sbs.com.au/news/article/1012144/Condoms-%27not-the-answer-to-AIDS%27">"Condoms 'not the answer to AIDS': Pope"</a>. <i>World News Australia</i>. SBS. 17 March 2009. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sbs.com.au/news/article/1012144/Condoms-%27not-the-answer-to-AIDS%27">the original</a> on 15 June 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 June</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+News+Australia&rft.atitle=Condoms+%27not+the+answer+to+AIDS%27%3A+Pope&rft.date=2009-03-17&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sbs.com.au%2Fnews%2Farticle%2F1012144%2FCondoms-%2527not-the-answer-to-AIDS%2527&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHarm+reduction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKamerow_D2009" class="citation journal cs1">Kamerow D (2009). "The papal position on condoms and HIV". <i>BMJ</i>. <b>338</b>: b1217. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmj.b1217">10.1136/bmj.b1217</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19321547">19321547</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:30450691">30450691</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BMJ&rft.atitle=The+papal+position+on+condoms+and+HIV&rft.volume=338&rft.pages=b1217&rft.date=2009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A30450691%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19321547&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1136%2Fbmj.b1217&rft.au=Kamerow+D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHarm+reduction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoehr_B2009" class="citation journal cs1">Roehr B (2009). "Pope claims that condoms exacerbate HIV and AIDS problem". <i>BMJ</i>. <b>338</b>: b1206. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmj.b1206">10.1136/bmj.b1206</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19321545">19321545</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:27621688">27621688</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BMJ&rft.atitle=Pope+claims+that+condoms+exacerbate+HIV+and+AIDS+problem&rft.volume=338&rft.pages=b1206&rft.date=2009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A27621688%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19321545&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1136%2Fbmj.b1206&rft.au=Roehr+B&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHarm+reduction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHassanLewis2022" class="citation book cs1">Hassan, Shira; Lewis, Deana G. (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/title/on1315537122"><i>Saving our own lives: a liberatory practice of harm reduction</i></a>. Chicago, IL: Haymarket Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-64259-841-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-64259-841-4"><bdi>978-1-64259-841-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1315537122">1315537122</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Saving+our+own+lives%3A+a+liberatory+practice+of+harm+reduction&rft.place=Chicago%2C+IL&rft.pub=Haymarket+Books&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2Fon1315537122&rft.isbn=978-1-64259-841-4&rft.aulast=Hassan&rft.aufirst=Shira&rft.au=Lewis%2C+Deana+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Ftitle%2Fon1315537122&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHarm+reduction" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Harm_reduction" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Harm reduction">Harm reduction</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://research.northumbria.ac.uk/urbanfutures/research-projects/drugs-policy">Drugs Policy and Harm Reduction</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120510084811/http://research.northumbria.ac.uk/urbanfutures/research-projects/drugs-policy">Archived</a> 10 May 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> – Research on the circulation of ideas around harm reduction and urban drug policies by Eugene McCann and Cristina Temenos (Simon Fraser University).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEMCDDA2010" class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/publications/monographs/harm-reduction"><i>Harm reduction: evidence, impacts and challenges</i></a>. Lisbon: <a href="/wiki/EMCDDA" class="mw-redirect" title="EMCDDA">EMCDDA</a>. April 2010. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-9168-419-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-92-9168-419-9"><bdi>978-92-9168-419-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Harm+reduction%3A+evidence%2C+impacts+and+challenges&rft.place=Lisbon&rft.pub=EMCDDA&rft.date=2010-04&rft.isbn=978-92-9168-419-9&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.emcdda.europa.eu%2Fpublications%2Fmonographs%2Fharm-reduction&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHarm+reduction" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ungassondrugs.org/en/issues/harm-reduction">TNI on Harm Reduction</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tobaccoharmreduction.org">Tobacco Harm Reduction</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211229063009/http://tobaccoharmreduction.org/">Archived</a> 29 December 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output 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style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barbiturate" title="Barbiturate">Barbiturates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benzodiazepine" title="Benzodiazepine">Benzodiazepines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbamate" title="Carbamate">Carbamates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_(drug)" title="Alcohol (drug)">Ethanol (alcohol)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alcoholic_beverage" title="Alcoholic beverage">Alcoholic beverage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beer" title="Beer">Beer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wine" title="Wine">Wine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabapentinoid" title="Gabapentinoid">Gabapentinoids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamma-Hydroxybutyric_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma-Hydroxybutyric acid">GHB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inhalant" title="Inhalant">Inhalants</a> <ul><li>Medical <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nitrous_oxide" title="Nitrous oxide">Nitrous oxide</a> (<a href="/wiki/Recreational_use_of_nitrous_oxide" title="Recreational use of nitrous oxide">recreational use</a>)</li></ul></li> <li>Hazardous <a href="/wiki/Solvent" title="Solvent">solvents</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adhesive#Contact" title="Adhesive">contact adhesives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gasoline" title="Gasoline">Gasoline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nail_polish#Nail_polish_remover" title="Nail polish">nail polish remover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paint_thinner" title="Paint thinner">Paint thinner</a></li></ul></li> <li>Other <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Freon" title="Freon">Freon</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kava" title="Kava">Kava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonbenzodiazepine" title="Nonbenzodiazepine">Nonbenzodiazepines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quinazolinone" title="Quinazolinone">Quinazolinones</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Opioid" title="Opioid">Opioids</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buprenorphine" title="Buprenorphine">Buprenorphine</a> <ul><li>Suboxone</li> <li>Subutex</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Codeine" title="Codeine">Codeine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lean_(drug)" title="Lean (drug)">Lean</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desomorphine" title="Desomorphine">Desomorphine</a> <ul><li>Krokodil</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dextropropoxyphene" title="Dextropropoxyphene">Dextropropoxyphene</a> <ul><li>Darvocet</li> <li>Darvon</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fentanyl" title="Fentanyl">Fentanyl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heroin" title="Heroin">Diamorphine</a> <ul><li>Heroin</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrocodone" title="Hydrocodone">Hydrocodone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydromorphone" title="Hydromorphone">Hydromorphone</a> <ul><li>Dilaudid</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methadone" title="Methadone">Methadone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitragyna_speciosa" title="Mitragyna speciosa">Mitragyna speciosa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kratom" class="mw-redirect" title="Kratom">Kratom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morphine" title="Morphine">Morphine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Opium" title="Opium">Opium</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxycodone" title="Oxycodone">Oxycodone</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oxycodone/paracetamol" title="Oxycodone/paracetamol">/paracetamol</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tramadol" title="Tramadol">Tramadol</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Stimulant" title="Stimulant">Stimulants</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amphetamine" title="Amphetamine">Amphetamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arecoline" title="Arecoline">Arecoline</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Areca" title="Areca">Areca</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paan" class="mw-redirect" title="Paan">Betel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caffeine" title="Caffeine">Caffeine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coffee" title="Coffee">Coffee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_drink" title="Energy drink">Energy drinks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tea" title="Tea">Tea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cathinone" title="Cathinone">Cathinone</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khat" title="Khat">Khat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cocaine" title="Cocaine">Cocaine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coca" title="Coca">Coca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crack_cocaine" title="Crack cocaine">Crack</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ephedrine" title="Ephedrine">Ephedrine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ephedra_(medicine)" title="Ephedra (medicine)">Ephedra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methylenedioxypyrovalerone" title="Methylenedioxypyrovalerone">MDPV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mephedrone" title="Mephedrone">Mephedrone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methamphetamine" title="Methamphetamine">Methamphetamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methylone" title="Methylone">Methylone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methylphenidate" title="Methylphenidate">Methylphenidate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modafinil" title="Modafinil">Modafinil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicotine" title="Nicotine">Nicotine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nicotine_polacrilex" title="Nicotine polacrilex">Polacrilex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicotine_salt" title="Nicotine salt">Salt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tobacco" title="Tobacco">Tobacco</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theobromine" title="Theobromine">Theobromine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cocoa_bean" title="Cocoa bean">Cocoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chocolate" title="Chocolate">Chocolate</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Empathogen%E2%80%93entactogen" class="mw-redirect" title="Empathogen–entactogen">Entactogens</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2C_(psychedelics)" title="2C (psychedelics)">2C series</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/6-APB" title="6-APB">6-APB</a> <ul><li>Benzofury</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alpha-Methyltryptamine" class="mw-redirect" title="Alpha-Methyltryptamine">AMT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/3,4-Methylenedioxyamphetamine" title="3,4-Methylenedioxyamphetamine">MDA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MDMA" title="MDMA">MDMA</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/MDMA#Forms" title="MDMA">Ecstasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MDMA#Forms" title="MDMA">Molly</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hallucinogen" title="Hallucinogen">Hallucinogens</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Psychedelic_drug" title="Psychedelic drug">Psychedelics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bufotenin" title="Bufotenin">Bufotenin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colorado_River_toad" title="Colorado River toad">Psychoactive toads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anadenanthera_colubrina" title="Anadenanthera colubrina">Vilca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anadenanthera_peregrina" title="Anadenanthera peregrina">Yopo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N,N-Dimethyltryptamine" title="N,N-Dimethyltryptamine">DMT</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ayahuasca" title="Ayahuasca">Ayahuasca</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ergine" title="Ergine">LSA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LSD" title="LSD">LSD-25</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mescaline" title="Mescaline">Mescaline</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Echinopsis_peruviana" class="mw-redirect" title="Echinopsis peruviana">Peruvian torch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peyote" title="Peyote">Peyote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Echinopsis_pachanoi" class="mw-redirect" title="Echinopsis pachanoi">San Pedro</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psilocybin" title="Psilocybin">Psilocybin</a> / <a href="/wiki/Psilocin" title="Psilocin">Psilocin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Psilocybin_mushroom" title="Psilocybin mushroom">Psilocybin mushrooms</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Dissociative" title="Dissociative">Dissociatives</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dextromethorphan" title="Dextromethorphan">DXM</a> (<a href="/wiki/Recreational_use_of_dextromethorphan" title="Recreational use of dextromethorphan">recreational use</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glaucine" title="Glaucine">Glaucine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inhalant" title="Inhalant">Inhalants</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nitrous_oxide" title="Nitrous oxide">Nitrous oxide</a> (<a href="/wiki/Recreational_use_of_nitrous_oxide" title="Recreational use of nitrous oxide">recreational use</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alkyl_nitrites" class="mw-redirect" title="Alkyl nitrites">alkyl nitrites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poppers" title="Poppers">poppers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amyl_nitrite" title="Amyl nitrite">amyl nitrite</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketamine" title="Ketamine">Ketamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methoxetamine" title="Methoxetamine">MXE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscimol" title="Muscimol">Muscimol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amanita_muscaria" title="Amanita muscaria">Amanita muscaria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phencyclidine" title="Phencyclidine">PCP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salvinorin_A" title="Salvinorin A">Salvinorin A</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Salvia_divinorum" title="Salvia divinorum">Salvia divinorum</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Deliriant" title="Deliriant">Deliriants</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atropine" title="Atropine">Atropine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scopolamine" title="Scopolamine">Scopolamine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atropa_belladonna" title="Atropa belladonna">Atropa belladonna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Datura" title="Datura">Datura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyoscyamus_niger" title="Hyoscyamus niger">Hyoscyamus niger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandragora_officinarum" title="Mandragora officinarum">Mandragora officinarum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dimenhydrinate" title="Dimenhydrinate">Dimenhydrinate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diphenhydramine" title="Diphenhydramine">Diphenhydramine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Cannabinoid" title="Cannabinoid">Cannabinoids</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tetrahydrocannabinol" title="Tetrahydrocannabinol">THC</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_(drug)" title="Cannabis (drug)">Cannabis (Marijuana)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hashish" title="Hashish">Hashish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hash_oil" title="Hash oil">Hash oil</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neocannabinoid" class="mw-redirect" title="Neocannabinoid">Neocannabinoid / synthetic cannabinoids</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/JWH-018" title="JWH-018">JWH-018</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/APICA_(synthetic_cannabinoid_drug)" title="APICA (synthetic cannabinoid drug)">APICA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/APINACA" title="APINACA">APINACA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spice_(drug)" class="mw-redirect" title="Spice (drug)">Spice</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Oneirogen" title="Oneirogen">Oneirogens</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Calea_ternifolia" title="Calea ternifolia">Calea zacatechichi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silene_undulata" title="Silene undulata">Silene capensis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Club_drug" title="Club drug">Club drugs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cocaine" title="Cocaine">Cocaine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methaqualone" title="Methaqualone">Quaaludes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MDMA" title="MDMA">MDMA</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/MDMA#Forms" title="MDMA">Ecstasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MDMA#Forms" title="MDMA">Molly</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrous_oxide" title="Nitrous oxide">Nitrous oxide</a> (<a href="/wiki/Recreational_use_of_nitrous_oxide" title="Recreational use of nitrous oxide">recreational use</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poppers" title="Poppers">Poppers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><div id="Drug_culture" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Drug_culture" title="Drug culture">Drug culture</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_culture" title="Cannabis culture">Cannabis culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/420_(cannabis_culture)" title="420 (cannabis culture)">420</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_consumption" title="Cannabis consumption">Cannabis consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_cultivation" title="Cannabis cultivation">Cannabis cultivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_edible" title="Cannabis edible">Cannabis edible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_rights" title="Cannabis rights">Cannabis rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cannabis_rights_leaders" title="List of cannabis rights leaders">Cannabis rights leaders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cannabis_rights_organizations" title="List of cannabis rights organizations">List of cannabis rights organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_smoking" title="Cannabis smoking">Cannabis smoking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_Social_Club" title="Cannabis Social Club">Cannabis Social Club</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_tea" title="Cannabis tea">Cannabis tea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaporizer_(inhalation_device)#Cannabis_vaporizers" title="Vaporizer (inhalation device)">Cannabis vaping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Head_shop" title="Head shop">Head shop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_history_of_cannabis_in_the_United_States" title="Legal history of cannabis in the United States">Legal history of cannabis in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legality_of_cannabis" title="Legality of cannabis">Legality of cannabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marijuana_Policy_Project" title="Marijuana Policy Project">Marijuana Policy Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_cannabis" title="Medical cannabis">Medical cannabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Organization_for_the_Reform_of_Marijuana_Laws" title="National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws">NORML</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_and_religion" title="Cannabis and religion">Cannabis and religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoner_film" title="Stoner film">Stoner film</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Coffee_culture" title="Coffee culture">Coffee culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Break_(work)#Coffee_break" title="Break (work)">Coffee break</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coffeehouse" title="Coffeehouse">Coffeehouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latte_art" title="Latte art">Latte art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teahouse" title="Teahouse">Teahouse</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Drinking_culture" title="Drinking culture">Drinking culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bartender" title="Bartender">Bartending</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beer#Beer_and_society" title="Beer">Beer culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beer_festival" title="Beer festival">Beer festival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Binge_drinking" title="Binge drinking">Binge drinking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diethyl_ether#Recreational_use" title="Diethyl ether">Diethyl ether</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drinking_game" title="Drinking game">Drinking games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drinking_song" title="Drinking song">Drinking song</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Happy_hour" title="Happy hour">Happy hour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hip_flask" title="Hip flask">Hip flask</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nightclub" title="Nightclub">Nightclub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oktoberfest" title="Oktoberfest">Oktoberfest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pub" title="Pub">Pub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pub_crawl" title="Pub crawl">Pub crawl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sommelier" title="Sommelier">Sommelier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bar_(establishment)" title="Bar (establishment)">Sports bar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tailgate_party" title="Tailgate party">Tailgate party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wine_bar" title="Wine bar">Wine bar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wine_tasting" title="Wine tasting">Wine tasting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Psychedelia" title="Psychedelia">Psychedelia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Psychonautics" title="Psychonautics">Psychonautics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychedelic_art" title="Psychedelic art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychedelic_drug" title="Psychedelic drug">Drug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychedelic_era" title="Psychedelic era">Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychedelic_experience" title="Psychedelic experience">Experience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychedelic_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychedelic literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychedelic_music" title="Psychedelic music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychedelic_microdosing" title="Psychedelic microdosing">Microdosing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smart_shop" title="Smart shop">Smart shop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychedelic_therapy" title="Psychedelic therapy">Therapy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Smoking#Society_and_culture" title="Smoking">Smoking culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cigarette_card" title="Cigarette card">Cigarette card</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fashion_cigarettes" title="Fashion cigarettes">Fashion cigarettes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloud-chasing" title="Cloud-chasing">Cloud-chasing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loosie" title="Loosie">Loosie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smokeasy" title="Smokeasy">Smokeasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoking_fetishism" title="Smoking fetishism">Smoking fetishism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tobacco_smoking" title="Tobacco smoking">Tobacco smoking</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chasing_the_dragon" title="Chasing the dragon">Chasing the dragon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Club_drug" title="Club drug">Club drug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterculture_of_the_1960s" title="Counterculture of the 1960s">Counterculture of the 1960s</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dance_party" title="Dance party">Dance party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_paraphernalia" title="Drug paraphernalia">Drug paraphernalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recreational_drug_tourism" title="Recreational drug tourism">Drug tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entheogen" title="Entheogen">Entheogen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippie" title="Hippie">Hippie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Needle_sharing" title="Needle sharing">Needle sharing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nootropic" title="Nootropic">Nootropic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Party_and_play" title="Party and play">Party and play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poly_drug_use" class="mw-redirect" title="Poly drug use">Poly drug use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rave" title="Rave">Rave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_drugs" title="Religion and drugs">Religion and drugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-medication" title="Self-medication">Self-medication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_and_drugs" title="Sex and drugs">Sex and drugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_legends_about_drugs" title="Urban legends about drugs">Urban legends about drugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whoonga" title="Whoonga">Whoonga</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><div id="Legality_of_drug_use" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Legality of drug use</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_drug_control_conventions" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations drug control conventions">International drug control conventions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Single_Convention_on_Narcotic_Drugs" title="Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs">1961 Narcotic Drugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_on_Psychotropic_Substances" title="Convention on Psychotropic Substances">1971 Psychotropic Substances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Convention_Against_Illicit_Traffic_in_Narcotic_Drugs_and_Psychotropic_Substances" title="United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances">1988 Drug Trafficking</a></li></ul></li> <li>Other treaties addressing drugs <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Convention_on_the_Law_of_the_Sea" title="United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea">Law of the Sea Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Convention_Against_Doping_in_Sport" title="International Convention Against Doping in Sport">Convention Against Doping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_the_European_Union_decisions_on_designer_drugs" title="Council of the European Union decisions on designer drugs">Council of the European Union decisions on designer drugs</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">State level</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy" title="Drug policy">Drug policy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decriminalization" title="Decriminalization">Decriminalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legalization" title="Legalization">Legalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prohibition_of_drugs" class="mw-redirect" title="Prohibition of drugs">Prohibition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation" title="Regulation">Regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supply_reduction" title="Supply reduction">Supply reduction</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy_reform" class="mw-redirect" title="Drug policy reform">Policy reform</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demand_reduction" title="Demand reduction">Demand reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_Policy_Alliance" title="Drug Policy Alliance">Drug Policy Alliance</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Harm reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_Enforcement_Action_Partnership" title="Law Enforcement Action Partnership">Law Enforcement Action Partnership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_liberalization" title="Drug liberalization">Liberalization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_American_drug_legalization" title="Latin American drug legalization">Latin America</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Students_for_Sensible_Drug_Policy" title="Students for Sensible Drug Policy">Students for Sensible Drug Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transform_Drug_Policy_Foundation" title="Transform Drug Policy Foundation">Transform Drug Policy Foundation</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Drug policy<br /> by country</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy#Australia" title="Drug policy">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy_of_Canada" title="Drug policy of Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy_of_the_Czech_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Drug policy of the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy#Germany" title="Drug policy">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy_of_India" title="Drug policy of India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy_of_the_Netherlands" title="Drug policy of the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy_of_Portugal" title="Drug policy of Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy_of_Slovakia" title="Drug policy of Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Drug policy of the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy_of_Sweden" title="Drug policy of Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy#Switzerland" title="Drug policy">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_drug_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Federal drug policy of the United States">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Just_Say_No" title="Just Say No">Just Say No</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Office_of_National_Drug_Control_Policy" title="Office of National Drug Control Policy">Office of National Drug Control Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_district_drug_policies" title="School district drug policies">School district drug policies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy_of_California" title="Drug policy of California">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_Colorado" title="Cannabis in Colorado">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy_of_Maryland" title="Drug policy of Maryland">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy_of_Oregon" title="Drug policy of Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy_of_Virginia" title="Drug policy of Virginia">Virginia</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Drug legality</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_law" title="Alcohol law">Alcohol legality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anabolic_steroid#Legal_status" title="Anabolic steroid">Anabolic steroid legality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legality_of_cannabis" title="Legality of cannabis">Cannabis legality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_status_of_cocaine" title="Legal status of cocaine">Cocaine legality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_status_of_methamphetamine" title="Legal status of methamphetamine">Methamphetamine legality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psilocybin_decriminalization_in_the_United_States" title="Psilocybin decriminalization in the United States">Psilocybin decriminalization in the U.S.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_status_of_psilocybin_mushrooms" title="Legal status of psilocybin mushrooms">Psilocybin mushrooms legality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_status_of_Salvia_divinorum" title="Legal status of Salvia divinorum">Salvia legality</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arguments_for_and_against_drug_prohibition" title="Arguments for and against drug prohibition">Arguments for and against drug prohibition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_rights" title="Cannabis rights">Cannabis rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_for_drug_trafficking" title="Capital punishment for drug trafficking">Capital punishment for drug trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_liberty" title="Cognitive liberty">Cognitive liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Designer_drug" title="Designer drug">Designer drug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_court" title="Drug court">Drug court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_possession" class="mw-redirect" title="Drug possession">Drug possession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_test" title="Drug test">Drug test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Informant" title="Informant">Narc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_drug_abuse" title="Politics of drug abuse">Politics of drug abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_drugs" title="War on drugs">War on drugs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_drug_war" title="Mexican drug war">Mexican drug war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plan_Colombia" title="Plan Colombia">Plan Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_drug_war" title="Philippine drug war">Philippine drug war</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zero_tolerance" title="Zero tolerance">Zero tolerance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><div id="Other" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Other</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Drug<br /> production<br /> and trade</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Drug<br /> production</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coca_production_in_Colombia" title="Coca production in Colombia">Coca production in Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precursor_chemicals" title="Precursor chemicals">Drug precursors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opium_production_in_Afghanistan" title="Opium production in Afghanistan">Opium production in Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rolling_meth_lab" title="Rolling meth lab">Rolling meth lab</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Drug trade</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade" title="Illegal drug trade">Illegal drug trade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Aruba" title="Illegal drug trade in Aruba">Aruba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Bangladesh" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Belize" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Belize">Belize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Benin" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Bhutan" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Bolivia" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Brazil" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Burma" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Burma">Burma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drugs_in_Cambodia" title="Drugs in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Chile" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_China" title="Illegal drug trade in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Colombia" title="Illegal drug trade in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Costa_Rica" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Cuba" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Cyprus" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_the_Dominican_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in the Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_El_Salvador" title="Illegal drug trade in El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Estonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Finland" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Haiti" title="Illegal drug trade in Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Honduras" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Honduras">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_the_Indian_Ocean_region" title="Illegal drug trade in the Indian Ocean region">Indian Ocean region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Japan" title="Illegal drug trade in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Kenya" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Kenya">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Kosovo" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Kosovo">Kosovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Kyrgyzstan" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Laos" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Latin_America" title="Illegal drug trade in Latin America">Latin America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Latvia" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Malaysia" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_trafficking_in_Mauritius" title="Drug trafficking in Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Moldova" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Moldova">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Nigeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Norway" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Oman" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Panama" title="Illegal drug trade in Panama">Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Papua_New_Guinea" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Paraguay" title="Illegal drug trade in Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_the_Philippines" title="Illegal drug trade in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Portugal" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Puerto_Rico" title="Illegal drug trade in Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Saint Kitts and Nevis">Saint Kitts and Nevis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Seychelles" title="Illegal drug trade in Seychelles">Seychelles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Slovakia" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_South_Korea" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Suriname" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Suriname">Suriname</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Switzerland" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Taiwan" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Thailand" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Turkey" title="Illegal drug trade in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_the_Turks_and_Caicos_Islands" title="Illegal drug trade in the Turks and Caicos Islands">Turks and Caicos Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" class="mw-redirect" title="Illegal drug trade in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_the_United_States" title="Illegal drug trade in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Venezuela" title="Illegal drug trade in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darknet_market" title="Darknet market">Darknet market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_distribution" title="Pharmaceutical distribution">Pharmaceutical distribution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beer_shop" class="mw-redirect" title="Beer shop">Beer shop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_shop" class="mw-redirect" title="Cannabis shop">Cannabis shop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquor_store" title="Liquor store">Liquor store</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquor_license" title="Liquor license">Liquor license</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Issues with<br />drug use</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Substance_abuse" title="Substance abuse">Abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Addiction" title="Addiction">Addiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Date_rape_drug" title="Date rape drug">Date rape drug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substance_dependence" title="Substance dependence">Dependence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Driving_under_the_influence" title="Driving under the influence">Driving impaired</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_harmfulness" class="mw-redirect" title="Drug harmfulness">Drug harmfulness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_cannabis" title="Effects of cannabis">Effects of cannabis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug-related_crime" title="Drug-related crime">Drug-related crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fetal_alcohol_spectrum_disorder" title="Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder">Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long-term_effects_of_cannabis" title="Long-term effects of cannabis">Long-term effects of cannabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurotoxicity" title="Neurotoxicity">Neurotoxicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_overdose" title="Drug overdose">Overdose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive_smoking" title="Passive smoking">Passive smoking</a> <ul><li>of tobacco or other substances</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Harm reduction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drug_checking" title="Drug checking">Drug checking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_legalization" class="mw-redirect" title="Drug legalization">Drug legalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_rehabilitation" title="Drug rehabilitation">Drug rehabilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Needle_and_syringe_programmes" title="Needle and syringe programmes">Needle and syringe programmes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opioid_replacement_therapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Opioid replacement therapy">Opioid replacement therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacovigilance" title="Pharmacovigilance">Pharmacovigilance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reagent_testing" title="Reagent testing">Reagent testing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation_of_therapeutic_goods" title="Regulation of therapeutic goods">Regulation of therapeutic goods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Responsible_drug_use" title="Responsible drug use">Responsible drug use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substance_abuse_prevention" title="Substance abuse prevention">Substance abuse prevention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supervised_injection_site" title="Supervised injection site">Supervised injection site</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Countries by <br /> drug use</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_alcohol_consumption_per_capita" title="List of countries by alcohol consumption per capita">Alcohol consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_prevalence_of_cocaine_use" title="List of countries by prevalence of cocaine use">Cocaine use</a></li> <li>Cannabis <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Annual_cannabis_use_by_country" class="mw-redirect" title="Annual cannabis use by country">Annual use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adult_lifetime_cannabis_use_by_country" title="Adult lifetime cannabis use by country">Lifetime use</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_prevalence_of_opiates_use" title="List of countries by prevalence of opiates use">Opiates use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_tobacco_consumption" class="mw-redirect" title="List of countries by tobacco consumption">Tobacco consumption</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Public_health" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Public_health" title="Template:Public health"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Public_health" title="Template talk:Public health"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Public_health" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Public health"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Public_health" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">Public health</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auxology" title="Auxology">Auxology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_hazard" title="Biological hazard">Biological hazard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_Medical_Officer" class="mw-redirect" title="Chief Medical Officer">Chief Medical Officer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_competence_in_health_care" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural competence in health care">Cultural competence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deviance_(sociology)" title="Deviance (sociology)">Deviance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_health" title="Environmental health">Environmental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">Eugenics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_eugenics" title="History of eugenics">History of</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_eugenics" title="New eugenics">Liberal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthenics" title="Euthenics">Euthenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_genomics" title="Public health genomics">Genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globalization_and_disease" title="Globalization and disease">Globalization and disease</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Harm reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_economics" title="Health economics">Health economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_literacy" title="Health literacy">Health literacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_policy" title="Health policy">Health policy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health_system" title="Health system">Health system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_care_reform" title="Health care reform">Health care reform</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_First" title="Housing First">Housing First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_right_to_water_and_sanitation" title="Human right to water and sanitation">Human right to water and sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Management_of_depression" title="Management of depression">Management of depression</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_law" title="Public health law">Public health law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_public_health_institutes" class="mw-redirect" title="National public health institutes">National public health institute</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_politics" title="Health politics">Health politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_rights" title="Labor rights">Labor rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maternal_health" title="Maternal health">Maternal health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_anthropology" title="Medical anthropology">Medical anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_sociology" title="Medical sociology">Medical sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_health" title="Mental health">Mental health</a> (<a href="/wiki/Minister_of_Mental_Health" title="Minister of Mental Health">Ministers</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Occupational safety and health">Occupational safety and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_policy" title="Pharmaceutical policy">Pharmaceutical policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">Pollution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">Air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_pollution" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil pollution">Soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">Radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light_pollution" title="Light pollution">Light</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisoners%27_rights" title="Prisoners' rights">Prisoners' rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_intervention" title="Public health intervention">Public health intervention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_laboratory" title="Public health laboratory">Public health laboratory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_food" title="Right to food">Right to food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_health" title="Right to health">Right to health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_housing" title="Right to housing">Right to housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_rest_and_leisure" title="Right to rest and leisure">Right to rest and leisure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_sit" title="Right to sit">Right to sit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_of_person" title="Security of person">Security of person</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_and_reproductive_health" title="Sexual and reproductive health">Sexual and reproductive health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">Social psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_health_and_illness" title="Sociology of health and illness">Sociology of health and illness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unisex_changing_rooms" title="Unisex changing rooms">Unisex changing rooms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unisex_public_toilets" class="mw-redirect" title="Unisex public toilets">Unisex public toilets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workers%27_right_to_access_the_toilet" title="Workers' right to access the toilet">Workers' right to access the toilet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Preventive_healthcare" title="Preventive healthcare">Preventive healthcare</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavior_change_(public_health)" title="Behavior change (public health)">Behavior change</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioural_change_theories" title="Behavioural change theories">Theories</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_planning" title="Family planning">Family planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_promotion" title="Health promotion">Health promotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_nutrition" title="Human nutrition">Human nutrition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Healthy_diet" title="Healthy diet">Healthy diet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preventive_nutrition" title="Preventive nutrition">Preventive nutrition</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hygiene" title="Hygiene">Hygiene</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety" title="Food safety">Food safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hand_washing" title="Hand washing">Hand washing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infection_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Infection control">Infection control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_hygiene" title="Oral hygiene">Oral hygiene</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Occupational safety and health">Occupational safety and health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_factors_and_ergonomics" class="mw-redirect" title="Human factors and ergonomics">Human factors and ergonomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_hygiene" title="Occupational hygiene">Hygiene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy" title="Drug policy">Controlled Drugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Injury_prevention" title="Injury prevention">Injury prevention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_medicine" title="Occupational medicine">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_health_nursing" title="Occupational health nursing">Nursing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patient_safety" title="Patient safety">Patient safety</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patient_safety_organization" title="Patient safety organization">Organization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacovigilance" title="Pharmacovigilance">Pharmacovigilance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safe_sex" title="Safe sex">Safe sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">Sanitation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_sanitation" title="Emergency sanitation">Emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fecal%E2%80%93oral_route" title="Fecal–oral route">Fecal–oral transmission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_defecation" title="Open defecation">Open defecation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitary_sewer" title="Sanitary sewer">Sanitary sewer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waterborne_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterborne diseases">Waterborne diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation_worker" title="Sanitation worker">Worker</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_hygiene" title="School hygiene">School hygiene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoking_cessation" title="Smoking cessation">Smoking cessation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccination" title="Vaccination">Vaccination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vector_control" title="Vector control">Vector control</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Population_health" title="Population health">Population health</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biostatistics" title="Biostatistics">Biostatistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_mortality" title="Child mortality">Child mortality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_health" title="Community health">Community health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_health" title="Global health">Global health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_impact_assessment" title="Health impact assessment">Health impact assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_system" title="Health system">Health system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infant_mortality" title="Infant mortality">Infant mortality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_open-source_health_software" title="List of open-source health software">Open-source healthcare software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multimorbidity" title="Multimorbidity">Multimorbidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_informatics" title="Public health informatics">Public health informatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health" title="Social determinants of health">Social determinants of health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_determinants_of_health" title="Commercial determinants of health">Commercial determinants of health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_equity" title="Health equity">Health equity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_health" title="Race and health">Race and health</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_medicine" title="Social medicine">Social medicine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Biological and<br />epidemiological statistics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Case%E2%80%93control_study" title="Case–control study">Case–control study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial" title="Randomized controlled trial">Randomized controlled trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_risk" title="Relative risk">Relative risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_hypothesis_testing" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical hypothesis testing">Statistical hypothesis testing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analysis_of_variance" title="Analysis of variance">Analysis of variance (ANOVA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regression_analysis" title="Regression analysis">Regression analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ROC_curve" class="mw-redirect" title="ROC curve">ROC curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Student%27s_t-test" title="Student's t-test">Student's <i>t</i>-test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Z-test" title="Z-test"><i>Z</i>-test</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_statistical_packages" class="mw-redirect" title="List of statistical packages">Statistical software</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Infectious and epidemic<br />disease prevention</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asymptomatic_carrier" title="Asymptomatic carrier">Asymptomatic carrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemic" title="Epidemic">Epidemics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_epidemics_and_pandemics" title="List of epidemics and pandemics">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Notifiable_disease" title="Notifiable disease">Notifiable diseases</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_notifiable_diseases" title="List of notifiable diseases">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_surveillance" title="Public health surveillance">Public health surveillance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disease_surveillance" title="Disease surveillance">Disease surveillance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quarantine" title="Quarantine">Quarantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexually_transmitted_infection" title="Sexually transmitted infection">Sexually transmitted infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_distancing" title="Social distancing">Social distancing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_disease" title="Tropical disease">Tropical disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccine_trial" title="Vaccine trial">Vaccine trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WASH" title="WASH">WASH</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Food hygiene and<br />safety management</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Food <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_additive" title="Food additive">Additive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_chemistry" title="Food chemistry">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_engineering" title="Food engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_microbiology" title="Food microbiology">Microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_processing" title="Food processing">Processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety" title="Food safety">Safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Food_safety_scandals" title="Category:Food safety scandals">Safety scandals</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_agricultural_practice" title="Good agricultural practice">Good agricultural practice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_manufacturing_practice" title="Good manufacturing practice">Good manufacturing practice</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HACCP" class="mw-redirect" title="HACCP">HACCP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_22000" title="ISO 22000">ISO 22000</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Health behavioral<br />sciences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diffusion_of_innovations" title="Diffusion of innovations">Diffusion of innovations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_belief_model" title="Health belief model">Health belief model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_communication" title="Health communication">Health communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_psychology" title="Health psychology">Health psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_deviance" title="Positive deviance">Positive deviance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PRECEDE%E2%80%93PROCEED_model" title="PRECEDE–PROCEED model">PRECEDE–PROCEED model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_cognitive_theory" title="Social cognitive theory">Social cognitive theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_norms_approach" title="Social norms approach">Social norms approach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_planned_behavior" title="Theory of planned behavior">Theory of planned behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transtheoretical_model" title="Transtheoretical model">Transtheoretical model</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations,<br />education<br />and history</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Caribbean <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caribbean_Public_Health_Agency" title="Caribbean Public Health Agency">Caribbean Public Health Agency</a></li></ul></li> <li>China <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Center_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention">Center for Disease Control and Prevention</a></li></ul></li> <li>Europe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_Centre_for_Disease_Prevention_and_Control" title="European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control">Centre for Disease Prevention and Control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Parliament_Committee_on_the_Environment,_Public_Health_and_Food_Safety" title="European Parliament Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety">Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety</a></li></ul></li> <li>India <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Health_and_Family_Welfare" title="Ministry of Health and Family Welfare">Ministry of Health and Family Welfare</a></li></ul></li> <li>Canada <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health_Canada" title="Health Canada">Health Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_Health_Agency_of_Canada" title="Public Health Agency of Canada">Public Health Agency</a></li></ul></li> <li>U.S. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_departments_in_the_United_States" title="Health departments in the United States">Health departments in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_on_Education_for_Public_Health" title="Council on Education for Public Health">Council on Education for Public Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Public_Health_Service" title="United States Public Health Service">Public Health Service</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Toilet_Organization" title="World Toilet Organization">World Toilet Organization</a></li> <li>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_national_public_health_agencies" title="List of national public health agencies">Full list</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Education</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health_education" title="Health education">Health education</a></li> <li>Higher education <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Science_in_Public_Health" title="Bachelor of Science in Public Health">Bachelor of Science in Public Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Public_Health" title="Doctor of Public Health">Doctor of Public Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_degrees_of_public_health" title="Professional degrees of public health">Professional degrees of public health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Schools_of_public_health" title="Category:Schools of public health">Schools of public health</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sara_Josephine_Baker" title="Sara Josephine Baker">Sara Josephine Baker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Jay_Crumbine" title="Samuel Jay Crumbine">Samuel Jay Crumbine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Rogers_Darnall" title="Carl Rogers Darnall">Carl Rogers Darnall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lister" title="Joseph Lister">Joseph Lister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Sanger" title="Margaret Sanger">Margaret Sanger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Snow_(physician)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Snow (physician)">John Snow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Mallon" title="Mary Mallon">Typhoid Mary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radium_Girls" title="Radium Girls">Radium Girls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germ_theory_of_disease" title="Germ theory of disease">Germ theory of disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_hygiene_movement" title="Social hygiene movement">Social hygiene movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, 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