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vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1 History </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle History subsection </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hansen_Writing_Ball" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hansen_Writing_Ball"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1 Hansen Writing Ball </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hansen_Writing_Ball-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sholes_and_Glidden_typewriter" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sholes_and_Glidden_typewriter"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 Sholes and Glidden typewriter </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sholes_and_Glidden_typewriter-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Index_typewriter" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Index_typewriter"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 Index typewriter </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Index_typewriter-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_typewriters" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_typewriters"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.4 Other typewriters </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_typewriters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Standardization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Standardization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5 Standardization </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Standardization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Frontstriking" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Frontstriking"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5.1 Frontstriking </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Frontstriking-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Shift_key" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shift_key"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5.2 Shift key </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shift_key-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Three-bank_typewriters" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Three-bank_typewriters"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5.2.1 Three-bank typewriters </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Three-bank_typewriters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tab_key" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tab_key"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5.3 Tab key </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tab_key-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dead_keys" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dead_keys"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5.4 Dead keys </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dead_keys-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Character_sizes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Character_sizes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5.5 Character sizes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Character_sizes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Color" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Color"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5.6 Color </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Color-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-"Noiseless"_designs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#"Noiseless"_designs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5.7 "Noiseless" designs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-"Noiseless"_designs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electric_designs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electric_designs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.6 Electric designs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electric_designs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_electric_models" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_electric_models"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.6.1 Early electric models </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_electric_models-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-IBM_Selectric" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#IBM_Selectric"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.6.2 IBM Selectric </div> </a> <ul id="toc-IBM_Selectric-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Later_electric_models" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_electric_models"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.6.3 Later electric models </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Later_electric_models-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electronic_typewriters" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electronic_typewriters"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.6.4 Electronic typewriters </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electronic_typewriters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decline" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decline"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.7 Decline </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decline-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Correction_technologies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Correction_technologies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Correction technologies </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Correction_technologies-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Correction technologies subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Correction_technologies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Typewriter_erasers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Typewriter_erasers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Typewriter erasers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Typewriter_erasers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Erasing_shield" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Erasing_shield"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Erasing shield </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Erasing_shield-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Erasable_bond" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Erasable_bond"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Erasable bond </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Erasable_bond-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Correction_fluid" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Correction_fluid"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Correction fluid </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Correction_fluid-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Legacy </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Legacy subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Keyboard_layouts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Keyboard_layouts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Keyboard layouts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Keyboard_layouts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-QWERTY" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#QWERTY"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.1 QWERTY </div> </a> <ul id="toc-QWERTY-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_layouts_for_English" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_layouts_for_English"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.2 Other layouts for English </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_layouts_for_English-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Keyboards_for_other_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Keyboards_for_other_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.3 Keyboards for other languages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Keyboards_for_other_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Typewriter_conventions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Typewriter_conventions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Typewriter conventions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Typewriter_conventions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Terminology_repurposed_for_the_computer_age" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Terminology_repurposed_for_the_computer_age"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Terminology repurposed for the computer age </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Terminology_repurposed_for_the_computer_age-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Social effects </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Writers_with_notable_associations_with_typewriters" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Writers_with_notable_associations_with_typewriters"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Writers with notable associations with typewriters </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Writers_with_notable_associations_with_typewriters-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Writers with notable associations with typewriters subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Writers_with_notable_associations_with_typewriters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_adopters" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_adopters"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Early adopters </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_adopters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Others" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Others"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Others </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Others-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_users" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_users"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Late users </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_users-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Typewriters_in_popular_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Typewriters_in_popular_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Typewriters in popular culture </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Typewriters_in_popular_culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Typewriters in popular culture subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Typewriters_in_popular_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-In_music" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_music"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 In music </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_music-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Other </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Forensic_examination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Forensic_examination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Forensic examination </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Forensic_examination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Collections" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Collections"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Collections </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Collections-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gallery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gallery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Gallery </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gallery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Patents" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Patents"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.1 Patents </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Patents-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 External links </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-External_links-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle External links subsection </button> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Revival" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Revival"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.1 Revival </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Revival-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Typewriter</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 96 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-96" aria-hidden="true" > 96 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tikmasjien" title="Tikmasjien – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Tikmasjien" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D9%84%D8%A9_%D9%83%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%A8%D8%A9" title="آلة كاتبة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="آلة كاتبة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A1quina_d%27escribir" title="Máquina d'escribir – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Máquina d'escribir" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaz%C4%B1_makinas%C4%B1" title="Yazı makinası – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Yazı makinası" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0" title="টাইপরাইটার – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="টাইপরাইটার" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phah-j%C4%AB-ki" title="Phah-jī-ki – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Phah-jī-ki" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D2%99%D1%8B%D1%83_%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B0%D2%BB%D1%8B" title="Яҙыу машинкаһы – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Яҙыу машинкаһы" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%88%D1%8B%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Друкарская машынка – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Друкарская машынка" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%B0" title="टाइपराइटर – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="टाइपराइटर" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makinilya" title="Makinilya – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Makinilya" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B8%D1%88%D0%B5%D1%89%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Пишеща машина – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Пишеща машина" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A0quina_d%27escriure" title="Màquina d'escriure – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Màquina d'escriure" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87%D1%8B%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2_%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%88%D1%88%D1%8B%D0%BD%C4%95" title="Çырав машшынĕ – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Çырав машшынĕ" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psac%C3%AD_stroj" title="Psací stroj – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Psací stroj" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teipiadur" title="Teipiadur – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Teipiadur" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skrivemaskine" title="Skrivemaskine – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Skrivemaskine" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schreibmaschine" title="Schreibmaschine – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Schreibmaschine" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirjutusmasin" title="Kirjutusmasin – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Kirjutusmasin" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%86%CE%BF%CE%BC%CE%B7%CF%87%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%AE" title="Γραφομηχανή – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Γραφομηχανή" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A1quina_de_escribir" title="Máquina de escribir – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Máquina de escribir" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tajpilo" title="Tajpilo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Tajpilo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idazmakina" title="Idazmakina – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Idazmakina" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B4%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%B1" title="ماشین تحریر – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ماشین تحریر" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_%C3%A0_%C3%A9crire" title="Machine à écrire – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Machine à écrire" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typmasine" title="Typmasine – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Typmasine" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cl%C3%B3scr%C3%ADobh%C3%A1n" title="Clóscríobhán – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Clóscríobhán" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A1quina_de_escribir" title="Máquina de escribir – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Máquina de escribir" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%89%93%E5%AD%97%E6%A9%9F" title="打字機 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="打字機" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target">贛語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%83%80%EC%9E%90%EA%B8%B0" title="타자기 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="타자기" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B3%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%B4%D5%A5%D6%84%D5%A5%D5%B6%D5%A1" title="Գրամեքենա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Գրամեքենա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%B0" title="टाइपराइटर – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="टाइपराइटर" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pisa%C4%87i_stroj" title="Pisaći stroj – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Pisaći stroj" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skribomashino" title="Skribomashino – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Skribomashino" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesin_tik" title="Mesin tik – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Mesin tik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ik mw-list-item"><a href="https://ik.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aglautitaun" title="Aglautitaun – Inupiaq" lang="ik" hreflang="ik" data-title="Aglautitaun" data-language-autonym="Iñupiatun" data-language-local-name="Inupiaq" class="interlanguage-link-target">Iñupiatun</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ritv%C3%A9l" title="Ritvél – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Ritvél" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macchina_per_scrivere" title="Macchina per scrivere – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Macchina per scrivere" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%9B%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%AA_%D7%9B%D7%AA%D7%99%D7%91%D7%94" title="מכונת כתיבה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מכונת כתיבה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesin_tik" title="Mesin tik – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Mesin tik" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AC%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%B3%E0%B2%9A%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%9A%E0%B3%81_%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0" title="ಬೆರಳಚ್ಚು ಯಂತ್ರ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಬೆರಳಚ್ಚು ಯಂತ್ರ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%91%E1%83%94%E1%83%AD%E1%83%93%E1%83%98_%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A5%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90" title="საბეჭდი მანქანა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="საბეჭდი მანქანა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%B7%D1%83_%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Жазу машинасы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Жазу машинасы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taipureta" title="Taipureta – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Taipureta" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dactylographium" title="Dactylographium – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Dactylographium" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rakst%C4%81mma%C5%A1%C4%ABna" title="Rakstāmmašīna – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Rakstāmmašīna" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schreifmaschinn" title="Schreifmaschinn – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Schreifmaschinn" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macchina_de_scriv" title="Macchina de scriv – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Macchina de scriv" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Dr%C3%B3g%C3%A9p" title="Írógép – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Írógép" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milina_fanoratana" title="Milina fanoratana – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Milina fanoratana" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%88%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%88%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%BC" title="ടൈപ്റൈറ്റർ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ടൈപ്റൈറ്റർ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="टंकलेखनयंत्र – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="टंकलेखनयंत्र" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%A8%D9%87" title="الالة الكاتبه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="الالة الكاتبه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesin_taip" title="Mesin taip – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Mesin taip" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9C%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA%E1%80%94%E1%80%BE%E1%80%AD%E1%80%95%E1%80%BA%E1%80%85%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA" title="လက်နှိပ်စက် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="လက်နှိပ်စက်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schrijfmachine" title="Schrijfmachine – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Schrijfmachine" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%B0" title="टाइपराइटर – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="टाइपराइटर" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%BF%E3%82%A4%E3%83%97%E3%83%A9%E3%82%A4%E3%82%BF%E3%83%BC" title="タイプライター – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="タイプライター" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skrivemaskin" title="Skrivemaskin – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Skrivemaskin" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skrivemaskin" title="Skrivemaskin – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Skrivemaskin" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%9F%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%87%E0%AC%AA%E0%AC%B0%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%87%E0%AC%9F%E0%AC%B0" title="ଟାଇପରାଇଟର – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ଟାଇପରାଇଟର" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target">ଓଡ଼ିଆ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yozuv_mashinkasi" title="Yozuv mashinkasi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Yozuv mashinkasi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%9F%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%88%E0%A8%AA%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%88%E0%A8%9F%E0%A8%B0" title="ਟਾਈਪਰਾਈਟਰ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਟਾਈਪਰਾਈਟਰ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%B9%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%BE_%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%B9%D8%B1" title="ٹائپ رائٹر – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ٹائپ رائٹر" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taipraita" title="Taipraita – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Taipraita" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maszyna_do_pisania" title="Maszyna do pisania – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Maszyna do pisania" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A1quina_de_escrever" title="Máquina de escrever – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Máquina de escrever" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ma%C8%99in%C4%83_de_scris" title="Mașină de scris – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Mașină de scris" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B8%D1%88%D1%83%D1%89%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Пишущая машинка – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Пишущая машинка" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D" title="टङ्कनयन्त्रम् – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="टङ्कनयन्त्रम्" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makina_e_shkrimit" title="Makina e shkrimit – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Makina e shkrimit" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%BA%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%94%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%94_%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BA%E0%B6%B1%E0%B6%BA" title="යතුරු ලියනය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="යතුරු ලියනය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typewriter" title="Typewriter – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Typewriter" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BD%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%BE_%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%BD%D8%B1" title="ٽائپ رائٽر – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="ٽائپ رائٽر" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%ADsac%C3%AD_stroj" title="Písací stroj – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Písací stroj" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pisalni_stroj" title="Pisalni stroj – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Pisalni stroj" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%9B%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Писаћа машина – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Писаћа машина" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pisa%C4%87a_ma%C5%A1ina" title="Pisaća mašina – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Pisaća mašina" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesin_ketik" title="Mesin ketik – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Mesin ketik" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirjoituskone" title="Kirjoituskone – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kirjoituskone" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skrivmaskin" title="Skrivmaskin – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Skrivmaskin" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF" title="தட்டச்சுக் கருவி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="தட்டச்சுக் கருவி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%9F%E0%B1%88%E0%B0%AA%E0%B1%81%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%88%E0%B0%9F%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D" title="టైపురైటర్ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="టైపురైటర్" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B7%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%9E%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%94" title="เครื่องพิมพ์ดีด – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="เครื่องพิมพ์ดีด" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daktilo" title="Daktilo – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Daktilo" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kcg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kcg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keke_mbwak" title="Keke mbwak – Tyap" lang="kcg" hreflang="kcg" data-title="Keke mbwak" data-language-autonym="Tyap" data-language-local-name="Tyap" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tyap</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Друкарська машинка – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Друкарська машинка" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%B9%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%BE_%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%B9%D8%B1" title="ٹائپ رائٹر – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="ٹائپ رائٹر" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A0china_par_scr%C3%ACvar" title="Màchina par scrìvar – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Màchina par scrìvar" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A1y_%C4%91%C3%A1nh_ch%E1%BB%AF" title="Máy đánh chữ – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Máy đánh chữ" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-guc mw-list-item"><a href="https://guc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kachuweera_ashajiaa" title="Kachuweera ashajiaa – Wayuu" lang="guc" hreflang="guc" data-title="Kachuweera ashajiaa" data-language-autonym="Wayuunaiki" data-language-local-name="Wayuu" class="interlanguage-link-target">Wayuunaiki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makinilya" title="Makinilya – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Makinilya" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%89%93%E5%AD%97%E6%9C%BA" title="打字机 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="打字机" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A9%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%99%D7%91%D7%9E%D7%90%D7%A9%D7%99%D7%9F" title="שרייבמאשין – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="שרייבמאשין" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%89%93%E5%AD%97%E6%A9%9F" title="打字機 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="打字機" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daktilo" title="Daktilo – Dimli" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Daktilo" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Dimli" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a 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.hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Typewriter_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Typewriter (disambiguation)">Typewriter (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MEK_II-371.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/MEK_II-371.jpg/220px-MEK_II-371.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/MEK_II-371.jpg/330px-MEK_II-371.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/MEK_II-371.jpg/440px-MEK_II-371.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3617" data-file-height="3450" /></a><figcaption>Mechanical desktop typewriters, such as this <a href="/wiki/Underwood_Typewriter_Company" title="Underwood Typewriter Company">Underwood Typewriter</a>, were long-time standards in government agencies, newsrooms, and offices.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Adler_Wikipedia.ogv/220px--Adler_Wikipedia.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="165" data-durationhint="7" data-mwtitle="Adler_Wikipedia.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Adler_Wikipedia.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/ac/Adler_Wikipedia.ogv/Adler_Wikipedia.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/ac/Adler_Wikipedia.ogv/Adler_Wikipedia.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ac/Adler_Wikipedia.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="vorbis, theora"" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/ac/Adler_Wikipedia.ogv/Adler_Wikipedia.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="192" data-height="144" /></video><figcaption>A typewriter being used to type "Wikipedia"</figcaption></figure> A typewriter is a <a href="/wiki/Machine" title="Machine">mechanical</a> or <a href="/wiki/Electromechanical" class="mw-redirect" title="Electromechanical">electromechanical</a> machine for <a href="/wiki/Typing" title="Typing">typing</a> characters. Typically, a typewriter has an array of <a href="/wiki/Button_(control)" class="mw-redirect" title="Button (control)">keys</a>, and each one causes a different single character to be produced on <a href="/wiki/Paper" title="Paper">paper</a> by striking an <a href="/wiki/Ink_ribbon" title="Ink ribbon">inked ribbon</a> selectively against the paper with a <a href="/wiki/Sort_(typesetting)" title="Sort (typesetting)">type element</a>. Thereby, the machine produces a legible <a href="/wiki/Written" class="mw-redirect" title="Written">written</a> document composed of ink and paper. By the end of the 19th century, a person who used such a device was also referred to as a type<a href="/wiki/Writer" title="Writer">writer</a>.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> The first commercial typewriters were introduced in 1874,<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> but did not become common in offices in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> until after the mid-1880s.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> The typewriter quickly became an indispensable tool for practically all writing other than personal handwritten correspondence. It was widely used by professional writers, in offices, in business correspondence in private homes, and by students preparing written assignments. Typewriters were a standard fixture in most offices up to the 1980s. After that, they began to be largely supplanted by personal computers running <a href="/wiki/Word_processing" class="mw-redirect" title="Word processing">word processing</a> software. Nevertheless, typewriters remain common in some parts of the world. For example, typewriters are still used in many <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">Indian</a> cities and towns, especially in roadside and legal offices, due to a lack of continuous, reliable electricity.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> The <a href="/wiki/QWERTY" title="QWERTY">QWERTY</a> <a href="/wiki/Keyboard_layout" title="Keyboard layout">keyboard layout</a>, developed for typewriters in the 1870s, remains the <a href="/wiki/De_facto_standard" title="De facto standard">de facto standard</a> for English-language <a href="/wiki/Computer_keyboards" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer keyboards">computer keyboards</a>. The origins of this layout still need to be clarified.<a href="#cite_note-Smithsonian-5">[5]</a> Similar typewriter keyboards, with layouts optimised for other languages and orthographies, emerged soon afterward, and their layouts have also become standard for computer keyboards in their respective markets. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Typewriter&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1864_Schreibmaschine_Peter_Mitterhofer.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/1864_Schreibmaschine_Peter_Mitterhofer.jpg/220px-1864_Schreibmaschine_Peter_Mitterhofer.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/1864_Schreibmaschine_Peter_Mitterhofer.jpg/330px-1864_Schreibmaschine_Peter_Mitterhofer.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/1864_Schreibmaschine_Peter_Mitterhofer.jpg/440px-1864_Schreibmaschine_Peter_Mitterhofer.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3168" data-file-height="2376" /></a><figcaption>Peter Mitterhofer's typewriter prototype (1864)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Olivetti-Valentine.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Olivetti-Valentine.jpg/220px-Olivetti-Valentine.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Olivetti-Valentine.jpg/330px-Olivetti-Valentine.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Olivetti-Valentine.jpg/440px-Olivetti-Valentine.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="1064" /></a><figcaption>The 1969 <a href="/wiki/Olivetti_Valentine" title="Olivetti Valentine">Olivetti Valentine</a> typewriter, featured in the permanent collections of the <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art" title="Metropolitan Museum of Art">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Modern_Art" title="Museum of Modern Art">Museum of Modern Art</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cooper_Hewitt,_Smithsonian_Design_Museum" title="Cooper Hewitt, Smithsonian Design Museum">Cooper Hewitt, Smithsonian Design Museum</a> in New York;<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> London's <a href="/wiki/Design_Museum" title="Design Museum">Design Museum</a> and <a href="/wiki/Victoria_and_Albert_Museum" title="Victoria and Albert Museum">Victoria and Albert Museum</a>.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_1" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Collections_in_Motion-_Valentine_Typewriter.webm/220px--Collections_in_Motion-_Valentine_Typewriter.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="124" data-durationhint="44" data-mwtitle="Collections_in_Motion-_Valentine_Typewriter.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Collections_in_Motion-_Valentine_Typewriter.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/23/Collections_in_Motion-_Valentine_Typewriter.webm/Collections_in_Motion-_Valentine_Typewriter.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/23/Collections_in_Motion-_Valentine_Typewriter.webm/Collections_in_Motion-_Valentine_Typewriter.webm.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/23/Collections_in_Motion-_Valentine_Typewriter.webm/Collections_in_Motion-_Valentine_Typewriter.webm.1080p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="1080p.vp9.webm" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/Collections_in_Motion-_Valentine_Typewriter.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/23/Collections_in_Motion-_Valentine_Typewriter.webm/Collections_in_Motion-_Valentine_Typewriter.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/23/Collections_in_Motion-_Valentine_Typewriter.webm/Collections_in_Motion-_Valentine_Typewriter.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/23/Collections_in_Motion-_Valentine_Typewriter.webm/Collections_in_Motion-_Valentine_Typewriter.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/23/Collections_in_Motion-_Valentine_Typewriter.webm/Collections_in_Motion-_Valentine_Typewriter.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /></video><figcaption>Video of the <a href="/wiki/Olivetti_Valentine" title="Olivetti Valentine">Olivetti Valentine</a> typewriter in use</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:TypewriterMiningMuseumPachuca.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/TypewriterMiningMuseumPachuca.JPG/220px-TypewriterMiningMuseumPachuca.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/TypewriterMiningMuseumPachuca.JPG/330px-TypewriterMiningMuseumPachuca.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/TypewriterMiningMuseumPachuca.JPG/440px-TypewriterMiningMuseumPachuca.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1541" data-file-height="1155" /></a><figcaption>An Elliott-Fisher book typewriter on display at the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Historic_Archive_and_Museum_of_Mining&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historic Archive and Museum of Mining (page does not exist)">Historic Archive and Museum of Mining</a> in <a href="/wiki/Pachuca" title="Pachuca">Pachuca</a>, Mexico</figcaption></figure> Although many modern typewriters have one of several similar designs, their invention was incremental, developed by numerous inventors working independently or in competition with each other over a series of decades. As with the <a href="/wiki/Automobile" class="mw-redirect" title="Automobile">automobile</a>, the telephone, and <a href="/wiki/Telegraphy" title="Telegraphy">telegraph</a>, several people contributed insights and inventions that eventually resulted in ever more commercially successful instruments. Historians have estimated that some form of the typewriter was invented 52 times as thinkers and tinkerers tried to come up with a workable design.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> Some early typing instruments include: <ul><li>In 1575, an Italian printmaker, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Francesco_Rampazetto&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Francesco Rampazetto (page does not exist)">Francesco Rampazetto</a>, invented the scrittura tattile, a machine to impress letters in papers.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a></li> <li>In 1714, <a href="/wiki/Henry_Mill" title="Henry Mill">Henry Mill</a> obtained a patent in <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">Britain</a> for a machine that, from the patent, appears to have been similar to a typewriter. The patent shows that this machine was created: "[he] hath by his great study and paines & expence invented and brought to perfection an artificial machine or method for impressing or transcribing of letters, one after another, as in writing, whereby all writing whatsoever may be engrossed in paper or parchment so neat and exact as not to be distinguished from print; that the said machine or method may be of great use in settlements and public records, the impression being deeper and more lasting than any other writing, and not to be erased or counterfeited without manifest discovery."<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a></li> <li>In 1802, Italian <a href="/w/index.php?title=Agostino_Fantoni&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Agostino Fantoni (page does not exist)">Agostino Fantoni</a> developed a particular typewriter to enable his <a href="/wiki/Blindness" class="mw-redirect" title="Blindness">blind</a> sister to write.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a></li> <li>Between 1801 and 1808, Italian <a href="/wiki/Pellegrino_Turri" title="Pellegrino Turri">Pellegrino Turri</a> invented a typewriter for his blind friend Countess Carolina Fantoni da Fivizzano.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a></li> <li>In 1823, Italian <a href="/w/index.php?title=Pietro_Conti_da_Cilavegna&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pietro Conti da Cilavegna (page does not exist)">Pietro Conti da Cilavegna</a> invented a new model of the typewriter, the tachigrafo, also known as tachitipo.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></li> <li>In 1829, American <a href="/wiki/William_Austin_Burt" title="William Austin Burt">William Austin Burt</a> patented a machine called the "<a href="/wiki/Typographer_(typewriter)" title="Typographer (typewriter)">Typographer</a>" which, in common with many other early machines, is listed as the "first typewriter". The London <a href="/wiki/Science_Museum,_London" title="Science Museum, London">Science Museum</a> describes it merely as "the first writing mechanism whose invention was documented", but even that claim may be excessive since Turri's invention pre-dates it.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a></li></ul> By the mid-19th century, the increasing pace of business communication had created a need to mechanize the writing process. <a href="/wiki/Stenographer" class="mw-redirect" title="Stenographer">Stenographers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Telegraph" class="mw-redirect" title="Telegraph">telegraphers</a> could take down information at rates up to 130 words per minute, whereas a writer with a pen was limited to a maximum of 30 words per minute (the 1853 speed record).<a href="#cite_note-Utterback-17">[17]</a> From 1829 to 1870, many printing or typing machines were patented by inventors in Europe and America, but none went into commercial production.<a href="#cite_note-:1-18">[18]</a> <ul><li>American <a href="/wiki/Charles_Thurber_(inventor)" title="Charles Thurber (inventor)">Charles Thurber</a> developed multiple patents, of which his first in 1843 was created as an aid to blind people, such as the 1845 <a href="/wiki/Charles_Thurber_(inventor)#Career" title="Charles Thurber (inventor)">Chirographer</a>.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></li> <li>In 1855, the Italian <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Ravizza" title="Giuseppe Ravizza">Giuseppe Ravizza</a> created a prototype typewriter called Cembalo scrivano o macchina da scrivere a tasti ("Scribe <a href="/wiki/Harpsichord" title="Harpsichord">harpsichord</a>, or machine for writing with keys"). It was an advanced machine that let the user see the writing as it was typed.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a></li> <li>In 1861, Father <a href="/w/index.php?title=Francisco_Jo%C3%A3o_de_Azevedo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Francisco João de Azevedo (page does not exist)">Francisco João de Azevedo</a>, a Brazilian priest, made his typewriter with basic materials and tools, such as wood and knives. In that same year, the Brazilian emperor <a href="/wiki/Pedro_II_of_Brazil" title="Pedro II of Brazil">D. Pedro II</a>, presented a gold medal to Father Azevedo for this invention. Many Brazilian people, as well as the Brazilian federal government recognize Fr. Azevedo as the inventor of the typewriter, a claim that has been the subject of some controversy.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a></li> <li>In 1865, <a href="/wiki/John_Pratt_(inventor)" title="John Pratt (inventor)">John Pratt</a>, of <a href="/wiki/Centre,_Alabama" title="Centre, Alabama">Centre, Alabama</a> (US), built a machine called the Pterotype which appeared in an 1867 <a href="/wiki/Scientific_American" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a> article<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> and inspired other inventors.</li> <li>Between 1864 and 1867, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Peter_Mitterhofer&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Peter Mitterhofer (page does not exist)">Peter Mitterhofer</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Mitterhofer" class="extiw" title="de:Peter Mitterhofer">de</a>], a carpenter from <a href="/wiki/South_Tyrol" title="South Tyrol">South Tyrol</a> (then part of <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austria</a>) developed several models and a fully functioning prototype typewriter in 1867.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hansen_Writing_Ball">Hansen Writing Ball</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Typewriter&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Hansen Writing Ball">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hansen_Writing_Ball" title="Hansen Writing Ball">Hansen Writing Ball</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Malling_Hansen,1867,_D%C3%A4nemark.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Malling_Hansen%2C1867%2C_D%C3%A4nemark.jpg/170px-Malling_Hansen%2C1867%2C_D%C3%A4nemark.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Malling_Hansen%2C1867%2C_D%C3%A4nemark.jpg/255px-Malling_Hansen%2C1867%2C_D%C3%A4nemark.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Malling_Hansen%2C1867%2C_D%C3%A4nemark.jpg/340px-Malling_Hansen%2C1867%2C_D%C3%A4nemark.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1329" data-file-height="1772" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hansen_Writing_Ball" title="Hansen Writing Ball">Hansen Writing Ball</a> was the first typewriter manufactured commercially (1870)</figcaption></figure> In 1865, Rev. <a href="/wiki/Rasmus_Malling-Hansen" title="Rasmus Malling-Hansen">Rasmus Malling-Hansen</a> of <a href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Denmark</a> invented the <a href="/wiki/Hansen_Writing_Ball" title="Hansen Writing Ball">Hansen Writing Ball</a>, which went into commercial production in 1870 and was the first commercially sold typewriter. It was a success in Europe and was reported as being used in offices on the European continent as late as 1909.<a href="#cite_note-Mares-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> Malling-Hansen used a <a href="/wiki/Solenoid" title="Solenoid">solenoid</a> escapement to return the carriage on some of his models, which makes him a candidate for the title of inventor of the first "electric" typewriter.<a href="#cite_note-:2-26">[26]</a> The Hansen Writing Ball was produced with only upper-case characters. The Writing Ball was a template for inventor <a href="/wiki/Frank_Haven_Hall" title="Frank Haven Hall">Frank Haven Hall</a> to create a derivative that would produce letter prints cheaper and faster.<a href="#cite_note-Devil-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-3lives-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-Museum-29">[29]</a> Malling-Hansen developed his typewriter further through the 1870s and 1880s and made many improvements, but the writing head remained the same. On the first model of the writing ball from 1870, the paper was attached to a cylinder inside a wooden box. In 1874, the cylinder was replaced by a carriage, moving beneath the writing head. Then, in 1875, the well-known "tall model" was patented, which was the first of the writing balls that worked without electricity. Malling-Hansen attended the world exhibitions in <a href="/wiki/Vienna" title="Vienna">Vienna</a> in 1873 and Paris in 1878 and he received the first-prize for his invention at both exhibitions.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sholes_and_Glidden_typewriter">Sholes and Glidden typewriter</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Typewriter&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Sholes and Glidden typewriter">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sholes_and_Glidden_typewriter" title="Sholes and Glidden typewriter">Sholes and Glidden typewriter</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sholes_typewriter.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Sholes_typewriter.jpg/170px-Sholes_typewriter.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Sholes_typewriter.jpg/255px-Sholes_typewriter.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Sholes_typewriter.jpg/340px-Sholes_typewriter.jpg 2x" data-file-width="745" data-file-height="842" /></a><figcaption>Prototype of the Sholes and Glidden typewriter, the first commercially successful typewriter, and the first with a QWERTY keyboard (1873)</figcaption></figure> The first typewriter to be commercially successful was patented in 1868 by Americans <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Latham_Sholes" title="Christopher Latham Sholes">Christopher Latham Sholes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frank_Haven_Hall" title="Frank Haven Hall">Frank Haven Hall</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carlos_Glidden" title="Carlos Glidden">Carlos Glidden</a> and <a href="/wiki/Samuel_W._Soule" class="mw-redirect" title="Samuel W. Soule">Samuel W. Soule</a> in <a href="/wiki/Milwaukee,_Wisconsin" class="mw-redirect" title="Milwaukee, Wisconsin">Milwaukee, Wisconsin</a>,<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> although Sholes soon disowned the machine and refused to use or even recommend it.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> The working prototype was made by clock-maker and machinist Matthias Schwalbach.<a href="#cite_note-WCH-35">[35]</a> Hall, Glidden and Soule sold their shares in the patent (US 79,265) to Sholes and <a href="/wiki/James_Densmore" title="James Densmore">James Densmore</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Current-36">[36]</a> who made an agreement with <a href="/wiki/E._Remington_and_Sons" title="E. Remington and Sons">E. Remington and Sons</a> (then famous as a manufacturer of <a href="/wiki/Sewing_machine" title="Sewing machine">sewing machines</a>) to commercialize the machine as the <a href="/wiki/Sholes_and_Glidden_typewriter" title="Sholes and Glidden typewriter">Sholes and Glidden Type-Writer</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WCH-35">[35]</a> This was the origin of the term typewriter. Remington began production of its first typewriter on March 1, 1873, in <a href="/wiki/Ilion,_New_York" title="Ilion, New York">Ilion, New York</a>. It had a <a href="/wiki/QWERTY" title="QWERTY">QWERTY</a> keyboard layout, which, because of the machine's success, was slowly adopted by other typewriter manufacturers. As with most other early typewriters, because the typebars strike upwards, the typist could not see the characters as they were typed.<a href="#cite_note-Current-36">[36]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Index_typewriter">Index typewriter</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Typewriter&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Index typewriter">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hall_1_typewriter,_1881_(Martin_Howard_Collection).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Hall_1_typewriter%2C_1881_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg/220px-Hall_1_typewriter%2C_1881_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Hall_1_typewriter%2C_1881_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg/330px-Hall_1_typewriter%2C_1881_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Hall_1_typewriter%2C_1881_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg/440px-Hall_1_typewriter%2C_1881_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1031" /></a><figcaption>Hall 1 typewriter, 1881 - The first index typewriter</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Columbia_2_typewriter,_1886_(Martin_Howard_Collection).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Columbia_2_typewriter%2C_1886_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg/220px-Columbia_2_typewriter%2C_1886_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Columbia_2_typewriter%2C_1886_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg/330px-Columbia_2_typewriter%2C_1886_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Columbia_2_typewriter%2C_1886_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg/440px-Columbia_2_typewriter%2C_1886_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1279" data-file-height="900" /></a><figcaption>Columbia 2 typewriter, 1886 - Early index typewriter with proportional spacing</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Victor_typewriter,_1889_(Martin_Howard_Collection).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Victor_typewriter%2C_1889_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg/220px-Victor_typewriter%2C_1889_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Victor_typewriter%2C_1889_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg/330px-Victor_typewriter%2C_1889_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Victor_typewriter%2C_1889_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg/440px-Victor_typewriter%2C_1889_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="986" /></a><figcaption>Victor typewriter, 1889 - The first successful typewriter to use a daisy wheel</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mignon_Mod.4,Bj.1924.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Mignon_Mod.4%2CBj.1924.jpg/220px-Mignon_Mod.4%2CBj.1924.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Mignon_Mod.4%2CBj.1924.jpg/330px-Mignon_Mod.4%2CBj.1924.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Mignon_Mod.4%2CBj.1924.jpg/440px-Mignon_Mod.4%2CBj.1924.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="2303" /></a><figcaption>A Mignon Model 4 index typewriter from 1924</figcaption></figure> The index typewriter came into the market in the early 1880s.<a href="#cite_note-EOM-37">[37]</a> The index typewriter uses a pointer or stylus to choose a letter from an index. The pointer is mechanically linked so that the letter chosen could then be printed, most often by the activation of a lever.<a href="#cite_note-:1-18">[18]</a> The index typewriter was briefly popular in niche markets. Although they were slower than keyboard type machines, they were mechanically simpler and lighter. They were therefore marketed as being suitable for travellers and, because they could be produced more cheaply than keyboard machines, as budget machines for users who needed to produce small quantities of typed correspondence.<a href="#cite_note-EOM-37">[37]</a> For example, the Simplex Typewriter Company made index typewriters for 1/40 the price of a Remington typewriter.<a href="#cite_note-PoltWeb-38">[38]</a> The index typewriter's niche appeal however soon disappeared as, on the one hand new keyboard typewriters became lighter and more portable, and on the other refurbished second-hand machines began to become available.<a href="#cite_note-EOM-37">[37]</a> The last widely available western index machine was the Mignon typewriter produced by <a href="/wiki/AEG_(German_company)" title="AEG (German company)">AEG</a> which was produced until 1934. Considered one of the very best of the index typewriters, part of the Mignon's popularity was that it featured interchangeable indexes as well as <a href="/wiki/Sort_(typesetting)" title="Sort (typesetting)">type</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Mignon2-39">[39]</a> <a href="/wiki/Font" title="Font">fonts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Character_set" class="mw-redirect" title="Character set">character sets</a>. This is something very few keyboard machines were capable of--and only at considerable added cost.<a href="#cite_note-Mignon2-39">[39]</a> Although they were pushed out of the market in most of the world by keyboard machines, successful <a href="/wiki/Japanese_typewriter" title="Japanese typewriter">Japanese</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_typewriter" title="Chinese typewriter">Chinese typewriters</a> typewriters are of the index type--albeit with a very much larger index and number of type elements.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> <a href="/wiki/Embossing_tape" title="Embossing tape">Embossing tape</a> label makers are the most common index typewriters today, and perhaps the most common typewriters of any kind still being manufactured.<a href="#cite_note-PoltWeb-38">[38]</a> The platen was mounted on a carriage that moved horizontally to the left, automatically advancing the typing position, after each character was typed. The carriage-return lever at the far left was then pressed to the right to return the carriage to its starting position and rotating the platen to advance the paper vertically. A small bell was struck a few characters before the right hand margin was reached to warn the operator to complete the word and then use the carriage-return lever.<a href="#cite_note-The_Remington_Type-Writing_Machine-41">[41]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_typewriters">Other typewriters</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Typewriter&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Other typewriters">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hammond_1_typewriter_(Martin_Howard_Collection).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Hammond_1_typewriter_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg/220px-Hammond_1_typewriter_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="238" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Hammond_1_typewriter_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg/330px-Hammond_1_typewriter_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Hammond_1_typewriter_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg/440px-Hammond_1_typewriter_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1621" /></a><figcaption>Hammond 1 typewriter, 1885</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fitch_1_typewriter,_1888_(Martin_Howard_Collection).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Fitch_1_typewriter%2C_1888_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg/220px-Fitch_1_typewriter%2C_1888_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="234" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Fitch_1_typewriter%2C_1888_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg/330px-Fitch_1_typewriter%2C_1888_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Fitch_1_typewriter%2C_1888_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg/440px-Fitch_1_typewriter%2C_1888_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1596" /></a><figcaption>Fitch 1 typewriter, 1888</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Underwood_1_typewriter,_1896.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Underwood_1_typewriter%2C_1896.jpg/220px-Underwood_1_typewriter%2C_1896.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Underwood_1_typewriter%2C_1896.jpg/330px-Underwood_1_typewriter%2C_1896.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Underwood_1_typewriter%2C_1896.jpg/440px-Underwood_1_typewriter%2C_1896.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2706" data-file-height="2403" /></a><figcaption>Underwood 1 typewriter, 1896 - The typewriter that would set the design standard for the new century, with four rows of keys, front strike visible and a single shift key. It also had a light and fast typing action.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_Very_Early_Typewritten_Letter_as_Part_of_a_Court_Case_in_the_Utah_Territory,_dated_1886.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/A_Very_Early_Typewritten_Letter_as_Part_of_a_Court_Case_in_the_Utah_Territory%2C_dated_1886.tif/lossy-page1-220px-A_Very_Early_Typewritten_Letter_as_Part_of_a_Court_Case_in_the_Utah_Territory%2C_dated_1886.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="340" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/A_Very_Early_Typewritten_Letter_as_Part_of_a_Court_Case_in_the_Utah_Territory%2C_dated_1886.tif/lossy-page1-330px-A_Very_Early_Typewritten_Letter_as_Part_of_a_Court_Case_in_the_Utah_Territory%2C_dated_1886.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/A_Very_Early_Typewritten_Letter_as_Part_of_a_Court_Case_in_the_Utah_Territory%2C_dated_1886.tif/lossy-page1-440px-A_Very_Early_Typewritten_Letter_as_Part_of_a_Court_Case_in_the_Utah_Territory%2C_dated_1886.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4750" data-file-height="7346" /></a><figcaption>A very early typewritten letter as part of a court case in the Utah Territory, from Appeal #6544, dated 1886</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>1884 – Hammond "Ideal" typewriter with case, by Hammond Typewriter Company Limited, United States. Despite an unusual, curved keyboard (see picture in citation), the Hammond became popular because of its superior print quality and changeable typeface. Invented by James Hammond of Boston, Massachusetts in 1880, and commercially released in 1884. The type is carried on a pair of interchangeable rotating sectors, one controlled by each half of the keyboard. A small hammer pushes the paper against the ribbon and type sector to print each character. The mechanism was later adapted to give a straight QWERTY keyboard and proportional spacing.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a></li> <li>1888 – Fitch typewriter – Made by the Fitch Typewriter Company, Brooklyn, N.Y. and later in the UK with a slightly different look. Operators of the early typewriters had to work "blind": the typed text emerged only after several lines had been completed or the carriage was lifted to look underneath at the page. The Fitch was one of the first machines to allow prompt correction of mistakes with its visible writing; it was said to be the second machine operating on the visible writing system. The typebars were positioned behind the paper and the writing area faced upwards so that the result could be seen instantly. A curved frame kept the emerging paper from obscuring the keyboard, but the Fitch was soon eclipsed by machines in which the paper could be fed more conveniently at the rear.<a href="#cite_note-:0-43">[43]</a></li> <li>1893 – Gardner typewriter. This typewriter, patented by Mr J Gardner in 1893, was an attempt to reduce the size and cost. Although it prints 84 symbols, it has only 14 keys and two change-case keys. Several characters are indicated on each key and the character printed is determined by the position of the case keys, which choose one of six cases.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a></li> <li>1896 – The "Underwood 1 typewriter, 10" Pica, No. 990". This was the first typewriter with a typing area fully visible to the typist until a key is struck. These features, copied by all subsequent typewriters, allowed the typist to see and if necessary correct the typing as it proceeded. The mechanism was developed in the US by Franz X. Wagner from about 1892 and taken up, in 1895, by John T. Underwood (1857–1937), a producer of office supplies.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Standardization">Standardization</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Typewriter&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Standardization">edit</a>]</div> By about 1910, the "manual" or "mechanical" typewriter had reached a somewhat <a href="/wiki/Standardization" title="Standardization">standardized</a> design.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> There were minor variations from one manufacturer to another, but most typewriters followed the concept that each key was attached to a typebar that had the corresponding letter molded, in reverse, into its striking head. When a key was struck briskly and firmly, the typebar hit a ribbon (usually made of <a href="/wiki/Ink" title="Ink">inked</a> <a href="/wiki/Cloth" class="mw-redirect" title="Cloth">fabric</a>), making a printed mark on the paper wrapped around a cylindrical <a href="/wiki/Platen" title="Platen">platen</a>.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> The platen was mounted on a carriage that moved horizontally to the left, automatically advancing the typing position, after each character was typed. The carriage-return lever at the far left was then pressed to the right to return the carriage to its starting position and rotating the platen to advance the paper vertically. A small bell was struck a few characters before the right hand margin was reached to warn the operator to complete the word and then use the carriage-return lever.<a href="#cite_note-The_Remington_Type-Writing_Machine-41">[41]</a> Typewriters for languages written <a href="/wiki/Right-to-left" class="mw-redirect" title="Right-to-left">right-to-left</a> operate in the opposite direction.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> By 1900, notable typewriter manufacturers included <a href="/wiki/E._Remington_and_Sons" title="E. Remington and Sons">E. Remington and Sons</a>, <a href="/wiki/IBM" title="IBM">IBM</a>, <a href="/wiki/Godrej_Group" title="Godrej Group">Godrej</a>,<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Typewriter_Company" title="Imperial Typewriter Company">Imperial Typewriter Company</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Typewriter_Company" title="Oliver Typewriter Company">Oliver Typewriter Company</a>, <a href="/wiki/Olivetti" title="Olivetti">Olivetti</a>, <a href="/wiki/Royal_Typewriter_Company" title="Royal Typewriter Company">Royal Typewriter Company</a>, <a href="/wiki/Smith_Corona" title="Smith Corona">Smith Corona</a>, <a href="/wiki/Underwood_Typewriter_Company" title="Underwood Typewriter Company">Underwood Typewriter Company</a>, <a href="/wiki/Facit" title="Facit">Facit</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adler_(cars_and_motorcycle)" title="Adler (cars and motorcycle)">Adler</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Olympia-Werke" title="Olympia-Werke">Olympia-Werke</a>.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> After the market had matured under the market dominance of large companies from Britain, Europe and the United States—but before the advent of daisywheel and electronic machines—the typewriter market faced strong competition from less expensive typewriters from Asia, including <a href="/wiki/Brother_Industries" title="Brother Industries">Brother Industries</a> and <a href="/wiki/Silver_Seiko_Ltd." class="mw-redirect" title="Silver Seiko Ltd.">Silver Seiko Ltd.</a> of Japan. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Frontstriking">Frontstriking</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Typewriter&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Frontstriking">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Daugherty_typewriter_(Martin_Howard_Collection).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Daugherty_typewriter_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg/220px-Daugherty_typewriter_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Daugherty_typewriter_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg/330px-Daugherty_typewriter_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Daugherty_typewriter_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg/440px-Daugherty_typewriter_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1370" /></a><figcaption>Daugherty typewriter, 1893</figcaption></figure> In most of the early typewriters, the typebars struck upward against the paper, pressed against the bottom of the <a href="/wiki/Platen" title="Platen">platen</a>, so the typist could not see the text as it was typed.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> What was typed was not visible until a carriage return caused it to scroll into view. The difficulty with any other arrangement was ensuring the typebars fell back into place reliably when the key was released. This was eventually achieved with various ingenious mechanical designs and so-called "visible typewriters" which used frontstriking, in which the typebars struck forward against the front side of the platen, became standard. One of the first was the Daugherty Visible, introduced in 1893, which also introduced the four-bank keyboard that became standard, although the Underwood which came out two years later was the first major typewriter with these features.<a href="#cite_note-Robert1-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-Seaver1-54">[54]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Shift_key">Shift key</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Typewriter&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Shift key">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Remington_2_typewriter_(Martin_Howard_Collection).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Remington_2_typewriter_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg/220px-Remington_2_typewriter_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Remington_2_typewriter_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg/330px-Remington_2_typewriter_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Remington_2_typewriter_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg/440px-Remington_2_typewriter_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1473" /></a><figcaption>Remington 2 typewriter, 1878</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Comparison_of_Full-Keyboard,_Single-Shift,_and_Double-Shift_Typerwriters_in_1911.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Comparison_of_Full-Keyboard%2C_Single-Shift%2C_and_Double-Shift_Typerwriters_in_1911.png/220px-Comparison_of_Full-Keyboard%2C_Single-Shift%2C_and_Double-Shift_Typerwriters_in_1911.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Comparison_of_Full-Keyboard%2C_Single-Shift%2C_and_Double-Shift_Typerwriters_in_1911.png/330px-Comparison_of_Full-Keyboard%2C_Single-Shift%2C_and_Double-Shift_Typerwriters_in_1911.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Comparison_of_Full-Keyboard%2C_Single-Shift%2C_and_Double-Shift_Typerwriters_in_1911.png/440px-Comparison_of_Full-Keyboard%2C_Single-Shift%2C_and_Double-Shift_Typerwriters_in_1911.png 2x" data-file-width="2322" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption>Comparison of full-keyboard, single-shift, and double-shift typewriters in 1911</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hemingway_Corona_number_3_typewriter.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Hemingway_Corona_number_3_typewriter.jpg/220px-Hemingway_Corona_number_3_typewriter.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Hemingway_Corona_number_3_typewriter.jpg/330px-Hemingway_Corona_number_3_typewriter.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Hemingway_Corona_number_3_typewriter.jpg/440px-Hemingway_Corona_number_3_typewriter.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption>Corona #3 typewriter owned by <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Hemingway" title="Ernest Hemingway">Ernest Hemingway</a>, with a "FIG" shift key as well as a "CAP" shift key</figcaption></figure> A significant innovation was the <a href="/wiki/Shift_key" title="Shift key">shift key</a>, introduced with the <a href="/wiki/E._Remington_and_Sons" title="E. Remington and Sons">Remington</a> No. 2 in 1878. This key physically "shifted" either the basket of typebars, in which case the typewriter is described as "basket shift", or the paper-holding carriage, in which case the typewriter is described as "carriage shift".<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> Either mechanism caused a different portion of the typebar to come in contact with the ribbon/platen. The result is that each typebar could type two different characters, cutting the number of keys and typebars in half (and simplifying the internal mechanisms considerably). The obvious use for this was to allow letter keys to type both <a href="/wiki/Letter_case" title="Letter case">upper and lower case</a>, but normally the number keys were also duplexed, allowing access to special symbols such as percent, %, and ampersand, &.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> Before the shift key, typewriters had to have a separate key and typebar for upper-case letters; in essence, the typewriter had two keyboards, one above the other. With the shift key, manufacturing costs (and therefore purchase price) were greatly reduced, and typist operation was simplified; both factors contributed greatly to mass adoption of the technology. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Three-bank_typewriters">Three-bank typewriters</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Typewriter&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Three-bank typewriters">edit</a>]</div> Certain models further reduced the number of keys and typebars by making each key perform three functions – each typebar could type three different characters. These little three-row machines were portable and could be used by journalists.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> Such three-row machines were popular with WWI journalists because they were lighter and more compact than four-bank typewriters, while they could type just as fast and use just as many symbols.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> Such three-row machines, such as the Bar-Let<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Smith_Corona#Corona_Typewriter_Company" title="Smith Corona">Corona</a> No. 3 Typewriter<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> have two separate shift keys, a "CAP" shift (for uppercase) and a "FIG" shift (for numbers and symbols).<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Murray_code" class="mw-redirect" title="Murray code">Murray code</a> was developed for a <a href="/wiki/Teletypewriter" class="mw-redirect" title="Teletypewriter">teletypewriter</a> with a similar three-row typewriter keyboard.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Tab_key">Tab key</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Typewriter&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Tab key">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tab_key" title="Tab key">Tab key</a></div> To facilitate typewriter use in business settings, a tab (tabulator) key was added in the late nineteenth century. Before using the key, the operator had to set mechanical "tab stops", pre-designated locations to which the carriage would advance when the tab key was pressed. This facilitated the typing of columns of numbers, freeing the operator from the need to manually position the carriage. The first models had one tab stop and one tab key; later ones allowed as many stops as desired, and sometimes had multiple tab keys, each of which moved the carriage a different number of spaces ahead of the decimal point (the tab stop), to facilitate the typing of columns with numbers of different length ($1.00, $10.00, $100.00, etc.) <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Dead_keys">Dead keys</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Typewriter&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Dead keys">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Dead_key" title="Dead key">Dead key</a></div> Languages such as French, Spanish, and German required <a href="/wiki/Diacritic" title="Diacritic">diacritics</a>, special signs attached to or on top of the base letter: for example, a combination of the <a href="/wiki/Acute_accent" title="Acute accent">acute accent</a> ´ plus e produced é; ~ plus n produced ñ. In <a href="/wiki/Typesetting#Movable_type" title="Typesetting">metal typesetting</a>, ⟨é⟩, ⟨ñ⟩, and others were separate <a href="/wiki/Sort_(typesetting)" title="Sort (typesetting)">sorts</a>. With mechanical typewriters, the number of whose characters (sorts) was constrained by the physical limits of the machine, the number of keys required was reduced by the use of <a href="/wiki/Dead_keys" class="mw-redirect" title="Dead keys">dead keys</a>. Diacritics such as ´ (<a href="/wiki/Acute_accent" title="Acute accent">acute accent</a>) would be assigned to a <a href="/wiki/Dead_key" title="Dead key">dead key</a>, which did not move the <a href="/wiki/Platen" title="Platen">platen</a> forward, permitting another character to be imprinted at the same location; thus a single dead key such as the acute accent could be combined with a,e,i,o and u to produce á,é,í,ó and ú, reducing the number of sorts needed from 5 to 1. The typebars of "normal" characters struck a rod as they moved the metal character desired toward the ribbon and platen, and each rod depression moved the platen forward the width of one character. Dead keys had a typebar shaped so as not to strike the rod.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Character_sizes">Character sizes</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Typewriter&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Character sizes">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Point_(typography)" title="Point (typography)">Point (typography)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pitch_(typewriter)" title="Pitch (typewriter)">Pitch (typewriter)</a></div> In English-speaking countries, ordinary typewriters printing fixed-width characters were standardized to print six horizontal lines per vertical inch, and had either of two variants of character width, one called pica for ten characters per horizontal inch and the other elite, for twelve. This differed from the use of these terms in printing, where <a href="/wiki/Pica_(typography)" title="Pica (typography)">pica</a> is a linear unit (approximately <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style>1⁄6 of an inch) used for any measurement, the most common one being the height of a typeface.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Color">Color</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Typewriter&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Color">edit</a>]</div> Some ribbons were inked in black and red stripes, each being half the width and running the entire length of the ribbon. A lever on most machines allowed switching between colors, which was useful for bookkeeping entries where negative amounts were highlighted in red. The red color was also used on some selected characters in running text, for emphasis. When a typewriter had this facility, it could still be fitted with a solid black ribbon; the lever was then used to switch to fresh ribbon when the first stripe ran out of ink. Some typewriters also had a third position which stopped the ribbon being struck at all. This enabled the keys to hit the paper unobstructed, and was used for cutting stencils for <a href="/wiki/Mimeograph" title="Mimeograph">stencil duplicators</a> (aka mimeograph machines).<a href="#cite_note-MimeoTypewriter-66">[66]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id=""Noiseless"_designs">"Noiseless" designs</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Typewriter&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: "Noiseless" designs">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rapid_typewriter,_1890_(Martin_Howard_Collection).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Rapid_typewriter%2C_1890_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg/220px-Rapid_typewriter%2C_1890_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="224" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Rapid_typewriter%2C_1890_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg/330px-Rapid_typewriter%2C_1890_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Rapid_typewriter%2C_1890_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg/440px-Rapid_typewriter%2C_1890_%28Martin_Howard_Collection%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1524" /></a><figcaption>Rapid typewriter, 1890</figcaption></figure> The first typewriter to have the sliding type bars (laid out horizontally like a fan) that enable a typewriter to be "noiseless" was the American made Rapid which appeared briefly on the market in 1890. The Rapid also had the remarkable ability for the typist to have entire control of the carriage by manipulation of the keyboard alone. The two keys that achieve this are positioned at the top of the keyboard (seen in the detail image below). They are a "Lift" key that advances the paper, on the platen, to the next line and a "Return" key that causes the carriage to automatically swing back to the right, ready for one to type the new line. So an entire page could be typed without one's hands leaving the keyboard. In the early part of the 20th century, a typewriter was marketed under the name Noiseless and advertised as "silent". It was developed by Wellington Parker Kidder and the first model was marketed by the Noiseless Typewriter Company in 1917.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> Noiseless portables sold well in the 1930s and 1940s, and noiseless standards continued to be manufactured until the 1960s.<a href="#cite_note-ja-68">[68]</a> In a conventional typewriter the type bar reaches the end of its travel simply by striking the ribbon and paper. The Noiseless, developed by Kidder, has a complex lever mechanism that decelerates the type bar mechanically before pressing it against the ribbon and paper in an attempt to dampen the noise.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electric_designs">Electric designs</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Typewriter&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Electric designs">edit</a>]</div> Although electric typewriters would not achieve widespread popularity until nearly a century later, the basic groundwork for the electric typewriter was laid by the <a href="/wiki/Universal_Stock_Ticker" class="mw-redirect" title="Universal Stock Ticker">Universal Stock Ticker</a>, invented by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Edison" title="Thomas Edison">Thomas Edison</a> in 1870. This device remotely printed letters and numbers on a stream of paper tape from input generated by a specially designed typewriter at the other end of a telegraph line. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Early_electric_models">Early electric models</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Typewriter&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Early electric models">edit</a>]</div> Some electric typewriters were patented in the 19th century, but the first machine known to be produced in series is the Cahill of 1900.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> Another electric typewriter was produced by the <a href="/wiki/Blickensderfer_typewriter" title="Blickensderfer typewriter">Blickensderfer Manufacturing Company</a>, of <a href="/wiki/Stamford,_Connecticut" title="Stamford, Connecticut">Stamford, Connecticut</a>, in 1902. Like the manual Blickensderfer typewriters, it used a cylindrical typewheel rather than individual typebars. The machine was produced in several variants but apparently not a commercial success,<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> having come to market ahead of its time, before ubiquitous <a href="/wiki/Electrification" title="Electrification">electrification</a>. The next step in the development of the electric typewriter came in 1910, when Charles and Howard Krum filed a patent for the first practical <a href="/wiki/Teleprinter" title="Teleprinter">teletypewriter</a>.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> The Krums' machine, named the Morkrum Printing Telegraph, used a typewheel rather than individual typebars. This machine was used for the first commercial teletypewriter system on Postal Telegraph Company lines between <a href="/wiki/Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a> and New York City in 1910.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> <a href="/wiki/James_Fields_Smathers" title="James Fields Smathers">James Fields Smathers</a> of Kansas City invented what is considered the first practical power-operated typewriter in 1914. In 1920, after returning from Army service, he produced a successful model and in 1923 turned it over to the Northeast Electric Company of Rochester for development. Northeast was interested in finding new markets for their electric motors and developed Smathers's design so that it could be marketed to typewriter manufacturers, and from 1925 Remington Electric typewriters were produced powered by Northeast's motors.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> After some 2,500 electric typewriters had been produced, Northeast asked Remington for a firm contract for the next batch. However, Remington was engaged in merger talks, which would eventually result in the creation of <a href="/wiki/Remington_Rand" title="Remington Rand">Remington Rand</a> and no executives were willing to commit to a firm order. Northeast instead decided to enter the typewriter business for itself, and in 1929 produced the first Electromatic Typewriter.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> In 1928, <a href="/wiki/Delco_Electronics" title="Delco Electronics">Delco</a>, a division of <a href="/wiki/General_Motors" title="General Motors">General Motors</a>, purchased Northeast Electric, and the typewriter business was spun off as Electromatic Typewriters, Inc. In 1933, Electromatic was acquired by <a href="/wiki/IBM" title="IBM">IBM</a>, which then spent <a href="/wiki/United_States_dollar" title="United States dollar">$</a>1 million on a redesign of the Electromatic Typewriter, launching the IBM Electric Typewriter Model 01.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> In 1931, an electric typewriter was introduced by Varityper Corporation. It was called the <a href="/wiki/Varityper" class="mw-redirect" title="Varityper">Varityper</a>, because a narrow cylinder-like wheel could be replaced to change the <a href="/wiki/Font" title="Font">font</a>.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> In 1941, IBM announced the Electromatic Model 04 electric typewriter, featuring the revolutionary concept of proportional spacing. By assigning varied rather than uniform spacing to different sized characters, the Type 4 recreated the appearance of a typeset page, an effect that was further enhanced by including the 1937 innovation of carbon-film ribbons that produced clearer, sharper words on the page.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="IBM_Selectric">IBM Selectric</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Typewriter&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: IBM Selectric">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/IBM_Selectric" title="IBM Selectric">IBM Selectric</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IBM_Selectric_II.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/IBM_Selectric_II.jpg/220px-IBM_Selectric_II.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/IBM_Selectric_II.jpg/330px-IBM_Selectric_II.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/IBM_Selectric_II.jpg/440px-IBM_Selectric_II.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption>IBM Selectric II (dual Latin/Hebrew typeball and keyboard)</figcaption></figure> IBM introduced the <a href="/wiki/IBM_Selectric" title="IBM Selectric">IBM Selectric</a> typewriter in 1961, which replaced the typebars with a spherical element (or typeball) slightly smaller than a <a href="/wiki/Golf_ball" title="Golf ball">golf ball</a>, with reverse-image letters molded into its surface. The Selectric used a system of latches, metal tapes, and pulleys driven by an electric motor to rotate the ball into the correct position and then strike it against the ribbon and platen. The typeball moved laterally in front of the paper, instead of the previous designs using a platen-carrying carriage moving the paper across a stationary print position.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> Due to the physical similarity, the typeball was sometimes referred to as a "golfball".<a href="#cite_note-ibm100-80">[80]</a> The typeball design had many advantages, especially the elimination of "jams" (when more than one key was struck at once and the typebars became entangled) and in the ability to change the typeball, allowing multiple fonts to be used in a single document.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> The IBM Selectric became a commercial success, dominating the office typewriter market for at least two decades.<a href="#cite_note-ibm100-80">[80]</a> IBM also gained an advantage by marketing more heavily to schools than did Remington, with the idea that students who learned to type on a Selectric would later choose IBM typewriters over the competition in the workplace as businesses replaced their old manual models.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> Later models of IBM Executives and Selectrics replaced inked fabric ribbons with "carbon film" ribbons that had a dry black or colored powder on a clear plastic tape. These could be used only once, but later models used a cartridge that was simple to replace. A side effect of this technology was that the text typed on the machine could be easily read from the used ribbon, raising issues where the machines were used for preparing classified documents (ribbons had to be accounted for to ensure that typists did not carry them from the facility).<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> A variation known as "Correcting Selectrics" introduced a correction feature, later imitated by competing machines, where a sticky tape in front of the carbon film ribbon could remove the black-powdered image of a typed character, eliminating the need for little bottles of white dab-on correction fluid and for hard erasers that could tear the paper. These machines also introduced selectable "pitch" so that the typewriter could be switched between <a href="/wiki/Pica_(typography)" title="Pica (typography)">pica</a> type (10 characters per inch) and elite type (12 per inch), even within one document. Even so, all Selectrics were <a href="/wiki/Proportional_fonts" class="mw-redirect" title="Proportional fonts">monospaced</a> – each character and letterspace was allotted the same width on the page, from a capital "W" to a period. IBM did produce a successful typebar-based machine with five levels of proportional spacing, called the <a href="/wiki/IBM_Executive_series_typewriter" class="mw-redirect" title="IBM Executive series typewriter">IBM Executive</a>.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> The only fully electromechanical Selectric Typewriter with fully proportional spacing and which used a Selectric type element was the expensive <a href="/wiki/IBM_Selectric_Composer" class="mw-redirect" title="IBM Selectric Composer">Selectric Composer</a>, which was capable of right-margin justification (typing each line twice was required, once to calculate and again to print) and was considered a <a href="/wiki/Typesetter" class="mw-redirect" title="Typesetter">typesetting machine</a> rather than a typewriter. Composer typeballs physically resembled those of the Selectric typewriter but were not interchangeable.<a href="#cite_note-:3-85">[85]</a><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sample_of_IBM_Magnetic_Card_Composer_Output.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Sample_of_IBM_Magnetic_Card_Composer_Output.png/220px-Sample_of_IBM_Magnetic_Card_Composer_Output.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="46" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Sample_of_IBM_Magnetic_Card_Composer_Output.png/330px-Sample_of_IBM_Magnetic_Card_Composer_Output.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Sample_of_IBM_Magnetic_Card_Composer_Output.png/440px-Sample_of_IBM_Magnetic_Card_Composer_Output.png 2x" data-file-width="595" data-file-height="125" /></a><figcaption>Composer output showing <a href="/wiki/Roman_type" title="Roman type">Roman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Emphasis_(typography)" title="Emphasis (typography)">Bold</a> and <a href="/wiki/Italic_font" class="mw-redirect" title="Italic font">Italic fonts</a> available by changing the type ball</figcaption></figure>In addition to its electronic successors, the <a href="/wiki/IBM_Selectric_typewriter#Selectric-based_machines_with_data_storage" class="mw-redirect" title="IBM Selectric typewriter">Magnetic Tape Selectric Composer</a> (MT/SC), the Mag Card Selectric Composer, and the Electronic Selectric Composer, IBM also made electronic typewriters with proportional spacing using the Selectric element that were considered typewriters or <a href="/wiki/Word_processor" title="Word processor">word processors</a> instead of typesetting machines.<a href="#cite_note-:3-85">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> The first of these was the relatively obscure Mag Card Executive, which used 88-character elements. Later, some of the same typestyles used for it were used on the 96-character elements used on the IBM Electronic Typewriter 50 and the later models 65 and 85.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> By 1970, as <a href="/wiki/Offset_printing" title="Offset printing">offset printing</a> began to replace <a href="/wiki/Letterpress_printing" title="Letterpress printing">letterpress printing</a>, the Composer would be adapted as the output unit for a <a href="/wiki/Phototypesetting" title="Phototypesetting">phototypesetting</a> system. The system included a computer-driven input station to capture the key strokes on magnetic tape and insert the operator's format commands, and a Composer unit to read the tape and produce the formatted text for photo reproduction.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> The <a href="/wiki/IBM_2741" title="IBM 2741">IBM 2741</a> terminal was a popular example of a Selectric-based computer terminal, and similar mechanisms were employed as the console devices for many <a href="/wiki/IBM_System/360" title="IBM System/360">IBM System/360</a> computers. These mechanisms used "ruggedized" designs compared to those in standard office typewriters.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Later_electric_models">Later electric models</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Typewriter&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Later electric models">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1096940132">.mw-parser-output .listen .side-box-text{line-height:1.1em}.mw-parser-output .listen-plain{border:none;background:transparent}.mw-parser-output .listen-embedded{width:100%;margin:0;border-width:1px 0 0 0;background:transparent}.mw-parser-output .listen-header{padding:2px}.mw-parser-output .listen-embedded .listen-header{padding:2px 0}.mw-parser-output .listen-file-header{padding:4px 0}.mw-parser-output .listen .description{padding-top:2px}.mw-parser-output .listen .mw-tmh-player{max-width:100%}@media(max-width:719px){.mw-parser-output .listen{clear:both}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .listen:not(.listen-noimage){width:320px}.mw-parser-output .listen-left{overflow:visible;float:left}.mw-parser-output .listen-center{float:none;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right listen noprint"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/50px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/75px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/100px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:Smith-Corona_Prestige_Auto_12_typing.ogg" title="File:Smith-Corona Prestige Auto 12 typing.ogg">Smith-Corona Prestige Auto 12 being tapped</a></div> <div><audio id="mwe_player_2" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="232" style="width:232px;" data-durationhint="41" data-mwtitle="Smith-Corona_Prestige_Auto_12_typing.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d7/Smith-Corona_Prestige_Auto_12_typing.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/d7/Smith-Corona_Prestige_Auto_12_typing.ogg/Smith-Corona_Prestige_Auto_12_typing.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio></div> <div class="description">A recording of the sound of typing on a Smith-Corona electric typewriter.</div></div></div></div> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"><hr />Problems playing this file? See <a href="/wiki/Help:Media" title="Help:Media">media help</a>.</div> </div> Some of IBM's advances were later adopted in less expensive machines from competitors. For example, <a href="/wiki/Smith_Corona" title="Smith Corona">Smith-Corona</a> electric typewriters introduced in 1973 switched to interchangeable Coronamatic (SCM-patented) ribbon cartridges.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> including fabric, film, erasing, and two-color versions. At about the same time, the advent of <a href="/wiki/Photocopying" class="mw-redirect" title="Photocopying">photocopying</a> meant that <a href="/wiki/Carbon_copy" title="Carbon copy">carbon copies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Correction_fluid" title="Correction fluid">correction fluid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eraser" title="Eraser">erasers</a> were less and less necessary; only the original need be typed, and photocopies made from it.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Electronic_typewriters">Electronic typewriters</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Typewriter&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Electronic typewriters">edit</a>]</div> The final major development of the typewriter was the electronic typewriter. Most of these replaced the typeball with a plastic or metal <a href="/wiki/Daisy_wheel" class="mw-redirect" title="Daisy wheel">daisy wheel</a> mechanism (a disk with the letters molded on the outside edge of the "petals"). The daisy wheel concept first emerged in printers developed by <a href="/wiki/Diablo_Systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Diablo Systems">Diablo Systems</a> in the 1970s. The first electronic daisywheel typewriter marketed in the world (in 1976) is the Olivetti Tes 501, and subsequently in 1978, the Olivetti ET101 (with function display) and Olivetti TES 401 (with text display and floppy disk for memory storage). This has allowed Olivetti to maintain the world record in the design of electronic typewriters, proposing increasingly advanced and performing models in the following years.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> Unlike the Selectrics and earlier models, these really were "electronic" and relied on integrated circuits and electromechanical components. These typewriters were sometimes called display typewriters,<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> dedicated word processors or word-processing typewriters, though the latter term was also frequently applied to less sophisticated machines that featured only a tiny, sometimes just single-row display. Sophisticated models were also called word processors, though today that term almost always denotes a type of software program. Manufacturers of such machines included Olivetti (TES501, first totally electronic Olivetti word processor with daisywheel and floppy disk in 1976; TES621 in 1979 etc.), <a href="/wiki/Brother_Industries" title="Brother Industries">Brother</a> (Brother WP1 and WP500 etc., where WP stood for word processor), <a href="/wiki/Canon_Inc." title="Canon Inc.">Canon</a> (<a href="/wiki/Canon_Cat" title="Canon Cat">Canon Cat</a>), <a href="/wiki/Smith-Corona" class="mw-redirect" title="Smith-Corona">Smith-Corona</a> (PWP, i.e. Personal Word Processor line)<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Philips" title="Philips">Philips</a>/<a href="/wiki/Magnavox" title="Magnavox">Magnavox</a> (<a href="/wiki/VideoWriter" title="VideoWriter">VideoWriter</a>). <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional center"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Type.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Electronic typewriter – the final stage in typewriter development. A 1989 Canon Typestar 110"><img alt="Electronic typewriter – the final stage in typewriter development. A 1989 Canon Typestar 110" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Type.jpg/120px-Type.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Type.jpg/180px-Type.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Type.jpg/240px-Type.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1132" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Electronic typewriter – the final stage in typewriter development. A 1989 <a href="/wiki/Canon_Inc." title="Canon Inc.">Canon</a> Typestar 110</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Brother_WP1-IMG_6991.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Brother WP1, an electronic typewriter complete with a small screen and a floppy disk reader"><img alt="The Brother WP1, an electronic typewriter complete with a small screen and a floppy disk reader" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Brother_WP1-IMG_6991.jpg/120px-Brother_WP1-IMG_6991.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Brother_WP1-IMG_6991.jpg/180px-Brother_WP1-IMG_6991.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Brother_WP1-IMG_6991.jpg/240px-Brother_WP1-IMG_6991.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5616" data-file-height="3744" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The Brother WP1, an electronic typewriter complete with a small screen and a <a href="/wiki/Floppy_disk" title="Floppy disk">floppy disk</a> reader</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Decline">Decline</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Typewriter&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Decline">edit</a>]</div> The pace of change was so rapid that it was common for clerical staff to have to learn several new systems, one after the other, in just a few years.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> While such rapid change is commonplace today, and is taken for granted, this was not always so; in fact, typewriting technology changed very little in its first 80 or 90 years.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> Due to falling sales, IBM sold its typewriter division in 1991 to the newly formed <a href="/wiki/Lexmark" title="Lexmark">Lexmark</a>, completely exiting from a market it once dominated.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> The increasing dominance of personal computers, <a href="/wiki/Desktop_publishing" title="Desktop publishing">desktop publishing</a>, the introduction of low-cost, truly high-quality <a href="/wiki/Laser_printer" class="mw-redirect" title="Laser printer">laser</a> and <a href="/wiki/Inkjet_printer" class="mw-redirect" title="Inkjet printer">inkjet printer</a> technologies, and the pervasive use of <a href="/wiki/Web_publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="Web publishing">web publishing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Email" title="Email">email</a>, <a href="/wiki/Text_messaging" title="Text messaging">text messaging</a>, and other electronic communication techniques have largely replaced typewriters in the United States. Still, as of 2009<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Typewriter&action=edit">[update]</a>, typewriters continued to be used by a number of government agencies and other institutions in the US, where they are primarily used to fill preprinted forms. According to a Boston typewriter repairman quoted by <a href="/wiki/The_Boston_Globe" title="The Boston Globe">The Boston Globe</a>, "Every maternity ward has a typewriter, as well as funeral homes".<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> A rather specialized market for typewriters exists due to the regulations of many correctional systems in the US, where prisoners are prohibited from having computers or telecommunication equipment, but are allowed to own typewriters. The Swintec corporation (headquartered in <a href="/wiki/Moonachie,_New_Jersey" title="Moonachie, New Jersey">Moonachie, New Jersey</a>), which, as of 2011, still produced typewriters at its overseas factories (in Japan, <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>, and/or <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a>), manufactures a variety of typewriters for use in prisons, made of clear plastic (to make it harder for prisoners to hide prohibited items inside it). As of 2011, the company had contracts with prisons in 43 US states.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> In April 2011, Godrej and Boyce, a <a href="/wiki/Mumbai" title="Mumbai">Mumbai</a>-based manufacturer of mechanical typewriters, closed its doors, leading to a flurry of news reports that the "world's last typewriter factory" had shut down.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> The reports were quickly contested, with opinions settling to agree that it was indeed the world's last producer of manual typewriters.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-rohrlich-105">[105]</a> In November 2012, Brother's UK factory manufactured what it claimed to be the last typewriter ever made in the UK; the typewriter was donated to the <a href="/wiki/London_Science_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="London Science Museum">London Science Museum</a>.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> Russian typewriters use <a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_script" title="Cyrillic script">Cyrillic</a>, which has made the ongoing <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijani_language" title="Azerbaijani language">Azerbaijani</a> <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijani_alphabet" title="Azerbaijani alphabet">reconversion</a> from <a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyrillic alphabet">Cyrillic</a> to <a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a> more difficult. In 1997, the government of <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a> offered to donate western typewriters to the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Azerbaijan" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of Azerbaijan">Republic of Azerbaijan</a> in exchange for more zealous and exclusive promotion of the Latin alphabet for the Azerbaijani language; this offer, however, was declined.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> In Latin America and Africa, mechanical typewriters are still common because they can be used without electrical power. In Latin America, the typewriters used are most often Brazilian models; Brazil continues to produce mechanical (Facit) and electronic (Olivetti) typewriters to the present day.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> The early 21st century saw revival of interest in typewriters among certain subcultures, including <a href="/wiki/Maker_culture" title="Maker culture">makers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Steampunk" title="Steampunk">steampunks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hipster_(contemporary_subculture)" title="Hipster (contemporary subculture)">hipsters</a>, and street poets.<a href="#cite_note-PoltBook-109">[109]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Correction_technologies">Correction technologies</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Typewriter&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Correction technologies">edit</a>]</div> According to the standards taught in secretarial schools in the mid-20th century, a <a href="/wiki/Business_letter" title="Business letter">business letter</a> was supposed to have no mistakes and no visible corrections.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Typewriter_erasers">Typewriter erasers</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Typewriter&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Typewriter erasers">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Triumph_-_Typewriter_Eraser_1960.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Triumph_-_Typewriter_Eraser_1960.jpg/220px-Triumph_-_Typewriter_Eraser_1960.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Triumph_-_Typewriter_Eraser_1960.jpg/330px-Triumph_-_Typewriter_Eraser_1960.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Triumph_-_Typewriter_Eraser_1960.jpg/440px-Triumph_-_Typewriter_Eraser_1960.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1428" data-file-height="1446" /></a><figcaption>Triumph typewriter eraser (1960)</figcaption></figure> The traditional erasing method involved the use of a special typewriter <a href="/wiki/Eraser" title="Eraser">eraser</a> made of <a href="/wiki/Hard_rubber" class="mw-redirect" title="Hard rubber">hard rubber</a> that contained an <a href="/wiki/Abrasive" title="Abrasive">abrasive</a> material. Some were thin, flat disks, pink or gray, approximately 2 inches (51 mm) in diameter by <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">1⁄8 inch (3.2 mm) thick, with a brush attached from the center, while others looked like pink pencils, with a sharpenable eraser at the "lead" end and a stiff nylon brush at the other end. Either way, these tools made possible erasure of individual typed letters. Business letters were typed on heavyweight, high-rag-content bond paper, not merely to provide a luxurious appearance, but also to stand up to erasure.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> Typewriter eraser brushes were necessary for clearing eraser crumbs and paper dust, and using the brush properly was an important element of typewriting skill; if erasure detritus fell into the typewriter, a small buildup could cause the typebars to jam in their narrow supporting grooves.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Erasing_Shield_Stainless_Steel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Erasing_Shield_Stainless_Steel.jpg/220px-Erasing_Shield_Stainless_Steel.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Erasing_Shield_Stainless_Steel.jpg/330px-Erasing_Shield_Stainless_Steel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Erasing_Shield_Stainless_Steel.jpg/440px-Erasing_Shield_Stainless_Steel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="1634" /></a><figcaption>Erasing Shield (1992)</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Erasing_shield">Erasing shield</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Typewriter&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Erasing shield">edit</a>]</div> Erasing a set of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_copies" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon copies">carbon copies</a> was particularly difficult, and called for the use of a device called an <a href="/wiki/Erasing_shield" title="Erasing shield">erasing shield</a> or eraser shield (a thin stainless-steel rectangle about 2 by 3 inches (51 by 76 mm) with several tiny holes in it) to prevent the pressure of erasing on the upper copies from producing carbon smudges on the lower copies. To correct copies, typists had to go from one carbon copy layer to the next carbon copy layer, trying not to get their fingers dirty as they leafed through the carbon papers, and moving and repositioning the eraser shield and eraser for each copy. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Erasable_bond">Erasable bond</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Typewriter&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Erasable bond">edit</a>]</div> Paper companies produced a special form of typewriter paper called erasable bond (for example, <a href="/wiki/Eaton%27s_Corrasable_Bond" title="Eaton's Corrasable Bond">Eaton's Corrasable Bond</a>). This incorporated a thin layer of material that prevented ink from penetrating and was relatively soft and easy to remove from the page. An ordinary soft pencil eraser could quickly produce perfect erasures on this kind of paper. However, the same characteristics that made the paper erasable made the characters subject to smudging due to ordinary friction and deliberate alteration after the fact, making it unacceptable for business correspondence, contracts, or any archival use.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Correction_fluid">Correction fluid</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Typewriter&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Correction fluid">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Correction_fluid" title="Correction fluid">Correction fluid</a></div> In the 1950s and 1960s, <a href="/wiki/Correction_fluid" title="Correction fluid">correction fluid</a> made its appearance, under brand names such as <a href="/wiki/Liquid_Paper" title="Liquid Paper">Liquid Paper</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wite-Out" title="Wite-Out">Wite-Out</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tipp-Ex" title="Tipp-Ex">Tipp-Ex</a>; it was invented by <a href="/wiki/Bette_Nesmith_Graham" title="Bette Nesmith Graham">Bette Nesmith Graham</a>. Correction fluid was a kind of opaque, white, fast-drying paint that produced a fresh white surface onto which, when dry, a correction could be retyped. However, when held to the light, the covered-up characters were visible, as was the patch of dry correction fluid (which was never perfectly flat, and frequently not a perfect match for the color, texture, and luster of the surrounding paper). The standard trick for solving this problem was <a href="/wiki/Photocopying" class="mw-redirect" title="Photocopying">photocopying</a> the corrected page, but this was possible only with high quality photocopiers.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> A different fluid was available for correcting stencils. It sealed up the stencil ready for retyping but did not attempt to color match.<a href="#cite_note-MimeoCorrect-115">[115]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Typewriter&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Legacy">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Keyboard_layouts">Keyboard layouts</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Typewriter&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Keyboard layouts">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:UnderwoodKeyboard.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/UnderwoodKeyboard.jpg/220px-UnderwoodKeyboard.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/UnderwoodKeyboard.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="325" data-file-height="283" /></a><figcaption>The "<a href="/wiki/QWERTY" title="QWERTY">QWERTY</a>" layout of typewriter keys became a <a href="/wiki/De_facto_standard" title="De facto standard">de facto standard</a> in several countries and continues to be used long after the mechanical reasons for its adoption ceased to apply.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="QWERTY">QWERTY</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Typewriter&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: QWERTY">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/QWERTY" title="QWERTY">QWERTY</a></div> The 1874 Sholes & Glidden typewriters established the "QWERTY" layout for the letter keys. During the period in which Sholes and his colleagues were experimenting with this invention, other keyboard arrangements were apparently tried, but these are poorly documented.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> The QWERTY layout of keys has become the de facto standard for English-language typewriter and computer keyboards. Other languages written in the <a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a> sometimes use variants of the QWERTY layouts, such as the French <a href="/wiki/AZERTY" title="AZERTY">AZERTY</a>, the Italian <a href="/wiki/QZERTY" class="mw-redirect" title="QZERTY">QZERTY</a> and the German <a href="/wiki/QWERTZ" title="QWERTZ">QWERTZ</a> layouts.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> The QWERTY layout is not the most efficient layout possible for the English language. <a href="/wiki/Touch_typing" title="Touch typing">Touch-typists</a> are required to move their fingers between rows to type the most common letters. Although the QWERTY keyboard was the most commonly used layout in typewriters, a better, less strenuous keyboard was being searched for throughout the late 1900s.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> One popular but incorrect<a href="#cite_note-Smithsonian-5">[5]</a> explanation for the QWERTY arrangement is that it was designed to reduce the likelihood of internal clashing of typebars by placing commonly used combinations of letters farther from each other inside the machine.<a href="#cite_note-David,_P.A._1986-119">[119]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Other_layouts_for_English">Other layouts for English</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Typewriter&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Other layouts for English">edit</a>]</div> A number of radically different layouts such as <a href="/wiki/Dvorak_Simplified_Keyboard" class="mw-redirect" title="Dvorak Simplified Keyboard">Dvorak</a> have been proposed to reduce the perceived inefficiencies of QWERTY, but none have been able to displace the QWERTY layout; their proponents claim considerable advantages, but so far none has been widely used. The <a href="/wiki/Blickensderfer_typewriter" title="Blickensderfer typewriter">Blickensderfer typewriter</a> with its <a href="/wiki/DHIATENSOR" class="mw-redirect" title="DHIATENSOR">DHIATENSOR</a> layout may have possibly been the first attempt at optimizing the keyboard layout for efficiency advantages.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> On modern keyboards, the exclamation point is the shifted character on the 1 key, because these were the last characters to become "standard" on keyboards. Holding the spacebar down usually suspended the carriage advance mechanism (a so-called "<a href="/wiki/Dead_key" title="Dead key">dead key</a>" feature), allowing one to superimpose multiple keystrikes on a single location. The ¢ symbol (meaning cents) was located above the number 6 on American electric typewriters, whereas <a href="/wiki/ANSI" class="mw-redirect" title="ANSI">ANSI</a>-<a href="/wiki/INCITS" class="mw-redirect" title="INCITS">INCITS</a>-standard <a href="/wiki/Computer_keyboard" title="Computer keyboard">computer keyboards</a> have ^ instead.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Keyboards_for_other_languages">Keyboards for other languages</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Typewriter&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Keyboards for other languages">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lettera_22_2.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Lettera_22_2.JPG/220px-Lettera_22_2.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Lettera_22_2.JPG/330px-Lettera_22_2.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Lettera_22_2.JPG/440px-Lettera_22_2.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1542" data-file-height="1514" /></a><figcaption>Italian typewriter <a href="/wiki/Olivetti_Lettera_22" title="Olivetti Lettera 22">Olivetti Lettera 22</a></figcaption></figure> The keyboards for other Latin languages are broadly similar to QWERTY but are optimised for the relevant orthography. In addition to some changes in the order of letters, perhaps the most obvious is the presence of <a href="/wiki/Precomposed_character" title="Precomposed character">precomposed characters</a> and <a href="/wiki/Diacritic" title="Diacritic">diacritics</a>. Many non-Latin alphabets have keyboard layouts that have nothing to do with QWERTY. The Russian layout, for instance, puts the common trigrams ыва, про, and ить on adjacent keys so that they can be typed by rolling the fingers.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> Typewriters were also made for <a href="/wiki/East_Asian_languages" title="East Asian languages">East Asian languages</a> with thousands of characters, such as <a href="/wiki/Chinese_typewriter" title="Chinese typewriter">Chinese</a> or <a href="/wiki/Japanese_typewriter" title="Japanese typewriter">Japanese</a>. They were not easy to operate, but professional typists used them for a long time until the development of electronic word processors and <a href="/wiki/Laser_printer" class="mw-redirect" title="Laser printer">laser printers</a> in the 1980s.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Typewriter_conventions">Typewriter conventions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Typewriter&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Typewriter conventions">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Typerwriter_conventions_text_example.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Typerwriter_conventions_text_example.gif/220px-Typerwriter_conventions_text_example.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Typerwriter_conventions_text_example.gif/330px-Typerwriter_conventions_text_example.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Typerwriter_conventions_text_example.gif/440px-Typerwriter_conventions_text_example.gif 2x" data-file-width="525" data-file-height="700" /></a><figcaption>This typed page uses a number of typographic conventions stemming from the mechanical limitations of the typewriter: two hyphens in place of an <a href="/wiki/Em_dash" class="mw-redirect" title="Em dash">em dash</a>, double <a href="/wiki/Sentence_spacing" title="Sentence spacing">sentence spacing</a>, straight <a href="/wiki/Quotation_mark" title="Quotation mark">quotation marks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tab_key" title="Tab key">tab</a> indents for paragraphs, and double <a href="/wiki/Carriage_return" title="Carriage return">carriage returns</a> between paragraphs</figcaption></figure> A number of typographical conventions stem from the typewriter's characteristics and limitations. For example, the QWERTY keyboard typewriter did not include keys for the <a href="/wiki/En_dash" class="mw-redirect" title="En dash">en dash</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Em_dash" class="mw-redirect" title="Em dash">em dash</a>. To overcome this limitation, users typically typed more than one adjacent hyphen to approximate these symbols.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> This typewriter convention is still sometimes used today, even though modern computer word processing applications can input the correct en and em dashes for each font type.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> Other examples of typewriter practices that are sometimes still used in desktop publishing systems include inserting a <a href="/wiki/Sentence_spacing" title="Sentence spacing">double space</a> between sentences,<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> and the use of the <a href="/wiki/Typewriter_apostrophe" class="mw-redirect" title="Typewriter apostrophe">typewriter apostrophe</a>, ', and <a href="/wiki/Quotation_mark#Typewriters_and_early_computers" title="Quotation mark">straight quotes</a>, ", as quotation marks and <a href="/wiki/Prime_mark" class="mw-redirect" title="Prime mark">prime marks</a>.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> The <a href="/wiki/List_of_proofreader%27s_marks" title="List of proofreader's marks">practice of underlining text in place of italics</a> and the use of all capitals to provide emphasis are additional examples of typographical conventions that derived from the limitations of the typewriter keyboard that still carry on today.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> Many older typewriters did not include a separate key for the numeral 1 or the exclamation point !, and some even older ones also lacked the numeral zero, 0. Typists who trained on these machines learned the habit of using the lowercase letter l ("ell") for the digit 1, and the uppercase O ("oh") for the zero. A cents symbol, ¢ was created by combining (<a href="/wiki/Overstrike" title="Overstrike">over-striking</a>) a lower case c with a slash character (typing c, then backspace, then /). Similarly, the exclamation point was created by combining an apostrophe and a period (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1249182868">.mw-parser-output .keyboard-key{border:1px solid #aaa;border-radius:0.2em;box-shadow:0.1em 0.1em 0.2em rgba(0,0,0,0.1);background-color:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);background-image:linear-gradient(to bottom,var(--background-color-neutral,#eaecf0),var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa),var(--background-color-neutral,#eaecf0));color:var(--color-base,#202122);padding:0.1em 0.3em;font-family:inherit;font-size:0.85em}</style><kbd class="keyboard-key nowrap">'</kbd>+<kbd class="keyboard-key nowrap">.</kbd> ≈!).<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Terminology_repurposed_for_the_computer_age">Terminology repurposed for the computer age </h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Typewriter&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Terminology repurposed for the computer age">edit</a>]</div> Some terminology from the typewriter age has survived into the computer era. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Backspace" title="Backspace">backspace</a> (BS) – a keystroke that moved the cursor backwards one position (on a typewriter, this moved the physical platen backwards), to enable a character to be overtyped. Originally this was used to combine characters (for example, the sequence ', backspace, . to make !). Subsequently it facilitated "erase and retype" corrections (using <a href="/wiki/Correction_tape" title="Correction tape">correction tape</a> or <a href="/wiki/Correction_fluid" title="Correction fluid">fluid</a>.<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a>) Only the latter concept has survived into the computer age.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carriage_return" title="Carriage return">carriage return</a> (CR) – return to the first column of text. (Most typewriters switched automatically to the next line. In computer systems, "line feed" (see below) is a function that is controlled independently.)<a href="#cite_note-:4-132">[132]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursor_(computers)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cursor (computers)">cursor</a> – a marker used to indicate where the next character will be printed. The cursor was originally a term to describe the clear slider on a <a href="/wiki/Slide_rule" title="Slide rule">slide rule</a>;<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> on typewriters, it was the paper that moved and the insertion point was fixed.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cut,_copy,_and_paste" title="Cut, copy, and paste">cut and paste</a> – taking text, a numerical table, or an image and pasting it into a document. The term originated when such compound documents were created using manual <a href="/wiki/Paste_up" title="Paste up">paste up</a> techniques for typographic <a href="/wiki/Page_layout" title="Page layout">page layout</a>. Actual brushes and paste were later replaced by hot-wax machines equipped with cylinders that applied melted adhesive wax to developed prints of "typeset" copy. This copy was then cut out with knives and rulers, and slid into position on layout sheets on slanting layout tables. After the "copy" had been correctly positioned and squared up using a T-square and set square, it was pressed down with a brayer, or roller. The whole point of the exercise was to create so-called "camera-ready copy" which existed only to be photographed and then printed, usually by <a href="/wiki/Offset_lithography" class="mw-redirect" title="Offset lithography">offset lithography</a>.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dead_key" title="Dead key">dead key</a> – a key that, when typed, does not advance the typing position, thus allowing another character to be overstruck on top of the original character. This was typically used to combine <a href="/wiki/Diacritical_mark" class="mw-redirect" title="Diacritical mark">diacritical marks</a> with letters they modified (e.g. è can be generated by first pressing <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1249182868"><kbd class="keyboard-key nowrap">`</kbd> and then <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1249182868"><kbd class="keyboard-key nowrap">e</kbd>). In Europe, where most languages have diacritics, a typical mechanical arrangement meant that hitting the accent key typed the symbol but did not advance the carriage, consequently the next character to be typed 'landed' on the same position. It was this method that carried across to the computer age whereas an alternative method (press the space bar simultaneously) did not.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Line_feed" class="mw-redirect" title="Line feed">line feed</a> (LF), also called "newline" – Whereas most typewriters rolled the paper forward automatically on a "carriage return), this is an explicit <a href="/wiki/Control_character" title="Control character">control character</a> on computer systems that moves the <a href="/wiki/Cursor_(computers)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cursor (computers)">cursor</a> to the next on-screen line of text.<a href="#cite_note-:4-132">[132]</a> (But not to the beginning of that line – a CR is also needed if that effect is desired.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shift_key" title="Shift key">shift</a> – a <a href="/wiki/Modifier_key" title="Modifier key">modifier key</a> used to type capital letters and other alternate "upper case" characters; when pressed and held down, would shift a typewriter's mechanism to allow a different typebar impression (such as 'D' instead of 'd') to press into the ribbon and print on a page. The concept of a shift key or modifier key was later extended to <a href="/wiki/Ctrl" class="mw-redirect" title="Ctrl">Ctrl</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alt_key" title="Alt key">Alt</a>, <a href="/wiki/AltGr" class="mw-redirect" title="AltGr">AltGr</a> and Super ("Windows" or "Apple") keys on modern computer keyboards. The generalized concept of a shift key reached its apex in the <a href="/wiki/MIT" class="mw-redirect" title="MIT">MIT</a> <a href="/wiki/Space-cadet_keyboard" title="Space-cadet keyboard">space-cadet keyboard</a>.<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabulator_key" class="mw-redirect" title="Tabulator key">tab</a> (HT), shortened from "horizontal tab" or "tabulator stop" – caused the print position to advance horizontally to the next pre-set "tab stop". This was used for typing lists and tables with vertical columns of numbers or words.<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Vertical_tab" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertical tab">vertical tab</a> (VT) control character, named by analogy with HT, was designed for use with early computer <a href="/wiki/Line_printer" title="Line printer">line printers</a>, and would cause the <a href="/wiki/Fan-fold_paper" class="mw-redirect" title="Fan-fold paper">fan-fold paper</a> to be fed until the next line's position.</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tty_(Unix)" title="Tty (Unix)">tty</a>, short for <a href="/wiki/Teletypewriter" class="mw-redirect" title="Teletypewriter">teletypewriter</a> – used in <a href="/wiki/Unix-like" title="Unix-like">Unix-like</a> operating systems to designate a given "terminal".<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Social_effects">Social effects</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Typewriter&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Social effects">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CantYouSeeImBusyCardCropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/CantYouSeeImBusyCardCropped.jpg/170px-CantYouSeeImBusyCardCropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/CantYouSeeImBusyCardCropped.jpg/255px-CantYouSeeImBusyCardCropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/CantYouSeeImBusyCardCropped.jpg/340px-CantYouSeeImBusyCardCropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="955" data-file-height="885" /></a><figcaption>Humorous "Get out! Can't you see I'm busy" postcard (1900s)</figcaption></figure> When Remington started marketing typewriters, the company assumed the machine would not be used for composing but for transcribing dictation, and that the person typing would be a woman. The 1800s <a href="/wiki/Sholes_and_Glidden_typewriter" title="Sholes and Glidden typewriter">Sholes and Glidden typewriter</a> had floral ornamentation on the case.<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> During World Wars I and II, increasing numbers of <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_roles_in_the_World_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Women's roles in the World Wars">women</a> were entering the workforce. In the United States, women often started in the professional workplace as <a href="/wiki/Copy_typist" title="Copy typist">copy typists</a>. Being a typist was considered the right choice for a "good girl", meaning women who present themselves as being chaste and having good conduct.<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> According to the 1900 census, 94.9% of stenographers and typists were unmarried women.<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> This also led to an increase in schools and classes for typing in order to prepare for a future job.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Moreover, the word "typewriter" also became associated with the women who typed during the timeperiod.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Questions about morals made a salacious businessman making sexual advances to a female typist into a cliché of office life, appearing in <a href="/wiki/Vaudeville" title="Vaudeville">vaudeville</a> and movies. The "<a href="/wiki/Tijuana_bible" title="Tijuana bible">Tijuana bibles</a>" – adult comic books produced in Mexico for the American market, starting in the 1930s – often featured women typists. In one panel, a businessman in a three-piece suit, ogling his secretary's thigh, says, "Miss Higby, are you ready for—ahem!—er—dictation?"<a href="#cite_note-ja-68">[68]</a> The typewriter was a useful machine during the censorship era of the Soviet government, starting during the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Civil_War" title="Russian Civil War">Russian Civil War</a> (1917–1922). <a href="/wiki/Samizdat" title="Samizdat">Samizdat</a> was a form of surreptitious self-publication used when the government was censoring what literature the public could see. The Soviet government signed a <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Decree" title="Soviet Decree">Decree on Press</a> which prohibited the publishing of any written work that had not been previously officially reviewed and approved.<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> Unapproved work was copied manually, most often on typewriters.<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> In 1983, a new law required anyone who needed a typewriter to get police permission to buy or keep one. In addition, the owner would have to register a typed sample of all its letters and numbers, to ensure that any illegal literature typed with it could be traced back to its source.<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> The typewriter became increasingly popular as the interest in prohibited books grew.<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Writers_with_notable_associations_with_typewriters">Writers with notable associations with typewriters</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Typewriter&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Writers with notable associations with typewriters">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_adopters">Early adopters</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Typewriter&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Early adopters">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henry_James" title="Henry James">Henry James</a> dictated to a typist.<a href="#cite_note-ja-68">[68]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Twain" title="Mark Twain">Mark Twain</a> claimed in <a href="/wiki/Mark_Twain%27s_Autobiography" class="mw-redirect" title="Mark Twain's Autobiography">his autobiography</a> that he was the first important writer to present a publisher with a typewritten <a href="/wiki/Manuscript" title="Manuscript">manuscript</a>, for <a href="/wiki/The_Adventures_of_Tom_Sawyer" title="The Adventures of Tom Sawyer">The Adventures of Tom Sawyer</a> (1876). Research showed that Twain's memory was incorrect and that the first book submitted in typed form was <a href="/wiki/Life_on_the_Mississippi" title="Life on the Mississippi">Life on the Mississippi</a> (1883, also by Twain).<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Others">Others</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Typewriter&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Others">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:TheFaulknerPortable.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/TheFaulknerPortable.jpg/220px-TheFaulknerPortable.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/TheFaulknerPortable.jpg/330px-TheFaulknerPortable.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/TheFaulknerPortable.jpg/440px-TheFaulknerPortable.jpg 2x" data-file-width="591" data-file-height="412" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/William_Faulkner" title="William Faulkner">William Faulkner</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Underwood_Typewriter_Company" title="Underwood Typewriter Company">Underwood</a> Universal Portable in his office at <a href="/wiki/Rowan_Oak" title="Rowan Oak">Rowan Oak</a>, which is now maintained by the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Mississippi" title="University of Mississippi">University of Mississippi</a> in <a href="/wiki/Oxford,_Mississippi" title="Oxford, Mississippi">Oxford</a> as a museum</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_S._Burroughs" title="William S. Burroughs">William S. Burroughs</a> wrote in some of his novels – and possibly believed – that "a machine he called the 'Soft Typewriter' was writing our lives, and our books, into existence", according to a book review in The New Yorker. In the <a href="/wiki/Naked_Lunch_(film)" title="Naked Lunch (film)">1991 film adaptation</a> of his 1959 novel <a href="/wiki/Naked_Lunch" title="Naked Lunch">Naked Lunch</a>, his typewriter is a living, insect-like entity (voiced by North American actor <a href="/wiki/Peter_Boretski" title="Peter Boretski">Peter Boretski</a>) and actually dictates the book to him.<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._R._R._Tolkien" title="J. R. R. Tolkien">J. R. R. Tolkien</a> was accustomed to typing from awkward positions: "balancing his typewriter on his attic bed, because there was no room on his desk".<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Kerouac" title="Jack Kerouac">Jack Kerouac</a>, a fast typist at 100 words per minute, typed his 1957 novel <a href="/wiki/On_the_Road" title="On the Road">On the Road</a> on a roll of paper so he would not be interrupted by having to change the paper. Within two weeks of starting to write On the Road, Kerouac had one single-spaced paragraph, 120 feet (37 m) long. Some scholars say the scroll was shelf paper; others contend it was a Thermal-fax roll; another theory is that the roll consisted of sheets of architect's paper taped together.<a href="#cite_note-ja-68">[68]</a> Kerouac himself stated that he used 100-foot (30 m) rolls of <a href="/wiki/Teletype" class="mw-redirect" title="Teletype">teletype</a> paper.<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Don_Marquis" title="Don Marquis">Don Marquis</a> purposely used the limitations of a typewriter (or more precisely, a particular typist) in his <a href="/wiki/Archy_and_mehitabel" class="mw-redirect" title="Archy and mehitabel">archy and mehitabel</a> series of newspaper columns, which were later compiled into a series of books. According to his literary conceit, a <a href="/wiki/Cockroach" title="Cockroach">cockroach</a> named "Archy" was a <a href="/wiki/Reincarnation" title="Reincarnation">reincarnated</a> <a href="/wiki/Free_verse" title="Free verse">free-verse</a> poet, who would type articles overnight by jumping onto the keys of a manual typewriter. The writings were typed completely in lower case, because of the cockroach's inability to generate the heavy force needed to operate the shift key. The lone exception is the poem "CAPITALS AT LAST" from archys life of mehitabel, written in 1933.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_users">Late users</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Typewriter&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Late users">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Polt" title="Richard Polt">Richard Polt</a>, a philosophy professor at <a href="/wiki/Xavier_University" title="Xavier University">Xavier University</a> in Cincinnati who collects typewriters, has edited ETCetera, a quarterly magazine about historic writing machines, and is the author of the book The Typewriter Revolution: A Typist's Companion for the 21st Century.<a href="#cite_note-PoltBook-109">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-PoltWeb-38">[38]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Gibson" title="William Gibson">William Gibson</a> used a Hermes 2000 model manual typewriter to write his 1984 novel <a href="/wiki/Neuromancer" title="Neuromancer">Neuromancer</a> and half of <a href="/wiki/Count_Zero" title="Count Zero">Count Zero</a> (1983) before a mechanical failure and lack of replacement parts forced him to upgrade to an <a href="/wiki/Apple_IIc" title="Apple IIc">Apple IIc</a> computer.<a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlan_Ellison" title="Harlan Ellison">Harlan Ellison</a> used typewriters for his entire career, and when he was no longer able to have them repaired, learned to do it himself; he repeatedly stated his belief that computers are bad for writing, maintaining that "Art is not supposed to be easier!"<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cormac_McCarthy" title="Cormac McCarthy">Cormac McCarthy</a> wrote his novels on an <a href="/wiki/Olivetti_Lettera_32" class="mw-redirect" title="Olivetti Lettera 32">Olivetti Lettera 32</a> typewriter until his death. In 2009, the Lettera he obtained from a pawn shop in 1963, on which nearly all his novels and screenplays were written, was auctioned for charity at <a href="/wiki/Christie%27s" title="Christie's">Christie's</a> for US$254,500;<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> McCarthy obtained an identical replacement for $20 to continue writing on.<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a><a href="#cite_note-Joiner-153">[153]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Will_Self" title="Will Self">Will Self</a> explains why he uses a manual typewriter: "I think the computer user does their thinking on the screen, and the non-computer user is compelled, because he or she has to retype a whole text, to do a lot more thinking in the head."<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ted_Kaczynski" title="Ted Kaczynski">Ted Kaczynski</a> (the "Unabomber") infamously used two old manual typewriters to write his polemic essays and messages.<a href="#cite_note-Joiner-153">[153]</a></li> <li>Actor <a href="/wiki/Tom_Hanks" title="Tom Hanks">Tom Hanks</a> uses and collects manual typewriters.<a href="#cite_note-NY_Times_typewriter-155">[155]</a><a href="#cite_note-Joiner-153">[153]</a> To control the size of his collection, he gifts autographed machines to appreciative fans and repair shops around the world.<a href="#cite_note-Patkin-156">[156]</a></li> <li>Historian <a href="/wiki/David_McCullough" title="David McCullough">David McCullough</a> used a Royal typewriter to compose his books.<a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a></li> <li>Biographer <a href="/wiki/Robert_Caro" title="Robert Caro">Robert Caro</a> has used various models of the Smith Corona Electra 210 to write his biographies of <a href="/wiki/Robert_Moses" title="Robert Moses">Robert Moses</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Lyndon Johnson</a>.<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Typewriters_in_popular_culture">Typewriters in popular culture</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Typewriter&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Typewriters in popular culture">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_music">In music</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Typewriter&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: In music">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Erik_Satie" title="Erik Satie">Erik Satie</a>'s 1917 score for the ballet <a href="/wiki/Parade_(ballet)" title="Parade (ballet)">Parade</a> includes a "Mach. à écrire" as a percussion instrument, along with (elsewhere) a <a href="/wiki/Roulette_wheel" class="mw-redirect" title="Roulette wheel">roulette wheel</a> and a pistol.<a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a></li> <li>The composer <a href="/wiki/Leroy_Anderson" title="Leroy Anderson">Leroy Anderson</a> wrote <a href="/wiki/The_Typewriter" title="The Typewriter">The Typewriter</a> (1950) for orchestra and typewriter, and it has since been used as the theme for numerous radio programs. The solo instrument is a real typewriter played by a percussionist. The piece was later made famous by comedian <a href="/wiki/Jerry_Lewis" title="Jerry Lewis">Jerry Lewis</a> as part of his regular routine both on screen and stage, most notably in the 1963 film <a href="/wiki/Who%27s_Minding_the_Store%3F" title="Who's Minding the Store?">Who's Minding the Store?</a>.</li> <li>A typewriter plays an integral part (and is used on stage as a <a href="/wiki/Prop" title="Prop">prop</a>) in the song 'Opening Doors', from <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Sondheim" title="Stephen Sondheim">Stephen Sondheim</a>'s musical <a href="/wiki/Merrily_We_Roll_Along_(musical)" title="Merrily We Roll Along (musical)">Merrily We Roll Along</a> (1981).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wordy_Rappinghood" title="Wordy Rappinghood">Wordy Rappinghood</a>, a 1981 single by <a href="/wiki/Tom_Tom_Club" title="Tom Tom Club">Tom Tom Club</a>, opens with the sound of a typewriter.</li> <li>Typewriter samples are woven into the texture of 'Dissidents', the opening track of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Dolby" title="Thomas Dolby">Thomas Dolby</a>'s 1984 album <a href="/wiki/The_Flat_Earth" title="The Flat Earth">The Flat Earth</a>.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Boston_Typewriter_Orchestra" title="Boston Typewriter Orchestra">Boston Typewriter Orchestra</a> (BTO), a comedic musical percussion group, has performed at numerous art festivals, clubs, and parties since 2004.<a href="#cite_note-NPR-BTO-160">[160]</a><a href="#cite_note-BTO-161">[161]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Richter" title="Max Richter">Max Richter</a>'s <a href="/wiki/The_Blue_Notebooks" title="The Blue Notebooks">The Blue Notebooks</a> (2004) features the sound of the typewriter underneath the narration of <a href="/wiki/Tilda_Swinton" title="Tilda Swinton">Tilda Swinton</a>.<a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a></li> <li>South Korean improviser Ryu Hankil frequently performs on typewriters, most prominently in his 2009 album Becoming Typewriter.<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other">Other</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Typewriter&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Other">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nationale_kampioenschap_typen_in_Den_Haag,_Bestanddeelnr_906-7443.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Nationale_kampioenschap_typen_in_Den_Haag%2C_Bestanddeelnr_906-7443.jpg/220px-Nationale_kampioenschap_typen_in_Den_Haag%2C_Bestanddeelnr_906-7443.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Nationale_kampioenschap_typen_in_Den_Haag%2C_Bestanddeelnr_906-7443.jpg/330px-Nationale_kampioenschap_typen_in_Den_Haag%2C_Bestanddeelnr_906-7443.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Nationale_kampioenschap_typen_in_Den_Haag%2C_Bestanddeelnr_906-7443.jpg/440px-Nationale_kampioenschap_typen_in_Den_Haag%2C_Bestanddeelnr_906-7443.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3421" data-file-height="2833" /></a><figcaption>Typewriting speed competition (The Hague, 1954)</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>The 2012 French comedy movie <a href="/wiki/Populaire_(film)" title="Populaire (film)">Populaire</a>, starring Romain Duris and Déborah François, centers on a young secretary in the 1950s striving to win typewriting speed competitions.<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a></li> <li>The manga (2015–2020) and anime (2018) <a href="/wiki/Violet_Evergarden" title="Violet Evergarden">Violet Evergarden</a> series follows a disabled war veteran who learns to type because her handwriting has been impaired, and soon she becomes a popular typist.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_Typewriter" title="California Typewriter">California Typewriter</a>, a 2016 documentary film, investigates the culture of typewriter enthusiasts, including an <a href="/wiki/Eponymous" class="mw-redirect" title="Eponymous">eponymous</a> repair store in Berkeley, California.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Forensic_examination">Forensic examination</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Typewriter&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Forensic examination">edit</a>]</div> Typewritten documents may be examined by <a href="/wiki/Questioned_document_examination" title="Questioned document examination">forensic document examiners</a>. This is done primarily to determine 1) the make and/or model of the typewriter used to produce a document, or 2) whether or not a particular suspect typewriter might have been used to produce a document.<a href="#cite_note-Kelly-165">[165]</a> The determination of a make and/or model of typewriter is a 'classification' problem and several systems have been developed for this purpose.<a href="#cite_note-Kelly-165">[165]</a> These include the original Haas Typewriter Atlases (Pica version)<a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> and (Non-Pica version)<a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a> and the TYPE system developed by Philip Bouffard,<a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Canadian_Mounted_Police" title="Royal Canadian Mounted Police">Royal Canadian Mounted Police</a>'s Termatrex Typewriter classification system,<a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Interpol" title="Interpol">Interpol</a>'s typewriter classification system,<a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a> among others.<a href="#cite_note-Kelly-165">[165]</a> The earliest reference in fictional literature to the potential identification of a typewriter as having produced a document was by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, who wrote the Sherlock Holmes short story "<a href="/wiki/A_Case_of_Identity" title="A Case of Identity">A Case of Identity</a>" in 1891.<a href="#cite_note-crown-171">[171]</a> In non-fiction, the first <a href="/wiki/Forensic_document_examination" class="mw-redirect" title="Forensic document examination">document examiner</a><a href="#cite_note-crown-171">[171]</a> to describe how a typewriter might be identified was William E. Hagan who wrote, in 1894, "All typewriter machines, even when using the same kind of type, become more or less peculiar by use as to the work done by them".<a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a> Other early discussions of the topic were provided by <a href="/wiki/Albert_S._Osborn" title="Albert S. Osborn">A. S. Osborn</a> in his 1908 treatise, Typewriting as Evidence,<a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a> and again in his 1929 textbook, Questioned Documents.<a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a> A modern description of the examination procedure is laid out in ASTM Standard E2494-08 (Standard Guide for Examination of Typewritten Items).<a href="#cite_note-astm_TW-175">[175]</a> Typewriter examination was used in the <a href="/wiki/Leopold_and_Loeb" title="Leopold and Loeb">Leopold and Loeb</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alger_Hiss" title="Alger Hiss">Alger Hiss</a> cases. In the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a>, typewriters (together with <a href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing presses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Copy_machine" class="mw-redirect" title="Copy machine">copy machines</a>, and later <a href="/wiki/Printer_(computing)" title="Printer (computing)">computer printers</a>) were a controlled technology, with <a href="/wiki/Secret_police" title="Secret police">secret police</a> in charge of maintaining records of the typewriters and their owners.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>, the <a href="/wiki/First_Department" title="First Department">First Department</a> of each organization sent data on organization's typewriters to the <a href="/wiki/KGB" title="KGB">KGB</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] This posed a significant risk for dissidents and <a href="/wiki/Samizdat" title="Samizdat">samizdat</a> authors. In <a href="/wiki/Socialist_Republic_of_Romania" title="Socialist Republic of Romania">Romania</a>, according to State Council Decree No. 98 of March 28, 1983, owning a typewriter, both by businesses or by private persons, was subject to an approval given by the local police authorities. People previously convicted of any crime or those who because of their behaviour were considered to be "a danger to public order or to the security of the state" were refused approval. In addition, once a year, typewriter owners had to take the typewriter to the local police station, where they would be asked to type a sample of all the typewriter's characters. It was also forbidden to borrow, lend, or repair typewriters other than at the places that had been authorized by the police.<a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a><a href="#cite_note-177">[177]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Collections">Collections</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Typewriter&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Collections">edit</a>]</div> Public and private collections of typewriters exist around the world, including:<a href="#cite_note-Ways-178">[178]</a> <ul><li>Schreibmaschinenmuseum Peter Mitterhofer (Parcines, Italy)<a href="#cite_note-179">[179]</a></li> <li>Museo della Macchina da Scrivere (Milan, Italy)<a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a></li> <li>Liverpool Typewriter Museum (Liverpool, England)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Printing#Collection" title="Museum of Printing">Museum of Printing</a> – MoP (Haverhill, Massachusetts, US)</li> <li>Chestnut Ridge Typewriter Museum (Fairmont, West Virginia, US)</li> <li>Technical Museum of the Empordà (Figueres, Girona, Spain)</li> <li>Musée de la machine à écrire (Lausanne, Switzerland)<a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a></li> <li>Lu Hanbin Typewriter Museum Shanghai (Shanghai, China)</li> <li>Wattens Typewriter Museum (Wattens, Austria)</li> <li>German Typewriter Museum (Bayreuth, Germany)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tayfun_Talipo%C4%9Flu_Typewriter_Museum" title="Tayfun Talipoğlu Typewriter Museum">Tayfun Talipoğlu Typewriter Museum</a> (Odunpazarı, Eskişehir, Turkey)</li></ul> Several online-only virtual museums collect and display information about typewriters and their history: <ul><li>Virtual Typewriter Museum<a href="#cite_note-182">[182]</a></li> <li>Chuck & Rich's Antique Typewriter Website</li> <li>Mr. Martin's Typewriter Museum<a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gallery">Gallery</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Typewriter&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Gallery">edit</a>]</div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional center"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:1864_Schreibmaschine_Peter_Mitterhofer.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Peter Mitterhofer 1864 typewriter"><img alt="Peter Mitterhofer 1864 typewriter" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/1864_Schreibmaschine_Peter_Mitterhofer.jpg/120px-1864_Schreibmaschine_Peter_Mitterhofer.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/1864_Schreibmaschine_Peter_Mitterhofer.jpg/180px-1864_Schreibmaschine_Peter_Mitterhofer.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/1864_Schreibmaschine_Peter_Mitterhofer.jpg/240px-1864_Schreibmaschine_Peter_Mitterhofer.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3168" data-file-height="2376" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Peter Mitterhofer 1864 typewriter</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Skrivekugle_1870.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Hansen Writing Ball, invented in 1865 (1870 model)"><img alt="Hansen Writing Ball, invented in 1865 (1870 model)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Skrivekugle_1870.jpg/120px-Skrivekugle_1870.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="89" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Skrivekugle_1870.jpg/180px-Skrivekugle_1870.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Skrivekugle_1870.jpg/240px-Skrivekugle_1870.jpg 2x" data-file-width="448" data-file-height="334" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Hansen_Writing_Ball" title="Hansen Writing Ball">Hansen Writing Ball</a>, invented in 1865 (1870 model)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Drawing_for_a_Typewriter_-_NARA_-_595503_(page_1).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="1868 patent drawing for the Sholes, Glidden, and Soule typewriter"><img alt="1868 patent drawing for the Sholes, Glidden, and Soule typewriter" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Drawing_for_a_Typewriter_-_NARA_-_595503_%28page_1%29.jpg/84px-Drawing_for_a_Typewriter_-_NARA_-_595503_%28page_1%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="84" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Drawing_for_a_Typewriter_-_NARA_-_595503_%28page_1%29.jpg/126px-Drawing_for_a_Typewriter_-_NARA_-_595503_%28page_1%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Drawing_for_a_Typewriter_-_NARA_-_595503_%28page_1%29.jpg/168px-Drawing_for_a_Typewriter_-_NARA_-_595503_%28page_1%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="842" data-file-height="1200" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">1868 <a href="/wiki/Patent_drawing" title="Patent drawing">patent drawing</a> for the Sholes, Glidden, and Soule typewriter</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Hammond_1B_typewriter.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Hammond 1B typewriter, invented 1870s, manufactured 1881"><img alt="Hammond 1B typewriter, invented 1870s, manufactured 1881" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Hammond_1B_typewriter.png/120px-Hammond_1B_typewriter.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Hammond_1B_typewriter.png/180px-Hammond_1B_typewriter.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Hammond_1B_typewriter.png/240px-Hammond_1B_typewriter.png 2x" data-file-width="796" data-file-height="661" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Hammond 1B typewriter, invented 1870s, manufactured 1881</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:1910s_typewriter.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Hammond 1B, as used by a newspaper office in Saskatoon around 1910"><img alt="Hammond 1B, as used by a newspaper office in Saskatoon around 1910" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/1910s_typewriter.jpg/120px-1910s_typewriter.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="68" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/1910s_typewriter.jpg/180px-1910s_typewriter.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/1910s_typewriter.jpg/240px-1910s_typewriter.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2832" data-file-height="1593" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Hammond 1B, as used by a newspaper office in <a href="/wiki/Saskatoon" title="Saskatoon">Saskatoon</a> around 1910</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Quartermaster_Corps_soldiers_in_typewriter_repair_shop_at_Tours,_France,_1919_(29992301794).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="US Army Quartermaster soldiers in typewriter repair shop, Tours, France, 1919"><img alt="US Army Quartermaster soldiers in typewriter repair shop, Tours, France, 1919" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Quartermaster_Corps_soldiers_in_typewriter_repair_shop_at_Tours%2C_France%2C_1919_%2829992301794%29.jpg/120px-Quartermaster_Corps_soldiers_in_typewriter_repair_shop_at_Tours%2C_France%2C_1919_%2829992301794%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="89" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Quartermaster_Corps_soldiers_in_typewriter_repair_shop_at_Tours%2C_France%2C_1919_%2829992301794%29.jpg/180px-Quartermaster_Corps_soldiers_in_typewriter_repair_shop_at_Tours%2C_France%2C_1919_%2829992301794%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Quartermaster_Corps_soldiers_in_typewriter_repair_shop_at_Tours%2C_France%2C_1919_%2829992301794%29.jpg/240px-Quartermaster_Corps_soldiers_in_typewriter_repair_shop_at_Tours%2C_France%2C_1919_%2829992301794%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3040" data-file-height="2256" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">US Army Quartermaster soldiers in typewriter repair shop, Tours, France, 1919</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Typewriters.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Typebars in a 1920s typewriter"><img alt="Typebars in a 1920s typewriter" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Typewriters.jpg/120px-Typewriters.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="89" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Typewriters.jpg/180px-Typewriters.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Typewriters.jpg/240px-Typewriters.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2689" data-file-height="1998" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Typebars in a 1920s typewriter</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Chinese_typewriter.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Chinese typewriter produced by Shuangge, with 2,450 characters"><img alt="Chinese typewriter produced by Shuangge, with 2,450 characters" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Chinese_typewriter.jpg/120px-Chinese_typewriter.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="81" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Chinese_typewriter.jpg/180px-Chinese_typewriter.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Chinese_typewriter.jpg/240px-Chinese_typewriter.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1377" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_typewriter" title="Chinese typewriter">Chinese typewriter</a> produced by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Shuangge&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shuangge (page does not exist)">Shuangge</a>, with 2,450 characters</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Japanese_typewriter_SH-280.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Japanese typewriter SH-280, a small machine with 2,268 characters"><img alt="Japanese typewriter SH-280, a small machine with 2,268 characters" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Japanese_typewriter_SH-280.jpg/120px-Japanese_typewriter_SH-280.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="112" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Japanese_typewriter_SH-280.jpg/180px-Japanese_typewriter_SH-280.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Japanese_typewriter_SH-280.jpg/240px-Japanese_typewriter_SH-280.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1540" data-file-height="1443" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Japanese_typewriter" title="Japanese typewriter">Japanese typewriter</a> SH-280, a small machine with 2,268 characters</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Typemachine_binnenkant.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Hermes 3000 typewriter"><img alt="Hermes 3000 typewriter" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Typemachine_binnenkant.JPG/120px-Typemachine_binnenkant.JPG" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Typemachine_binnenkant.JPG/180px-Typemachine_binnenkant.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Typemachine_binnenkant.JPG/240px-Typemachine_binnenkant.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Hermes_typewriters" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Hermes typewriters">Hermes 3000 typewriter</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:1920s_Underwood_SE_layout.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="1920s Underwood typewriter with Swedish layout"><img alt="1920s Underwood typewriter with Swedish layout" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/1920s_Underwood_SE_layout.JPG/120px-1920s_Underwood_SE_layout.JPG" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/1920s_Underwood_SE_layout.JPG/180px-1920s_Underwood_SE_layout.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/1920s_Underwood_SE_layout.JPG/240px-1920s_Underwood_SE_layout.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2520" data-file-height="2520" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">1920s Underwood typewriter with Swedish layout</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Chinese_typewriter_at_Deutsche_Technikmuseum.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Chinese typewriter at Deutsches Technikmuseum"><img alt="Chinese typewriter at Deutsches Technikmuseum" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Chinese_typewriter_at_Deutsche_Technikmuseum.jpg/120px-Chinese_typewriter_at_Deutsche_Technikmuseum.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Chinese_typewriter_at_Deutsche_Technikmuseum.jpg/180px-Chinese_typewriter_at_Deutsche_Technikmuseum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Chinese_typewriter_at_Deutsche_Technikmuseum.jpg/240px-Chinese_typewriter_at_Deutsche_Technikmuseum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1936" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Chinese typewriter at Deutsches Technikmuseum</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:MEK_II-327.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="typewriter robotron S 1001 from VEB Robotron-Elektronik at the GDR, this sample is owned by the MEK"><img alt="typewriter robotron S 1001 from VEB Robotron-Elektronik at the GDR, this sample is owned by the MEK" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/MEK_II-327.jpg/85px-MEK_II-327.jpg" decoding="async" width="85" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/MEK_II-327.jpg/127px-MEK_II-327.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/MEK_II-327.jpg/169px-MEK_II-327.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2201" data-file-height="3118" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">typewriter robotron S 1001 from <a href="/wiki/VEB_Robotron" title="VEB Robotron">VEB Robotron</a>-Elektronik at the <a href="/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany">GDR</a>, this sample is owned by the <a href="/wiki/Museum_Europ%C3%A4ischer_Kulturen" title="Museum Europäischer Kulturen">MEK</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B4%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%B1_%D9%85%D8%B8%D9%81%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%87_%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B1.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Personal typewriter of Mozaffar ad-Din Shah Qajar, the fifth Qajar king of Persia (Iran), made in late 19th century"><img alt="Personal typewriter of Mozaffar ad-Din Shah Qajar, the fifth Qajar king of Persia (Iran), made in late 19th century" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B4%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%B1_%D9%85%D8%B8%D9%81%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%87_%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B1.jpg/120px-%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B4%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%B1_%D9%85%D8%B8%D9%81%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%87_%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B1.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B4%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%B1_%D9%85%D8%B8%D9%81%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%87_%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B1.jpg/180px-%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B4%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%B1_%D9%85%D8%B8%D9%81%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%87_%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B4%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%B1_%D9%85%D8%B8%D9%81%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%87_%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B1.jpg/240px-%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B4%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%B1_%D9%85%D8%B8%D9%81%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%87_%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5472" data-file-height="3648" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Personal typewriter of <a href="/wiki/Mozaffar_ad-Din_Shah_Qajar" title="Mozaffar ad-Din Shah Qajar">Mozaffar ad-Din Shah Qajar</a>, the fifth Qajar king of Persia (Iran), made in late 19th century</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Olivetti_Studio_45_Green_Typewriter.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="An Olivetti Studio 45 Typewriter"><img alt="An Olivetti Studio 45 Typewriter" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Olivetti_Studio_45_Green_Typewriter.jpg/120px-Olivetti_Studio_45_Green_Typewriter.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Olivetti_Studio_45_Green_Typewriter.jpg/180px-Olivetti_Studio_45_Green_Typewriter.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Olivetti_Studio_45_Green_Typewriter.jpg/240px-Olivetti_Studio_45_Green_Typewriter.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4032" data-file-height="3024" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">An Olivetti Studio 45 Typewriter</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Typewriter&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chorded_keyboard" title="Chorded keyboard">Chorded keyboard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_keyboard" title="Computer keyboard">Computer keyboard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duplicating_machines" title="Duplicating machines">Duplicating machines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friden_Flexowriter" title="Friden Flexowriter">Friden Flexowriter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JOHNNIAC" title="JOHNNIAC">JOHNNIAC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Letter_(alphabet)" title="Letter (alphabet)">Letter (alphabet)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Projection_keyboard" title="Projection keyboard">Projection keyboard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teletype_Model_33" title="Teletype Model 33">Teletype Model 33</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Typeface" title="Typeface">Typeface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Typescript_(manuscript)" class="mw-redirect" title="Typescript (manuscript)">Typescript</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Typewriter_desk" title="Typewriter desk">Typewriter desk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UNIVAC_1102" title="UNIVAC 1102">UNIVAC 1102</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Typewriter&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFReference-OED2-typewriter_(2)" class="citation book cs1">"typewriter (2)". <a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a>. Vol. 18 (2nd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. 1989. p. 789.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=typewriter+%282%29&rft.btitle=Oxford+English+Dictionary&rft.pages=789&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCortada2015" class="citation book cs1">Cortada, James W. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dbl9BgAAQBAJ&pg=PT38">Before the Computer: IBM, NCR, Burroughs, and Remington Rand and the Industry They Created, 1865–1956</a>. Princeton University Press. p. 38. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-7276-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-7276-3"><bdi>978-1-4008-7276-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180626060339/https://books.google.com/books?id=dbl9BgAAQBAJ&pg=PT38">Archived</a> from the original on 26 June 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Before+the+Computer%3A+IBM%2C+NCR%2C+Burroughs%2C+and+Remington+Rand+and+the+Industry+They+Created%2C+1865%E2%80%931956&rft.pages=38&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-4008-7276-3&rft.aulast=Cortada&rft.aufirst=James+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Ddbl9BgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT38&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161227181833/http://www.officemuseum.com/typewriters.htm">"Typewriters"</a>. www.officemuseum.com. 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CRC Press. pp. 106–107. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8493-3925-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8493-3925-7"><bdi>978-0-8493-3925-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Scientific+Examination+of+Documents&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E106-%3C%2Fspan%3E107&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-8493-3925-7&rft.aulast=Ellen&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWershler-Henry2005" class="citation book cs1">Wershler-Henry, Darren (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ironwhim00wers/page/254">The Iron Whim: A Fragmented History of Typewriting</a>. Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ironwhim00wers/page/254">254</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-4586-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-4586-6"><bdi>978-0-8014-4586-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Iron+Whim%3A+A+Fragmented+History+of+Typewriting&rft.place=Ithaca+and+London&rft.pages=254&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-8014-4586-6&rft.aulast=Wershler-Henry&rft.aufirst=Darren&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fironwhim00wers%2Fpage%2F254&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-85">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_85-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_85-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/modelb/modelb_office2.html">"IBM Office Products Division highlights"</a>. 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The Boston Globe. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130826014156/http://www.boston.com/jobs/news/articles/2009/02/01/typewriters_ring_on_in_the_fringes/">Archived</a> from the original on 26 August 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Boston+Globe&rft.atitle=Typewriters+ring+on+in+the+fringes&rft.date=2009-02-01&rft.aulast=Keene&rft.aufirst=Cindy+Atoji&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.boston.com%2Fjobs%2Fnews%2Farticles%2F2009%2F02%2F01%2Ftypewriters_ring_on_in_the_fringes%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110503045910/http://www.rnw.nl/english/article/death-typewriter-dont-write-it-yet">"The death of the typewriter? 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Retrieved 30 March 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Texas+inmates+have+clear+choice+in+typewriters&rft.pub=Fixed-mobile-convergence.tmcnet.com&rft.date=2011-06-15&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffixed-mobile-convergence.tmcnet.com%2Fnews%2F2011%2F06%2F15%2F5574540.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCBC_News2011" class="citation news cs1">CBC News (26 April 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/business/world-s-last-typewriter-plant-stops-production-1.1090626">"World's last typewriter plant stops production"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110429015137/http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/story/2011/04/26/typewriter-factory-closing.html">Archived</a> from the original on 29 April 2011. 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Numerous other manufacturers continue to make several types of electric typewriters.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=World%27s+last+typewriter+plant+stops+production&rft.date=2011-04-26&rft.au=CBC+News&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cbc.ca%2Fnews%2Fbusiness%2Fworld-s-last-typewriter-plant-stops-production-1.1090626&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStanglin2011" class="citation web cs1">Stanglin, Douglas (26 April 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://content.usatoday.com/communities/ondeadline/post/2011/04/worlds-last-typewriter-factory-offers-it-final-500-machines-for-sale/1">"Wite Out? World's 'last typewriter factory' apparently isn't"</a>. 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Word Ways. 48 (4): 292–295.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Word+Ways&rft.atitle=AZERTY+%26+QWERTZ+keyboards&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E292-%3C%2Fspan%3E295&rft.date=2015-11-01&rft.aulast=Francis&rft.aufirst=Darryl&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgo.gale.com%2Fps%2Fi.do%3Fp%3DLitRC%26sw%3Dw%26issn%3D00437980%26v%3D2.1%26it%3Dr%26id%3DGALE%257CA435533172%26sid%3DgoogleScholar%26linkaccess%3Dabs&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKroemer2014" class="citation cs2">Kroemer, Karl H.E (2014), "Keyboards and keying an annotated bibliography of the literature from 1878 to 1999", Universal Access in the Information Society, 1 (2): 99–160, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs102090100012">10.1007/s102090100012</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:207064170">207064170</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Universal+Access+in+the+Information+Society&rft.atitle=Keyboards+and+keying+an+annotated+bibliography+of+the+literature+from+1878+to+1999&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E99-%3C%2Fspan%3E160&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs102090100012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A207064170%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Kroemer&rft.aufirst=Karl+H.E&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-David,_P.A._1986-119"><a href="#cite_ref-David,_P.A._1986_119-0">^</a> David, P. A. (1986). "Understanding the Economics of QWERTY: the Necessity of History". In Parker, William N., Economic History and the Modern Economist. Basil Blackwell, New York and Oxford. </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://library.duke.edu/digitalcollections/eaa_A0562/">"Instructions for Using the Blickensderfer Typewriter"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140221053745/http://library.duke.edu/digitalcollections/eaa_A0562/">Archived</a> from the original on 21 February 2014. Retrieved 3 January 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Instructions+for+Using+the+Blickensderfer+Typewriter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flibrary.duke.edu%2Fdigitalcollections%2Feaa_A0562%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130131061059/http://webstore.ansi.org/RecordDetail.aspx?sku=ANSI%20INCITS%20154-1988%20%28R1999%29">ANSI INCITS 154-1988 (R1999) Office Machines and Supplies – Alphanumeric Machines – Keyboard Arrangement (formerly ANSI X3.154-1988 (R1999))</a> (retrieved 2012-07-04) </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPurcell1974" class="citation journal cs1">Purcell, Edward T. (1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/306437">"Computer-Controlled Drills for First-Year Russian"</a>. The Slavic and East European Journal. 18 (1): 56–68. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F306437">10.2307/306437</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0037-6752">0037-6752</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/306437">306437</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Slavic+and+East+European+Journal&rft.atitle=Computer-Controlled+Drills+for+First-Year+Russian&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E56-%3C%2Fspan%3E68&rft.date=1974&rft.issn=0037-6752&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F306437%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F306437&rft.aulast=Purcell&rft.aufirst=Edward+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F306437&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMakinen2016" class="citation web cs1">Makinen, Julie (3 September 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.latimes.com/world/asia/la-fg-chinese-typewriter-snap-story.html">"Before the computer, there was something almost as complex: the Chinese typewriter"</a>. Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 27 April 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Los+Angeles+Times&rft.atitle=Before+the+computer%2C+there+was+something+almost+as+complex%3A+the+Chinese+typewriter&rft.date=2016-09-03&rft.aulast=Makinen&rft.aufirst=Julie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.latimes.com%2Fworld%2Fasia%2Fla-fg-chinese-typewriter-snap-story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBringhurst2004" class="citation book cs1">Bringhurst, Robert (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780881791327/page/80/mode/2up">The elements of typographic style</a> (third ed.). Hartley & Marks, Publishers. p. 80. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88179-206-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88179-206-5"><bdi>978-0-88179-206-5</bdi></a>. Retrieved 10 November 2020. <q>In typescript, a double hyphen (--) is often used for a long dash. Double hyphens in a typeset document are a sure sign that the type was set by a typist, not a typographer. A typographer will use an em dash, three-quarter em, or en dash, depending on context or personal style. The em dash is the nineteenth-century standard, still prescribed in many editorial style books, but the em dash is too long for use with the best text faces. Like the oversized space between sentences, it belongs to the padded and corseted aesthetic of Victorian typography.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+elements+of+typographic+style&rft.pages=80&rft.edition=third&rft.pub=Hartley+%26+Marks%2C+Publishers&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-88179-206-5&rft.aulast=Bringhurst&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780881791327%2Fpage%2F80%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUpper_and_Lower_Case_Magazine" class="citation web cs1">Upper and Lower Case Magazine. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.itcfonts.com/Ulc/4111/TopTenTypeCrimes.htm">"U&lc Online Issue 41.1.1: Top Ten Type Crimes"</a>. Retrieved 23 March 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=U%26lc+Online+Issue+41.1.1%3A+Top+Ten+Type+Crimes&rft.au=Upper+and+Lower+Case+Magazine&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.itcfonts.com%2FUlc%2F4111%2FTopTenTypeCrimes.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Wil03" class="citation book cs1">Williams, Robin (2003). The Mac is not a typewriter: A style manual for creating professional-level type on your Macintosh (2nd ed.). Berkeley, California: Peachpit Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-201-78263-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-201-78263-9"><bdi>978-0-201-78263-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Mac+is+not+a+typewriter%3A+A+style+manual+for+creating+professional-level+type+on+your+Macintosh&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+California&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Peachpit+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-201-78263-9&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Robin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFelici2003" class="citation book cs1">Felici, James (2003). The Complete Manual of Typography: A Guide to Setting Perfect Type. Berkeley, California: Peachpit Press. p. 80. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-321-12730-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-321-12730-3"><bdi>978-0-321-12730-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Complete+Manual+of+Typography%3A+A+Guide+to+Setting+Perfect+Type&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+California&rft.pages=80&rft.pub=Peachpit+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-321-12730-3&rft.aulast=Felici&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Ros09" class="citation book cs1">Rosendorf, Theodore (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/typographicdeskr0000rose">The Typographic Desk Reference</a> (1st ed.). New Castle, Delaware. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58456-231-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58456-231-3"><bdi>978-1-58456-231-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Typographic+Desk+Reference&rft.place=New+Castle%2C+Delaware&rft.edition=1st&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-58456-231-3&rft.aulast=Rosendorf&rft.aufirst=Theodore&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftypographicdeskr0000rose&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>); <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUpper_and_Lower_Case_Magazine" class="citation web cs1">Upper and Lower Case Magazine. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.itcfonts.com/Ulc/4111/TopTenTypeCrimes.htm">"U&lc Online Issue 41.1.1: Top Ten Type Crimes"</a>. Retrieved 23 March 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=U%26lc+Online+Issue+41.1.1%3A+Top+Ten+Type+Crimes&rft.au=Upper+and+Lower+Case+Magazine&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.itcfonts.com%2FUlc%2F4111%2FTopTenTypeCrimes.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988">; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Str11" class="citation book cs1">Strizver, Ilene (2010). Type Rules: The Designer's Guide to Professional Typography (3rd ed.). New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons. p. 199. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-54251-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-470-54251-4"><bdi>978-0-470-54251-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Type+Rules%3A+The+Designer%27s+Guide+to+Professional+Typography&rft.place=New+Jersey&rft.pages=199&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-470-54251-4&rft.aulast=Strizver&rft.aufirst=Ilene&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988">. Strizver states that "When available, true primes should be used for measurements, but typewriter quotes (not smart quotes) have become the accepted practice in digital typography." </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRegents_of_the_University_of_Minnesota2007" class="citation web cs1">Regents of the University of Minnesota (18 July 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090117122230/http://www1.umn.edu/urelate/style/copyprep.html">"University of Minnesota Style Manual"</a>. University of Minnesota. Regents of the University of Minnesota. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www1.umn.edu/urelate/style/copyprep.html#Anchor-Copy-47857">the original</a> on 17 January 2009. Retrieved 12 May 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=University+of+Minnesota&rft.atitle=University+of+Minnesota+Style+Manual&rft.date=2007-07-18&rft.au=Regents+of+the+University+of+Minnesota&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww1.umn.edu%2Furelate%2Fstyle%2Fcopyprep.html%23Anchor-Copy-47857&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"> This topic is discussed under "Creating Professional-looking Text."; Williams 2003. pps. 31, 33. Another example of the limitation of the typewriter in regard to underlining, was the necessity to underline the titles of books and stand-alone works in Bibliographies—works that would otherwise have been italicized, if that capability existed on the typewriter. </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTruss2004" class="citation book cs1">Truss, Lynn (2004). Eats, Shoot & Leaves: The Zero Tolerance Approach to Punctuation. New York: Gotham Books. p. 135. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59240-087-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59240-087-4"><bdi>978-1-59240-087-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eats%2C+Shoot+%26+Leaves%3A+The+Zero+Tolerance+Approach+to+Punctuation&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=135&rft.pub=Gotham+Books&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-59240-087-4&rft.aulast=Truss&rft.aufirst=Lynn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKelechava2016" class="citation web cs1">Kelechava, Brad (17 May 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://blog.ansi.org/2016/05/invention-of-backspace-key/">"Invention of the Backspace Key"</a>. The ANSI Blog. Retrieved 27 April 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+ANSI+Blog&rft.atitle=Invention+of+the+Backspace+Key&rft.date=2016-05-17&rft.aulast=Kelechava&rft.aufirst=Brad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fblog.ansi.org%2F2016%2F05%2Finvention-of-backspace-key%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-132">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_132-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_132-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://danielmiessler.com/study/crlf/">"The Carriage Return and Line Feed Characters"</a>. Daniel Miessler. Retrieved 27 April 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Daniel+Miessler&rft.atitle=The+Carriage+Return+and+Line+Feed+Characters&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdanielmiessler.com%2Fstudy%2Fcrlf%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStoll2020" class="citation web cs1">Stoll, Cliff (April 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.physics.wisc.edu/ingersollmuseum/wp-content/uploads/sites/10/2020/04/scientificamerican0506-80-WhenSlideRulesRuled.pdf">"When Slide Rules Ruled"</a> (PDF). Ingersoll Museum. Retrieved 27 April 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Ingersoll+Museum&rft.atitle=When+Slide+Rules+Ruled&rft.date=2020-04&rft.aulast=Stoll&rft.aufirst=Cliff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.physics.wisc.edu%2Fingersollmuseum%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2Fsites%2F10%2F2020%2F04%2Fscientificamerican0506-80-WhenSlideRulesRuled.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/media/2009/may/24/typewriter-versus-wordprocessor-technological-innovation">"John Naughton: Log on to an old-time typewriter; now try to cut and paste"</a>. the Guardian. 23 May 2009. Retrieved 27 April 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=the+Guardian&rft.atitle=John+Naughton%3A+Log+on+to+an+old-time+typewriter%3B+now+try+to+cut+and+paste&rft.date=2009-05-23&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fmedia%2F2009%2Fmay%2F24%2Ftypewriter-versus-wordprocessor-technological-innovation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://xahlee.info/kbd/space-cadet_design.html">"Keyboard Design for the LISP Machine"</a>. Xah Keyboard Guide. 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Typing Lounge. Retrieved 23 January 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Typing+Lounge&rft.atitle=10+Typewriter+Museums+You+Should+Visit&rft.date=2021-10-28&rft.aulast=Ways&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.typinglounge.com%2Ftypewriter-museums&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.schreibmaschinenmuseum.com/en/">"Schreib Maschinen Museum"</a>. Typewritermuseum. Retrieved 23 January 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Typewritermuseum&rft.atitle=Schreib+Maschinen+Museum&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.schreibmaschinenmuseum.com%2Fen%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.museodellamacchinadascrivere.org">"Museo della Macchina da Scrivere"</a>. Museo della macchina da scrivere (in Italian). Retrieved 23 January 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Museo+della+macchina+da+scrivere&rft.atitle=Museo+della+Macchina+da+Scrivere&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.museodellamacchinadascrivere.org&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perrier-sa.ch/musee/">"Musée de la Machine à Ecrire"</a>. Musée de la machine à écrire (in French). Perrier Machines de Bureau, Lausanne. Retrieved 23 January 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Mus%C3%A9e+de+la+machine+%C3%A0+%C3%A9crire&rft.atitle=Mus%C3%A9e+de+la+Machine+%C3%A0+Ecrire&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.perrier-sa.ch%2Fmusee%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobert" class="citation web cs1">Robert, Paul. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.typewritermuseum.org/index.html">"The Virtual Typewriter Museum"</a>. Retrieved 23 January 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Virtual+Typewriter+Museum&rft.aulast=Robert&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.typewritermuseum.org%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mrmartinweb.com/type.htm">"Typewriter Museum"</a>. www.mrmartinweb.com. Retrieved 23 January 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.mrmartinweb.com&rft.atitle=Typewriter+Museum&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mrmartinweb.com%2Ftype.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Patents">Patents</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Typewriter&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Patents">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://patents.google.com/patent/US79265">US79265</a> – Improvement in Type-Writing Machines (the patent that laid the basis for the Sholes & Glidden Type Writer)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://patents.google.com/patent/US349026">US349026</a> – typewriter ribbon, by George K. Anderson of Memphis, Tennessee.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Typewriter&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdler1973" class="citation book cs1">Adler, M. H. (1973). The Writing Machine: A History of the Typewriter. London: George Allen & Unwin. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/791210">791210</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Writing+Machine%3A+A+History+of+the+Typewriter&rft.place=London&rft.pub=George+Allen+%26+Unwin&rft.date=1973&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F791210&rft.aulast=Adler&rft.aufirst=M.+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdler2023" class="citation book cs1">Adler, M. H. (2023) [1973]. The Writing Machine: A History of the Typewriter. Routledge Revivals (Reprint ed.). London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781032481135" title="Special:BookSources/9781032481135"><bdi>9781032481135</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1381545570">1381545570</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Writing+Machine%3A+A+History+of+the+Typewriter&rft.place=London&rft.series=Routledge+Revivals&rft.edition=Reprint&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1381545570&rft.isbn=9781032481135&rft.aulast=Adler&rft.aufirst=M.+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeeching1974" class="citation book cs1">Beeching, Wilfred A. (1974). Century of the Typewriter. New York: St. Martin's Press. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1176993">1176993</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Century+of+the+Typewriter&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=St.+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=1974&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1176993&rft.aulast=Beeching&rft.aufirst=Wilfred+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">ISBN missing</a>] Beeching was the Director of the British Typewriter Museum. <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeeching1990" class="citation book cs1">Beeching, Wilfred A. (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/centuryoftypewri00beec">Century of the Typewriter</a> (2nd ed.). Bournemouth, UK: British Typewriter Museum Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780951679005" title="Special:BookSources/9780951679005"><bdi>9780951679005</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/24700251">24700251</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Century+of+the+Typewriter&rft.place=Bournemouth%2C+UK&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=British+Typewriter+Museum+Publishing&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F24700251&rft.isbn=9780951679005&rft.aulast=Beeching&rft.aufirst=Wilfred+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcenturyoftypewri00beec&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCasillo2017" class="citation book cs1">Casillo, Anthony (2017). Typewriters: Iconic Machines from the Golden Age of Mechanical Writing. Photographers: Anthony Casillo and Bruce Curtis; foreword: Tom Hanks. San Francisco: Chronical Books. p. 208. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781452154886" title="Special:BookSources/9781452154886"><bdi>9781452154886</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/959698333">959698333</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Typewriters%3A+Iconic+Machines+from+the+Golden+Age+of+Mechanical+Writing&rft.place=San+Francisco&rft.pages=208&rft.pub=Chronical+Books&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F959698333&rft.isbn=9781452154886&rft.aulast=Casillo&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPolt2015" class="citation book cs1">Polt, Richard (2015). The Typewriter Revolution: A Typist's Companion for the 21st Century. Woodstock, VT: The Countryman Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781581573114" title="Special:BookSources/9781581573114"><bdi>9781581573114</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/907103984">907103984</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Typewriter+Revolution%3A+A+Typist%27s+Companion+for+the+21st+Century&rft.place=Woodstock%2C+VT&rft.pub=The+Countryman+Press&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F907103984&rft.isbn=9781581573114&rft.aulast=Polt&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWichary2023" class="citation book cs1">Wichary, Marcin (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://shifthappens.site/">Shift Happens</a>. Lewiston, Maine: Penmor. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9798985873900" title="Special:BookSources/9798985873900"><bdi>9798985873900</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1420907615">1420907615</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shift+Happens&rft.place=Lewiston%2C+Maine&rft.pub=Penmor&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1420907615&rft.isbn=9798985873900&rft.aulast=Wichary&rft.aufirst=Marcin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fshifthappens.site%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATypewriter" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Typewriter&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/typewriter" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Special:Search/typewriter">typewriter</a> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Typewriter" class="extiw" title="commons:Typewriter">Typewriter</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eclectisaurus.com/tmtypewritermuseum.html">The Eclectisaurus online Museum of Typewriters by manufacturers from Adler to Voss.</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2y3HK9yTqYo">Most Definitely My Type</a> on <a href="/wiki/YouTube_video_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="YouTube video (identifier)">YouTube</a> Video showcasing historical typewriters, with soundtrack by <a href="/wiki/Boston_Typewriter_Orchestra" title="Boston Typewriter Orchestra">Boston Typewriter Orchestra</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.maquinasantigasdeescrever.com.br/historia.html">Oliveira Typewriter (em português)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090126014136/http://site.xavier.edu/polt/typewriters/etc.html">Early Typewriter Collectors' Association</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://site.xavier.edu/polt/typewriters/">The Classic Typewriter Page</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Revival">Revival</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Typewriter&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Revival">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://qctimes.com/news/opinion/editorial/columnists/bill-wundram/article_03dd1536-4423-11de-a7be-001cc4c002e0.html">Ding, click clack – typewriter is back</a> – <a href="/wiki/Quad-City_Times" title="Quad-City Times">Quad-City Times</a>, May 18, 2009</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.upi.com/Odd_News/2011/12/19/Typewriters-experience-a-comeback/UPI-30661324327372/">Typewriters experience a comeback</a> – <a href="/wiki/United_Press_International" title="United Press International">United Press International</a>, Dec. 19, 2011</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://typewritermovie.com/">Documentary Film – The Typewriter (In the 21st Century)</a> – 2012</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/russia/10173645/Kremlin-returns-to-typewriters-to-avoid-computer-leaks.html">Kremlin returns to typewriters to avoid computer leaks</a> – <a href="/wiki/The_Daily_Telegraph" title="The Daily Telegraph">The Daily Telegraph</a>, July 11, 2013</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jul/15/germany-typewriters-espionage-nsa-spying-surveillance">Germany 'may revert to typewriters' to counter hi-tech espionage</a> – <a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a>, July 15, 2014</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Typewriters123" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Typewriter" title="Template:Typewriter"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Typewriter" title="Template talk:Typewriter"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Typewriter" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Typewriter"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Typewriters123" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Typewriters</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Manufacturers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brother_Industries" title="Brother Industries">Brother</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commodore_International" title="Commodore International">Commodore International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._Remington_and_Sons" title="E. Remington and Sons">E. Remington and Sons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IBM" title="IBM">IBM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Typewriter_Company" title="Imperial Typewriter Company">Imperial Typewriter Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Typewriter_Company" title="Oliver Typewriter Company">Oliver Typewriter Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olivetti" title="Olivetti">Olivetti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olympia-Werke" title="Olympia-Werke">Olympia-Werke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Typewriter_Company" title="Royal Typewriter Company">Royal Typewriter Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharp_Corporation" title="Sharp Corporation">Sharp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silver_Seiko_Ltd." class="mw-redirect" title="Silver Seiko Ltd.">Silver Seiko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smith_Corona" title="Smith Corona">Smith Corona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwood_Typewriter_Company" title="Underwood Typewriter Company">Underwood Typewriter Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xerox" title="Xerox">Xerox</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Models</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blickensderfer_typewriter" title="Blickensderfer typewriter">Blickensderfer typewriter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_Recall_Diamond" title="Data Recall Diamond">Data Recall Diamond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hammond_Typewriter" title="Hammond Typewriter">Hammond Typewriter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hansen_Writing_Ball" title="Hansen Writing Ball">Hansen Writing Ball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IBM_Selectric" title="IBM Selectric">IBM Selectric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sholes_and_Glidden_typewriter" title="Sholes and Glidden typewriter">Sholes and Glidden typewriter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olivetti_Valentine" title="Olivetti Valentine">Olivetti Valentine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermes_3000" title="Hermes 3000">Hermes 3000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yatran_(typewriter)" title="Yatran (typewriter)">Yatran</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Prominent figures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lucien_Stephen_Crandall" title="Lucien Stephen Crandall">Lucien Stephen Crandall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Haven_Hall" title="Frank Haven Hall">Frank Haven Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Densmore" title="James Densmore">James Densmore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carlos_Glidden" title="Carlos Glidden">Carlos Glidden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rasmus_Malling-Hansen" title="Rasmus Malling-Hansen">Rasmus Malling-Hansen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Mill" title="Henry Mill">Henry Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Pratt_(inventor)" title="John Pratt (inventor)">John Pratt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarence_Seamans" title="Clarence Seamans">Clarence Seamans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Latham_Sholes" title="Christopher Latham Sholes">Christopher Sholes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Fields_Smathers" title="James Fields Smathers">James Fields Smathers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyman_Cornelius_Smith" title="Lyman Cornelius Smith">Lyman Cornelius Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_W._Soul%C3%A9" title="Samuel W. Soulé">Samuel W. Soulé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyota_Sugimoto" title="Kyota Sugimoto">Kyota Sugimoto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ettore_Sottsass" title="Ettore Sottsass">Ettore Sottsass</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Components</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Keyboard_layout" title="Keyboard layout">Keyboard layout</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AZERTY" title="AZERTY">AZERTY</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dvorak_keyboard_layout" title="Dvorak keyboard layout">Dvorak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keyboard_layout#Turkish_.28F-keyboard.29" title="Keyboard layout">Turkish F</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HCESAR" title="HCESAR">HCESAR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/QWERTY" title="QWERTY">QWERTY</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/QWERTZ" title="QWERTZ">QWERTZ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/QZERTY" class="mw-redirect" title="QZERTY">QZERTY</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platen" title="Platen">Platen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related equipment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_paper" title="Carbon paper">Carbon paper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correction_fluid" title="Correction fluid">Correction fluid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erasing_shield" title="Erasing shield">Erasing shield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ink_ribbon" title="Ink ribbon">Ink ribbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stenotype" title="Stenotype">Stenotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Typewriter_desk" title="Typewriter desk">Typewriter desk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Typewriter_eraser" class="mw-redirect" title="Typewriter eraser">Typewriter eraser</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other scripts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_typewriter" title="Chinese typewriter">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_typewriter" title="Japanese typewriter">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thai_typewriter" title="Thai typewriter">Thai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cultural and health aspects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boston_Typewriter_Orchestra" title="Boston Typewriter Orchestra">Boston Typewriter Orchestra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copy_typist" title="Copy typist">Copy typist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samizdat" title="Samizdat">Samizdat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speed_typing_contest" title="Speed typing contest">Speed typing contest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_quick_brown_fox_jumps_over_the_lazy_dog" title="The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog">The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Touch_typing" title="Touch typing">Touch typing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" 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href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119384502">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119384502">BnF data</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00572547">Japan</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph124766&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007558590305171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10647443">NARA</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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