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class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Body part</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:lemonchiffon">Ventromedial prefrontal cortex</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Ventromedial_prefrontal_cortex.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Ventromedial_prefrontal_cortex.png/250px-Ventromedial_prefrontal_cortex.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="388" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Ventromedial_prefrontal_cortex.png/375px-Ventromedial_prefrontal_cortex.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c8/Ventromedial_prefrontal_cortex.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="620" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Ventromedial prefrontal cortex shown on medial and ventral views of the brain, reflecting approximate location of damage in patients with decision making deficits.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Gray727-Brodman.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Gray727-Brodman.png/250px-Gray727-Brodman.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Gray727-Brodman.png/375px-Gray727-Brodman.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Gray727-Brodman.png/500px-Gray727-Brodman.png 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="720" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Medial surface of the brain with Brodmann's areas numbered.</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef">Details</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef">Identifiers</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><i>cortex praefrontalis ventromedialis</i></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below"><a href="/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_neuroanatomy" title="Anatomical terms of neuroanatomy">Anatomical terms of neuroanatomy</a><div style="text-align: right;"><small class="noprint">[<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2694853" class="extiw" title="d:Q2694853">edit on Wikidata</a>]</small></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>ventromedial prefrontal cortex</b> (<b>vmPFC</b>) is a part of the <a href="/wiki/Prefrontal_cortex" title="Prefrontal cortex">prefrontal cortex</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Mammalian_brain" class="mw-redirect" title="Mammalian brain">mammalian brain</a>. The ventral medial prefrontal is located in the <a href="/wiki/Frontal_lobe" title="Frontal lobe">frontal lobe</a> at the bottom of the <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_hemispheres" class="mw-redirect" title="Cerebral hemispheres">cerebral hemispheres</a> and is implicated in the processing of <a href="/wiki/Risk" title="Risk">risk</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fear" title="Fear">fear</a>, as it is critical in the regulation of <a href="/wiki/Amygdala" title="Amygdala">amygdala</a> activity in humans.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It also plays a role in the inhibition of emotional responses, and in the process of <a href="/wiki/Decision-making" title="Decision-making">decision-making</a> and <a href="/wiki/Self-control" title="Self-control">self-control</a>. It is also involved in the cognitive evaluation of <a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">morality</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Anatomy">Anatomy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ventromedial_prefrontal_cortex&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Anatomy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While the ventromedial prefrontal cortex does not have a universally agreed on demarcation, in most sources, it is equivalent to the ventromedial reward network of Öngür and Price.<sup id="cite_ref-Ongur2000_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ongur2000-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This network includes <a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_10" title="Brodmann area 10">Brodmann area 10</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_14" title="Brodmann area 14">Brodmann area 14</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_25" title="Brodmann area 25">Brodmann area 25</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_32" title="Brodmann area 32">Brodmann area 32</a>, as well as portions of <a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_11" title="Brodmann area 11">Brodmann area 11</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_12" title="Brodmann area 12">Brodmann area 12</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_13" title="Brodmann area 13">Brodmann area 13</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Finger_2008_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Finger_2008-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, not all sources agree on the boundaries of the area. Different researchers use the term <i>ventromedial prefrontal cortex</i> differently. Sometimes, the term is saved for the area above the medial <a href="/wiki/Orbitofrontal_cortex" title="Orbitofrontal cortex">orbitofrontal cortex</a>, while at other times, 'ventromedial prefrontal cortex' is used to describe a broad area in the lower (ventral) central (medial) region of the prefrontal cortex, of which the medial orbitofrontal cortex constitutes the lowermost part. This latter, broader area, corresponds to the area damaged in patients with decision-making impairments investigated by <a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Dam%C3%A1sio" class="mw-redirect" title="António Damásio">António Damásio</a> and colleagues (see diagram, and below). </p><p>The ventromedial prefrontal cortex is connected to and receives input from the <a href="/wiki/Ventral_tegmental_area" title="Ventral tegmental area">ventral tegmental area</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amygdala" title="Amygdala">amygdala</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Temporal_lobe" title="Temporal lobe">temporal lobe</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Olfactory_system" title="Olfactory system">olfactory system</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Medial_dorsal_nucleus" title="Medial dorsal nucleus">dorsomedial thalamus</a>. It, in turn, sends signals to many different brain regions including; The temporal lobe, amygdala, the <a href="/wiki/Lateral_hypothalamus" title="Lateral hypothalamus">lateral hypothalamus</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Hippocampal_formation" title="Hippocampal formation">hippocampal formation</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Cingulate_cortex" title="Cingulate cortex">cingulate cortex</a>, and certain other regions of the <a href="/wiki/Prefrontal_cortex" title="Prefrontal cortex">prefrontal cortex</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Carlson_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carlson-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This huge network of connections affords the vmPFC the ability to receive and monitor large amounts of sensory data and to affect and influence a plethora of other brain regions, particularly the amygdala.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Function">Function</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ventromedial_prefrontal_cortex&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Function"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Functional differences between the orbitofrontal and ventromedial areas of the pre-frontal cortex have not yet been clearly established, although the areas of the ventromedial cortex superior to the <a href="/wiki/Orbitofrontal_cortex" title="Orbitofrontal cortex">orbitofrontal cortex</a> are much less associated with social functions and more with pure emotion regulation. Research in <a href="/wiki/Developmental_neuroscience" class="mw-redirect" title="Developmental neuroscience">developmental neuroscience</a> also suggested that neural networks in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex are rapidly developing during adolescence and young adulthood supporting emotion regulation through the amygdala,<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> being associated with a decrease in <a href="/wiki/Cortisol" title="Cortisol">cortisol</a> levels.<br /> It should also be noted that damage to the vmPFC can promote higher amygdala activity. There are only a few reports of people with early-onset vmPFC damage during childhood, but these individuals tend to have severe antisocial behavior and impaired moral judgment. Compared to individuals with damage later in life, their behavior pattern is similar but more severe.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is also considered central to the physiology of anxiety and mood disorders. However, the precise mechanisms by which vmPFC contributes to affective processing are not fully understood.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Decision_making">Decision making</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ventromedial_prefrontal_cortex&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Decision making"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Patients with bilateral lesions of the vmPFC develop severe impairments in personal and social <a href="/wiki/Decision-making" title="Decision-making">decision-making</a><sup id="cite_ref-Carlson_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carlson-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bechara_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bechara-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> even though most of their intellectual ability is preserved.<sup id="cite_ref-Bechara_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bechara-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Koenigs_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koenigs-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For instance, they have difficulties in choosing between options with uncertain outcomes, whether the uncertainty is in the form of a risk or of an ambiguity.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After their lesion, these patients have an impaired capacity to learn from their mistakes, making the same decisions again and again even though they lead to negative consequences. These patients choose alternatives that give immediate <a href="/wiki/Reward_system" title="Reward system">rewards</a>, but seem to be blind to the future consequences of their actions.<sup id="cite_ref-Bechara_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bechara-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the underlying mechanisms of this behavior are not yet fully understood.<sup id="cite_ref-Bechara_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bechara-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Damage to the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (especially in the right hemisphere) has been connected with deficits in detecting <a href="/wiki/Irony" title="Irony">irony</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sarcasm" title="Sarcasm">sarcasm</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Deception" title="Deception">deception</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Zald,_David_H.,_and_Charissa_Andreotti._2010_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zald,_David_H.,_and_Charissa_Andreotti._2010-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Subjects with damage in this area have been found to be more easily influenced by misleading <a href="/wiki/Advertising" title="Advertising">advertising</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Asp,_Erik,_et_al._2012_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Asp,_Erik,_et_al._2012-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This has been attributed to a disruption of a "false tagging mechanism" which provides doubt and <a href="/wiki/Skepticism" title="Skepticism">skepticism</a> of new <a href="/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">beliefs</a>. </p><p>People with damage to the ventromedial prefrontal cortex still retain the ability to consciously make <a href="/wiki/Moral_judgment" class="mw-redirect" title="Moral judgment">moral judgments</a> without error, but only in hypothetical situations presented to them. They are severely impaired in making personal and social decisions.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is a gap in reasoning when applying the same moral principles to similar situations in their own lives. The result is that people make decisions that are inconsistent with their self professed moral values.<sup id="cite_ref-Carlson_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carlson-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> People with early damage to the ventromedial prefrontal cortex are more likely to endorse self-serving actions that break moral rules or cause harm to others. This is especially true for patients whose damage occurred the earliest in life.<sup id="cite_ref-Taber-Thomas,_Bradley_C.,_et_al._2014_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taber-Thomas,_Bradley_C.,_et_al._2014-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Emotions" class="mw-redirect" title="Emotions">Emotions</a> and an understanding of <a href="/wiki/Social_norm" title="Social norm">social norms</a> are used to provide reasoning of the moral nature on our behaviors, beliefs, and the people around us. The vmPFC works as the neural basis in allowing emotion to influence moral judgement. In <a href="/wiki/Functional_imaging" title="Functional imaging">functional imaging</a> studies, increased activity in the vmPFC is associated with thinking of these personal moral situations, while making harmless decisions does not.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Patients with vmPFC lesions made the same decision in impersonal and personal dilemmas. Dysfunction of the vmPFC causes failure in using correct <a href="/wiki/Moral_emotions" title="Moral emotions">moral emotion</a>, which explains why these patients showed less emotional responses when facing these dilemmas.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Regulation_of_emotion">Regulation of emotion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ventromedial_prefrontal_cortex&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Regulation of emotion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The vmPFC plays an important role in regulating and inhibiting our response to emotions. VmPFC seems to use our emotional reactions to model our behavior and control emotional reactions in certain social situations. The inputs of the vmPFC provide it with information from the environment and the plans of the frontal lobe, and its outputs allow the vmPFC to control different physiological responses and behaviors. The role of the vmPFC is especially highlighted in people with damage to this region. A damaged vmPFC causes impairments of <b>behavioral control</b> and <b>decision making</b>, consequences which are rooted in emotional dysregulation. </p><p>The first and most famous case of someone with defects to this region was <a href="/wiki/Phineas_Gage" title="Phineas Gage">Phineas Gage</a>, a railroad construction foreman who had his vmPFC bilaterally destroyed in an accident in 1848. Before his accident, Gage was described as “serious, industrious and energetic. Afterward he became childish, irresponsible, and thoughtless of others.”<sup id="cite_ref-Carlson,_N._2012_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carlson,_N._2012-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another patient with vmPFC damage wasted away his life savings on foolish investments and failed to make appropriate decisions in his personal life. In patients with vmPFC damage, evidence shows that there is a correlation between emotional disregulation and dysfunction in real world competencies.<sup id="cite_ref-Carlson,_N._2012_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carlson,_N._2012-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Amygdala" title="Amygdala">amygdala</a> plays a significant role in instigating the emotional reactions associated with anger and violence. With the vmPFC’s outputs to the amygdala, the vmPFC plays a part in preventing such behavior. Evidence has shown that impulsive murderers have decreased activity in the prefrontal cortex and increased activity in subcortical areas such as the amygdala. This imbalance can enhance actions that are created by negative emotions and limit the ability of the prefrontal cortex to control these emotions. Lower activation in the prefrontal cortex is also correlated with antisocial behavior. The dysfunction of the ventromedial cortex seems to, in part, be caused by lower levels of <a href="/wiki/Serotonin" title="Serotonin">serotonin</a> release.<sup id="cite_ref-Carlson,_N._2012_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carlson,_N._2012-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The vmPFC also is involved in courage. In experiments with participants allowing snakes to come near or away from them, acts of courage correlated with activation in the vmPFC, specifically the subgenual anterior cingulate cortex.<sup id="cite_ref-Carlson,_N._2012_17-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carlson,_N._2012-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NiliGoldberg2010_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NiliGoldberg2010-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Activation of the vmPFC is associated with successful suppression of emotional responses to a negative emotional signal.<sup id="cite_ref-Hänsel_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hänsel-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Patients with vmPFC lesions show defects both in emotional response and emotion regulation.<sup id="cite_ref-Koenigs_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koenigs-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their emotional responsiveness is generally diminished and they show markedly reduced social emotions such as compassion, shame and guilt. These are emotions that are closely associated with moral values.<sup id="cite_ref-Koenigs_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koenigs-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Patients also exhibit poorly regulated anger and frustration tolerance in certain circumstances.<sup id="cite_ref-Koenigs_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koenigs-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Patients with focal lesions in the vmPFC show personality changes such as lack of empathy, irresponsibility, and poor decision making. These traits are similar to psychopathic personality traits.<sup id="cite_ref-Motzkin_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Motzkin-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, a correlation between individuals with a history of physical violence and decreased grey matter density in the vmPFC has been evidenced.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lesions to the vmPFC are associated with resistance to depression, whereas lesions to the dorsolateral PFC is associated with vulnerability to depression.<sup id="cite_ref-Koe2008_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koe2008-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The right half of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex was associated with regulating the interaction of cognition and affect in the production of empathic responses. Hedonic (pleasure) responses were also associations to <a href="/wiki/Orbitofrontal_cortex" title="Orbitofrontal cortex">orbitofrontal cortex</a> activity level by <a href="/wiki/Morten_Kringelbach" title="Morten Kringelbach">Morten Kringelbach</a>. This finding contributes findings suggesting ventromedial prefrontal cortex being associated with preference judgement, possibly assigning the ventromedial prefrontal cortex a key role in constructing one's self. fMRI scans have found that the vmPFC is active when people think about themselves. There are cultural differences in the use of this region based on cultural differences in self-perception. Chinese subjects who think of the self in relation to the community have been found to utilize the vmPFC when thinking about their mothers, whereas American subjects do not.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Studies with <a href="/wiki/Post-traumatic_stress_disorder" title="Post-traumatic stress disorder">post-traumatic stress disorder</a> (PTSD) also supported the idea that the ventromedial prefrontal cortex is an important component for reactivating past emotional associations and events, therefore essentially mediating pathogenesis of PTSD.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Koenigs_2009_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koenigs_2009-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dysfunction of the vmPFC has also been identified as playing a role in PTSD-affected parents' response to their own children's mental states.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Treatments geared to the activation of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex were therefore suggested for individuals and parent-child relationships affected by PTSD. The right half of the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex, being active during emotion regulation, was activated when participants were offered an unfair offer in a scenario. Specific deficits in reversal learning and decision-making have led to the hypothesis that the ventromedial prefrontal cortex is a major locus of dysfunction in the mild stages of the behavioral variant of <a href="/wiki/Frontotemporal_dementia" title="Frontotemporal dementia">frontotemporal dementia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A study of patients with lesions in the right vmPFC showed a loss of empathy and <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_mind" title="Theory of mind">theory of mind</a>, showing that the brain regions is directly involved in empathy and <a href="/wiki/Mentalizing" class="mw-redirect" title="Mentalizing">mentalizing</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The capacity for mature <a href="/wiki/Defense_mechanisms" class="mw-redirect" title="Defense mechanisms">defense mechanisms</a> such as intellectualization, compensation, reaction formation, and isolation has been tied to proper functioning of the right ventromedial prefrontal cortex, while more primitive defense mechanisms such as projection, splitting, verbal denial, and fantasy have been found to rely on other regions, primarily in the left hemisphere.<sup id="cite_ref-Northoff,_G._2010_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Northoff,_G._2010-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Somatic_marker_hypothesis">Somatic marker hypothesis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ventromedial_prefrontal_cortex&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Somatic marker hypothesis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One particularly notable theory of vmPFC function is the <a href="/wiki/Somatic_marker_hypothesis" title="Somatic marker hypothesis">somatic marker hypothesis</a>, accredited to <a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Dam%C3%A1sio" class="mw-redirect" title="António Damásio">António Damásio</a>. By this hypothesis, the vmPFC has a central role in adapting somatic markers—emotional associations, or associations between mental objects and visceral (bodily) feedback—for use in natural decision making. This account also gives the vmPFC a role in moderating emotions and emotional reactions because whether the vmPFC decides the markers are positive or negative affects the appropriate response in a particular situation.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> However, a critical review of this hypothesis concluded that there is a need for additional empirical data to support the somatic marker theory.<sup id="cite_ref-Hänsel_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hänsel-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Extinction">Extinction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ventromedial_prefrontal_cortex&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Extinction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Another role that the vmPFC plays is in the process of <a href="/wiki/Extinction_(psychology)" title="Extinction (psychology)">extinction</a>, the gradual weakening and eventual cessation of a conditioned response, as studies have shown increased activation of the vmPFC after extinction training.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The specific role played by the vmPFC concerning extinction is not well understood, but it is believed that it plays a necessary role in the recall of extinction learning after a long period of time. Studies show that it aids in the consolidation of extinction learning.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A separate study has implicated the correlation between the cortical thickness of the vmPFC and the degree of extinction memory. Patients with larger vmPFCs tended to have lower responses to the extinct conditioned stimulus, therefore suggesting a superior extinction memory.<sup id="cite_ref-Milad_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Milad-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In general, the ventromedial prefrontal cortex plays a major role in the later stages of <a href="/wiki/Memory_consolidation#Systems_consolidation" title="Memory consolidation">memory consolidation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Nieuwenhuis,_Ingrid_LC,_and_Atsuko_Takashima._2011_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nieuwenhuis,_Ingrid_LC,_and_Atsuko_Takashima._2011-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gender_specific_social_cues">Gender specific social cues</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ventromedial_prefrontal_cortex&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Gender specific social cues"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ventromedial prefrontal cortex lesions were also associated with a deficit in processing gender specific social cues. One experiment tested the ability of patients with vmPFC lesions to categorize gender-specific names, attributes, and attitudes compared to patients with dorsolateral prefrontal cortex lesions and control subjects. Whereas the patients with dorsolateral prefrontal cortex lesions performed similarly to the control subjects on tests indicating gender stereotypes, patients with ventromedial prefrontal cortex lesions demonstrated impaired stereotypic social knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-Milne_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Milne-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cocaine_abuse">Cocaine abuse</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ventromedial_prefrontal_cortex&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Cocaine abuse"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Frequent <a href="/wiki/Cocaine" title="Cocaine">cocaine</a> users have been shown to have lower than normal activity in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex. When asked to perform certain tasks that rely heavily on activation of this area of the brain, the cocaine users perform worse and have less prefrontal cortex activation than the control subjects.<sup id="cite_ref-Carlson_1977_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carlson_1977-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The quantity of cocaine used was found to be inversely proportional to the level of activation.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The prefrontal cortex is also physically affected by cocaine use. Chronic use has been shown to lead to a decrease in the amount of gray matter in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex. The decrease in <a href="/wiki/Grey_matter" title="Grey matter">gray matter</a> and effect on behavior is analogous to a person having lesions throughout their medial prefrontal cortex.<sup id="cite_ref-Carlson_1977_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carlson_1977-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Specifically, the <a href="/wiki/Pyramidal_cell" title="Pyramidal cell">pyramidal cells</a> of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex are known to be linked with <a href="/wiki/Drug_seeking_behavior" class="mw-redirect" title="Drug seeking behavior">drug seeking behaviors</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both an increased and decreased level of activity in these pyramidal cells has shown to lead to extinction of cocaine-seeking behaviors depending on when the activation takes place. Inactivation of these cells was needed to inhibit cocaine-seeking behavior after a longer duration of time, whereas activation was required to reduce the behavior soon after using cocaine.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ventromedial_prefrontal_cortex&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+of+the+United+States+of+America&rft.atitle=Thickness+of+ventromedial+prefrontal+cortex+in+humans+is+correlated+with+extinction+memory&rft.volume=102&rft.issue=30&rft.pages=10706-11&rft.date=2005-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1180773%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16024728&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.0502441102&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2005PNAS..10210706M&rft.aulast=Milad&rft.aufirst=MR&rft.au=Quinn%2C+BT&rft.au=Pitman%2C+RK&rft.au=Orr%2C+SP&rft.au=Fischl%2C+B&rft.au=Rauch%2C+SL&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1180773&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVentromedial+prefrontal+cortex" class="Z3988"></span> These results are a possible factor for explaining why different people show different degrees of controlling their fear.</span> </li> <li 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Neuroscience&rft.atitle=Ventromedial+prefrontal+cortex+pyramidal+cells+have+a+temporal+dynamic+role+in+recall+and+extinction+of+cocaine-associated+memory&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=46&rft.pages=18225-33&rft.date=2013-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3828471%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24227731&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1523%2FJNEUROSCI.2412-13.2013&rft.aulast=Van+den+Oever&rft.aufirst=MC&rft.au=Rotaru%2C+DC&rft.au=Heinsbroek%2C+JA&rft.au=Gouwenberg%2C+Y&rft.au=Deisseroth%2C+K&rft.au=Stuber%2C+GD&rft.au=Mansvelder%2C+HD&rft.au=Smit%2C+AB&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3828471&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVentromedial+prefrontal+cortex" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ventromedial_prefrontal_cortex&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output 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.refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBecharaTranelDamasio2000" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Bechara A, Tranel D, Damasio H (November 2000). <a 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Neuroscience&rft.atitle=Ventromedial+prefrontal+cortex+lesions+in+humans+eliminate+implicit+gender+stereotyping&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=RC150&rft.date=2001-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6762729%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11404442&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1523%2FJNEUROSCI.21-12-j0001.2001&rft.aulast=Milne&rft.aufirst=E&rft.au=Grafman%2C+J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6762729&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVentromedial+prefrontal+cortex" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoenigsHueyRaymontCheon2008" class="citation journal cs1">Koenigs M, Huey ED, Raymont V, Cheon B, Solomon J, Wassermann EM, Grafman J (February 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2693133">"Focal brain damage protects against post-traumatic stress disorder in combat veterans"</a>. <i>Nature Neuroscience</i>. <b>11</b> (2): 232–7. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnn2032">10.1038/nn2032</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2693133">2693133</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18157125">18157125</a>.</cite><span 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navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Cerebral_cortex" title="Template:Cerebral cortex"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Cerebral_cortex" title="Template talk:Cerebral cortex"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Cerebral_cortex" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Cerebral cortex"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Anatomy_of_the_cerebral_cortex_of_the_human_brain" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Anatomy of the <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_cortex" title="Cerebral cortex">cerebral cortex</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Human_brain" title="Human brain">human brain</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Frontal_lobe" title="Frontal lobe">Frontal lobe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Superolateral</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Prefrontal_cortex" title="Prefrontal cortex">Prefrontal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Superior_frontal_gyrus" title="Superior frontal gyrus">Superior frontal gyrus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_4" title="Brodmann area 4">4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_6" title="Brodmann area 6">6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_8" title="Brodmann area 8">8</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_frontal_gyrus" title="Middle frontal gyrus">Middle frontal gyrus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_9" title="Brodmann area 9">9</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_10" title="Brodmann area 10">10</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_46" title="Brodmann area 46">46</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inferior_frontal_gyrus" title="Inferior frontal gyrus">Inferior frontal gyrus</a>: <a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_11" title="Brodmann area 11">11</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_47" title="Brodmann area 47">47</a>-<a href="/wiki/Orbital_part_of_inferior_frontal_gyrus" title="Orbital part of inferior frontal gyrus">Pars orbitalis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broca%27s_area" title="Broca's area">Broca's area</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_44" title="Brodmann area 44">44</a>-<a href="/wiki/Opercular_part_of_inferior_frontal_gyrus" class="mw-redirect" title="Opercular part of inferior frontal gyrus">Pars opercularis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_45" title="Brodmann area 45">45</a>-<a href="/wiki/Triangular_part_of_inferior_frontal_gyrus" class="mw-redirect" title="Triangular part of inferior frontal gyrus">Pars triangularis</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Superior_frontal_sulcus" title="Superior frontal sulcus">Superior frontal sulcus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inferior_frontal_sulcus" title="Inferior frontal sulcus">Inferior frontal sulcus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Precentral_gyrus" title="Precentral gyrus">Precentral</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Precentral_gyrus" title="Precentral gyrus">Precentral gyrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precentral_sulcus" title="Precentral sulcus">Precentral sulcus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medial/inferior</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Prefrontal_cortex" title="Prefrontal cortex">Prefrontal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Superior_frontal_gyrus" title="Superior frontal gyrus">Superior frontal gyrus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_4" title="Brodmann area 4">4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_6" title="Brodmann area 6">6</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medial_frontal_gyrus" title="Medial frontal gyrus">Medial frontal gyrus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_8" title="Brodmann area 8">8</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_9" title="Brodmann area 9">9</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paraterminal_gyrus" class="mw-redirect" title="Paraterminal gyrus">Paraterminal gyrus</a>/<a href="/wiki/Paraolfactory_area" class="mw-redirect" title="Paraolfactory area">Paraolfactory area</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_12" title="Brodmann area 12">12</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Straight_gyrus" title="Straight gyrus">Straight gyrus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_11" title="Brodmann area 11">11</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_gyri" title="Orbital gyri">Orbital gyri</a>/<a href="/wiki/Orbitofrontal_cortex" title="Orbitofrontal cortex">Orbitofrontal cortex</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_10" title="Brodmann area 10">10</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_11" title="Brodmann area 11">11</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_12" title="Brodmann area 12">12</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ventromedial prefrontal cortex</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_10" title="Brodmann area 10">10</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subcallosal_area" title="Subcallosal area">Subcallosal area</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_25" title="Brodmann area 25">25</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Olfactory_sulcus" class="mw-redirect" title="Olfactory sulcus">Olfactory sulcus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_sulcus" title="Orbital sulcus">Orbital sulcus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Precentral_gyrus" title="Precentral gyrus">Precentral</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paracentral_lobule" title="Paracentral lobule">Paracentral lobule</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_4" title="Brodmann area 4">4</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paracentral_sulcus" title="Paracentral sulcus">Paracentral sulcus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Both</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primary_motor_cortex" title="Primary motor cortex">Primary motor cortex</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_4" title="Brodmann area 4">4</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Premotor_cortex" title="Premotor cortex">Premotor cortex</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_6" title="Brodmann area 6">6</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supplementary_motor_area" title="Supplementary motor area">Supplementary motor area</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_6" title="Brodmann area 6">6</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supplementary_eye_field" title="Supplementary eye field">Supplementary eye field</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_6" title="Brodmann area 6">6</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frontal_eye_fields" title="Frontal eye fields">Frontal eye fields</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_8" title="Brodmann area 8">8</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Parietal_lobe" title="Parietal lobe">Parietal lobe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Superolateral</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Superior_parietal_lobule" title="Superior parietal lobule">Superior parietal lobule</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_5" title="Brodmann area 5">5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_7" title="Brodmann area 7">7</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inferior_parietal_lobule" title="Inferior parietal lobule">Inferior parietal lobule</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_40" title="Brodmann area 40">40</a>-<a href="/wiki/Supramarginal_gyrus" title="Supramarginal gyrus">Supramarginal gyrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_39" title="Brodmann area 39">39</a>-<a href="/wiki/Angular_gyrus" title="Angular gyrus">Angular gyrus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parietal_operculum" class="mw-redirect" title="Parietal operculum">Parietal operculum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_43" title="Brodmann area 43">43</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intraparietal_sulcus" title="Intraparietal sulcus">Intraparietal sulcus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medial/inferior</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paracentral_lobule" title="Paracentral lobule">Paracentral lobule</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_1" class="mw-redirect" title="Brodmann area 1">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_2" class="mw-redirect" title="Brodmann area 2">2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_3" class="mw-redirect" title="Brodmann area 3">3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_5" title="Brodmann area 5">5</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precuneus" title="Precuneus">Precuneus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_7" title="Brodmann area 7">7</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marginal_sulcus" title="Marginal sulcus">Marginal sulcus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Both</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Postcentral_gyrus" title="Postcentral gyrus">Postcentral gyrus</a>/<a href="/wiki/Primary_somatosensory_cortex" title="Primary somatosensory cortex">Primary somatosensory cortex</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_areas_3,_1_and_2" class="mw-redirect" title="Brodmann areas 3, 1 and 2">3, 1 and 2</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_somatosensory_cortex" title="Secondary somatosensory cortex">Secondary somatosensory cortex</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_5" title="Brodmann area 5">5</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_parietal_cortex" title="Posterior parietal cortex">Posterior parietal cortex</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_7" title="Brodmann area 7">7</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Occipital_lobe" title="Occipital lobe">Occipital lobe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Superolateral</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Occipital_pole_of_cerebrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Occipital pole of cerebrum">Occipital pole of cerebrum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occipital_gyri" title="Occipital gyri">Occipital gyri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lateral_occipital_sulcus" title="Lateral occipital sulcus">Lateral occipital gyrus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_18" title="Brodmann area 18">18</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_19" title="Brodmann area 19">19</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunate_sulcus" title="Lunate sulcus">Lunate sulcus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transverse_occipital_sulcus" title="Transverse occipital sulcus">Transverse occipital sulcus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medial/inferior</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Visual_cortex" title="Visual cortex">Visual cortex</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_17" class="mw-redirect" title="Brodmann area 17">17</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuneus" title="Cuneus">Cuneus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lingual_gyrus" title="Lingual gyrus">Lingual gyrus</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Calcarine_sulcus" title="Calcarine sulcus">Calcarine sulcus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Temporal_lobe" title="Temporal lobe">Temporal lobe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Superolateral</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transverse_temporal_gyrus" title="Transverse temporal gyrus">Transverse temporal gyrus</a>/<a href="/wiki/Auditory_cortex" title="Auditory cortex">Auditory cortex</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_areas_41_and_42" title="Brodmann areas 41 and 42">41 and 42</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superior_temporal_gyrus" title="Superior temporal gyrus">Superior temporal gyrus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_38" title="Brodmann area 38">38</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_22" title="Brodmann area 22">22</a>/<a href="/wiki/Wernicke%27s_area" title="Wernicke's area">Wernicke's area</a> (<a href="/wiki/Planum_temporale" title="Planum temporale">Planum temporale</a>)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superior_temporal_sulcus" title="Superior temporal sulcus">Superior temporal sulcus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_temporal_gyrus" title="Middle temporal gyrus">Middle temporal gyrus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_21" title="Brodmann area 21">21</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medial/inferior</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Occipitotemporal_sulcus" title="Occipitotemporal sulcus">Occipitotemporal sulcus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fusiform_gyrus" title="Fusiform gyrus">Fusiform gyrus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_37" title="Brodmann area 37">37</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medial_temporal_lobe" class="mw-redirect" title="Medial temporal lobe">Medial temporal lobe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_27" title="Brodmann area 27">27</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_28" title="Brodmann area 28">28</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_34" title="Brodmann area 34">34</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_35" class="mw-redirect" title="Brodmann area 35">35</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_36" class="mw-redirect" title="Brodmann area 36">36</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inferior_temporal_sulcus" class="mw-redirect" title="Inferior temporal sulcus">Inferior temporal sulcus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inferior_temporal_gyrus" title="Inferior temporal gyrus">Inferior temporal gyrus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_20" title="Brodmann area 20">20</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sulcus_(neuroanatomy)" title="Sulcus (neuroanatomy)">Interlobar<br />sulci/fissures</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Superolateral</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_sulcus" title="Central sulcus">Central (frontal+parietal)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lateral_sulcus" title="Lateral sulcus">Lateral (frontal+parietal+temporal)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parieto-occipital_sulcus" title="Parieto-occipital sulcus">Parieto-occipital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preoccipital_notch" title="Preoccipital notch">Preoccipital notch</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medial/inferior</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Longitudinal_fissure" title="Longitudinal fissure">Longitudinal fissure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cingulate_sulcus" title="Cingulate sulcus">Cingulate (frontal+cingulate)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collateral_fissure" title="Collateral fissure">Collateral (temporal+occipital)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Callosal_sulcus" class="mw-redirect" title="Callosal sulcus">Callosal sulcus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Limbic_lobe" title="Limbic lobe">Limbic lobe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Parahippocampal_gyrus" title="Parahippocampal gyrus">Parahippocampal gyrus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>anterior</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Entorhinal_cortex" title="Entorhinal cortex">Entorhinal cortex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perirhinal_cortex" title="Perirhinal cortex">Perirhinal cortex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postrhinal_cortex" title="Postrhinal cortex">Postrhinal cortex</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_parahippocampal_gyrus" title="Posterior parahippocampal gyrus">Posterior parahippocampal gyrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prepyriform_area" title="Prepyriform area">Prepyriform area</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cingulate_cortex" title="Cingulate cortex">Cingulate cortex</a>/<a href="/wiki/Cingulate_gyrus" class="mw-redirect" title="Cingulate gyrus">gyrus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Subgenual_area_25" class="mw-redirect" title="Subgenual area 25">Subgenual area</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_25" title="Brodmann area 25">25</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anterior_cingulate_cortex" title="Anterior cingulate cortex">Anterior cingulate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_24" title="Brodmann area 24">24</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_32" title="Brodmann area 32">32</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_33" title="Brodmann area 33">33</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_cingulate" class="mw-redirect" title="Posterior cingulate">Posterior cingulate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_23" title="Brodmann area 23">23</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_31" title="Brodmann area 31">31</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isthmus_of_cingulate_gyrus" title="Isthmus of cingulate gyrus">Isthmus of cingulate gyrus</a>: <a href="/wiki/Retrosplenial_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Retrosplenial region">Retrosplenial cortex</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_26" title="Brodmann area 26">26</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_29" title="Brodmann area 29">29</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_30" title="Brodmann area 30">30</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hippocampal_formation" title="Hippocampal formation">Hippocampal formation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hippocampal_sulcus" title="Hippocampal sulcus">Hippocampal sulcus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fimbria_of_hippocampus" class="mw-redirect" title="Fimbria of hippocampus">Fimbria of hippocampus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dentate_gyrus" title="Dentate gyrus">Dentate gyrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhinal_sulcus" title="Rhinal sulcus">Rhinal sulcus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indusium_griseum" title="Indusium griseum">Indusium griseum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uncus" title="Uncus">Uncus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amygdala" title="Amygdala">Amygdala</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Insular_cortex" title="Insular cortex">Insular cortex</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Insular_cortex" title="Insular cortex">Insular cortex</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operculum_(brain)" title="Operculum (brain)">Operculum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poles_of_cerebral_hemispheres" class="mw-redirect" title="Poles of cerebral hemispheres">Poles of cerebral hemispheres</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: transparent; padding: 0px;"><div><i>Some categorizations are approximations, and some <a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area" title="Brodmann area">Brodmann areas</a> span gyri.</i></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ventromedial_prefrontal_cortex&oldid=1243001064">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ventromedial_prefrontal_cortex&oldid=1243001064</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" 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