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.sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%22The_School_of_Athens%22_by_Raffaello_Sanzio_da_Urbino.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/%22The_School_of_Athens%22_by_Raffaello_Sanzio_da_Urbino.jpg/250px-%22The_School_of_Athens%22_by_Raffaello_Sanzio_da_Urbino.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/%22The_School_of_Athens%22_by_Raffaello_Sanzio_da_Urbino.jpg/375px-%22The_School_of_Athens%22_by_Raffaello_Sanzio_da_Urbino.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/%22The_School_of_Athens%22_by_Raffaello_Sanzio_da_Urbino.jpg/500px-%22The_School_of_Athens%22_by_Raffaello_Sanzio_da_Urbino.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3820" data-file-height="2964" /></a></span><div class="sidebar-caption"><i><a href="/wiki/The_School_of_Athens" title="The School of Athens">The School of Athens</a></i> (1509–1511) by <a href="/wiki/Raphael" title="Raphael">Raphael</a></div></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background-color:lavender;"> Aspects</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_architecture" title="Renaissance architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_dance" title="Renaissance dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_art" title="Renaissance art">Fine arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_scholars_in_the_Renaissance" title="Greek scholars in the Renaissance">Greek scholars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_literature" title="Renaissance literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_magic" title="Renaissance magic">Magic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_music" title="Renaissance music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_in_the_Renaissance" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science in the Renaissance">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_technology" title="Renaissance technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_warfare" title="Early modern warfare">Warfare</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background-color:lavender;"> Regions</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_Renaissance" title="English Renaissance">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Renaissance" title="French Renaissance">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Renaissance" title="German Renaissance">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Renaissance" title="Italian Renaissance">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_in_Poland" title="Renaissance in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Renaissance" title="Portuguese Renaissance">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Renaissance" title="Spanish Renaissance">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_in_Scotland" title="Renaissance in Scotland">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Renaissance" title="Northern Renaissance">Northern Europe</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Low Countries</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background-color:lavender;"> History and study</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuity_thesis" title="Continuity thesis">Continuity thesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Renaissance" title="High Renaissance">High Renaissance</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar" style="border-top:1px #aaa solid;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Renaissance" title="Template:Renaissance"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Renaissance" title="Template talk:Renaissance"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Renaissance" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Renaissance"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Renaissance in the Low Countries</b> was a cultural period in the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Renaissance" title="Northern Renaissance">Northern Renaissance</a> that took place in around the 16th century in the <a href="/wiki/Low_Countries" title="Low Countries">Low Countries</a> (corresponding to modern-day <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a> and <a href="/wiki/French_Flanders" title="French Flanders">French Flanders</a>). </p><p>Culture in the Low Countries at the end of the 15th century was influenced by the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Renaissance" title="Italian Renaissance">Italian Renaissance</a>, through trade via <a href="/wiki/Bruges" title="Bruges">Bruges</a>, which made Flanders wealthy. Its nobles commissioned artists who became known across Europe. In science, the <a href="/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy">anatomist</a> <a href="/wiki/Andreas_Vesalius" title="Andreas Vesalius">Andreas Vesalius</a> led the way; in <a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">cartography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gerardus_Mercator" title="Gerardus Mercator">Gerardus Mercator</a>'s map assisted explorers and navigators. In art, <a href="/wiki/Dutch_and_Flemish_Renaissance_painting" title="Dutch and Flemish Renaissance painting">Dutch and Flemish Renaissance painting</a> went from the strange work of <a href="/wiki/Hieronymus_Bosch" title="Hieronymus Bosch">Hieronymus Bosch</a> to the everyday life of <a href="/wiki/Pieter_Brueghel_the_Elder" class="mw-redirect" title="Pieter Brueghel the Elder">Pieter Brueghel the Elder</a>. In architecture, music and literature too, the culture of the Low Countries moved into the Renaissance style. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geopolitical_situation_and_background">Geopolitical situation and background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Renaissance_in_the_Low_Countries&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Geopolitical situation and background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Low_Countries.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/The_Low_Countries.png/220px-The_Low_Countries.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="258" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/The_Low_Countries.png/330px-The_Low_Countries.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/The_Low_Countries.png/440px-The_Low_Countries.png 2x" data-file-width="863" data-file-height="1011" /></a><figcaption>Map showing the political situation in the Low Countries between 1556 and 1648.</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1500, the <a href="/wiki/Seventeen_Provinces" title="Seventeen Provinces">Seventeen Provinces</a> were in a personal union under the <a href="/wiki/Burgundian_Netherlands" title="Burgundian Netherlands">Burgundian Dukes</a>, and with the <a href="/wiki/County_of_Flanders" title="County of Flanders">Flemish</a> cities as centers of gravity, culturally and economically formed one of the richest parts of Europe. During the course of the century the region also experienced significant changes. <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Humanism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Reformation</a> led to a rebellion against the Spanish rule of <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain" title="Philip II of Spain">Philip II of Spain</a> and the start of the <a href="/wiki/Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Eighty Years' War">religious war</a>. By the end of the 16th century the Northern and <a href="/wiki/Southern_Netherlands" title="Southern Netherlands">Southern Netherlands</a> were effectively split. While this fracture was reflected in the visual arts by the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Golden_Age_painting" title="Dutch Golden Age painting">Dutch Golden Age</a> in the north and the <a href="/wiki/Flemish_Baroque_painting" title="Flemish Baroque painting">Flemish Baroque</a> in the south, other areas of thought remained associated with 16th-century currents of <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> thought. Gradually, the balance of power shifted away from the Southern Netherlands, which remained under Spanish authority, to the emerging <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Janson_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Janson-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Two factors determined the fate of the region in the 16th century. The first was the union with the kingdom of Spain through the 1496 marriage of <a href="/wiki/Philip_the_Handsome" title="Philip the Handsome">Philip the Handsome</a> of <a href="/wiki/Duke_of_Burgundy" title="Duke of Burgundy">Burgundy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Juana_of_Castile" class="mw-redirect" title="Juana of Castile">Juana of Castile</a>. Their son, Charles V, born in <a href="/wiki/Ghent" title="Ghent">Ghent</a>, would inherit the largest empire in the world, and the <a href="/wiki/Seventeen_Provinces" title="Seventeen Provinces">Netherlands</a>, although a prominent part of the empire, became dependent on a large foreign power. </p><p>A second factor included religious developments. The <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> gave way to new modes of religious thinking. <a href="/wiki/Devotio_Moderna" title="Devotio Moderna">Devotio Moderna</a> practices, for example, were particularly strong in the region, while the 16th-century criticisms of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a> that spread throughout Europe also reached the Low Countries. <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Humanists</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam</a> were critical but remained loyal to the church. However, the spread of the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a>, started by <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a> in 1517, eventually led to outright war. The Reformation, particularly the ideas of <a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">John Calvin</a>, gained significant support in the Low Countries, and following the 1566 <a href="/wiki/Iconoclasm" title="Iconoclasm">iconoclastic outbreaks</a> Spain attempted to quell the tide and maintain the authority of the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Trent" title="Council of Trent">post-Tridentine</a> Church through force by installing <a href="/wiki/Fernando_%C3%81lvarez_de_Toledo,_Duke_of_Alba" class="mw-redirect" title="Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, Duke of Alba">Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, Duke of Alba</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kamen_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kamen-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The repression that followed led to the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch Revolt">Dutch Revolt</a>, the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Eighty_Years_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Eighty Years War">Eighty Years War</a>, and the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a> in the northern provinces. Subsequently, the Southern Netherlands became a bastion for the <a href="/wiki/Counter_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Counter Reformation">Counter Reformation</a>, while <a href="/wiki/Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinism">Calvinism</a> was the main religion of those in power in the Dutch Republic. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Influence_of_the_Italian_Renaissance">Influence of the Italian Renaissance</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Renaissance_in_the_Low_Countries&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Influence of the Italian Renaissance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Holbein-erasmus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Holbein-erasmus.jpg/170px-Holbein-erasmus.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="241" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Holbein-erasmus.jpg/255px-Holbein-erasmus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Holbein-erasmus.jpg/340px-Holbein-erasmus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1618" data-file-height="2290" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Desiderius Erasmus</a> in 1523</figcaption></figure> <p>Trade in the port of <a href="/wiki/Bruges" title="Bruges">Bruges</a> and the textile industry, mostly in Ghent, turned Flanders into the wealthiest part of Northern Europe at the end of the 15th century. The Burgundian court dwelled mostly in Bruges, Ghent and <a href="/wiki/Brussels" title="Brussels">Brussels</a>. The nobles and rich traders were able to commission artists, creating a class of highly skilled painters and musicians who were admired and requested around the continent.<sup id="cite_ref-Heughebaert_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heughebaert-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This led to frequent exchanges between the Low Countries and Northern Italy. Examples are Italian architects <a href="/wiki/Tommaso_Vincidor" title="Tommaso Vincidor">Tommaso Vincidor</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Pasqualini" title="Alessandro Pasqualini">Alessandro Pasqualini</a>, who worked in the Low Countries for most of their careers, Flemish painter <a href="/wiki/Jan_Gossaert" title="Jan Gossaert">Jan Gossaert</a>, whose visit to Italy in 1508 in the company of <a href="/wiki/Philip_of_Burgundy,_Bishop_of_Utrecht" class="mw-redirect" title="Philip of Burgundy, Bishop of Utrecht">Philip of Burgundy</a> left a deep impression,<sup id="cite_ref-Janson_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Janson-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> musician <a href="/wiki/Adrian_Willaert" title="Adrian Willaert">Adrian Willaert</a> who made <a href="/wiki/Venice" title="Venice">Venice</a> into the most important musical centre of its time<sup id="cite_ref-Heughebaert_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heughebaert-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (see <a href="/wiki/Venetian_School_(music)" title="Venetian School (music)">Venetian School</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Giambologna" title="Giambologna">Giambologna</a>, a Flemish sculptor who spent his most productive years in <a href="/wiki/Florence" title="Florence">Florence</a>. </p><p>Before 1500, the Italian Renaissance had little or no influence above the Alps. After this Renaissance influences moved northward, but unlike the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Renaissance" title="Italian Renaissance">Italian Renaissance</a>, Gothic elements remained important. The revival of the classical period is also not a central theme like in Italy, the "rebirth" shows itself more as a return to nature and earthly beauty.<sup id="cite_ref-Heughebaert_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heughebaert-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Renaissance_in_the_Low_Countries">Renaissance in the Low Countries</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Renaissance_in_the_Low_Countries&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Renaissance in the Low Countries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Art">Art</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Renaissance_in_the_Low_Countries&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Art"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Early_Netherlandish_painting" title="Early Netherlandish painting">Early Netherlandish painting</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dutch_and_Flemish_Renaissance_painting" title="Dutch and Flemish Renaissance painting">Dutch and Flemish Renaissance painting</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hieronymus_Bosch_-_The_Garden_of_Earthly_Delights_-_Hell.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Hieronymus_Bosch_-_The_Garden_of_Earthly_Delights_-_Hell.jpg/170px-Hieronymus_Bosch_-_The_Garden_of_Earthly_Delights_-_Hell.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="413" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Hieronymus_Bosch_-_The_Garden_of_Earthly_Delights_-_Hell.jpg/255px-Hieronymus_Bosch_-_The_Garden_of_Earthly_Delights_-_Hell.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Hieronymus_Bosch_-_The_Garden_of_Earthly_Delights_-_Hell.jpg/340px-Hieronymus_Bosch_-_The_Garden_of_Earthly_Delights_-_Hell.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1778" data-file-height="4324" /></a><figcaption><i>Hell</i>, the right panel from the triptych <i><a href="/wiki/The_Garden_of_Earthly_Delights" title="The Garden of Earthly Delights">The Garden of Earthly Delights</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Hieronymus_Bosch" title="Hieronymus Bosch">Hieronymus Bosch</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bruegel,_Pieter_de_Oude_-_De_val_van_icarus_-_hi_res.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Bruegel%2C_Pieter_de_Oude_-_De_val_van_icarus_-_hi_res.jpg/250px-Bruegel%2C_Pieter_de_Oude_-_De_val_van_icarus_-_hi_res.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Bruegel%2C_Pieter_de_Oude_-_De_val_van_icarus_-_hi_res.jpg/375px-Bruegel%2C_Pieter_de_Oude_-_De_val_van_icarus_-_hi_res.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Bruegel%2C_Pieter_de_Oude_-_De_val_van_icarus_-_hi_res.jpg/500px-Bruegel%2C_Pieter_de_Oude_-_De_val_van_icarus_-_hi_res.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1143" data-file-height="755" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Landscape_with_the_Fall_of_Icarus" title="Landscape with the Fall of Icarus">Landscape with the Fall of Icarus</a></i> after <a href="/wiki/Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder" title="Pieter Bruegel the Elder">Pieter Bruegel the Elder</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Early_Netherlandish_painting" title="Early Netherlandish painting">Fifteenth-century painting in the Low Countries</a> still shows strong religious influences, contrary to the Germanic painting. Even after 1500, when Renaissance influences begin to show, the influence of the masters from the previous century leads to a largely religious and narrative style of painting. </p><p>The first painter showing the marks of the new era is <a href="/wiki/Hieronymus_Bosch" title="Hieronymus Bosch">Hieronymus Bosch</a>. His work is strange and full of seemingly irrational imagery, making it difficult to interpret.<sup id="cite_ref-Janson_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Janson-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most of all it seems surprisingly modern, introducing a world of dreams that highly contrasts with the traditional style of the Flemish masters of his day. </p><p>After 1550, the Flemish and Dutch painters begin to show more interest in nature and in beauty <i>an sich</i>, leading to a style that incorporates Renaissance elements, but remains very far from the elegant lightness of <a href="/wiki/Italian_Renaissance_painting" title="Italian Renaissance painting">Italian Renaissance art</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Heughebaert_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heughebaert-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and directly leads to the themes of the great Flemish and Dutch <a href="/wiki/Baroque" title="Baroque">Baroque</a> painters: landscapes, still lifes and genre painting – scenes from everyday life.<sup id="cite_ref-Janson_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Janson-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This evolution is seen in the works of <a href="/wiki/Joachim_Patinir" title="Joachim Patinir">Joachim Patinir</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pieter_Aertsen" title="Pieter Aertsen">Pieter Aertsen</a>, but the true genius among these painters was <a href="/wiki/Pieter_Brueghel_the_Elder" class="mw-redirect" title="Pieter Brueghel the Elder">Pieter Brueghel the Elder</a>, well known for his depictions of nature and everyday life, showing a preference for the natural condition of man, choosing to depict the peasant instead of the prince. </p><p>The <i><a href="/wiki/Landscape_with_the_Fall_of_Icarus" title="Landscape with the Fall of Icarus">Landscape with the Fall of Icarus</a></i>, now thought to be an early copy, combines several elements of northern Renaissance painting. It hints at the renewed interest for antiquity (the <a href="/wiki/Icarus_(mythology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Icarus (mythology)">Icarus</a> legend), but the hero Icarus is hidden away in the background. The main actors in the painting are nature itself and, most prominently, the peasant, who does not even look up from his plough when Icarus falls. Brueghel shows man as an anti-hero, comical and sometimes grotesque.<sup id="cite_ref-Heughebaert_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heughebaert-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Architecture_and_sculpture">Architecture and sculpture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Renaissance_in_the_Low_Countries&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Architecture and sculpture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As in painting, <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_architecture" title="Renaissance architecture">Renaissance architecture</a> took some time to reach the Low Countries, and did not entirely supplant Gothic elements.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most important sculptor in the Southern Netherlands was <a href="/wiki/Giambologna" title="Giambologna">Giambologna</a>, who spent most of his career in Italy. An architect directly influenced by the Italian masters was <a href="/wiki/Cornelis_Floris_de_Vriendt" title="Cornelis Floris de Vriendt">Cornelis Floris de Vriendt</a>, who designed the <a href="/wiki/Antwerp_City_Hall" title="Antwerp City Hall">city hall of Antwerp</a>, finished in 1564. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Well_of_Moses_at_CMArt_(Cropped).JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Well_of_Moses_at_CMArt_%28Cropped%29.JPG/200px-Well_of_Moses_at_CMArt_%28Cropped%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="266" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Well_of_Moses_at_CMArt_%28Cropped%29.JPG/300px-Well_of_Moses_at_CMArt_%28Cropped%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Well_of_Moses_at_CMArt_%28Cropped%29.JPG/400px-Well_of_Moses_at_CMArt_%28Cropped%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1892" data-file-height="2514" /></a><figcaption>Sluter, <i>The Well of Moses</i>, 1395-1405</figcaption></figure><p>In sculpture, however, 15th-century Netherlandish artists, while adhering to Christian subjects, developed techniques and a naturalistic style which compares favorably to the work of early-Renaissance Italian contemporaries such as <a href="/wiki/Donatello" title="Donatello">Donatello</a>. <a href="/wiki/Claus_Sluter" title="Claus Sluter">Claus Sluter</a> (fl. ~1400) produced works such as the <a href="/wiki/Well_of_Moses" title="Well of Moses">Well of Moses</a> with a dynamism almost unknown at the turn of the 15th century; and Dutch-born <a href="/wiki/Nikolaus_Gerhaert" title="Nikolaus Gerhaert">Nikolaus Gerhaert</a> van Leyden (b. ~1420) made sculptures such as "Man Meditating", which even today appear more "modern" than does Italian <a href="/wiki/Quattrocento" title="Quattrocento">Quattrocento</a> carving. </p><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nicolaus_von_Leyden,_Self-portrait2.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Nicolaus_von_Leyden%2C_Self-portrait2.JPG/200px-Nicolaus_von_Leyden%2C_Self-portrait2.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="268" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Nicolaus_von_Leyden%2C_Self-portrait2.JPG/300px-Nicolaus_von_Leyden%2C_Self-portrait2.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Nicolaus_von_Leyden%2C_Self-portrait2.JPG/400px-Nicolaus_von_Leyden%2C_Self-portrait2.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2441" data-file-height="3272" /></a><figcaption>Gerhaert, <i>Man Meditating</i>, 1467</figcaption></figure> <p>In the early-17th century <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hendrick_de_Keyser" title="Hendrick de Keyser">Hendrick de Keyser</a> plays an important role in developing the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Amsterdam_Renaissance&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Amsterdam Renaissance (page does not exist)">Amsterdam Renaissance</a> style, not slavishly following the classical style but incorporating many decorative elements, giving a result that could also be categorized as <a href="/wiki/Mannerism" title="Mannerism">Mannerism</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hans_Vredeman_de_Vries" title="Hans Vredeman de Vries">Hans Vredeman de Vries</a> was another important name, primarily as a garden architect. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Music">Music</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Renaissance_in_the_Low_Countries&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Music"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Franco-Flemish_School" title="Franco-Flemish School">Franco-Flemish School</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Orlando_de_Lassus2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Orlando_de_Lassus2.jpg/220px-Orlando_de_Lassus2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="310" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/Orlando_de_Lassus2.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="314" data-file-height="442" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Orlande_de_Lassus" class="mw-redirect" title="Orlande de Lassus">Orlande de Lassus</a> leading a chamber ensemble, painted by <a href="/wiki/Hans_Mielich" class="mw-redirect" title="Hans Mielich">Hans Mielich</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Although there is no reference to antiquity, there is a clear Flemish "Renaissance consciousness", as indicated by the words of Flemish theorist <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Tinctoris" title="Johannes Tinctoris">Johannes Tinctoris</a>, who said of these Franco-Flemish composers: "Although it is beyond belief, nothing worth listening to had been composed before their time".<sup id="cite_ref-Janson_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Janson-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Josquin_des_Prez" title="Josquin des Prez">Josquin des Prez</a> was the most celebrated composer during the <a href="/wiki/High_Renaissance" title="High Renaissance">High Renaissance</a>, and during his career enjoyed the patronage of three popes. Equally at ease in secular and religious music.<sup id="cite_ref-Janson_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Janson-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other important composers from the Low Countries were <a href="/wiki/Guillaume_Dufay" class="mw-redirect" title="Guillaume Dufay">Guillaume Dufay</a>, <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Ockeghem" title="Johannes Ockeghem">Johannes Ockeghem</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Clemens_non_Papa" class="mw-redirect" title="Jacob Clemens non Papa">Jacob Clemens non Papa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Adrian_Willaert" title="Adrian Willaert">Adrian Willaert</a>. <a href="/wiki/Orlande_de_Lassus" class="mw-redirect" title="Orlande de Lassus">Orlande de Lassus</a>, a Fleming who had lived in Italy as a youth and spent most of his career in <a href="/wiki/Munich" title="Munich">Munich</a>, was the leading composer of the late Renaissance. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literature">Literature</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Renaissance_in_the_Low_Countries&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Renaissance_and_Golden_Age_literature" title="Dutch Renaissance and Golden Age literature">Dutch Renaissance and Golden Age literature</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:0_Antwerp_town_hall_(1).JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/0_Antwerp_town_hall_%281%29.JPG/250px-0_Antwerp_town_hall_%281%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="250" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/0_Antwerp_town_hall_%281%29.JPG/375px-0_Antwerp_town_hall_%281%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/0_Antwerp_town_hall_%281%29.JPG/500px-0_Antwerp_town_hall_%281%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3888" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Antwerp_City_Hall" title="Antwerp City Hall">Antwerp City Hall</a> (finished in 1564)</figcaption></figure> <p>In the middle of the 16th century, a group of <a href="/wiki/Chamber_of_rhetoric" title="Chamber of rhetoric">rhetoricians</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Dutch_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval Dutch literature">Medieval Dutch literature</a>) in <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Brabant" title="Duchy of Brabant">Brabant</a> and <a href="/wiki/Flanders" title="Flanders">Flanders</a> attempted to put new life into the stereotyped forms of the preceding age by introducing in original composition the new-found branches of <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Greek</a> poetry. The leader of these men was <a href="/w/index.php?title=Johan_Baptista_Houwaert&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Johan Baptista Houwaert (page does not exist)">Johan Baptista Houwaert</a>, who was led by an unbounded love of classical and mythological fancy.<sup id="cite_ref-brittanica_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brittanica-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The most important genre was music publishing, especially <a href="/wiki/Psalms" title="Psalms">psalms</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Souterliedekens" title="Souterliedekens">Souterliedekens</a> publication is one of the most important sources for the reconstruction of Renaissance folksongs. Later publishing was heavily influenced by the rebellion against the Spanish: heroic battle songs and political ballads ridiculing the Spanish occupants. </p><p>Best remembered of the writers is <a href="/wiki/Philips_van_Marnix,_lord_of_Sint-Aldegonde" class="mw-redirect" title="Philips van Marnix, lord of Sint-Aldegonde">Philips van Marnix, lord of Sint-Aldegonde</a>, who was one of the leading spirits in the war of Dutch independence. He wrote a <a href="/wiki/Satire" title="Satire">satire</a> on the Roman Catholic Church, started to work on a <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a> translation and allegedly wrote the lyrics to the <a href="/wiki/Het_Wilhelmus" class="mw-redirect" title="Het Wilhelmus">Dutch national anthem</a>. </p><p>Other important names are <a href="/wiki/Dirck_Volckertszoon_Coornhert" class="mw-redirect" title="Dirck Volckertszoon Coornhert">Dirck Volckertszoon Coornhert</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hendrick_Laurensz._Spieghel" class="mw-redirect" title="Hendrick Laurensz. Spieghel">Hendrick Laurensz. Spieghel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roemer_Visscher" title="Roemer Visscher">Roemer Visscher</a>. Inevitably, their works and career were very much determined by the struggle between Reformation and the Catholic Church. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Science">Science</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Renaissance_in_the_Low_Countries&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MercatormapFullEurope16thcentury.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/MercatormapFullEurope16thcentury.jpg/260px-MercatormapFullEurope16thcentury.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/MercatormapFullEurope16thcentury.jpg/390px-MercatormapFullEurope16thcentury.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/MercatormapFullEurope16thcentury.jpg/520px-MercatormapFullEurope16thcentury.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3296" data-file-height="2500" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Gerardus_Mercator" title="Gerardus Mercator">Gerardus Mercator</a>'s map of Europe, 1554</figcaption></figure> <p>The new age presents itself in science as well. Flemish <a href="/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy">anatomist</a> <a href="/wiki/Andreas_Vesalius" title="Andreas Vesalius">Andreas Vesalius</a>'s life typically shows both the new possibilities and the troubles that came with them. He delivered ground-breaking work on human anatomy, after centuries of disregard for it. This earned him great respect from some, but also caused several enquiries into his methods (<a href="/wiki/Dissection" title="Dissection">dissection</a> of the human body) and the religious implications of his work. </p><p>While Vesalius performed ground-breaking work in rediscovering the human body, <a href="/wiki/Gerardus_Mercator" title="Gerardus Mercator">Gerardus Mercator</a>, as one of the leading <a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">cartographers</a> of his time, did the same for rediscovering the outside world. Mercator too came into trouble with the Church because of his beliefs, and spent several months in jail after a conviction for <a href="/wiki/Heresy" title="Heresy">heresy</a>. </p><p>Both scientists' lives show how the Renaissance scientist is not afraid of challenging what has been taken for granted for centuries, and how this leads to problems with the all-powerful Catholic Church. </p><p>Though the invention of the printing press by <a href="/wiki/Laurens_Janszoon_Coster" title="Laurens Janszoon Coster">Laurens Janszoon Coster</a> in the 1430s appears to be a romantic notion, the Low Countries had an early start in printing. By 1470 a <a href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing press</a> was in use in <a href="/wiki/Utrecht_(city)" class="mw-redirect" title="Utrecht (city)">Utrecht</a>, where the first dated extant book was printed in 1473, while the first book in the Dutch language was the 1477 <a href="/wiki/Delft" title="Delft">Delft</a> Bible. By 1481 the Low Countries had printing shops in 21 cities and towns.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Famous publishing houses like those of <a href="/wiki/Christoffel_Plantijn" class="mw-redirect" title="Christoffel Plantijn">Christoffel Plantijn</a> in <a href="/wiki/Antwerp" title="Antwerp">Antwerp</a> from 1555 on, <a href="/wiki/Petrus_Phalesius_the_Elder" title="Petrus Phalesius the Elder">Petrus Phalesius the Elder</a> in <a href="/wiki/Leuven" title="Leuven">Leuven</a> from 1553, and the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Elzevir" title="House of Elzevir">House of Elzevir</a> in <a href="/wiki/Leiden" title="Leiden">Leiden</a> from around 1580 turned the Low Countries into a regional center of publishing. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Renaissance_in_the_Low_Countries&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Renaissance_in_Belgium" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Renaissance in Belgium">Renaissance in Belgium</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Renaissance_in_the_Netherlands" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Renaissance in the Netherlands">Renaissance in the Netherlands</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_Renaissance" title="English Renaissance">English Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Renaissance" title="French Renaissance">French Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Renaissance" title="German Renaissance">German Renaissance</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_situation">Political situation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Renaissance_in_the_Low_Countries&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Political situation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burgundian_Netherlands" title="Burgundian Netherlands">Burgundian Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seventeen_Provinces" title="Seventeen Provinces">Seventeen Provinces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a> – <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Golden_Age" title="Dutch Golden Age">Dutch Golden Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Eighty Years' War">Eighty Years' War</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arts">Arts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Renaissance_in_the_Low_Countries&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Arts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flemish_painting" title="Flemish painting">Flemish painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanism_(painting)" title="Romanism (painting)">Romanism (painting)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Flemish_painters" title="List of Flemish painters">List of Flemish painters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Dutch_painters" title="List of Dutch painters">List of Dutch painters</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Renaissance_in_the_Low_Countries&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Janson-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Janson_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Janson_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Janson_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Janson_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Janson_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Janson_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFJansonJanson,_Anthony_F.1997" class="citation book cs1">Janson, H.W.; Janson, Anthony F. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.abramsbooks.com"><i>History of Art</i></a> (5th, rev. ed.). New York: <a href="/wiki/Harry_N._Abrams,_Inc." class="mw-redirect" title="Harry N. Abrams, Inc.">Harry N. Abrams, Inc.</a> <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8109-3442-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-8109-3442-6"><bdi>0-8109-3442-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Art&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=5th%2C+rev.&rft.pub=Harry+N.+Abrams%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-8109-3442-6&rft.aulast=Janson&rft.aufirst=H.W.&rft.au=Janson%2C+Anthony+F.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.abramsbooks.com&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARenaissance+in+the+Low+Countries" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kamen-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kamen_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKamen2005" class="citation book cs1">Kamen, Henry (2005). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/spain14691714soc00kame"><i>Spain, 1469–1714, A Society of Conflict</i></a></span> (3rd ed.). Harlow, United Kingdom: Pearson Education. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-582-78464-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-582-78464-6"><bdi>0-582-78464-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spain%2C+1469%E2%80%931714%2C+A+Society+of+Conflict&rft.place=Harlow%2C+United+Kingdom&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Pearson+Education&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-582-78464-6&rft.aulast=Kamen&rft.aufirst=Henry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fspain14691714soc00kame&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARenaissance+in+the+Low+Countries" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Heughebaert-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Heughebaert_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Heughebaert_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Heughebaert_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Heughebaert_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Heughebaert_3-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeughebaertDefoort,_A.Van_Der_Donck,_R.1998" class="citation book cs1">Heughebaert, H.; Defoort, A.; Van Der Donck, R. (1998). <i>Artistieke opvoeding</i>. Wommelgem, Belgium: Den Gulden Engel bvba. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-5035-222-7" title="Special:BookSources/90-5035-222-7"><bdi>90-5035-222-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Artistieke+opvoeding&rft.place=Wommelgem%2C+Belgium&rft.pub=Den+Gulden+Engel+bvba.&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=90-5035-222-7&rft.aulast=Heughebaert&rft.aufirst=H.&rft.au=Defoort%2C+A.&rft.au=Van+Der+Donck%2C+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARenaissance+in+the+Low+Countries" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:02-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:02_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRietbergen2000" class="citation book cs1">Rietbergen, P. J. A. N. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/52849131"><i>A Short History of the Netherlands: From Prehistory to the Present Day</i></a> (4th ed.). Amersfoort: Bekking. p. 59. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-6109-440-2" title="Special:BookSources/90-6109-440-2"><bdi>90-6109-440-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/52849131">52849131</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Short+History+of+the+Netherlands%3A+From+Prehistory+to+the+Present+Day&rft.place=Amersfoort&rft.pages=59&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Bekking&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F52849131&rft.isbn=90-6109-440-2&rft.aulast=Rietbergen&rft.aufirst=P.+J.+A.+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F52849131&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARenaissance+in+the+Low+Countries" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-brittanica-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-brittanica_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="noprint"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/18px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/24px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span> </span>One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGosse1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Gosse, Edmund William (1911). "<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Dutch_Literature#Houwaert." class="extiw" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Dutch Literature">Dutch Literature § Houwaert</a>". In <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 8 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 721.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Dutch+Literature+%C2%A7+Houwaert&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=721&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Gosse&rft.aufirst=Edmund+William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARenaissance+in+the+Low+Countries" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">E. L. Eisenstein: The Printing Revolution in Early Modern Europe, Cambridge, 1993 pp.13–17, quoted in: <a href="/wiki/Angus_Maddison" title="Angus Maddison">Angus Maddison</a>: Growth and Interaction in the World Economy: The Roots of Modernity, Washington 2005, p.17f.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 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.navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Renaissance" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Renaissance_navbox" title="Template:Renaissance navbox"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Renaissance_navbox" title="Template talk:Renaissance navbox"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Renaissance_navbox" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Renaissance navbox"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Renaissance" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Renaissance" title="Category:Renaissance">General</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_scholars_in_the_Renaissance" title="Greek scholars in the Renaissance">Greek scholars in the Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Renaissance" title="High Renaissance">High Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mannerism" title="Mannerism">Mannerism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Mannerism" title="Northern Mannerism">Northern Mannerism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Renaissance" title="Outline of the Renaissance">Outline of the Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_studies" title="Renaissance studies">Renaissance studies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By field</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_architecture" title="Renaissance architecture">Architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brick_Renaissance" title="Brick Renaissance">Brick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_architecture_in_Central_and_Eastern_Europe" title="Renaissance architecture in Central and Eastern Europe">Central and Eastern Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Renaissance_architecture" title="French Renaissance architecture">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Italian_Renaissance_domes" title="History of Italian Renaissance domes">Italian domes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palladian_architecture" title="Palladian architecture">Palladian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plateresque" title="Plateresque">Plateresque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_architecture_in_Portugal" title="Renaissance architecture in Portugal">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purism_(Spanish_architecture)" title="Purism (Spanish architecture)">Purism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Renaissance_architecture" title="Spanish Renaissance architecture">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venetian_Renaissance_architecture" title="Venetian Renaissance architecture">Venetian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_art" title="Renaissance art">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Netherlandish_painting" title="Early Netherlandish painting">Early Netherlandish painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_and_Flemish_Renaissance_painting" title="Dutch and Flemish Renaissance painting">Dutch and Flemish painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Renaissance_painting" title="Italian Renaissance painting">Italian painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_sculpture" title="Renaissance sculpture">Sculpture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Renaissance_sculpture" title="Italian Renaissance sculpture">Italian sculpture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_dance" title="Renaissance dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Humanism_in_France" title="Humanism in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism_in_Northern_Europe" title="Renaissance humanism in Northern Europe">Northern Europe</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Latin" title="Renaissance Latin">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_literature" title="Renaissance literature">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Renaissance_and_Golden_Age_literature" title="Dutch Renaissance and Golden Age literature">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Renaissance_literature" title="French Renaissance literature">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Renaissance_literature" title="Spanish Renaissance literature">Spanish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_magic" title="Renaissance magic">Magic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_Renaissance" title="Medical Renaissance">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_music" title="Renaissance music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Platonism_in_the_Renaissance" title="Platonism in the Renaissance">Platonism in the Renaissance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_in_the_Renaissance" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science in the Renaissance">Science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_technology" title="Renaissance technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_theatre#Renaissance_theatre" title="History of theatre">Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_warfare" title="Early modern warfare">Warfare</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Renaissance#The_Renaissance_by_region" title="Outline of the Renaissance">By region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Italian_Renaissance" title="Italian Renaissance">Italian Renaissance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_art_in_Bergamo_and_Brescia" title="Renaissance art in Bergamo and Brescia">Bergamo and Brescia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_in_Ferrara" title="Renaissance in Ferrara">Ferrara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Florentine_Renaissance_art" title="Florentine Renaissance art">Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_in_Lombardy" title="Renaissance in Lombardy">Lombardy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Renaissance" title="Roman Renaissance">Rome</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Papacy" title="Renaissance Papacy">Papacy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sicilian_Renaissance" title="Sicilian Renaissance">Sicily</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_in_Urbino" title="Renaissance in Urbino">Urbino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venetian_Renaissance" title="Venetian Renaissance">Venice</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Northern_Renaissance" title="Northern Renaissance">Northern Renaissance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_Renaissance" title="English Renaissance">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Renaissance" title="French Renaissance">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Renaissance" title="German Renaissance">Germany</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saxon_Renaissance" title="Saxon Renaissance">Saxony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weser_Renaissance" title="Weser Renaissance">Weser</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Low Countries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_in_Poland" title="Renaissance in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_in_Scotland" title="Renaissance in Scotland">Scotland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Iberian peninsula</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Renaissance" title="Portuguese Renaissance">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Renaissance" title="Spanish Renaissance">Spain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Golden_Age" title="Spanish Golden Age">Spanish Golden Age</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Renaissance#Renaissance_lists" title="Outline of the Renaissance">Lists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Renaissance_composers" title="List of Renaissance composers">Composers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Renaissance_figures" title="List of Renaissance figures">Figures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Renaissance_humanists" title="List of Renaissance humanists">Humanists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Renaissance_structures" title="List of Renaissance structures">Structures</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cloak_and_dagger" title="Cloak and dagger">Cloak and dagger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_renaissances" title="Medieval renaissances">Medieval renaissances</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Renaissance" title="Carolingian Renaissance">Carolingian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottonian_Renaissance" title="Ottonian Renaissance">Ottonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_of_the_12th_century" title="Renaissance of the 12th century">12th century</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_reenactment" title="Renaissance reenactment">Reenactment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Early_modern_Europe" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Early_Modern_Europe" title="Template:Early Modern Europe"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Early_Modern_Europe" title="Template talk:Early Modern Europe"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Early_Modern_Europe" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Early Modern Europe"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Early_modern_Europe" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_Europe" title="Early modern Europe">Early modern Europe</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overviews</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Eras</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Renaissance" title="Outline of the Renaissance">Outline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Renaissance" title="High Renaissance">High Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">Early modern period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_Europe" title="Early modern Europe">Early modern Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_era" title="Elizabethan era">Elizabethan era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baroque" title="Baroque">Baroque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_relations_(1648%E2%80%931814)" title="International relations (1648–1814)">International relations (1648–1814)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">By country</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Renaissance" title="Northern Renaissance">Northern Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Renaissance" title="English Renaissance">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Papacy" title="Renaissance Papacy">Papacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Renaissance" title="French Renaissance">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Renaissance" title="German Renaissance">Germany</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Low Countries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Political</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Decline of the Byzantine Empire">Decline of the Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li>Technological:</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Printing#Impact_of_German_movable_type_printing_press" title="Printing">Printing Revolution</a></li> <li>Intellectual:</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Social history</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">Absolute monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journalism_of_Early_Modern_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Journalism of Early Modern Europe">Journalism of Early Modern Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_General_Crisis" title="The General Crisis">The General Crisis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Politics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Countries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Free_imperial_city" title="Free imperial city">Free imperial city</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Early modern France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany_in_the_early_modern_period" title="Germany in the early modern period">Germany </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_Britain" title="Early modern Britain">Britain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cossack_Hetmanate" title="Cossack Hetmanate">Cossack Hetmanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Empire" title="Swedish Empire">Swedish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seventeen_Provinces" title="Seventeen Provinces">Seventeen Provinces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_Netherlands_(1500%E2%80%931815)" title="Economic history of the Netherlands (1500–1815)">Economic history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Habsburg monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bohemia" title="Kingdom of Bohemia">Kingdom of Bohemia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lands_of_the_Bohemian_Crown" title="Lands of the Bohemian Crown">Lands of the Bohemian Crown</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestant_Union" title="Protestant Union">Protestant Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Leaders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Habsburg monarchy</a></li> <li>England <ul><li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Stuart" title="House of Stuart">House of Stuart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Tudor" title="House of Tudor">House of Tudor</a></li></ul></li> <li>France <ul><li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Bourbon" title="House of Bourbon">House of Bourbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy_in_France" title="Absolute monarchy in France">Absolute monarchy in France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancien_R%C3%A9gime" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancien Régime">Ancien Régime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV" title="Louis XIV">Louis XIV</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Wars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion" title="French Wars of Religion">French Wars of Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_wars" title="Cabinet wars">Cabinet wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Second Hundred Years' War">Second Hundred Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession" title="War of the Spanish Succession">War of the Spanish Succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War" title="Seven Years' War">Seven Years' War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Diplomacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French%E2%80%93Habsburg_rivalry" title="French–Habsburg rivalry">French–Habsburg rivalry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Westphalia" title="Peace of Westphalia">Peace of Westphalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaties_of_Nijmegen" title="Treaties of Nijmegen">Treaties of Nijmegen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_Revolution_of_1756" class="mw-redirect" title="Diplomatic Revolution of 1756">Diplomatic Revolution of 1756</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Religion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Overviews</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">Christianity in the modern era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Protestantism" title="Proto-Protestantism">Proto-Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bohemian_Reformation" title="Bohemian Reformation">Bohemian Reformation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hussites" title="Hussites">Hussites</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_European_Jews_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="History of European Jews in the Middle Ages">History of European Jews in the Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_world_contributions_to_Medieval_Europe" title="Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe">Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ninety-five_Theses" title="Ninety-five Theses">Ninety-five Theses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinism">Calvinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huguenots" title="Huguenots">Huguenots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Reformation" title="English Reformation">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheranism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Reformation" title="Scottish Reformation">Scottish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformation_in_Switzerland" title="Reformation in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_Reformation" title="Radical Reformation">Radical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_wars_of_religion" title="European wars of religion">European wars of religion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academic <br />fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Philosophy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Philosophy:</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism_in_Northern_Europe" title="Renaissance humanism in Northern Europe">Northern Europe</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_scholars_in_the_Renaissance" title="Greek scholars in the Renaissance">Greek scholars in the Renaissance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Science</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_Renaissance" title="Science in the Renaissance">Science in the Renaissance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Oration_on_the_Dignity_of_Man" title="Oration on the Dignity of Man">Oration on the Dignity of Man (1486)</a></i></li> <li><u> Authors</u>:</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Pico_della_Mirandola" title="Giovanni Pico della Mirandola">Giovanni Pico della Mirandola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matteo_Palmieri" title="Matteo Palmieri">Matteo Palmieri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci" title="Leonardo da Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Arts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_art" title="Renaissance art">Renaissance art</a></li> <li>Painting: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Renaissance_painting" title="Italian Renaissance painting">Italian painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Florentine_painting" title="Florentine painting">Florentine painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venetian_painting" title="Venetian painting">Venetian painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_and_Flemish_Renaissance_painting" title="Dutch and Flemish Renaissance painting">Dutch and Flemish painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Netherlandish_painting" title="Early Netherlandish painting">Early Netherlandish painting</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">End of period</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Revolution" title="Age of Revolution">Age of Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolutionary_and_Napoleonic_Wars" title="French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars">Coalition Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="French Revolutionary Wars">Revolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_nationalism_in_Europe" title="Rise of nationalism in Europe">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Revolutions of 1848</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Europe" title="Art of Europe">Art of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Europe" title="Genetic history of Europe">Genetic history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_European_Union" title="History of the European Union">History of the European Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Europe" title="Maritime history of Europe">Maritime history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Europe" title="Military history of Europe">Military history of Europe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">World</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_civilization" title="History of Western civilization">History of Western civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">History of Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Mediterranean_region" title="History of the Mediterranean region">History of the Mediterranean region</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Human_history" title="Human history">Human history</a> • <a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">History of philosophy</a> • <a href="/wiki/History_of_Europe" title="History of Europe">History of Europe</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=desktop" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Renaissance_in_the_Low_Countries&oldid=1227122228">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Renaissance_in_the_Low_Countries&oldid=1227122228</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a 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