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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Quantitative_economic_studies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Quantitative economic studies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Quantitative_economic_studies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-After_the_unification_of_Italy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#After_the_unification_of_Italy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>After the unification of Italy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-After_the_unification_of_Italy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle After the unification of Italy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-After_the_unification_of_Italy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Political_situation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_situation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Political situation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_situation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Brigandage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Brigandage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Brigandage</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Brigandage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Beginning_of_southern_emigration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Beginning_of_southern_emigration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Beginning of southern emigration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Beginning_of_southern_emigration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Sonnino-Franchetti_inquiry_and_the_discovery_of_the_southern_question" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Sonnino-Franchetti_inquiry_and_the_discovery_of_the_southern_question"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>The Sonnino-Franchetti inquiry and the discovery of the southern question</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Sonnino-Franchetti_inquiry_and_the_discovery_of_the_southern_question-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_colonial_venture_and_the_trade_war_with_France" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_colonial_venture_and_the_trade_war_with_France"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>The colonial venture and the trade war with France</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_colonial_venture_and_the_trade_war_with_France-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-World_War_I" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_War_I"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>World War I</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-World_War_I-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Fascist_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Fascist_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>The Fascist period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Fascist_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-World_War_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_War_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8</span> <span>World War II</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-World_War_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_First_Republic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_First_Republic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.9</span> <span>The First Republic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_First_Republic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_contemporary_south" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_contemporary_south"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.10</span> <span>The contemporary south</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_contemporary_south-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Studies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Studies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Studies</span> </div> </a> <button 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id="toc-Historical_research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical_research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Historical research</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical_research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scholars_of_the_phenomenon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scholars_of_the_phenomenon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Scholars of the phenomenon</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scholars_of_the_phenomenon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" 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dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Economic gap between northern and southern Italy</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mezzogiorno.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Mezzogiorno.png/220px-Mezzogiorno.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b9/Mezzogiorno.png 1.5x" data-file-width="265" data-file-height="207" /></a><figcaption>The <i><a href="/wiki/Southern_Italy" title="Southern Italy">Mezzogiorno</a></i> (large definition in clear rose, narrow definition in dark rose)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_Italian_regions_by_GDP_per_capita_in_euros_(2015).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Map_of_Italian_regions_by_GDP_per_capita_in_euros_%282015%29.jpg/220px-Map_of_Italian_regions_by_GDP_per_capita_in_euros_%282015%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="254" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Map_of_Italian_regions_by_GDP_per_capita_in_euros_%282015%29.jpg/330px-Map_of_Italian_regions_by_GDP_per_capita_in_euros_%282015%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Map_of_Italian_regions_by_GDP_per_capita_in_euros_%282015%29.jpg/440px-Map_of_Italian_regions_by_GDP_per_capita_in_euros_%282015%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2313" /></a><figcaption>Map of Italian regions by GDP per capita in euros (2015)</figcaption></figure> <p>The term <b>southern question</b> indicates, in <a href="/wiki/History_of_Italy" title="History of Italy">Italian historiography</a>, the perception, which developed in the post-unification context,<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of the situation of persistent backwardness in the socioeconomic development of the regions of <a href="/wiki/Southern_Italy" title="Southern Italy">southern Italy</a> compared to the other regions of the country, especially the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Italy" title="Northern Italy">northern ones</a>. First used in 1873 by Lombard <a href="/wiki/Classical_radicalism" title="Classical radicalism">radical</a> MP Antonio Billia, meaning the disastrous economic situation of the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Italy" title="Southern Italy">south of Italy</a> compared to other regions of united Italy,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it is sometimes used in common parlance even today. </p><p>The great southern emigration began only a few decades after the unification of Italy, where in the first half of the 19th century it had already affected several areas in the north, particularly <a href="/wiki/Piedmont" title="Piedmont">Piedmont</a>, <a href="/wiki/Comacchio" title="Comacchio">Comacchio</a> and <a href="/wiki/Veneto" title="Veneto">Veneto</a>. The historical reasons for the first southern emigration in the second half of the 19th century are to be found in widespread literature both in the crisis of the countryside and grain, and in the situation of economic impoverishment affecting the south in the aftermath of unification, when industrial investments were concentrated in the northwest,<sup id="cite_ref-ftp.iza.org_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ftp.iza.org-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as in other factors. </p><p>Between 1877 and 1887 (<a href="/wiki/Agostino_Depretis" title="Agostino Depretis">Depretis</a> governments) Italy had passed new protectionist tariff laws to protect its weak industry. These laws penalized agricultural exports from the south, favored industrial production concentrated in the north, and created the conditions for the corrupt mixing of politics and economics. According to Giustino Fortunato, these measures determined the final collapse of southern interests in the face of those of northern Italy.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">First World War</a>, the relative development of the north, based on industry, was favored by the war orders, while in the south, the conscription of young men to arms left the fields neglected, depriving their families of all sustenance, since, in the absence of men at the front, southern women were not accustomed to working the land like peasant women in the north and center; in fact, in the south, the arable land was often far from the homes, which were located in the villages, and even if they had wanted to, southern women would not have been able to do the housework and work the land at the same time, which was possible in northern and central Italy, where the peasants lived in farmhouses just a few meters from the land to be cultivated. </p><p>The policies implemented in the Fascist era to increase productivity in the primary sector were also unsuccessful: in particular, the agrarian policy pursued by Mussolini deeply damaged certain areas of the south. In fact, production focused mainly on wheat (<a href="/wiki/Battle_for_Grain" title="Battle for Grain">battle for wheat</a>) at the expense of more specialized and profitable crops that were widespread in the more fertile and developed southern areas. As for industry, it experienced during the "black twenty-year period" a long period of stagnation in the south, which is also noticeable in terms of employment. In the late 1930s, Fascism gave a new impetus to its economic efforts in the south and in Sicily, but this was an initiative aimed at increasing the meager consensus the regime enjoyed in the south and at popularizing in the south the world war that would soon engulf Italy.<sup id="cite_ref-Rosario_Villari,_p._521_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rosario_Villari,_p._521-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The southern question remains unresolved to this day for a number of economic reasons. Even after the <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">Second World War</a>, the development gap between the centre and the north could never be closed, because between 1971 (the first year for which data are available) and 2017, the Italian state invested, on average per inhabitant, much more in the centre-north than in the south, making the gap not only unbridgeable but, on the contrary, accentuating it.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the Eurispes: Results of the Italy 2020 report, if one were to consider the share of total public expenditure that the south should have received each year as a percentage of its population, it turns out that, in total, from 2000 to 2017, the corresponding sum deducted from it amounts to more than 840 billion euros net (an average of about 46 billion euros per year).<sup id="cite_ref-:3_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_situation_before_the_unification_of_Italy">The situation before the unification of Italy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Southern_question&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: The situation before the unification of Italy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_situation_and_framing">Political situation and framing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Southern_question&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Political situation and framing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Koenigreich_beider_Sizilien.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Koenigreich_beider_Sizilien.jpg/310px-Koenigreich_beider_Sizilien.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="271" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/Koenigreich_beider_Sizilien.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="428" data-file-height="374" /></a><figcaption>Nineteenth-century map of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Two_Sicilies" title="Kingdom of the Two Sicilies">Kingdom of the Two Sicilies</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Suddivisione_amministrativa_del_Regno_delle_Due_Sicilie.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Suddivisione_amministrativa_del_Regno_delle_Due_Sicilie.png/310px-Suddivisione_amministrativa_del_Regno_delle_Due_Sicilie.png" decoding="async" width="310" height="412" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Suddivisione_amministrativa_del_Regno_delle_Due_Sicilie.png/465px-Suddivisione_amministrativa_del_Regno_delle_Due_Sicilie.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Suddivisione_amministrativa_del_Regno_delle_Due_Sicilie.png/620px-Suddivisione_amministrativa_del_Regno_delle_Due_Sicilie.png 2x" data-file-width="4465" data-file-height="5931" /></a><figcaption>Administrative subdivision of the Bourbon kingdom</figcaption></figure> <p>The origin of economic and social differences between Italian regions has long been controversial, partly because of the related ideological and political implications. The prevailing historiographical current argues that the differences between the different areas of the peninsula were already very pronounced at the time of unification: the <a href="/wiki/Intensive_farming" title="Intensive farming">intensive agriculture</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Po_Valley" title="Po Valley">Po Valley</a>, the drive to build roads and railways of <a href="/wiki/Piedmont" title="Piedmont">Piedmont</a>, and the role of trade and finance are contrasted with the approach that characterized the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Two_Sicilies" title="Kingdom of the Two Sicilies">Kingdom of the Two Sicilies</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to journalist and essayist <a href="/wiki/Paolo_Mieli" title="Paolo Mieli">Paolo Mieli</a>, based on Vittorio Daniele and <a href="/wiki/Paolo_Malanima" title="Paolo Malanima">Paolo Malanima</a>'s work, <i>Il divario Nord-Sud in Italia 1861-2011</i> (Rubbettino), the Bourbon territories presented in the years of national unification, economic conditions quite similar to those of the northern areas and that indeed the per capita GDP of the south was higher, albeit slightly, than that of the north.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In contrast, U.S. economist Richard S. Eckaus argued there was an economic depression in the south prior to unification.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Francesco_Saverio_Nitti" title="Francesco Saverio Nitti">Francesco Saverio Nitti</a>, between 1810 and 1860, while states such as Britain, the United States, France, Germany, and Belgium experienced progress, pre-unification Italy had great difficulties in growth, largely due to various issues such as internal rebellions and wars of independence.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The situation was also exacerbated by malaria, which plagued the south of Italy in particular.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nitti believed that, prior to unification, there were no marked economic differences at the territorial level, and in every area of pre-unification Italy there was a scarcity of large industries: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p><i>Before 1860 there was hardly a trace of large industry throughout the peninsula. Lombardy, now so proud of its industries, had almost nothing but agriculture; Piedmont was an agricultural and thrifty land, at least in the habits of its citizens. Central Italy, southern Italy and Sicily were in a very modest state of economic development. Whole provinces, whole regions were almost closed to all civilization.</i></p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Francesco Saverio Nitti<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>About the conditions of economic and productive development in pre-unification Italy <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Antonio Gramsci</a> took a different view than Nitti, and according to the Marxist politician and historian at the date of Italian unification there were instead profound differences in economic organization and infrastructure between the northern and southern parts of the Italian peninsula. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p><i>In the new Italy, the two parts of the peninsula, the south and the north, which had been united for more than a thousand years, found themselves in completely opposite situations. The Lombard invasion had finally broken the unity created by Rome, and in the north the communes had given history a particular impetus, while in the south the rule of the Swabians, Anjou, Spain and the Bourbons had given it another. On the one hand, the tradition of a certain autonomy had created a bourgeoisie that was bold and full of initiative, and there was an economic organisation similar to that of other European states, conducive to the further development of capitalism and industry. In the other, the paternalist administrations of Spain and the Bourbons had created nothing: the bourgeoisie did not exist, agriculture was primitive and not even sufficient to satisfy the local market; there were no roads, no ports, no exploitation of the few waters that the region possessed because of its peculiar conformation. Unification brought the two parts of the peninsula into close contact.</i> </p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>La Questione Meridionale, Antonio Gramsci, p. 5</cite></div></blockquote> <p>According to <a href="/wiki/Denis_Mack_Smith" title="Denis Mack Smith">Denis Mack Smith</a>'s exposition in his work <i>History of Italy from 1861 to 1998</i>, starting in 1850, <a href="/wiki/Camillo_Benso,_Count_of_Cavour" title="Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour">Cavour</a>'s Piedmont was led by a liberal elite that marked a radical acceleration, with the declared aim of confronting the major European powers. The civil code was reformed on the model of the more advanced but decidedly centralist French code. A new bank was founded to provide credit to industrial enterprises and duties were significantly reduced, by an average of 10 percent, in comparison with 100 percent in the south. Technicians were sent to England to study the war industry, and infrastructure was greatly developed: the Cavour canal, begun in 1857, made the <a href="/wiki/Vercelli" title="Vercelli">Vercelli</a> and <a href="/wiki/Novara" title="Novara">Novara</a> region fertile, railways were expanded so that by 1859 Piedmont possessed half the mileage of the entire peninsula, and by 1868, the <a href="/wiki/Mont_Cenis_Pass_Railway" title="Mont Cenis Pass Railway">Moncenisio railway</a> (since 1871 replaced by the <a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9jus_Rail_Tunnel" title="Fréjus Rail Tunnel">Fréjus tunnel</a>) soon made it possible to reach Paris in a single day's journey.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nitti argued that this transformation entailed huge public expenditures that led the Sardinian kingdom into a deep financial depression, as many public works proved unproductive. According to Nitti, without detracting from the great merits of Piedmont in the face of Italian unification, the situation of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sardinia" title="Kingdom of Sardinia">Kingdom of Sardinia</a>, in order to avoid bankruptcy, could only be resolved by "mixing Piedmont's finances with those of another, larger state".<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the climate of restoration following the <a href="/wiki/Sicilian_revolution_of_1848" title="Sicilian revolution of 1848">Sicilian uprisings of 1848</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Two_Sicilies" title="Kingdom of the Two Sicilies">Kingdom of the Two Sicilies</a> had pursued a conservative policy. The <a href="/wiki/House_of_Bourbon-Two_Sicilies" title="House of Bourbon-Two Sicilies">Bourbon</a> government, according to Mack Smith, traced an aristocratic model, based on lower levels of taxes and low spending on infrastructure. Economic policy was paternalistic: domestic production was protected by high duties on the import of goods and food prices were kept low by the prohibition of exporting grain, while land ownership was concentrated among a few landowners who held it as a <a href="/wiki/Latifundium" title="Latifundium">latifundium</a>, or held in <a href="/wiki/Mortmain" title="Mortmain">mortmain</a> by the Church, while feudal rights to tithe and public use of communal lands still applied. Nitti assessed that the system adopted by the Bourbons was due to a lack of vision, a refusal to look to the future, a principle he judged to be narrow and almost patriarchal,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but which at the same time guaranteed a "rough prosperity that made the life of the people less torturous than it is now".<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, the causes of the southern problem must be sought in the many political and socio-economic events that the south has undergone over the centuries: In the absence of a <a href="/wiki/Medieval_commune" title="Medieval commune">communal period</a>, which would have stimulated intellectual and productive energies; in the persistence of foreign monarchies, incapable of creating a modern state; in the centuries-long domination of a baronage, holder of all privileges; in the persistence of the latifundium; in the absence of a bourgeois class, creator of wealth and animator of new forms of political life; in the nefarious and corrupting Spanish domination. Of particular importance was the almost systematic alliance between foreign monarchies and the nobility, based on the maintenance of the feudal regime. This alliance prevented the emergence of an active, enterprising bourgeoisie.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The problems of integrating the south into the new unified nation-state were also generated because of the profound socio-cultural differences between the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and the other pre-unitary states: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p><i>Almost none of these northern administrators liked being sent to Naples or Sicily: they all soon came up against local systems of patronage, clientelism and nepotism, and few were able to avoid compromise.</i></p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><i>Il Risorgimento italiano</i>, Denis Mack Smith, p. 525</cite></div></blockquote> <p>The situation was exacerbated by extensive and widespread administrative corruption.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the years following national unification, the average life expectancy in the south was several years shorter than in the north, and there was a higher incidence of malnutrition and undernourishment.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <br />The socioeconomic situation in the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Two_Sicilies" title="Kingdom of the Two Sicilies">Kingdom of the Two Sicilies</a> was succinctly described by British historian <a href="/wiki/Denis_Mack_Smith" title="Denis Mack Smith">Denis Mack Smith</a> as follows: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p><i>This difference between North and South was fundamental. A peasant from Calabria had little in common with one from Piedmont, and Turin was infinitely more like Paris and London than Naples and Palermo, for these two-halves were on quite different levels of civilization. Poets might write of the South as the garden of the world, the land of Sybaris and Capri, and stay-at-home politicians sometimes believed them; but in fact, most southerners lived in squalor, afflicted by drought, malaria, and earthquakes. The Bourbon rulers of Naples and Sicily before 1860 had been staunch supporters of a feudal system glamorized by the trappings of a courtly and corrupt society. They had feared the traffic of ideas and had tried to keep their subjects insulated from the agricultural and industrial revolutions of northern Europe. Roads were scanty or nonexistent, and passports were necessary even for internal travel.</i></p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>History of Italy from 1861 to 1997, Denis Mack Smith, p. 3, English edition</cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economic_situation">Economic situation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Southern_question&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Economic situation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Two_Sicilies" title="Kingdom of the Two Sicilies">Kingdom of the Two Sicilies</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p><i>In short, southern Italy unfortunately became part of the new kingdom under conditions quite different from what Nitti would have us believe. It lived on a primitive economy in which there was almost no division of labour and exchange was reduced to a minimum: people tended to work for their own subsistence rather than to produce exchange value and to obtain what they needed by selling products. In many communes, well over half the population never ate wheat bread, and "the peasants lived by working like beasts", so much so that "the maintenance of each of them cost less than the maintenance of a donkey": this is what Ludovico Bianchini, one of Ferdinand II's ministers, wrote.</i></p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Il Mezzogiorno e lo Stato Italiano, vol. II, <a href="/wiki/Giustino_Fortunato" title="Giustino Fortunato">Giustino Fortunato</a>, p. 340</cite></div></blockquote> <p>To correctly interpret the economic and social situation, it must be considered that the Kingdom was not a uniform reality within itself, and indeed regional differences were more pronounced than in modern Italy. In general, wealth increased from inland to the coast, and from the countryside to the city. <a href="/wiki/Naples" title="Naples">Naples</a>, with as many as 450,000 inhabitants,<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was by far among the top cities in Europe by population. Its province could compete with the more developed provinces of the northwest while there were extremely poor areas, such as the Calabrian, Sicilian and Lucanian hinterlands.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/Giustino_Fortunato" title="Giustino Fortunato">Giustino Fortunato</a> such a state of profound difference between the city of Naples and the poor provinces of the kingdom would have influenced the events of the <a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Italy" title="Unification of Italy">Risorgimento</a> in the south: "If the provinces, and not the capital, preceded the few insurrections that led to Garibaldi's landing in Reggio di Calabria, it was perhaps due in no small part to an ascetic sense of aversion to the excessive, enormous preponderance of the city of Naples, made too great, if not rich, at the cost of a small and too miserable dark kingdom....."<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Italy_Industry_1871.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Italy_Industry_1871.svg/310px-Italy_Industry_1871.svg.png" decoding="async" width="310" height="388" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Italy_Industry_1871.svg/465px-Italy_Industry_1871.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Italy_Industry_1871.svg/620px-Italy_Industry_1871.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1500" /></a><figcaption>Normalized industrialization index of Italian provinces in 1871 (national average is 1.0). Source: Bank of Italy. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#550000; color:white;-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;"> </span> Over 1.4</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#D40000; color:white;-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;"> </span> From 1.1 to 1.4</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#FF8080; color:black;-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;"> </span> From 0.9 to 1.1</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#FFFFFF; color:black;-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;"> </span> Up to 0.9</div></figcaption></figure> <p>Sicily constituted a case apart: the end of the uprisings of '48 had reestablished its reunification with the rest of the peninsula, yet independence continued to be strong and would be instrumental in supporting <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Garibaldi" title="Giuseppe Garibaldi">Garibaldi</a>'s landing. </p><p>The situation of pre-unification Italy was, in general, disadvantaged compared to that of other Western European states and decidedly poor by today's standards. In a country relatively overpopulated and poor in raw materials, the economy was deeply based on agriculture. </p><p>Of the 22 million inhabitants recorded by the 1861 census, 8 million were employed in agriculture, compared with 3 million employed in industry and handicrafts.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, of these about 80 percent were women employed only seasonally. According to the traditional view, however, the level of productivity in the different regions was radically different, whether due to natural causes or the techniques adopted. </p><p>The nature of the southern terrain reduced the availability and regularity of water, reducing the possibilities for cultivation. Centuries of deforestation and lack of investment in land care and channelization facilitated erosion and the persistence of extensive swamps, such as those in the <a href="/wiki/Pontine_Marshes" title="Pontine Marshes">Pontine</a> or <a href="/wiki/Fucine_Lake" title="Fucine Lake">Fucine</a> regions. In several areas, infectious diseases carried by <a href="/wiki/Anopheles" title="Anopheles">marsh mosquitoes</a> drove populations to retreat to the hills.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerato3_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerato3-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mack Smith believes that in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies the method of cultivation was based on the feudal system: estates cultivated by laborers produced grain for self-consumption only. The aristocrats who owned them did not live on their estates and found it disreputable to deal with their management. Consequently, they had no interest in investing in improved production techniques or in more profitable crops such as olive trees or orchards, which could be productive after only a decade or so, preferring instead to grow wheat every year, even on unsuitable land: in 1851, Nassau Senior noted that production per hectare in Sicily had not changed since the time of Cicero. The resulting prices were high and, together with tariff barriers, discouraged trade.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Indicatori_Sviluppo_Sociale_NS.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Indicatori_Sviluppo_Sociale_NS.PNG/400px-Indicatori_Sviluppo_Sociale_NS.PNG" decoding="async" width="400" height="251" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Indicatori_Sviluppo_Sociale_NS.PNG/600px-Indicatori_Sviluppo_Sociale_NS.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Indicatori_Sviluppo_Sociale_NS.PNG/800px-Indicatori_Sviluppo_Sociale_NS.PNG 2x" data-file-width="1090" data-file-height="683" /></a><figcaption>Convergence of Italian social development indicators: center-north (CN, top), south and islands (SI, bottom). Data: E. Felice, 2007.</figcaption></figure> <p>The life of the laborers, according to Mack Smith, was quite miserable: malaria, brigands and the lack of water forced the populations to cluster in villages that were as far as twenty kilometers from the areas where they worked. Illiteracy was almost complete, and even in 1861 there were places where rent, tithes to the parish priest, and the "protection" of the field-guards were paid in kind. Unemployment was widespread, so much so that observers of the time reported how a southern peasant earned half as much as his northern equivalent,<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although wages were comparable. Agriculture was often insufficient; the Bourbon historian <a href="/wiki/Giacinto_de%27_Sivo" title="Giacinto de' Sivo">Giacinto de' Sivo</a> specifically mentions that, "Due to poor harvests there was a shortage of grain [...] but the government decided to buy grain abroad and sell it at a loss both here and in Sicily."<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Inadequate agricultural production was also caused by the customs regime, which prohibited the export of cereals produced in the kingdom, so that production was for internal consumption, and an increase in production of 5 per cent led to a fall in prices, while on the contrary an insufficient production of 10–15 per cent led to a considerable rise in prices, which the ceiling tried in vain to prevent, causing the famine described by De Sivo, in addition to the situation of poor harvests, the <a href="/wiki/Mortmain" title="Mortmain">mortmain</a> and other restrictions on cultivation.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <br />Moreover, in 1861 with a population of 38 percent of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Kingdom of Italy</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Lazio" title="Lazio">Lazio</a>, <a href="/wiki/Veneto" title="Veneto">Veneto</a> and <a href="/wiki/Friuli" title="Friuli">Friuli</a>), the former Kingdom of the Two Sicilies had an average agricultural income of 30.6 percent. The situation was aggravated by the fact that per capita consumption of cereal products was higher in the south than in the north and centre, indicating the relative depression of the southern regions, a situation that persisted even in 1960.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrast, the northeastern part of the country would have at least partially incorporated the techniques of the agricultural revolution of northern Europe, introduced during the Napoleonic campaigns. Agriculture was practised by farmers in the north and sharecroppers in <a href="/wiki/Tuscany" title="Tuscany">Tuscany</a>, and driven by the capitals of the cities, which acted as financial centres. Water legislation was more advanced and intensive canalisation allowed the intensive cultivation of rice, which could be exported.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Produzione_seta_1860_-_Eckaus_pag._363_tabella_10.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Produzione_seta_1860_-_Eckaus_pag._363_tabella_10.JPG/220px-Produzione_seta_1860_-_Eckaus_pag._363_tabella_10.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Produzione_seta_1860_-_Eckaus_pag._363_tabella_10.JPG/330px-Produzione_seta_1860_-_Eckaus_pag._363_tabella_10.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Produzione_seta_1860_-_Eckaus_pag._363_tabella_10.JPG/440px-Produzione_seta_1860_-_Eckaus_pag._363_tabella_10.JPG 2x" data-file-width="748" data-file-height="657" /></a><figcaption>Silk production in the 1860s</figcaption></figure> <p>Silk production was an important source of exports and foreign exchange, and production was heavily concentrated in the northern regions.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As for industry, at the time of unification it consisted mainly of a series of craft activities serving the elite. Italy was a country of <a href="/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution" title="Second Industrial Revolution">second industrialisation</a> because the lack of raw materials (iron and coal) slowed down its industrial development until around 1880. At the same time, low labour costs, difficult access to capital and a lack of technical expertise prevented the purchase of machinery from abroad to replace manual labour. </p><p>One partial exception was mechanised weaving, which had become widespread since 1816, especially in the north-west, where waterways were abundant, and which, with the advent of the steam loom, would form the basis of widespread industrial capitalism. The main exports were wool and silk from <a href="/wiki/Lombardy" title="Lombardy">Lombardy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Piedmont" title="Piedmont">Piedmont</a>, followed by <a href="/wiki/Sulfur_mining_in_Sicily" title="Sulfur mining in Sicily">sulphur from Sicily</a> for gunpowder. However, Mack Smith, in his work <i>The Italian Risorgimento</i>, argues that "in many industries in Lombardy, the law of compulsory education was not observed, and two-fifths of the workers in the Lombard cotton industry were children under the age of twelve, mostly girls, who worked twelve and even sixteen hours a day".<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Child labour was widespread throughout the peninsula and remained so for a long time, as in the case of the <i><a href="/wiki/Carusu" title="Carusu">carusi</a></i>, the <a href="/wiki/Sicilian_language" title="Sicilian language">Sicilian</a> term for children who worked in the sulphur mines. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Occupazione_nelle_grandi_industrie_metallurgiche_e_meccaniche_1864_-_R.S._Eckauss_p._367.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Occupazione_nelle_grandi_industrie_metallurgiche_e_meccaniche_1864_-_R.S._Eckauss_p._367.JPG/220px-Occupazione_nelle_grandi_industrie_metallurgiche_e_meccaniche_1864_-_R.S._Eckauss_p._367.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Occupazione_nelle_grandi_industrie_metallurgiche_e_meccaniche_1864_-_R.S._Eckauss_p._367.JPG/330px-Occupazione_nelle_grandi_industrie_metallurgiche_e_meccaniche_1864_-_R.S._Eckauss_p._367.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Occupazione_nelle_grandi_industrie_metallurgiche_e_meccaniche_1864_-_R.S._Eckauss_p._367.JPG/440px-Occupazione_nelle_grandi_industrie_metallurgiche_e_meccaniche_1864_-_R.S._Eckauss_p._367.JPG 2x" data-file-width="498" data-file-height="436" /></a><figcaption>Number of workers employed in the major metallurgical and mechanical industries in 1864</figcaption></figure> <p>Significant British capital was involved in sulfur mining, and it would remain relevant to the Sicilian economy until competition from the United States emerged. The south was not devoid of industry: the <a href="/wiki/Officine_di_Pietrarsa" title="Officine di Pietrarsa">Officine di Pietrarsa</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Reali_ferriere_ed_Officine_di_Mongiana" title="Reali ferriere ed Officine di Mongiana">Mongiana ironworks</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Regio_Cantiere_di_Castellammare_di_Stabia" title="Regio Cantiere di Castellammare di Stabia">Castellamare di Stabia shipyards</a> are often cited as examples, which the Crown strongly desired as strategic to reduce dependence on British imports. However, their impact on the Kingdom's economy was limited.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <br />Employment in the large mechanical and metallurgical industries in Italy, taking into account industries of a certain size in 1864, numbered 64 establishments with a total of 11,777 employees, of which in the north 46 establishments with 7,434 employees, in the center 13 establishments with 1,803 employees and in the south 9 establishments with 2,540 employees, of which 7 establishments in <a href="/wiki/Campania" title="Campania">Campania</a> with 2,225 employees, 1 establishment in <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a> with 275 employees and 1 establishment in <a href="/wiki/Sardinia" title="Sardinia">Sardinia</a> with 40 employees. Industries of significant size were present in all regions except <a href="/wiki/Abruzzo" title="Abruzzo">Abruzzi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Basilicata" title="Basilicata">Basilicata</a>, <a href="/wiki/Apulia" title="Apulia">Apulia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Calabria" title="Calabria">Calabria</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The poor development of industry in the pre-unification south is evidenced by the absence of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies at the <a href="/wiki/Great_Exhibition" title="Great Exhibition">Great Exhibition of Industry in London in 1851</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Exposition_Universelle_(1855)" title="Exposition Universelle (1855)">Exhibition of Industry at the Universal Exhibition in Paris in 1855</a>, at which the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sardinia" title="Kingdom of Sardinia">Kingdom of Sardinia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a> were present.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Southernist and Lucanian senator <a href="/wiki/Giustino_Fortunato" title="Giustino Fortunato">Giustino Fortunato</a> expressed the following opinion on the problems related to the economy of the pre-unification south: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p><i>Since taxes were low, the public debt small and the currency abundant, our entire economic constitution was incapable of stimulating the production of wealth. With the exception of a few privileged industries on the Liri and Sarno rivers, which were maintained at the cost of extensive smuggling by the Swiss and French, it was exclusively agricultural.</i></p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Il Mezzogiorno e lo Stato Italiano, vol. II, <a href="/wiki/Giustino_Fortunato" title="Giustino Fortunato">Giustino Fortunato</a>, pp. 339-340</cite></div></blockquote> <p>Some astonishing firsts were achieved in the field of transport, such as the first steamship in Italy and the <a href="/wiki/Real_Ferdinando_Bridge" title="Real Ferdinando Bridge">first iron bridge</a>. However, investment in roads and railways was hampered by the hilly hinterland and maritime transport was favoured, facilitated by the significant expansion of the coastline, to the extent that the Bourbon merchant fleet became the third largest in Europe in terms of number of ships and total tonnage,<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> despite the fact that the merchant navies of the other pre-unitary states in the north had greater tonnage. The fact remains that maritime transport was limited to the southern coasts and could not bring goods into the interior, where it had to be carried by animal-drawn wagons or pack animals, to the point that Giustino Fortunato stated in his political speeches that "... transport was carried out by pack animals, as in the plains of the East".<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The tonnages of the merchant fleets of the peninsula in 1858 were as follows:<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kingdom of Sardinia 208,218; Grand Duchy of Tuscany 59,023; Modena 980; Papal State 41,360; Two Sicilies 272,305; Venice and Trieste 350,899. Out of a total of 932,785 tonnes, the Bourbon kingdom thus had less than a quarter. </p><p>On the size of the Bourbon merchant fleet, the southern historian Raffaele de Cesare, in his book <i>La fine di un Regno</i><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> writes: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p><i>The merchant navy consisted almost entirely of small vessels, suitable for coastal sailing and fishing, and was manned by more than 40,000 seamen, a number inadequate to the tonnage of the ships. Navigation was limited to the Adriatic and Mediterranean coasts, and the slow progress of the naval forces consisted not in reducing the number of ships and increasing their range, but in multiplying small ships. The steam merchant navy was very scarce, although one of the first steamships to sail the waters of the Mediterranean was built in Naples in 1818. It appeared to be the largest in Italy, while in reality it was inferior to the Sardinian, and even as a navy it was scarce for a kingdom, a third of which was formed by Sicily and the other two thirds by a large shipyard launched towards the Levant. The navy and the army were at odds: the army was disproportionate to the country by excess, the navy by deficiency.</i></p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>La fine di un Regno, vol. II, Raffaele de Cesare, pp. 165-166</cite></div></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Strade_1861_-_Ann._Stat._1864_pag._696.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Strade_1861_-_Ann._Stat._1864_pag._696.JPG/220px-Strade_1861_-_Ann._Stat._1864_pag._696.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Strade_1861_-_Ann._Stat._1864_pag._696.JPG/330px-Strade_1861_-_Ann._Stat._1864_pag._696.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3a/Strade_1861_-_Ann._Stat._1864_pag._696.JPG 2x" data-file-width="426" data-file-height="354" /></a><figcaption>Roads in 1861. The data for Lombardy do not include the province of Mantua, which had not yet been annexed.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The opening of the 8 km of the <a href="/wiki/Naples%E2%80%93Portici_railway" title="Naples–Portici railway">Naples-Portici line</a> in 1839, Italy's first railway, was met with great enthusiasm. However, just 20 years later, the northern railways were 2035 km long, while Naples was only connected to <a href="/wiki/Capua" title="Capua">Capua</a> and <a href="/wiki/Salerno" title="Salerno">Salerno</a>, for a total of 98 km of railway.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, according to Nicola Nisco, in 1860, 1621 out of 1848 towns were without roads and therefore virtually inaccessible, being served by sheep and mule tracks; the lack of road infrastructure was particularly acute in the Bourbon South, which had a road network of only 14,000 km out of the more than 90,000 km of the then unified peninsula, while Lombardy alone, four times smaller, had a road network of 28,000 km,<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with the road network of central Italy at the same level as Lombardy in terms of metres per square kilometre. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:30_Ducati_d%27oro_(Regno_delle_Due_Sicilie,_1850).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/30_Ducati_d%27oro_%28Regno_delle_Due_Sicilie%2C_1850%29.png/220px-30_Ducati_d%27oro_%28Regno_delle_Due_Sicilie%2C_1850%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="108" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/30_Ducati_d%27oro_%28Regno_delle_Due_Sicilie%2C_1850%29.png/330px-30_Ducati_d%27oro_%28Regno_delle_Due_Sicilie%2C_1850%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/30_Ducati_d%27oro_%28Regno_delle_Due_Sicilie%2C_1850%29.png/440px-30_Ducati_d%27oro_%28Regno_delle_Due_Sicilie%2C_1850%29.png 2x" data-file-width="818" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption>30 ducats, 1850</figcaption></figure> <p>The scarcity of capital was felt everywhere, but especially in the south, where savings were immobilised in land or precious coins.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerato3_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerato3-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his essay "North and South", <a href="/wiki/Francesco_Saverio_Nitti" title="Francesco Saverio Nitti">Nitti</a> notes that when the coins of the pre-unitary states were unified, 443 million coins of various metals were withdrawn in the south, compared with 226 million in the rest of Italy.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The substitution allowed different types of precious metals to be withdrawn, generating the feeling of a real expropriation, so much so that still in 1973 Antonio Ghirelli erroneously claimed that 443 million gold lire "ended up in the North".<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Strade_ferrate_1859-1863_-_Ann._Stat._Ital._pag._88_tavola_I.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Strade_ferrate_1859-1863_-_Ann._Stat._Ital._pag._88_tavola_I.JPG/220px-Strade_ferrate_1859-1863_-_Ann._Stat._Ital._pag._88_tavola_I.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Strade_ferrate_1859-1863_-_Ann._Stat._Ital._pag._88_tavola_I.JPG/330px-Strade_ferrate_1859-1863_-_Ann._Stat._Ital._pag._88_tavola_I.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Strade_ferrate_1859-1863_-_Ann._Stat._Ital._pag._88_tavola_I.JPG/440px-Strade_ferrate_1859-1863_-_Ann._Stat._Ital._pag._88_tavola_I.JPG 2x" data-file-width="705" data-file-height="419" /></a><figcaption>Railroads in the period 1859–1863<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Capital from the new kingdom was used to build a southern railroad network, which in the south in 1859 was limited only to the area of Naples and its environs, and with an unprecedented effort, in July 1863, in the territories of the former Kingdom of the Two Sicilies the railroads increased from 128 km (124 in operation and 4 under construction in 1859) to 1896 km with an increase of 1768 km in the continental part (334 in operation, 394 under construction and 1,168 under consideration and later built), while in Sicily, where railways were nonexistent, it increased to 708 km (13 in operation, 267 under construction and 428 under consideration and later built).<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Piedmont" title="Piedmont">Piedmont</a>'s development came at a price: public accounts were severely affected both by the effort to modernize the economy and by the wars of unification. With the birth of the Unified Italy, the budgetary debts of the Kingdom of Sardinia were transferred to the coffers of the newly formed Italian State, which in the years following the unification financed the construction of many kilometres of roads and railways throughout the peninsula, particularly in the south, which at the time had few roads (14,000 km) and very few railways (about 100 km), but the construction of such infrastructure did not initiate a parallel economic development of the south compared to the rest of the peninsula. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Societ%C3%A0_1860_-_Ann._Stat._Ital._1864,_pag._541.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Societ%C3%A0_1860_-_Ann._Stat._Ital._1864%2C_pag._541.JPG/180px-Societ%C3%A0_1860_-_Ann._Stat._Ital._1864%2C_pag._541.JPG" decoding="async" width="180" height="261" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Societ%C3%A0_1860_-_Ann._Stat._Ital._1864%2C_pag._541.JPG/270px-Societ%C3%A0_1860_-_Ann._Stat._Ital._1864%2C_pag._541.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Societ%C3%A0_1860_-_Ann._Stat._Ital._1864%2C_pag._541.JPG/360px-Societ%C3%A0_1860_-_Ann._Stat._Ital._1864%2C_pag._541.JPG 2x" data-file-width="511" data-file-height="742" /></a><figcaption>Joint-stock companies and limited partnerships in 1860<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The economic gap was thus already evident by considering the statistical data referring to Italian joint-stock and limited partnerships at the time of unification, based on data on commercial and industrial companies taken from the Italian Statistical Yearbook of 1864.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were 377 anonymous and limited partnerships, 325 of which were in the center-north, excluding from the count those existing in <a href="/wiki/Lazio" title="Lazio">Lazio</a>, <a href="/wiki/Umbria" title="Umbria">Umbria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marche" title="Marche">Marche</a>, <a href="/wiki/Veneto" title="Veneto">Veneto</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trentino" title="Trentino">Trentino</a>, <a href="/wiki/Friuli-Venezia_Giulia" title="Friuli-Venezia Giulia">Friuli and Venezia Giulia</a>. However, the share capital of these companies was a total of 1.353 billion, of which 1.127 billion were in companies in the center-north (again disregarding Lazio, Umbria, Marche, Veneto, Trentino, Friuli and Venezia Giulia) and only 225 million in the south. By way of comparison, the total financial reserve of the Bourbon state was 443.200 million liras; practically one-third of the capital of the anonymous and limited partnerships in the center-north excluding several territories not yet annexed. The anonymous and limited partnerships of the Kingdom of Sardinia alone<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> had a total capital that was almost double that of the Bourbon state: 755.776 million versus 443.200 million in liquid assets. This calculation excludes all stock and limited companies in the northeast, since it was not included in the Kingdom of Italy in 1861. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Commercio_Import_Export_prima_del_1859_-_Ann._Stat._It._1864,_pag.478_.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Commercio_Import_Export_prima_del_1859_-_Ann._Stat._It._1864%2C_pag.478_.jpg/150px-Commercio_Import_Export_prima_del_1859_-_Ann._Stat._It._1864%2C_pag.478_.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Commercio_Import_Export_prima_del_1859_-_Ann._Stat._It._1864%2C_pag.478_.jpg/225px-Commercio_Import_Export_prima_del_1859_-_Ann._Stat._It._1864%2C_pag.478_.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Commercio_Import_Export_prima_del_1859_-_Ann._Stat._It._1864%2C_pag.478_.jpg/300px-Commercio_Import_Export_prima_del_1859_-_Ann._Stat._It._1864%2C_pag.478_.jpg 2x" data-file-width="353" data-file-height="435" /></a><figcaption>Import-export trade in 1859<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceB_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The annual import-export trade before 1859, including the territories not yet unified and subsequently annexed, reached a national total of 800,251,265 lire for imports and 680,719,892 lire for exports; in relation to these amounts, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies imported goods worth 104,558,573 lire and exported 145,326,929 lire, representing only 13% of the value of imports and 21% of national exports on an annual basis.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceB_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Banche_1860_-_Ann._Stat._Ital._1864_pag._582.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Banche_1860_-_Ann._Stat._Ital._1864_pag._582.JPG/150px-Banche_1860_-_Ann._Stat._Ital._1864_pag._582.JPG" decoding="async" width="150" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Banche_1860_-_Ann._Stat._Ital._1864_pag._582.JPG/225px-Banche_1860_-_Ann._Stat._Ital._1864_pag._582.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Banche_1860_-_Ann._Stat._Ital._1864_pag._582.JPG/300px-Banche_1860_-_Ann._Stat._Ital._1864_pag._582.JPG 2x" data-file-width="511" data-file-height="667" /></a><figcaption>Banks in 1860<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceC_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceC-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>At the time of unification, the banking system showed a predominance of the northern centre in terms of the number of branches and offices, the volume of operations and the capital moved, out of a partial national total (excluding Lazio, Tuscany, Veneto, Friuli Venezia Giulia, Trentino and Mantua) of 28 institutions and 120,025 discount transactions for a total of 465,469,753 lire and 24,815 advance transactions for a total of 141,944,725 lire, the branches in the former Kingdom of the Two Sicilies numbered 5 and carried out 8,428 discount transactions for a total of 33,574,295 lire and 1,348 advance transactions for 9,779,199 lire, noting also the partial figure of Sicily alone, which carried out most of the discount transactions, 4,388 for 17,743,368 lire, compared with the continental part of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, which carried out only 4,040 for 15,830,927 lire. The Genoa branch alone recorded 19,715 discount transactions for 113,189,568 lire and 1,578 advance transactions for 24,517,419 lire before unification, i.e. a volume almost three times greater than that of all the branches in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, as shown in the adjacent table.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceC_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceC-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Casse_di_Risparmio_del_Regno_-_Annuario_Stat._Ital._pag._698.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Casse_di_Risparmio_del_Regno_-_Annuario_Stat._Ital._pag._698.JPG/220px-Casse_di_Risparmio_del_Regno_-_Annuario_Stat._Ital._pag._698.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Casse_di_Risparmio_del_Regno_-_Annuario_Stat._Ital._pag._698.JPG/330px-Casse_di_Risparmio_del_Regno_-_Annuario_Stat._Ital._pag._698.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Casse_di_Risparmio_del_Regno_-_Annuario_Stat._Ital._pag._698.JPG/440px-Casse_di_Risparmio_del_Regno_-_Annuario_Stat._Ital._pag._698.JPG 2x" data-file-width="858" data-file-height="509" /></a><figcaption>Savings banks in 1861<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceD_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceD-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>There was also a wide gap in the field of savings institutions; in 1860 savings banks were widely spread in the central and northern territories, while they began to spread in the south only after unification, reaching in 1863 the number of 15 savings banks with 4,607 savings accounts for 1,181,693 lire out of a national total of 154 savings banks with 284,002 savings accounts for 188,629,594 lire, a partial figure and not including the institutions of Lazio, Veneto, Friuli Venezia Giulia and Trentino not yet annexed, as per the diagram on the side.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceD_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceD-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Commenting on Bourbon policy, <a href="/wiki/Giustino_Fortunato" title="Giustino Fortunato">Giustino Fortunato</a>, in his analysis of conditions in southern Italy at the time of the unification, said:<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p><i>They were few, yes, the taxes, but they were badly distributed, and such that, on the whole, they represented a quota of 21 lire per inhabitant, which in Piedmont, whose private wealth was much more advanced than ours, was 25.60 lire. So not one third, but one fifth of Piedmont paid more than we did. And if taxes were milder here – not so milder that Luigi Settembrini, in his famous 'Protest' of 1847, did not make it one of the main accusations against the Bourbon government – far less was spent on all public services: we, with seven million inhabitants, gave away thirty-four million lire, Piedmont, with five [million inhabitants], forty-two [million lire]. The army, which was like the fulcrum of the state, absorbed almost everything; the cities lacked schools, the countryside lacked roads, the beaches lacked landings, and transport was still conducted on the backs of pack animals, as in the plains of the East.</i></p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Giustino Fortunato, IL MEZZOGIORNO E LO STATO ITALIANO - DISCORSI POLITICI (1880–1910), pp. 336-337</cite></div></blockquote> <p>Fortunato noted what is clearly proven about the budgets of the Bourbon state: expenditure was overwhelmingly directed to the court or the armed forces, charged with protecting the very narrow ruling caste of the kingdom, leaving very little for investment in public works, health and education, and the truly classist nature of Bourbon economic policy is evident from the following figures on state budgets. In 1854, Bourbon government expenditure totalled 31.4 million ducats, of which 1.2 million were spent on education, health and public works, while as much as 14 million ducats were spent on the armed forces and 6.5 million on interest payments on the public debt, in addition to the huge expenditure on the royal court.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The budget of the Bourbon state projected for 1860, before Garibaldi's landing in Marsala, in a state of peace and not of war, once again showed the disproportion between military expenditure and expenditure on the population. The planned expenditure, excluding Sicily (which had its own budget), adding up the budget spent directly by the central state (16,250,812 <a href="/wiki/Ducat" title="Ducat">ducats</a>) and that distributed to the local authorities (19,200,000 ducats), for a total of 35,450,812 ducats, was distributed as follows: Army 11,307,220; Navy 3,000,000; Foreign Affairs 298,800; Central Government 1,644,792; Prior debts 13,000,000; Public Works 3,400,000; Clergy and Education 360,000; Police, Justice 2,440,000. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spese_opere_pubbl._1861-62_Ann._Stat._1864_pag._699.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Spese_opere_pubbl._1861-62_Ann._Stat._1864_pag._699.JPG/220px-Spese_opere_pubbl._1861-62_Ann._Stat._1864_pag._699.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="252" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Spese_opere_pubbl._1861-62_Ann._Stat._1864_pag._699.JPG/330px-Spese_opere_pubbl._1861-62_Ann._Stat._1864_pag._699.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Spese_opere_pubbl._1861-62_Ann._Stat._1864_pag._699.JPG 2x" data-file-width="434" data-file-height="497" /></a><figcaption>Expenditure on public works in 1861–1862<sup id="cite_ref-ref_A_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ref_A-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Military expenditure accounted for about 40 per cent of the total budget, and if police and judicial expenditure are included, this figure rises to 47 per cent, while expenditure on education and the clergy accounted for only 1 per cent of the total budget of 35,450,812 ducats. Sicily had the last ascertainable budget, expressed in 41,618,200 lire, which at the 1859 exchange rate of 4.25 lire to the ducat was estimated to be equivalent to 9,793,000 ducats. </p><p>A careful and critical analysis of the financial system of the Bourbons was described in detail by Giovanni Carano Donvito,<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in which he highlighted how the former Neapolitan government "...although it demanded little of its subjects, it spent very little on them, and what little it did spend, it spent badly...". </p><p>With the unification of 1861–1862, considerable funds were also allocated to public works in the new Kingdom of Italy, including roads, bridges, harbours, beaches and lighthouses. In the south of the mainland, the works cost 25,648,123 <a href="/wiki/Italian_lira" title="Italian lira">lire</a>, in Sicily 37,218,898 lire and in Sardinia 23,293,121 lire, while the expenditure for Lombardy was 8,267,282 lire and for Tuscany 7,271,844 lire, partly because these areas had already been provided with public works during the previous pre-unitary states.<sup id="cite_ref-ref_A_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ref_A-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Statistica_postale_1862_-_Ann._Stat._Ital._1864_pag._109.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Statistica_postale_1862_-_Ann._Stat._Ital._1864_pag._109.jpg/220px-Statistica_postale_1862_-_Ann._Stat._Ital._1864_pag._109.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Statistica_postale_1862_-_Ann._Stat._Ital._1864_pag._109.jpg/330px-Statistica_postale_1862_-_Ann._Stat._Ital._1864_pag._109.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Statistica_postale_1862_-_Ann._Stat._Ital._1864_pag._109.jpg/440px-Statistica_postale_1862_-_Ann._Stat._Ital._1864_pag._109.jpg 2x" data-file-width="590" data-file-height="435" /></a><figcaption>Statistics on letters and prints sent in 1862<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceE_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceE-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Correspondence at the time of the unification of Italy recorded a national average of 3.29 letters and 1.88 prints per inhabitant in 1862, rising to 6.09 letters and 5.28 prints per inhabitant in the Piedmont postal district, 3.07 letters and 1.26 prints per inhabitant in Tuscany and Umbria, and falling further to 1.66 letters and 0.69 prints per inhabitant in the Naples postal district.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceE_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceE-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the time of the unification, the number of telegraphic dispatches also showed a great disparity: the district of Turin alone recorded an annual income of 747,882 lire, Milan (excluding the unannexed Mantua) 379,253 lire, Bologna 230,340 lire, Pisa 357,127 lire and Cagliari 40,428 lire, while the districts of the former Kingdom of the Two Sicilies recorded annual revenues of 313,889 lire for Naples, 130,405 lire for Foggia, 45,700 lire for Cosenza and 230,701 lire for Palermo. In practice, the district of Turin alone recorded more for telegraphic dispatches (747,882 lire) than the whole of the former Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (720,695 lire). These figures do not take into account the dispatches sent from the 91 offices of the railway companies, which were also open to the public service and private individuals, a fact that increases the number of dispatches sent from the north-central offices, since at that time the railways were largely assigned to the north-central part of the peninsula.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Analfabeti_1861_-_Ann._Stat._Ital._1864_pag._386.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Analfabeti_1861_-_Ann._Stat._Ital._1864_pag._386.JPG/220px-Analfabeti_1861_-_Ann._Stat._Ital._1864_pag._386.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Analfabeti_1861_-_Ann._Stat._Ital._1864_pag._386.JPG/330px-Analfabeti_1861_-_Ann._Stat._Ital._1864_pag._386.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Analfabeti_1861_-_Ann._Stat._Ital._1864_pag._386.JPG/440px-Analfabeti_1861_-_Ann._Stat._Ital._1864_pag._386.JPG 2x" data-file-width="728" data-file-height="424" /></a><figcaption>Table of the number of literate and illiterate people in 1861<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceF_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceF-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The scarcity of postal and telegraph traffic in the southern territories was indicative of reduced economic exchanges and low literacy; in fact, in the territories of the former Kingdom of Sardinia and Lombardy,<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the literate were the majority among men, with 539 literate and 461 illiterate out of 1,000 male inhabitants, while out of 1,000 female inhabitants the literate were 426 and the illiterate 574. Illiteracy tended to increase in the territories of Emilia, Tuscany, Marche and Umbria, where out of 1,000 male inhabitants there were 359 literate and 641 illiterate, while out of 1,000 female inhabitants there were 250 literate and 750 illiterate. In the former Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, the presence of literate people decreased, and out of 1,000 male inhabitants only 164 were literate and the rest 835 illiterate, while out of 1,000 female inhabitants there were only 62 literate and 938 illiterate.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceF_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceF-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The level of secondary education was also generally lower in the southern regions than in the rest of the peninsula. </p><p>In the south of Italy, in the first years of unification, the damage caused by the insecurity of internal transport due to brigandage was more serious than that caused by liberalism, as was the reduction in demand for goods and services due to the fact that Naples was no longer the capital and that public contracts and state concessions were open to the national market and no longer restricted to the south.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Quantitative_economic_studies">Quantitative economic studies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Southern_question&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Quantitative economic studies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Serie_storiche_del_pil_procapite_in_Italia_dal_2013_al_2017.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Serie_storiche_del_pil_procapite_in_Italia_dal_2013_al_2017.png/400px-Serie_storiche_del_pil_procapite_in_Italia_dal_2013_al_2017.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="308" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/07/Serie_storiche_del_pil_procapite_in_Italia_dal_2013_al_2017.png 1.5x" data-file-width="537" data-file-height="413" /></a><figcaption>Istat data</figcaption></figure> <p>In recent decades, the discussion of economic differences between north and south during unification has been stimulated by the reconstruction of time series of important economic indicators. Research is hampered by the lack of data before 1891, and in particular the series before 1871 lose their significance due to the upheavals of the previous decade. </p><p>The reconstruction in which Vittorio Daniele and <a href="/wiki/Paolo_Malanima" title="Paolo Malanima">Paolo Malanima</a><sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> focus on GDP per capita as an indicator of wealth in the various Italian regions, concluding that there were no significant disparities between regions at the time of unification, has been particularly influential. Other studies, however, argue to the contrary, such as the work by <a href="/wiki/Emanuele_Felice" title="Emanuele Felice">Emanuele Felice</a>, <i>Perché il Sud è rimasto indietro</i>, Il Mulino, Bologna, pp. 258, 2013.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerato6_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerato6-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br />On the institutional website dedicated to the 150th anniversary of unification, one thesis argues that the north–south divide existed before unification and was caused mainly by the different histories of the two territories, starting with the fall of the Roman Empire, a difference that would have increased from 1300.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerato10_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerato10-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to other studies, the difference in per capita income at the time of unification would have been estimated to be 15–20% greater in the north than in the south,<sup id="cite_ref-win.svimez.info_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-win.svimez.info-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a figure derived not only from an analysis of the number of people employed, but also from the size and competitiveness of industrial establishments. Other studies estimate the difference in per capita income to be 25% greater in the north-west than in the south.<sup id="cite_ref-ref_C_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ref_C-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pil_procapite_per_regioni_italiane_nell%27anno_2017.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Pil_procapite_per_regioni_italiane_nell%27anno_2017.png/700px-Pil_procapite_per_regioni_italiane_nell%27anno_2017.png" decoding="async" width="700" height="385" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Pil_procapite_per_regioni_italiane_nell%27anno_2017.png 1.5x" data-file-width="847" data-file-height="466" /></a><figcaption>Istat data</figcaption></figure> <p>More recently, Carmine Guerriero and Guilherme de Oliveira have empirically compared the five factors identified by the main theories of the formation of economic differences between northern and southern Italy,<sup id="cite_ref-:0_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> namely the democratic nature of pre-unification political institutions,<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the inequality in the distribution of land ownership and thus in the relationship between elites and farmers,<sup id="cite_ref-:1_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the feudal backwardness of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies,<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerato11_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerato11-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the regional endowments of raw materials and rail infrastructure,<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the public policies implemented by the Kingdom of Italy after unification.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_73-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their conclusion is that, regardless of the different econometric methods used, the available data suggest that the main determinant of the current regional disparities can be identified in post-unification public policies, and in particular in the lower property taxes and greater investment in railways and public contracts enjoyed by the regions closest to the borders with Austria and France,<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which were therefore more important to the Piedmontese elite in military terms.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_73-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On the other hand, the view that post-unification policy was primarily determined by the important policies of the so-called "Piedmontese elite" contrasts with the fact that the former Bourbon South was well represented in the elected parliament of unified Italy, with as many as 192 deputies, as opposed to only 72 in the Old Provinces, the name adopted at the time to refer to the continental territory of the former Kingdom of Sardinia. In fact, the parliamentary representation of the post-unification south was numerous and, with its vote, contributed significantly to the approval of laws and the shaping of post-unification policies.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="After_the_unification_of_Italy">After the unification of Italy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Southern_question&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: After the unification of Italy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_situation">Political situation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Southern_question&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Political situation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Riccio_G._-_ritratto_di_Marco_Minghetti.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Riccio_G._-_ritratto_di_Marco_Minghetti.jpg/220px-Riccio_G._-_ritratto_di_Marco_Minghetti.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="305" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Riccio_G._-_ritratto_di_Marco_Minghetti.jpg/330px-Riccio_G._-_ritratto_di_Marco_Minghetti.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/58/Riccio_G._-_ritratto_di_Marco_Minghetti.jpg 2x" data-file-width="335" data-file-height="464" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of <a href="/wiki/Marco_Minghetti" title="Marco Minghetti">Marco Minghetti</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In February 1861, the representatives of the unified regions met in Turin for the first time, and a month later, by the grace of God and the will of the nation, they conferred the title of King of Italy on <a href="/wiki/Victor_Emmanuel_II" title="Victor Emmanuel II">Victor Emmanuel</a>. How he would govern, however, remained to be seen. </p><p>The king and court had been excommunicated because of the invasion of the eastern part of the <a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a>, and Catholics were forbidden to participate in political life. Most rulers did not know the south at all, having never traveled further south than Naples or having spent long years in exile as opponents of the Bourbons. They were convinced that the wealth of the south had remained untapped because of past mismanagement, and that only the unification of Italy would unlock its hidden riches. They were unaware of the poverty of the countryside and the state of the infrastructure, and this led them, among other things, to impose taxes that exceeded what the territory could pay. Moreover, voting was by census, so southern deputies were more probably to represent the demands of the landowners than those of the people.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Camillo_Benso,_Count_of_Cavour" title="Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour">Cavour</a>'s death on 6 June ushered in a series of weak governments, many of which lasted less than a year. There were many problems to solve: eight systems of law, economics, money and even weights and measures had to be unified. This, combined with the irredentism towards the <a href="/wiki/Triveneto" title="Triveneto">Triveneto</a>, which was still Austrian, and towards Rome and Lazio, which were occupied by a French garrison, created a dangerous temptation to test the forces of the new state in a war against the foreigners. Italian was spoken by an educated minority of the population, and the plebiscites that had sanctioned the unification had been conducted in a highly questionable manner, both in form and in the interference of the authorities that were supposed to supervise them, creating a false sense of consensus far superior to the real one, when many southerners would rather have expressed a need for greater autonomy. </p><p>Instances in favor of administrative decentralization, represented by Minister <a href="/wiki/Marco_Minghetti" title="Marco Minghetti">Minghetti</a> were hastily abandoned. On October 3 the decree that had extended Piedmontese legislation to the south on January 2 was converted into law,<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> continuing what had been done with Lombardy by the Rattazzi Decree-Law of 1859. The administrative organisations, even the glorious ones, of the pre-unitary states were uncritically erased by promoting a progressive "Piedmontization" of public administration. </p><p>The first measures of the new government were aimed at recovering the capital needed to unify the country and provide it with the infrastructure it so desperately needed. Compulsory military service was introduced and new taxes were introduced, most notably in 1868, when the price of bread rose, which hit the poorer sections of the population. </p><p>Decisive work was also done to abolish feudal privileges, including the wholesale sale of large tracts of state and church land. The intention was to increase agricultural productivity by distributing land, but in fact this land went into the hands of landlords who had the capital to buy and maintain it. An irreplaceable resource was thus wasted, with little revenue for the state and the immobilisation of capital that could have produced more wealth if invested in improving the land or in industry. The peasants also suffered because they could no longer use the common land that had previously been available to the various villages. </p><p>Positive measures were also taken, such as the construction of public works and a new impetus to the development of the railway network, but the effects were slow to be felt. </p><p>The various laws that sought to establish free and compulsory education, however minimal, proved difficult to implement, especially in the south. In fact, the burden of maintaining primary schools fell on the municipalities, with the result that many southern administrations were unable to meet the necessary costs.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was not until after the Second World War that the use of Italian, as a complement to the various dialects, was witnessed in mass education and on television. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Giolitti_ritratto.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Giolitti_ritratto.jpg/220px-Giolitti_ritratto.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="287" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Giolitti_ritratto.jpg/330px-Giolitti_ritratto.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2d/Giolitti_ritratto.jpg 2x" data-file-width="421" data-file-height="550" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Giolitti" title="Giovanni Giolitti">Giovanni Giolitti</a></figcaption></figure> <p>It was not until the <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Giolitti" title="Giovanni Giolitti">Giolitti era</a> that the central government showed a first and tentative interest in the south. Although it did not reduce poverty or emigration, at the beginning of the twentieth century it provided the south with public administrations similar to those in the north, which led to the recruitment of a number of civil servants. It was also thanks to the central government that in 1911 the state took over primary education, which had previously been the prerogative of the municipalities.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The deterioration in living conditions and the disillusionment with the expectations created by the unification led to a series of popular uprisings in Naples and in the countryside and to the phenomenon known in history as brigandage, to which the new state responded by sending in soldiers and adopting a dirigiste and authoritarian administrative model, in which local autonomies were subject to the strict control of the central government. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Vittorio_Bachelet" title="Vittorio Bachelet">Vittorio Bachelet</a> spoke of "a certain colonising attitude of the unified administration in some regions",<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but this so-called "colonising" attitude was never found in the other annexed territories, not even in those of central Italy, which had little in common with Piedmontese culture, being territories far from Piedmont and bordering on the south. In fact, Piedmontese expansionism itself was aimed first and foremost at a state comprising the regions of northern Italy, not at a national state on the scale of the new Italy; a confederation of states was strongly advocated at the time, both in the north and in the south. The annexation of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies was the result of an extraordinary series of favourable political events. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Brigandage">Brigandage</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Southern_question&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Brigandage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Post-unification_Italian_brigandage" title="Post-unification Italian brigandage">Post-unification Italian brigandage</a></div> <p>Brigandage was an endemic phenomenon in the pre-unification south, as <a href="/wiki/Francesco_Saverio_Nitti" title="Francesco Saverio Nitti">Francesco Saverio Nitti</a> explains in his book <i>Heroes and Brigands</i> (1899 edition), p. 9: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>"In every part of Europe there have been bandits and delinquents who, in times of war and misfortune, have dominated the country and set themselves apart from the law [...] but there has been only one country in Europe where brigandage has existed, it can be said, from time immemorial [...] a country where brigandage for many centuries has been like a river of blood and hate [...] a country in which for centuries the monarchy has been based on brigandage, which has become like a historical agent: this country is the south of Italy."</p></blockquote><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Briganti_lucani_Caruso_Cafo_Lamacchia_e_Tinna.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Briganti_lucani_Caruso_Cafo_Lamacchia_e_Tinna.jpg/220px-Briganti_lucani_Caruso_Cafo_Lamacchia_e_Tinna.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="261" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Briganti_lucani_Caruso_Cafo_Lamacchia_e_Tinna.jpg/330px-Briganti_lucani_Caruso_Cafo_Lamacchia_e_Tinna.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Briganti_lucani_Caruso_Cafo_Lamacchia_e_Tinna.jpg/440px-Briganti_lucani_Caruso_Cafo_Lamacchia_e_Tinna.jpg 2x" data-file-width="629" data-file-height="745" /></a><figcaption>Some Lucanian brigands: <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Caruso_(brigand)" title="Giuseppe Caruso (brigand)">Caruso</a>, Cafo, Lamacchia and Tinna</figcaption></figure> <p>The new government failed to meet the expectations of both republicans and some moderates, who had also favored unity but hoped for a new agrarian order and adequate political space in the running of the country. Many southern workers had hoped that the new regime would guarantee some form of agrarian reform, but their expectations were dashed. </p><p>According to Tommaso Pedio, the rapid political transformation achieved in the south caused resentment and discontent everywhere, not only from the people and the old Bourbon class, but also from the bourgeoisie and liberals, who demanded to maintain privileges and lucrative positions from the new government. The bourgeoisie class, loyal to the Bourbon crown before 1860, supported the united cause only upon <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Garibaldi" title="Giuseppe Garibaldi">Garibaldi</a>'s landing in <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a>. The new Italian state thus decided to privilege the liberals, for fear of antagonizing them, and to use their leading exponents against the aspirations of the radical bangs, neglecting the needs of the working classes, for whom, according to Pedio, the recognition and listing of state lands would have sufficed.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The state property issue was not resolved, for Pedio, not only because of the carelessness of the royal government but also because of the opposition of the liberal class, as it would have risked losing the support of the wealthy landowners, whose interests would have been damaged.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The lower classes, the only unheard voice, oppressed by hunger, upset by rising taxes and prices on primary goods, and forced into compulsory conscription, began to revolt, developing a deep resentment toward the new regime and especially toward the social strata that took advantage of political events by managing to obtain posts, jobs and new earnings. </p><p>Bands of brigands formed (many of them from Garibaldi's time in Naples), joined not only by desperate workers but also by former Bourbon soldiers, former Garibaldians, and common bandits. The government of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Two_Sicilies" title="Kingdom of the Two Sicilies">Two Sicilies</a> in exile seized the opportunity to attempt a reaction to regain the throne, appealing to the people's desperation and resentment of the new order. The desperate people listened to the words of the old regime, were swayed by its proposals, and, hoping for benefits, supported the cause of a Bourbon restoration.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many clashes had already taken place in various parts of the south since the late 1860s, especially around the Bourbon citadel of <a href="/wiki/Civitella_del_Tronto" title="Civitella del Tronto">Civitella del Tronto</a>, which had been taken over by former Bourbon general <a href="/wiki/Luigi_Mezzacapo" title="Luigi Mezzacapo">Luigi Mezzacapo</a> in 1861. In April, a popular uprising broke out in <a href="/wiki/Basilicata" title="Basilicata">Basilicata</a>. Throughout the summer, bands of brigands, composed largely of peasants and former Bourbon soldiers, engaged in extremely violent forms of guerrilla warfare in many inland provinces, attacking and repeatedly defeating the forces of the new <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Kingdom of Italy</a>. The Bourbon flag was raised again in many southern towns. To combat brigands and insurgents, the government passed the Pica Law and responded by ordering summary executions, even of civilians, and the burning of entire villages. The Lieutenant Governor of Naples, Gustavo Ponza di San Martino, who had been trying to bring about peace in the preceding months, was replaced by General <a href="/wiki/Enrico_Cialdini" title="Enrico Cialdini">Enrico Cialdini</a>, who was given full powers by the central government to deal with the situation and suppress the revolt. </p><p>The phenomenon took on, according to some scholars, the connotations of a real civil war, which forced the Italian state to employ about 120,000 soldiers to suppress the rebellion in the southern provinces.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was fought with ferocity on both sides, with the civilian population, as always, bearing the brunt: a situation that repeated itself throughout the duration of the civil war was the looting of a town by rebel groups, followed by the intervention of the army in search of collaborators, which systematically involved a second looting, the destruction of buildings set on fire, summary executions and often the dispersal of the survivors. </p><p>President <a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Napolitano" title="Giorgio Napolitano">Giorgio Napolitano</a> recalled on the occasion of the 150th <a href="/wiki/Anniversary_of_the_Unification_of_Italy" title="Anniversary of the Unification of Italy">anniversary of the unification of Italy</a> that "brigandage was eradicated in southern Italy, even if the vital need to defeat this danger of legitimist reaction and national disintegration was paid for by the price of sometimes violent repression in response to the ferocity of brigandage and, in the long run, by the price of a tendency towards foreignness and hostility to the State that would become even more entrenched in the south".<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On the other hand, there remained the great problem of the legitimist brigandage, which was practically non-existent in the central-northern part of the Italian peninsula, which, like the south, was annexed by force of arms, a fact that <a href="/wiki/Massimo_d%27Azeglio" title="Massimo d'Azeglio">Massimo d'Azeglio</a> had already noted in 1861 and which posited the existence of a cultural gap with the Italian state. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>[...] I know nothing about suffrage, I know that on this side of the Tronto<sup id="cite_ref-ref_B_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ref_B-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> battalions are not necessary and that on the other side they are necessary.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>(Massimo d'Azeglio, Scritti e discorsi politici, Firenze 1939, III, pp. 399-400)</cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Beginning_of_southern_emigration">Beginning of southern emigration</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Southern_question&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Beginning of southern emigration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The great southern emigration began only a few decades after the unification of Italy, where in the first half of the 19th century it had already affected several areas in the north, particularly <a href="/wiki/Piedmont" title="Piedmont">Piedmont</a>, <a href="/wiki/Comacchio" title="Comacchio">Comacchio</a> and <a href="/wiki/Veneto" title="Veneto">Veneto</a>. The historical reasons for the first southern emigration in the second half of the 19th century are to be found in widespread literature both in the crisis of the countryside and grain, and in the situation of economic impoverishment affecting the south in the aftermath of unification, when industrial investments were concentrated in the northwest,<sup id="cite_ref-ftp.iza.org_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ftp.iza.org-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as in other factors.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this regard, the theory of southern emigration linked to the concentration of industrial investment in the northwest does not explain how emigration to central Italy has historically been much lower than that of the south and how the NEC (northeast-center) has been able to progressively grow from an economic-industrial point of view, approaching the northwest and surpassing it in some cases.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Southern emigration is a phenomenon that follows different historical waves of departures and different geographical destinations in different periods. It is a phenomenon that does not stop in the statistics, even in the current period, when emigration is characterized by a significant flow of geographical displacement of graduates and professionals from the south, which can be qualified as intellectual emigration, beyond the normal flows of labor mobility, which further impoverishes the social and cultural substrate of the southern regions.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Sonnino-Franchetti_inquiry_and_the_discovery_of_the_southern_question">The Sonnino-Franchetti inquiry and the discovery of the southern question</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Southern_question&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: The Sonnino-Franchetti inquiry and the discovery of the southern question"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1875, following the deterioration of public order in the southern regions and in Sicily, the government proposed to Parliament the adoption of exceptional measures for public security. During the debate in the Chamber, and while controversies raged in the country, it was decided to make the adoption of the measures conditional on the completion of a study of the economic and social conditions of Sicily, which was entrusted to a group of parliamentarians (from the right and the left) and magistrates and carried out between 1875 and 1876. The results were published and then reprinted several times, even together with the preparatory acts,<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but were underestimated by public opinion and the political class of the time.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1877, university professors and members of the historical Right, <a href="/wiki/Leopoldo_Franchetti" title="Leopoldo Franchetti">Leopoldo Franchetti</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sidney_Sonnino" title="Sidney Sonnino">Sidney Sonnino</a>, partly in response to the "official" inquiry, published their inquiry in Sicily with which they for the first time drew public attention to the harshness of living conditions in some southern regions<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the exploitation of Sicilian child labor in the <a href="/wiki/Sulfur_mining_in_Sicily" title="Sulfur mining in Sicily">sulphur mines</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_77-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_colonial_venture_and_the_trade_war_with_France">The colonial venture and the trade war with France</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Southern_question&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: The colonial venture and the trade war with France"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The emergence of Italy as a unitary state had prompted the pursuit of an aggressive foreign policy on the European chessboard rather than concentrating on resolving internal contradictions. The aftermath of the <a href="/wiki/Third_Italian_War_of_Independence" title="Third Italian War of Independence">Third War of Independence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_question" title="Roman question">friction over the annexation of the Papal States</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Slap_of_Tunis" title="Slap of Tunis">conflicting interests in Tunisia</a> led Italy to move away from its traditional ally France and closer to Germany and Austria in the <a href="/wiki/Triple_Alliance_(1882)" title="Triple Alliance (1882)">Triple Alliance</a>. </p><p>Already between 1877 and 1887 (<a href="/wiki/Agostino_Depretis" title="Agostino Depretis">Depretis</a> governments) Italy had passed new protectionist tariff laws to protect its weak industry. </p><p>These laws penalized agricultural exports from the south, favored industrial production concentrated in the north, and created the conditions for the corrupt mixing of politics and economics. According to Giustino Fortunato, these measures determined the final collapse of southern interests in the face of those of northern Italy.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the same vein, <a href="/wiki/Luigi_Einaudi" title="Luigi Einaudi">Luigi Einaudi</a> pointed out how the "strong tariff barrier" of the post-unification period ensured northern industries "a monopoly of the southern market, with the consequence of impoverishing agriculture".<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="World_War_I">World War I</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Southern_question&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: World War I"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>With the <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">First World War</a>, the relative development of the north, based on industry, was favored by the war orders, while in the south, the conscription of young men to arms left the fields neglected, depriving their families of all sustenance, since, in the absence of men at the front, southern women were not accustomed to working the land like peasant women in the north and center, In fact, in the south, the arable land was often far from the homes, which were located in the villages, and even if they had wanted to, southern women would not have been able to do the housework and work the land at the same time, which was possible in northern and central Italy, where the peasants lived in farmhouses just a few meters from the land to be cultivated. At the end of the war, it was the northern entrepreneurial bourgeoisie that benefited from the expansion of markets and from war reparations, in this case partly because the damage of the First World War had been done mainly in the central and eastern part of the country bordering Austria. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Fascist_period">The Fascist period</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Southern_question&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: The Fascist period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Fascist state was interested in broadening its consensus through economic growth that would support its expansionist policy. To this end, it promoted a series of public works through various bodies such as the <a href="/wiki/Istituto_per_la_Ricostruzione_Industriale" title="Istituto per la Ricostruzione Industriale">Institute for Industrial Reconstruction</a> (IRI) and the <a href="/wiki/Istituto_Mobiliare_Italiano" title="Istituto Mobiliare Italiano">Italian Securities Institution</a> (IMI) to equip the most impoverished territories in the south with infrastructure. Two ports (<a href="/wiki/Naples" title="Naples">Naples</a> and <a href="/wiki/Taranto" title="Taranto">Taranto</a>) were improved, a number of roads, railways and canals were built, the construction of a large aqueduct (that of the <a href="/wiki/Tavoliere_delle_Puglie" title="Tavoliere delle Puglie">Tavoliere delle Puglie</a>) was undertaken, and, above all, an ambitious plan for integral reclamation was devised. However, these were investments that met local needs only to a small extent, with a modest impact on employment and distributed according to criteria aimed at producing or consolidating consensus toward the regime on the part of the populations concerned and, at the same time, not harming the interests of the classes, notably landowners and petty-bourgeoisie, that constituted the hard core of Fascism in the south. This was particularly evident in the implementation of the massive land reclamation plan, where the conflicting interests of the peasants, who demanded a transfer of the reclaimed land to them, and the old landowners, fearful of being expropriated, could not be harmonized. Attempts were made in vain to limit the influence of the latter, and so "[...] reclamation in the South came to a halt at the stage of public works, while all the turmoil that misery and permanent imbalances had caused was channeled in those years into the myth of empire".<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The policies implemented in the Fascist era to increase productivity in the primary sector were also unsuccessful: in particular, the agrarian policy pursued by Mussolini deeply damaged certain areas of the south. In fact, production focused mainly on wheat (<a href="/wiki/Battle_for_Grain" title="Battle for Grain">battle for wheat</a>) at the expense of more specialized and profitable crops that were widespread in the more fertile and developed southern areas. As for industry, it experienced during the "black twenty-year period" a long period of stagnation in the south, which is also noticeable in terms of employment. In fact, those employed in the secondary sector in the south constituted 20 percent of the national total in 1911, and almost thirty years later this percentage had not changed significantly. In 1938, industrial workers had dropped to 17.1 percent,<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but, taking into account the lower demographic weight of the south and the <a href="/wiki/Insular_Italy" title="Insular Italy">Islands</a> compared to the other two economic macro-areas of the country at that date, the ratio of these workers to those working in the rest of Italy had remained practically unchanged (in the same time frame, the population of the south had dropped from about 38 percent to about 35.5 percent of the total population of the country).<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the late 1930s, Fascism gave a new impetus to its economic efforts in the south and in Sicily, but this was an initiative aimed at increasing the meager consensus the regime enjoyed in the south and at popularizing in the south the world war that would soon engulf Italy.<sup id="cite_ref-Rosario_Villari,_p._521_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rosario_Villari,_p._521-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Fascist Italy, as a totalitarian state, resorted to means outside the rule of law (torture, special laws) to fight all forms of organized crime in the south. Famous was the appointment of <a href="/wiki/Cesare_Mori" title="Cesare Mori">Cesare Mori</a>, later called the "Iron Prefect" for his harsh methods, as Prefect of <a href="/wiki/Palermo" title="Palermo">Palermo</a> with extraordinary powers over the entire island. Despite its excellent results, the Mafia was not completely eradicated, so much so that it allied itself with the Anglo-Americans during the Second World War and had contacts with some members of Fascism itself (see Alfredo Cucco and the Tresca case). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="World_War_II">World War II</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Southern_question&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: World War II"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-468-1419-27A,_M%C3%A4nner_und_Frauen_vor_einem_Haus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-468-1419-27A%2C_M%C3%A4nner_und_Frauen_vor_einem_Haus.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-468-1419-27A%2C_M%C3%A4nner_und_Frauen_vor_einem_Haus.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-468-1419-27A%2C_M%C3%A4nner_und_Frauen_vor_einem_Haus.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-468-1419-27A%2C_M%C3%A4nner_und_Frauen_vor_einem_Haus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-468-1419-27A%2C_M%C3%A4nner_und_Frauen_vor_einem_Haus.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-468-1419-27A%2C_M%C3%A4nner_und_Frauen_vor_einem_Haus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="534" /></a><figcaption>1943: group of men and women photographed in a town in southern Italy</figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, the disparities were political as well as economic. In 1943, as the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allies</a> prepared to <a href="/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Sicily" title="Allied invasion of Sicily">land in Sicily</a> to invade Italy, they found an ally in the Mafia through families operating in the United States, who offered to provide strategic intelligence and moral legitimacy to the invaders in exchange for civilian control of southern Italy. The Allied command agreed, and so the territories they gradually conquered came under the control of the various Mafia clans, which took advantage of this phase to consolidate their power, including militarily.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The collapse of the state repressive apparatus was followed by the return of the issue of <a href="/wiki/Banditry" title="Banditry">banditry</a>, especially in Sicily, where some of its exponents joined political independence movements demanding the independence of the island. </p><p>The provisional government decided not to repress the movement, which had no social content or demands, but rather to bribe it. Large portions of the <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Plan" title="Marshall Plan">Marshall Plan</a> were diverted to areas in turmoil, and the protest was deprived of the active interest of the population. Gang leaders were paid to lay down their arms, and through complex political maneuvers, some of the remaining gangs were persuaded and paid to carry out attacks against the civilian population, which ended up isolating the armed groups. At the same time, a denigrating press campaign was unleashed against the insurgents. To make matters worse, the new <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Italy" title="Constitution of Italy">republican constitution</a> granted Sicily a degree of autonomy, depriving the last rebels of any political legitimacy. The few remaining bands were identified and eliminated to the indifference of the population. However, as had happened eighty years earlier, the Mafia distanced itself from the armed groups and went back into hiding, integrating itself into the population. An integral part of this strategy is the cooperation of ordinary people, especially through <a href="/wiki/Omert%C3%A0" title="Omertà">omertà</a>, or obstructing law enforcement by hiding or withholding sensitive information. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_First_Republic">The First Republic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Southern_question&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: The First Republic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After the war, the Mafia gained enormous power in some important regions of southern Italy, first in <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a> and then in <a href="/wiki/Calabria" title="Calabria">Calabria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Campania" title="Campania">Campania</a>. The southern question was discussed at length in the <a href="/wiki/Constituent_Assembly_of_Italy" title="Constituent Assembly of Italy">Constituent Assembly</a> and, precisely to emphasize the national and constitutional dimension of the problem, it was provided in article 119 of the Constitution that "in order to provide for specific purposes, and in particular to strengthen the south and the islands, the State shall allocate by law to the various regions special contributions".<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This reference was later removed by Constitutional Revision Act No. 3/2001. </p><p>At various times, the Italian government allocated funds to the development of the south, even creating a financial institution called the <i><a href="/wiki/Cassa_per_il_Mezzogiorno" title="Cassa per il Mezzogiorno">Cassa per il Mezzogiorno</a></i> to manage the flows.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Mafia, for its part, invested its illegal proceeds in legitimate activities. However, such movements ended up diverting public funds, or laundering the proceeds of crime, rather than financing productive enterprises. Too often, public investments were misused and were used by large public and private groups in the north to set up industrial plants in areas poorly served by infrastructure, with administrative headquarters often far from the production facilities, but nevertheless taking advantage of the large amounts of public capital allocated there. </p><p>Many northern industrial groups were encouraged by public subsidies to establish themselves in the south, but such decisions proved to be uneconomical in some respects, as many of these industrial experiments soon failed when the public subsidies ended. For their part, the large companies that joined these projects and the political parties that promoted them took advantage of the uncomfortable environment in which they operated by resorting to patronage practices in hiring, without ever emphasizing productivity or the <a href="/wiki/Value_added" title="Value added">value added</a> by business activities. </p><p>These pernicious practices, called "welfarism", led to a profound change in the laws of the market and to the abortion of any possible economic development of the most depressed areas of the country. Italian private capital avoided the south unless it was encouraged by the allocation of substantial public funds, considering that any investment in a productive sector not subsidized by the state was doomed to failure. Although the situation today is very different, patronage attitudes still persist in southern politics, and all too often large public contracts in the south are awarded to the usual large industrial groups. </p><p>As for the development of the private economy of the south, in the years of the so-called "<a href="/wiki/Italian_economic_miracle" title="Italian economic miracle">economic boom</a>", until the mid-1970s, there was intense and steady economic growth in the south, which finally succeeded (after almost a century) in reversing the trends of the southern economy and bringing it closer to the levels of the north. This turnaround came to an abrupt halt in the early 1970s, after the <a href="/wiki/1973_oil_crisis" title="1973 oil crisis">oil crisis</a>, and from then on the dualism between north and south returned. In recent years, however, since 2000, the data collected tell us that slowly the southern economy is narrowing the gap again. When the government found itself taking legislative action or negotiating international agreements in the economic sphere, attention was directed, again, to northern industries. For example, in the 1940s and 1950s, when <a href="/wiki/Italian_diaspora" title="Italian diaspora">Italian emigrants</a>, mainly from the south, began to arrive en masse in the coal mines of Belgium, the Italian government requested and received from the Belgian government one ton of coal per year for each emigrant worker;<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> this supply did not benefit the regions of origin of the emigrant miners, but was destined for factories located mainly in the northern areas of the country. </p><p>In the 1960s and 1970s the industrialized areas experienced a period of economic development, centered on the export of finished goods, called the "Italian" miracle. The phenomenon attracted labor from the south, and also affected it for a few decades, but the disparity in the two living standards became evident and widely discussed. In reaction, emigrants sent remittances to their families who remained in the south, and the state finally devoted significant resources to the development of essential services, but these resources were unable to be reinvested in productive circles, and only served to raise, albeit slightly, the living standards of the families of southern emigrants. </p><p>Beginning in the 1980s, the judiciary sought a new mission and focused on organized crime. Social developments such as individualism and the spectacularization of public life contributed to conditions in which the system of power used by the ruling class began to show cracks. Various laws strengthened the fight against corruption and crime: one that confirmed the separation of the judiciary from the executive, another that established reduced sentences and other benefits for defendants who cooperated with ongoing investigations, and finally one that made membership in a mafia association a more serious crime than simple criminal association. All of this allowed some progress to be made in the 1980s in the fight against the Mafia. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_contemporary_south">The contemporary south</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Southern_question&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: The contemporary south"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During this period, a partial consolidation of the public debt accumulated by previous administrations was undertaken, accompanied by a reduction and rationalization of public spending. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a> partially accompanies this process by financing entrepreneurial projects of a social, ecological or cultural nature, but these initiatives are not of such a nature as to create self-financing mechanisms, and the benefits derived are very small. In this respect, <a href="/wiki/Abruzzo" title="Abruzzo">Abruzzo</a>, unlike all the other regions of the south, has been excluded from the so-called Objective 1, which has now expired.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As a result of the abolition of the <i>Cassa per il Mezzogiorno</i>, the south currently benefits from <i>Invitalia - Agenzia nazionale per l'attrazione degli investimenti e lo sviluppo d'impresa S.p.A.</i> and sometimes from tax breaks for hiring young people, through rebates, bonuses and deductions to encourage employment in companies located in southern Italy. The Svimez and Formez institutes also exist to follow issues related to the south of Italy. </p><p>In absolute terms, the economic situation of the south has undoubtedly improved over the past sixty years; in relative terms, however, the gap with the north has drastically increased since the 1970s.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerato2_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerato2-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Studies from the January 2020 Eurispes report show how, from 2000 to 2007, the eight southern regions occupy the lowest places in the ranking by distribution of public spending. On the other hand, all the northern Italian regions have been showered by the State with an amount of annual expenditure significantly higher than the national average. If, from the total public expenditure, one considers the share that the south should have received each year as a percentage of its population, it emerges that, in total, from 2000 to 2017, the corresponding sum subtracted from it amounts to more than 840 billion euros net (on average, about 46.7 billion euros per year).<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Even today, various structural problems continue to hamper the region's chances for economic progress: the lack of infrastructure, the presence of a banking system that is not very attentive to the needs of the territory (the old large southern banks have been gradually incorporated into large northern groups since the 1990s, such as the <i><a href="/wiki/Banco_di_Napoli" title="Banco di Napoli">Banco di Napoli</a></i>), the delays of an often plethoric public administration, the emigration of many young people who cannot find work because of the limited economic growth, and above all the infiltration of the organized underworld into the political and economic life of the south, a factor that is the main brake on the economic growth of the south. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Studies">Studies</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Southern_question&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Studies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sociocultural_aspects">Sociocultural aspects</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Southern_question&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Sociocultural aspects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The question of the south is not limited to the difference in economic development between the north and the south, as the gap also extends to many socio-cultural aspects, as measured by Istat data,<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerato4_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerato4-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which represent the most diverse social issues and behaviors on the peninsula. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Giustino_Fortunato" title="Giustino Fortunato">Giustino Fortunato</a> noted that in addition to the economic field, "there was also a profound diversity between customs, traditions, the intellectual and moral world". Even the writer <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Tomasi_di_Lampedusa" title="Giuseppe Tomasi di Lampedusa">Giuseppe Tomasi di Lampedusa</a>, in his novel <i><a href="/wiki/The_Leopard" title="The Leopard">The Leopard</a></i>, describes the different Sicilian and southern cultural attitudes towards the changes brought about by the unification of Italy. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_historiographical_debate">The historiographical debate</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Southern_question&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: The historiographical debate"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The southern question has been the subject of multiple studies over time, with non-convergent conclusions, and is still a source of heated debate among historians, economists and politicians. </p><p>In recent years economic researches have pointed to the emergence of the southern question in the final part of the 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerato1_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerato1-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, even Marxist Antonio Gramsci, although critical of the Italian state, attributed the existence of the gap, as early as 1860, mainly due to the many centuries of different history of the north of the peninsula compared to the south, defined as two "antithetical" sections, which came together after 1,000 years, as Gramsci himself points out in his work <i>The Southern Question - The South and the War</i> (1, p. 5).<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerato11_76-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerato11-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On the other hand, the abundant literature of the period immediately following the Expedition of the Thousand shows a fierce opposition to the methods used by the Kingdom of Savoy to manage the annexation of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, and even the burgeoning emergence of southern music shows how alive was already in 1868 a fierce satire against the newly formed Kingdom. Examples are the songs <i>Palummella zompa e vola</i>, a nostalgic song for the lost freedom of the southern kingdom, or the carnival song <i>Italiella</i>. </p><p>The revisionist thesis, which would see the south as hostile to the Savoyards after unification, does not explain the fact that, during the Monarchy-Republic referendum of 1946, it was the south that voted overwhelmingly in favor of the Savoy monarchy, while the north voted for the Republic; moreover, from 1946 to 1972 the monarchist parties, later merged into the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Democratic_Party_of_Monarchist_Unity" title="Italian Democratic Party of Monarchist Unity">Italian Democratic Party of Monarchist Unity</a> (PDIUM), still gained support especially in the south and in Naples, where, on the occasion of the 1946 referendum, several Neapolitan citizens died in Via Medina, during the clashes in defense of the Savoy monarchy, events known as the Via Medina massacre.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, three main historiographical approaches can be distinguished, which trace in broad strokes broader ideological and political debates: </p> <ul><li>Classical historiography, so called because it was originated earlier, proposed the south as a sign of an atypical or delayed evolution, where <a href="/wiki/Harrod%E2%80%93Domar_model" title="Harrod–Domar model">other conditions</a> would have allowed the region to <a href="/wiki/Rostow%27s_stages_of_growth" title="Rostow's stages of growth">successfully fit</a> into a <a href="/wiki/Solow%E2%80%93Swan_model" title="Solow–Swan model">dynamic of growth</a> and integration. In this context, the emphasis is placed on the thesis that the north–south divide pre-dates unification and was mainly caused by the different histories of the two territories, beginning with the fall of the Roman Empire, a difference that became more pronounced after 1300.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerato10_70-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerato10-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Modern historiography, so called because it has been proposed since Gramsci and Salvemini, sees the persistence of misery as an essential component of capitalism, which is based on the dualities of exploiters and exploited, development and underdevelopment, also on a <a href="/wiki/Global_North_and_Global_South" title="Global North and Global South">geographical basis</a>.</li> <li>The deterministic interpretation, which sees demography (through racist theses) or the geography of the south as the often insurmountable cause of the poverty in which the south finds itself.</li></ul> <p>Many intellectuals—including those already mentioned, such as Gramsci and Giustino Fortunato—publicly acknowledged the existence of a real southern question, but also claimed that it was due to the unequal treatment between northern Italy and southern Italy, the latter being exploited to an unimaginable extent, to the point that a large part of its children emigrated, leaving their homeland to seek their fortune abroad. </p><p>Revisionist historiography supports the thesis of the exploitation of the south to the advantage of the north, in particular the fact that, the so-called "Turin-Milan-Genoa" industrial triangle would have developed economically by taking resources away from the south, without, however, explaining how the provinces of northeastern and <a href="/wiki/Central_Italy" title="Central Italy">central Italy</a>, while not receiving aid, have developed economically over time close to and, in several cases, even greater than some of the industrial areas of the aforementioned "Turin-Milan-Genoa" industrial triangle, as shown by the Unioncamere<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerato12_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerato12-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Istat" class="mw-redirect" title="Istat">ISTAT</a> data.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerato4_110-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerato4-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In particular, revisionist historiography does not explain the economic development of the regions belonging to the former <a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a>, an absolute theocratic anti-liberal monarchy and thus a profoundly different state from the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sardinia" title="Kingdom of Sardinia">Kingdom of Sardinia</a>, where after 1860 there were no episodes of brigandage or anti-Savoyard revolts, with the former papal populations soon adapting to the new and profoundly different norms of the unified Italian state, growing slowly but progressively until reaching in the last decades of the twentieth century, an economic-productive development close to several northern provinces of the Po Valley and in some cases, even greater, as shown by the Istat and Unioncamere data. </p><p>The topic "The Southern Question", introduced in the epigraph with a famous statement by the southern historian and politician Giustino Fortunato,<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> can also be historically understood by quoting the famous phrase of the Turin politician and patriot <a href="/wiki/Massimo_d%27Azeglio" title="Massimo d'Azeglio">Massimo d'Azeglio</a>: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>"[...] I know nothing about suffrage, I know that on this side of the Tronto<sup id="cite_ref-ref_B_92-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ref_B-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> battalions are not necessary and that on the other side they are necessary."</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>(Massimo d'Azeglio, Scritti e discorsi politici, Firenze 1939, III, pp. 399-400)</cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historical_research">Historical research</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Southern_question&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Historical research"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to Nitti's reconstructions,<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the kingdom's substantial wealth, in addition to contributing preponderantly to the formation of the national treasury, was destined mainly to the rehabilitation of the finances of northern regions compromised by the disproportionate public expenditure incurred by the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sardinia" title="Kingdom of Sardinia">Kingdom of Sardinia</a> in those years, that is, to the development of the provinces of the so-called "industrial triangle".<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Piedmontese public debt grew in the decade prior to 1860 by 565 percent, producing as an effect an increase in taxes (23 new taxes were introduced in the Sardinian states in the 1850s), the sale of state property (such as the <a href="/wiki/Sampierdarena" title="Sampierdarena">Sampierdarena</a> steel plant) and the need to take out large loans, thus putting the fortunes of the Savoy state back into the hands of a few large bankers (such as the <a href="/wiki/Rothschild_family" title="Rothschild family">Rothschilds</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the contrary, in the Bourbon state, as reported by Giacomo Savarese (Minister and Councillor of State in 1848), the public debt corresponded to 16.57 percent of GDP and there were only 5 taxes through which the public rents in those years increased from 16 million to 30 million ducats "as a result of the growth of the general wealth".<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to the journalist, writer and essayist <a href="/wiki/Paolo_Mieli" title="Paolo Mieli">Paolo Mieli</a>, from the work by Vittorio Daniele and <a href="/wiki/Paolo_Malanima" title="Paolo Malanima">Paolo Malanima</a>, <i>Il divario Nord-Sud in Italia 1861-2011</i> (Rubbettino), it can be seen that in the years of unification the territories of the Kingdom of the Bourbons had economic conditions quite similar to those of the northern areas and that the GDP per capita of the south was even higher, albeit slightly, than that of northern Italy.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the years following the unification, however, major public works were carried out in the south, including the improvement of the already poor southern road network and, in particular, the construction of a railway network, which before 1860 was limited to about 100 km around Naples. The total cost of these works was very high, as shown in <a href="/wiki/History_of_rail_transport_in_Italy" title="History of rail transport in Italy">history of rail transport in Italy</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Emigrazione_italiano_per_regione_1876-1915.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Emigrazione_italiano_per_regione_1876-1915.svg/220px-Emigrazione_italiano_per_regione_1876-1915.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="118" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Emigrazione_italiano_per_regione_1876-1915.svg/330px-Emigrazione_italiano_per_regione_1876-1915.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Emigrazione_italiano_per_regione_1876-1915.svg/440px-Emigrazione_italiano_per_regione_1876-1915.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="645" /></a><figcaption>Estimated number of emigrants in the periods 1876–1900 and 1901–1915, by region of origin<sup id="cite_ref-Rosoli_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rosoli-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Majella001.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Majella001.jpg/220px-Majella001.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Majella001.jpg/330px-Majella001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Majella001.jpg/440px-Majella001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="509" /></a><figcaption>After the unification, the <a href="/wiki/Maiella" title="Maiella">Maiella</a> was the scene of fierce clashes between the Savoy troops and the Loyalists, who also built fortifications ("Blockhaus") on its peaks.</figcaption></figure> <p>Recent research<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> has shown that before the unification there were no substantial economic differences between the south and the north in terms of per capita product and industrialization,<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerato2_108-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerato2-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although there were, however, serious critical issues in the social indicators of the south (education, life expectancy, poverty), due to the general backwardness of the southern territory and the rest of rural Italy.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_75-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other authors have been critical of the thesis that there were no substantial economic differences between the north and the south at the time of unification.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to other studies at the time of unification, the difference in per capita income was estimated to be 15–20% greater in the north than in the south,<sup id="cite_ref-win.svimez.info_71-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-win.svimez.info-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a figure derived not only from an analysis of the number of people employed, but also of the size and competitive capacity of industrial establishments. Other studies estimate the difference in per capita income to be 25% greater in the northwest than in the south.<sup id="cite_ref-ref_C_72-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ref_C-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, the actual economic gap began to deepen in the last years of the 19th century, widening from that time onward to create the current dualism between the north-center and the south, as was highlighted at that very time by southern politicians and scholars such as <a href="/wiki/Sidney_Sonnino" title="Sidney Sonnino">Sidney Sonnino</a>, <a href="/wiki/Giustino_Fortunato" title="Giustino Fortunato">Giustino Fortunato</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gaetano_Salvemini" title="Gaetano Salvemini">Gaetano Salvemini</a>, Guido Dorso, <a href="/wiki/Francesco_Saverio_Nitti" title="Francesco Saverio Nitti">Francesco Saverio Nitti</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Antonio Gramsci</a>. The economic hardships and disappointed hopes of the southern proletariat in the years following the unification of Italy were at the origin of the armed struggle that inflamed the countryside of the former Bourbon kingdom, referred to as the "<a href="/wiki/Post-unification_Italian_brigandage" title="Post-unification Italian brigandage">brigandage struggle</a>". Poverty also led to the formation of a massive migratory flow, absent in pre-unification times.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The economic decline of the south also became perceptible because of the different proportions that the migratory flow assumed between the various parts of the country: if in the period 1876–1900, out of a total of 5,257,911 expatriates, most of the emigrants abroad were inhabitants of the central-northern regions (70.8 percent left from the central-north and 29.2 percent from the central-south),<sup id="cite_ref-dato_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dato-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in the period 1900–1915, out of a total of 8,769,785 exiles, the trend reversed and the migratory supremacy passed to the southern regions, with a reduction in northern emigrants and a growth in those from the south (52.7 percent left from the center-north and 47.3 percent from the center-south):<sup id="cite_ref-dato_126-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dato-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in particular, out of less than nine million emigrants, almost three million came from Campania, Calabria and Sicily.<sup id="cite_ref-Rosoli_121-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rosoli-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gfortunato.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Gfortunato.jpg/170px-Gfortunato.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="244" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Gfortunato.jpg/255px-Gfortunato.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Gfortunato.jpg/340px-Gfortunato.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="574" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Giustino_Fortunato" title="Giustino Fortunato">Giustino Fortunato</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Carlo_Cafiero.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Carlo_Cafiero.jpg/170px-Carlo_Cafiero.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Carlo_Cafiero.jpg/255px-Carlo_Cafiero.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Carlo_Cafiero.jpg/340px-Carlo_Cafiero.jpg 2x" data-file-width="656" data-file-height="875" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Carlo_Cafiero" title="Carlo Cafiero">Carlo Cafiero</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Although Giustino Fortunato was highly critical of Bourbon policies and an ardent supporter of national unity, he argued that the greatest damage inflicted on the economy of the south after the unification of Italy was caused by the protectionist policy adopted by the Italian state in 1877 and 1887, which he said resulted in "the fatal sacrifice of the interests of the south" and "the exclusive patronage of those of the north", as it crystallized the economic monopoly of the north on the Italian market.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Supporting this thesis are the studies conducted by Italian agricultural historian <a href="/wiki/Emilio_Sereni" title="Emilio Sereni">Emilio Sereni</a>, who identified the origin of the current southern question in the economic contrast between north and south that came about as a result of the unification of Italian markets in the years immediately following the military conquest of the realm, stating: "The South became, for the new Kingdom of Italy, one of those Nebenlander (dependent territories), of which <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a> speaks in regard to Ireland vis-à-vis England, where industrial capitalist development was abruptly crushed for the profit of the dominant country."<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gradually, the manufactures and factories of the south declined: local industry succumbed under the combined blows of foreign industry and especially northern industry, which, due to protectionist policies, was put by the governments of the time in the optimal conditions to be able to gain a monopoly on the national market.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The south was thus set on a process of agrarization, and the mass of labor that workers and peasant populations employed in other times in industry-related work remained unused, causing not only an industrial but also an agrarian marasmus. While in the countryside the discontent of the peasant masses took the path of legitimist claim, in the industrial centers of the old kingdom, the emergence of socialist and anarchist nuclei occurred in those years (the first Italian sections to join the <a href="/wiki/International_Workingmen%27s_Association" title="International Workingmen's Association">International</a> were established in Naples and Castellammare a few months after the organization's birth in London)<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to which workers and young intellectuals of bourgeois backgrounds (such as <a href="/wiki/Carlo_Cafiero" title="Carlo Cafiero">Carlo Cafiero</a>, <a href="/wiki/Emilio_Covelli" title="Emilio Covelli">Emilio Covelli</a>, <a href="/wiki/Francesco_Saverio_Merlino" title="Francesco Saverio Merlino">Francesco Saverio Merlino</a>, <a href="/wiki/Errico_Malatesta" title="Errico Malatesta">Errico Malatesta</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Labriola" title="Antonio Labriola">Antonio Labriola</a>) joined.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This process occurred gradually during the first decades of the Kingdom of Italy's existence, and by 1880 Italian industry was already largely concentrated in the industrial triangle. The southern question emerged during the process of forming and settling the national market. It, with its original vices, acquired increasing acuity in the course of the capitalist development of the Italian economy, becoming complicated by new social and political factors.<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br />The theory of the development of the north to the detriment of the south, in particular the fact that, the so-called "Turin-Milan-Genoa" industrial triangle would have developed economically by taking resources away from the south, does not explain how the provinces in the northeast and central Italy, even without receiving aid, developed over time economically close to and, in several cases, even higher than some of the industrial areas in the aforementioned "Turin-Milan-Genoa" industrial triangle as shown by the Unioncamere<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerato12_113-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerato12-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and ISTAT data.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerato4_110-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerato4-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Classical historiography supports the thesis that the north–south divide existed before unification and was caused mainly by the different histories of the two territories since the fall of the Roman Empire, a difference that would have widened by 1300.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerato10_70-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerato10-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The infrastructure and industrial gap in 1860–61 was as follows:<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Road network: in 1860 the road network in the north-center was estimated at 75,500 km compared to 14,700 km in the south and islands, for a corresponding density of 626 km per 1,000 km<sup>2</sup> in the north-center compared to only 108 km in the south.</li> <li>Iron and steel industry: in 1860 the entire Italian iron and steel industry produced 18,500 tons of iron works, of which 17,000 were produced in the north and only 1,500 in the south.</li> <li>The railway network: in 1861 out of the 2,500 km of existing railways, 869 were in Piedmont, 756 in Lombardy-Veneto, 361 in Tuscany, while in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies only 184 km were in operation around Naples, with the rest of the south totally devoid of railway tracks.</li></ul> <p>The existence of the north–south economic-productive gap prior to 1860 is also attested by other authors: Carlo Afan de Rivera, an important official in the Bourbon administration, with his "Considerations on the means to restore the proper value to the gifts that nature has largely bestowed on the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies", describes the situation of agriculture in the pre-unification south and the great economic backwardness at the beginning with which the south of Italy found itself at the time of unification.<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Marxist <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Antonio Gramsci</a>, while critical of the Savoy governments, also attributed the emergence of the southern question mainly to the many centuries of different history of southern Italy, compared to the history of northern Italy, as laid out in his work <i>The Southern Question</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>"The new Italy found the two parts of the peninsula, the south and the north, reunited after more than a thousand years in completely opposite conditions.<br /> </p><p>The Lombard invasion had finally broken the unity created by Rome, and in the north the communes had given history one particular impulse, while in the south the Swabian, Anjou, Spanish and Bourbon domination had given it another. <br /> On the one hand, the tradition of a certain autonomy had created a bourgeoisie that was bold and full of initiative, and there was an economic organisation similar to that of the other states of Europe, conducive to the further development of capitalism and industry.<br /> In the other, the paternalist administrations of Spain and the Bourbons had created nothing: the bourgeoisie did not exist, agriculture was primitive and not even sufficient to satisfy the local market; there were no roads, no ports, no exploitation of the few waters that the region possessed due to its peculiar geological conformation. </p><p> The unification brought the two parts of the peninsula into close contact."</p></blockquote> <p>The American political scientist <a href="/wiki/Edward_C._Banfield" title="Edward C. Banfield">Edward C. Banfield</a> (1916–1999), in his book <i><a href="/wiki/The_Moral_Basis_of_a_Backward_Society" title="The Moral Basis of a Backward Society">The Moral Basis of a Backward Society</a></i> (1958), argued that the backwardness of the south was due to what he called "amoral familism", a type of society based on an extreme conception of family ties, to the detriment of the ability to associate and the collective interest.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerato9_136-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerato9-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>U.S. political scientist <a href="/wiki/Robert_D._Putnam" title="Robert D. Putnam">Robert D. Putnam</a> proposes theses similar to those of Edward C. Banfield in his book <i>The Civic Tradition in the Italian Regions</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerato8_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerato8-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> arguing how the lack of civic sense produces negative effects towards the development and efficiency of institutions and therefore how regions with little civic sense are more backward, even economically, than regions with more civic sense. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scholars_of_the_phenomenon">Scholars of the phenomenon</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Southern_question&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Scholars of the phenomenon"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Meridionalism" title="Meridionalism">Meridionalism</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pasquale_Villari.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Pasquale_Villari.jpg/110px-Pasquale_Villari.jpg" decoding="async" width="110" height="114" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Pasquale_Villari.jpg/165px-Pasquale_Villari.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Pasquale_Villari.jpg/220px-Pasquale_Villari.jpg 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="529" /></a><figcaption>Pasquale Villari</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stefano_Jacini.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Stefano_Jacini.jpg/110px-Stefano_Jacini.jpg" decoding="async" width="110" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Stefano_Jacini.jpg/165px-Stefano_Jacini.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Stefano_Jacini.jpg/220px-Stefano_Jacini.jpg 2x" data-file-width="966" data-file-height="1458" /></a><figcaption>Stefano Jacini</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sidney_sonnino.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Sidney_sonnino.jpg/110px-Sidney_sonnino.jpg" decoding="async" width="110" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Sidney_sonnino.jpg/165px-Sidney_sonnino.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Sidney_sonnino.jpg/220px-Sidney_sonnino.jpg 2x" data-file-width="397" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Sidney Sonnino</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gfortunato.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Gfortunato.jpg/110px-Gfortunato.jpg" decoding="async" width="110" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Gfortunato.jpg/165px-Gfortunato.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Gfortunato.jpg/220px-Gfortunato.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="574" /></a><figcaption>Giustino Fortunato</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Francesco-Saverio-Nitti1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Francesco-Saverio-Nitti1.jpg/110px-Francesco-Saverio-Nitti1.jpg" decoding="async" width="110" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Francesco-Saverio-Nitti1.jpg/165px-Francesco-Saverio-Nitti1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Francesco-Saverio-Nitti1.jpg/220px-Francesco-Saverio-Nitti1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="248" data-file-height="301" /></a><figcaption>Francesco Saverio Nitti</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gaetano_Salvemini.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Gaetano_Salvemini.jpg/110px-Gaetano_Salvemini.jpg" decoding="async" width="110" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Gaetano_Salvemini.jpg/165px-Gaetano_Salvemini.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Gaetano_Salvemini.jpg/220px-Gaetano_Salvemini.jpg 2x" data-file-width="244" data-file-height="299" /></a><figcaption>Gaetano Salvemini</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gramsci.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Gramsci.png/110px-Gramsci.png" decoding="async" width="110" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Gramsci.png/165px-Gramsci.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Gramsci.png/220px-Gramsci.png 2x" data-file-width="959" data-file-height="1297" /></a><figcaption>Antonio Gramsci</figcaption></figure> <p>Various scholars and politicians have addressed the southern question, looking for the causes of the south's problems. The following are the most prominent: </p> <ul><li>Giuseppe Massari (1821–1884) and <a href="/wiki/Stefano_Castagnola" title="Stefano Castagnola">Stefano Castagnola</a> (1825–1891) were two Italian deputies who headed a parliamentary commission of inquiry into <a href="/wiki/Brigandage" title="Brigandage">brigandage</a> between 1862 and 1863. Although their work was partial and purely descriptive, it showed how misery played a key role in the birth of the revolt.<sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pasquale_Villari" title="Pasquale Villari">Pasquale Villari</a> (1827–1917) was among the first to raise the issue of the southern question. He drew attention to the crisis in the south and, in particular, to the weakness of the institutions of the new Italian state in the southern regions. He criticised the workings of the newly unified state because, in order to achieve a balanced budget, it imposed unfair taxation on the popular class, which was one of the main causes of the agrarian proletarian insurrection. Villari believed that the southern question could be healed by bringing the government closer to the southern plebs.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stefano_Jacini" class="mw-redirect" title="Stefano Jacini">Stefano Jacini Sr.</a> (1827–1891), longtime minister of public works, was interested in the need to build infrastructure and create a class of small landowners.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stefano_Jacini_(1886%E2%80%931952)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stefano Jacini (1886–1952)">Stefano Jacini Jr.</a> (1886–1952), his grandson, noted two generations later that the situation had not changed, and took up the same views.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leopoldo_Franchetti" title="Leopoldo Franchetti">Leopoldo Franchetti</a> (1847–1917), <a href="/wiki/Sidney_Sonnino" title="Sidney Sonnino">Sidney Sonnino</a> (1847–1922) and Enea Cavalieri (1848–1929) produced a famous and well-documented study of the southern question in 1876,<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> highlighting the links between the persistence of illiteracy and latifundia, the absence of a local bourgeoisie, corruption and the Mafia, the need for agrarian reform and the slow development of port, rail and road infrastructure.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giustino_Fortunato" title="Giustino Fortunato">Giustino Fortunato</a> (1848–1932), a conservative politician, carried out several studies on the subject, the most famous of which was published in 1879, in which he outlined the physical and geographical disadvantages of the south, the problems of land ownership and the role of conquest in the emergence of brigandage. He was decidedly hostile to any form of federalism, and although he defended the need to redistribute land and fund essential services such as schools and hospitals, he has been seen by some commentators as pessimistic because of his distrust of the southerners' ability to overcome the economic and historical constraints of the south by their own efforts.<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He expected the north to help the south,<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but in time became disillusioned by the inability of the northern ruling classes (and more generally of the new Italy) to resolve the southern question.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benedetto_Croce" title="Benedetto Croce">Benedetto Croce</a> (1866–1952), a historicist philosopher, reviewed the vicissitudes of the south from the <a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy">unification</a> to the twentieth century from a historiographical point of view, stressing the impartiality of the sources. His thought differed in part from that of his friend Giustino Fortunato with regard to the importance of natural conditions in the problems of the south. In fact, he considered the ethico-political events that had led to this situation to be fundamental. Both considered the ability of the political and economic classes, national and local, to address and resolve the problem as fundamental. His <i>Storia del Regno di Napoli</i> (History of the Kingdom of Naples), published in 1923, remains the essential point of reference for subsequent historiography, for students and critics alike.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Saverio_Nitti" title="Francesco Saverio Nitti">Francesco Saverio Nitti</a> (1868–1953), a minister on several occasions, devoted much time to studying the southern economy. Contrary to the majority of Meridionalists, who saw a south oppressed by the Bourbon regime, he believed that the south was not in an extremely serious situation before the unification. He criticised the conservative economic model of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Two_Sicilies" title="Kingdom of the Two Sicilies">Kingdom of the Two Sicilies</a>, which, in his opinion, prevented the south from following the modern age but guaranteed a mediocre prosperity that was lost after the unification, and praised its administrative and financial arrangements.<sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nitti analysed the timid industrial development, emigration and urged the creation of an early welfare state. After the <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">Second World War</a>, he also proposed a vast programme of public works, irrigation and reforestation and, like others before him, reiterated the urgency of agrarian reform.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaetano_Salvemini" title="Gaetano Salvemini">Gaetano Salvemini</a> (1873–1957), a socialist historian and politician, focused his analysis on the disadvantages that the south had inherited from history, sharply criticising the centralised administration of the country and pointing to the need for an alliance between northern workers and southern peasants. However, the systematic exploitation of the south by northern capital and the adoption of a state legislation particularly punitive towards the south had been made possible, according to Salvemini, by the complicity of the southern landowners and their allies, the local petty bourgeoisie. The latter, vulgar and idle, aroused the contempt of Salvemini,<sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who, on the other hand, had a deep respect for the sober, hard-working and dignified southern peasants. As late as 1952, Salvemini stressed the serious responsibility that the southern petty bourgeoisie had borne and continues to bear for the failure to develop the south, but "[...] the southern bourgeoisie prefers to remain ignorant of this responsibility. They find it convenient to blame the north. Well, we southerners must always point out this responsibility. We must prevent the southerners from forgetting themselves in order to do nothing but rail against the northerners".<sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Antonio Gramsci</a> (1891–1937), a renowned <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxist</a> thinker, read the backwardness of the south through the prism of <a href="/wiki/Class_conflict" title="Class conflict">class struggle</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He studied the mechanisms at work in the peasant revolts of the late 19th century to the 1920s, explained how the working class had been divided from the agricultural labourers by the protectionist measures adopted under <a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">fascism</a>, and how the state had artificially invented a middle class in the south through public employment. He hoped for the political maturation of the peasantry, abandoning revolt as an end in itself in favour of a vindictive and proactive stance, and for a more radical turn by the urban proletarians to include the countryside in their struggles. The Marxist Antonio Gramsci attributed the emergence of the southern question mainly to the centuries-old difference in the history of southern Italy compared to northern Italy, as Gramsci himself points out in his work <i>The Southern Question - The South and the War</i> (1, p. 5), pointing to the existence of a profound socio-economic difference between the north-central and southern parts of the Italian peninsula as early as 1860, and also highlighting the serious shortcomings of the previous Spanish and Bourbon administrations.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerato11_76-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerato11-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Guido Dorso (1892–1947) was an intellectual who defended the dignity of southern culture and denounced the wrongs committed by the north, especially by the political parties. He made exhaustive studies on the evolution of the economy of the south from unification until the 1930s and defended the need for the emergence of a local ruling class.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosario_Romeo" title="Rosario Romeo">Rosario Romeo</a> (1924–1987), historian and politician, opposed revolutionary theories and highlighted the differences that existed between Sicily and the rest of the south before and after the <a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Italy" title="Unification of Italy">Risorgimento</a>. He attributed the problems of the south to cultural traits characterised by individualism and a lack of civic spirit, rather than to historical or structural causes.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paolo_Sylos_Labini" title="Paolo Sylos Labini">Paolo Sylos Labini</a> (1920–2005), professor and economist, argued that the lack of civic and cultural development was at the root of the economic divide. He saw corruption and crime as endemic to southern society and welfare as the main obstacle to development.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_C._Banfield" title="Edward C. Banfield">Edward C. Banfield</a> (1916–1999) American political scientist who argued that the backwardness of the south was due to so-called amoral familism, a type of society based on an extreme conception of family ties that was detrimental to the ability to associate and the collective interest, explained in his 1958 book <i><a href="/wiki/The_Moral_Basis_of_a_Backward_Society" title="The Moral Basis of a Backward Society">The Moral Basis of a Backward Society</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerato9_136-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerato9-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Luciano Cafagna (1926–2012), an economic historian, outlined some of the reasons why the thesis of northern Italy's economic development at the expense of southern Italy is unfounded.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerato5_146-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerato5-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Southern_question&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Expedition_of_the_Thousand" title="Expedition of the Thousand">Expedition of the Thousand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_economic_miracle" title="Italian economic miracle">Italian economic miracle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Italy" title="Southern Italy">Southern Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Bourbon-Two_Sicilies" title="House of Bourbon-Two Sicilies">House of Bourbon-Two Sicilies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-unification_Italian_brigandage" title="Post-unification Italian brigandage">Post-unification Italian brigandage</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Southern_question&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Francesco Barbagallo writes in <i>Mezzogiorno e questione meridionale (1860–1960)</i>: "The history of the southern question is the history of the South within the Italian state and of the reflection on the particular kind of relationship realized between the South and the state, between different economic structures and social classes. The southern question thus emerges at the time of unification as a problem of the South within the Italian state, as a particular form of southern expansion linked to the unitary model of capitalist development set in motion in the decades after 1860."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFRomano1945" class="citation book cs1">Romano, Salvatore Francesco (1945). <i>Storia della questione meridionale</i>. 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Eckaus, p. 363 e tabella 10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Denis Mack Smith, <i>Il Risorgimento italiano</i>, Laterza, 1999, p. 157.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarlo_Ciccarelli,_Stefano_Fenoaltea2010" class="citation journal cs1">Carlo Ciccarelli, Stefano Fenoaltea (July 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110125043653/http://www.bancaditalia.it/pubblicazioni/pubsto/quastoeco/quadsto_04/Quaderno_storia_economica_4.pdf">"Through the Magnifying Glass: Provincial Aspects of Industrial Growth in Post-Unification Italy"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Quaderni di Storia Economica</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bancaditalia.it/pubblicazioni/pubsto/quastoeco/quadsto_04/Quaderno_storia_economica_4.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 25 January 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Quaderni+di+Storia+Economica&rft.atitle=Through+the+Magnifying+Glass%3A+Provincial+Aspects+of+Industrial+Growth+in+Post-Unification+Italy&rft.date=2010-07&rft.au=Carlo+Ciccarelli%2C+Stefano+Fenoaltea&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bancaditalia.it%2Fpubblicazioni%2Fpubsto%2Fquastoeco%2Fquadsto_04%2FQuaderno_storia_economica_4.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouthern+question" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFenoaltea2007" class="citation journal cs1">Fenoaltea, Stefano (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111120004517/http://www.rivistapoliticaeconomica.it/2007/mar-apr/Fenoaltea.pdf">"I due fallimenti della storia economica: il periodo post-unitario"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Rivista di Politica Economica</i>. 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Official Catalogue of the Great Exhibition of the works of Industry of all nations - London 1851, p. 11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k6522892k/f472.image.texteImage"><i>Rapport sur l'Exposition universelle del Paris de 1855, pag. 460</i></a>, 1857</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rapport+sur+l%27Exposition+universelle+del+Paris+de+1855%2C+pag.+460&rft.date=1857&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgallica.bnf.fr%2Fark%3A%2F12148%2Fbpt6k6522892k%2Ff472.image.texteImage&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouthern+question" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mario Di Gianfrancesco, La rivoluzione dei trasporti in Italia nell'età risorgimentale, 1979, L'Aquila, pp. 151 ss.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Il Mezzogiorno e lo Stato Italiano, Giustino Fortunato, pp. 336-337.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGiovanni_Bursotti1845" class="citation book cs1">Giovanni Bursotti (1845). <i><span></span></i>Biblioteca di Commercio, Anno II, vol. 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L'Aquila: Japadre.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+rivoluzione+dei+trasporti+in+Italia+nell%27et%C3%A0+risorgimentale.+L%27unificazione+del+mercato+e+la+crisi+del+Mezzogiorno&rft.place=L%27Aquila&rft.pub=Japadre&rft.date=1979&rft.au=Mario+Di+Gianfrancesco&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouthern+question" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/lafinediunregnon01deceiala#page/164/mode/2up">"La fine di un Regno"</a>. Città di Castello, S. Lapi. 1900.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=La+fine+di+un+Regno&rft.pub=Citt%C3%A0+di+Castello%2C+S.+Lapi&rft.date=1900&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Flafinediunregnon01deceiala%23page%2F164%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouthern+question" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Annuario Statistico Italiano 1864, p. 696.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.miol.it/stagniweb/fs101.htm"><i>100 anni di storia delle FS - Parte 1</i></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=100+anni+di+storia+delle+FS+-+Parte+1&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.miol.it%2Fstagniweb%2Ffs101.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouthern+question" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.150anni.it/webi/index.php?s=37&wid=103"><i>La Scuola per i 150 anni dell'Unità d'Italia - Il problema del Mezzogiorno - Il divario di partenza</i></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+Scuola+per+i+150+anni+dell%27Unit%C3%A0+d%27Italia+-+Il+problema+del+Mezzogiorno+-+Il+divario+di+partenza&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.150anni.it%2Fwebi%2Findex.php%3Fs%3D37%26wid%3D103&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouthern+question" class="Z3988"></span> | Il problema del Mezzogiorno - Il divario di partenza.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZitara1971" class="citation book cs1">Zitara, Nicola (1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=z9IDV5NaxSMC&dq=monete+degli+antichi+Stati+Italiani&pg=PA36"><i>Nascita di una colonia</i></a>. Jaka Book. p. 36.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nascita+di+una+colonia&rft.pages=36&rft.pub=Jaka+Book&rft.date=1971&rft.aulast=Zitara&rft.aufirst=Nicola&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dz9IDV5NaxSMC%26dq%3Dmonete%2Bdegli%2Bantichi%2BStati%2BItaliani%26pg%3DPA36&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouthern+question" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Antonio Ghirelli, Storia di Napoli, <a href="/wiki/Giulio_Einaudi_Editore" class="mw-redirect" title="Giulio Einaudi Editore">Einaudi</a>, 1973 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGhirelli1992" class="citation cs2">Ghirelli, Antonio (1992), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8H1oAAAAMAAJ&q=443"><i>Storia di Napoli - Antonio Ghirelli - Google Libri</i></a>, Einaudi, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-06-12974-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-88-06-12974-3"><bdi>978-88-06-12974-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Storia+di+Napoli+-+Antonio+Ghirelli+-+Google+Libri&rft.pub=Einaudi&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-88-06-12974-3&rft.aulast=Ghirelli&rft.aufirst=Antonio&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8H1oAAAAMAAJ%26q%3D443&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouthern+question" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Annuario Statistico Italiano 1864, p. 88.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Annuario Statistico Italiano 1864, p. 88, tavola I.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Annuario Statistico Italiano 1864, p. 541.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ebiblio.istat.it/digibib/Annuario%20Statistico%20Italiano/ASI1864.pdf"><i>Annuario statistico Anno 1864, p. 541</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Annuario+statistico+Anno+1864%2C+p.+541&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Febiblio.istat.it%2Fdigibib%2FAnnuario%2520Statistico%2520Italiano%2FASI1864.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouthern+question" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The term <i>Kingdom of Sardinia</i> is referred to in the Statistical Yearbook 1864 as <i>Ancient Provinces</i> or <i>Provinces of the Old Kingdom.</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceB-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_56-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_56-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Annuario Statistico Italiano 1864, p. 478.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceC-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceC_57-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceC_57-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Annuario Statistico Italiano 1864, p. 582.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceD-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceD_58-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceD_58-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Annuario Statistico Italiano 1864, p. 698.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/ilmezzogiornoelo02fortuoft#page/336/mode/2up"><i>Giustino Fortunato, </i>IL MEZZOGIORNO E LO STATO ITALIANO - DISCORSI POLITICI (1880–1910)<i>, LATERZA & FIGLI, Bari, 1911, pagine 336-337</i></a>, Bari G. Laterza, 1911</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Giustino+Fortunato%2C+IL+MEZZOGIORNO+E+LO+STATO+ITALIANO+-+DISCORSI+POLITICI+%281880%E2%80%931910%29%2C+LATERZA+%26+FIGLI%2C+Bari%2C+1911%2C+pagine+336-337&rft.pub=Bari+G.+Laterza&rft.date=1911&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Filmezzogiornoelo02fortuoft%23page%2F336%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouthern+question" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlfonso_Scirocco1993" class="citation book cs1">Alfonso Scirocco (1993). <i><span></span></i>L'Italia del Risorgimento<i><span></span></i>. Bologna: Il Mulino.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=L%27Italia+del+Risorgimento&rft.place=Bologna&rft.pub=Il+Mulino&rft.date=1993&rft.au=Alfonso+Scirocco&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouthern+question" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ref_A-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ref_A_61-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ref_A_61-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Annuario Statistico Italiano 1864, p. 699.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGiovanni_Carano_Donvito1928" class="citation book cs1">Giovanni Carano Donvito (1928). <i><span></span></i>L'economia meridionale prima e dopo il Risorgimento<i><span></span></i>. Firenze: Vallecchi.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=L%27economia+meridionale+prima+e+dopo+il+Risorgimento&rft.place=Firenze&rft.pub=Vallecchi&rft.date=1928&rft.au=Giovanni+Carano+Donvito&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouthern+question" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceE-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceE_63-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceE_63-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Annuario Statistico Italiano 1864, p. 109.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Annuario Statistico Italiano 1864, p. 103.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceF-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceF_65-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceF_65-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Annuario Statistico Italiano 1864, p. 388.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(esclusa Mantova non annessa)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">L'unificazione italiana, sezione IV, L'Unificazione Economica, parte terza, p. 428.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVittorio_Daniele,_Paolo_Malanima2007" class="citation journal cs1">Vittorio Daniele, Paolo Malanima (March 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101214120941/http://www.paolomalanima.it/default_file/Articles/Daniele_%20Malanima.pdf">"Il prodotto delle regioni e il divario Nord-Sud in Italia (1861–2004)"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Rivista di Politica Economica</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.paolomalanima.it/default_file/Articles/Daniele_%20Malanima.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 14 December 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Una replica a Daniele e Malanima</i></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=E.+Felice%2C+Il+Mezzogiorno+fra+storia+e+pubblicistica.+Una+replica+a+Daniele+e+Malanima&rft.date=2014-05-07&rft.aulast=Felice&rft.aufirst=Emanuele&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F6982123&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouthern+question" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerato10-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerato10_70-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerato10_70-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerato10_70-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.150anni.it/webi/index.php?s=37&wid=103"><i>Il problema del Mezzogiorno - Il divario di partenza</i></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Il+problema+del+Mezzogiorno+-+Il+divario+di+partenza&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.150anni.it%2Fwebi%2Findex.php%3Fs%3D37%26wid%3D103&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouthern+question" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-win.svimez.info-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-win.svimez.info_71-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-win.svimez.info_71-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">LEPORE, La questione meridionale prima dell'intervento straordinario, prefazione di R. VILLARI, Amedeo Lepore, p. 20, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://win.svimez.info/cassa/materiali/4.%20Materiali%20sulla%20Cassa%20per%20il%20Mezzogiorno/b.%20Altri%20lavori/2012%20-%20Il%20divario%20Nord-Sud%20dalle%20origini%20ad%20oggi.pdf"><i>Il divario nord sud dalle origini ad oggi, Amedeo Lepore, pag. 351</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Il+divario+nord+sud+dalle+origini+ad+oggi%2C+Amedeo+Lepore%2C+pag.+351&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwin.svimez.info%2Fcassa%2Fmateriali%2F4.%2520Materiali%2520sulla%2520Cassa%2520per%2520il%2520Mezzogiorno%2Fb.%2520Altri%2520lavori%2F2012%2520-%2520Il%2520divario%2520Nord-Sud%2520dalle%2520origini%2520ad%2520oggi.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouthern+question" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ref_C-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ref_C_72-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ref_C_72-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">In ricchezza e in povertà, il benessere degli italiani dall'Unità a oggi, a cura di Vecchi. p. 221.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_73-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_73-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_73-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuilherme_de_Oliveira_e_Carmine_Guerriero" class="citation journal cs1">Guilherme de Oliveira e Carmine Guerriero. 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Simon & Schuster.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Making+Democracy+Work&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.au=Robert+Putnam%2C+Robert+Leonardi+e+Raffaella+Nanetti&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouthern+question" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_75-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_75-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">E. Felice, <i>Perché il Sud è rimasto indietro</i>, Bologna, Il Mulino, 2013.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerato11-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerato11_76-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerato11_76-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerato11_76-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/AntonioGramsciLaQuestioneMeridionale/Antonio%20Gramsci%20-%20La%20questione%20meridionale#page/n3/mode/2up"><i>La questione meridionale di Antonio Gramsci - Il Mezzogiorno e la guerra 1 – Progetto Manuzio - www.liberliber.it – tratto da: La questione meridionale, Antonio Gramsci; a cura di Franco De Felice e Valentino Parlato. - Roma: Editori Riuniti, 1966. - 159 p.; (Le Idee; 5)</i></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+questione+meridionale+di+Antonio+Gramsci+-+Il+Mezzogiorno+e+la+guerra+1+%E2%80%93+Progetto+Manuzio+-+www.liberliber.it+%E2%80%93+tratto+da%3A+La+questione+meridionale%2C+Antonio+Gramsci%3B+a+cura+di+Franco+De+Felice+e+Valentino+Parlato.+-+Roma%3A+Editori+Riuniti%2C+1966.+-+159+p.%3B+%28Le+Idee%3B+5%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2FAntonioGramsciLaQuestioneMeridionale%2FAntonio%2520Gramsci%2520-%2520La%2520questione%2520meridionale%23page%2Fn3%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouthern+question" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_77-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_77-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.liberliber.it/mediateca/libri/f/franchetti/la_sicilia_nel_1876/pdf/franchetti_la_sicilia_nel_1876.pdf"><i>Franchetti, Sonnino, "La Sicilia nel 1876"</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Franchetti%2C+Sonnino%2C+%22La+Sicilia+nel+1876%22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.liberliber.it%2Fmediateca%2Flibri%2Ff%2Ffranchetti%2Fla_sicilia_nel_1876%2Fpdf%2Ffranchetti_la_sicilia_nel_1876.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouthern+question" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaul_Krugman1981" class="citation journal cs1">Paul Krugman (1981). "Trade, Accumulation, and Uneven Development". <i>Journal of Development Economics</i>. <b>8</b> (<span class="nowrap">149–</span>161).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Development+Economics&rft.atitle=Trade%2C+Accumulation%2C+and+Uneven+Development&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E149%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E161&rft.date=1981&rft.au=Paul+Krugman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouthern+question" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuido_Pescosolido2014" class="citation book cs1">Guido Pescosolido (2014). <i>Unità Nazionale e Sviluppo Economico 1750-1913</i> (Edizioni Nuova Cultura ed.). Roma.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Unit%C3%A0+Nazionale+e+Sviluppo+Economico+1750-1913&rft.place=Roma&rft.edition=Edizioni+Nuova+Cultura&rft.date=2014&rft.au=Guido+Pescosolido&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouthern+question" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChristopher_Duggan2008" class="citation book cs1">Christopher Duggan (2008). <i>The Force of Destiny: A History of Italy since 1796</i> (Houghton Mifflin Company ed.). New York, NY.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Force+of+Destiny%3A+A+History+of+Italy+since+1796&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.edition=Houghton+Mifflin+Company&rft.date=2008&rft.au=Christopher+Duggan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouthern+question" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Annuario Statistico Italiano 1864, p. 230.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMack_Smith1997" class="citation book cs1">Mack Smith, Denis (1997). <i>Storia d'Italia dal 1861 al 1997</i>. Laterza.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Storia+d%27Italia+dal+1861+al+1997&rft.pub=Laterza&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Mack+Smith&rft.aufirst=Denis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouthern+question" class="Z3988"></span> [ISBN unspecified]</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bicentenario.provincia.napoli.it/poisle.html"><i>Bicentenario</i></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bicentenario&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbicentenario.provincia.napoli.it%2Fpoisle.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouthern+question" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMack_Smith1997" class="citation book cs1">Mack Smith, Denis (1997). <i>Storia d'Italia dal 1861 al 1997</i>. Laterza. p. 70.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Storia+d%27Italia+dal+1861+al+1997&rft.pages=70&rft.pub=Laterza&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Mack+Smith&rft.aufirst=Denis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouthern+question" class="Z3988"></span> [ISBN unspecified]</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://video.unipegaso.it/Scienze/LegislazioneScolastica/Maci/EvoluzSistScolastIta/Ipertesti/LeggeDaneo-Credarodel4giugno1911n.487.pdf">"Legge Daneo-Credaro"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Legge+Daneo-Credaro&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fvideo.unipegaso.it%2FScienze%2FLegislazioneScolastica%2FMaci%2FEvoluzSistScolastIta%2FIpertesti%2FLeggeDaneo-Credarodel4giugno1911n.487.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouthern+question" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">V. Bachelet, <i>Evoluzione del ruolo e delle strutture della pubblica amministrazione</i>, in AA. VV., <i>L'amministrazione in cammino. Una guida alla lettura degli scritti giuridici di Vittorio Bachelet</i>, Giuffrè, 1984, p. 44.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tommaso Pedio, <i>Reazione alla politica piemontese ed origine del brigantaggio in Basilicata (1860-61)</i>, Lavello, 1961.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tommaso Pedio, <i>Brigantaggio e questione meridionale</i>, Levante, Bari, 1982, p. 134.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tommaso Pedio, <i>Brigantaggio e questione meridionale</i>, Levante, Bari, 1982, p. 135.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gigi Di Fiore, <i>Controstoria dell'unità d'Italia</i>, BUR, 2010, p. 218.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.quirinale.it/elementi/Continua.aspx?tipo=Discorso&key=2123"><i>Discorso del Presidente Napolitano al Parlamento in occasione dell'apertura delle celebrazioni del 150º anniversario dell'Unità d'Italia</i></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Discorso+del+Presidente+Napolitano+al+Parlamento+in+occasione+dell%27apertura+delle+celebrazioni+del+150%C2%BA+anniversario+dell%27Unit%C3%A0+d%27Italia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.quirinale.it%2Felementi%2FContinua.aspx%3Ftipo%3DDiscorso%26key%3D2123&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouthern+question" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ref_B-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ref_B_92-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ref_B_92-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">The Tronto River roughly demarcated the border between the former Kingdom of Naples and the Papal States and commonly served as the border territory between northern and southern Italy.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">G. Rosoli (a cura di), <i>Un secolo di emigrazione italiana. 1876-1976</i>, Centro studi emigrazione, Roma, 1978.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Treccani - Lo sviluppo economico delle regioni: dalle tre Italie alle due Italie.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">E. Pugliese, <i>Emigrazione e trasformazioni sociali nel Mezzogiorno</i>, in <i>QA Rivista dell'Associazione Rossi-Doria</i>, Franco Angeli, n. 2, 2009.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cf Archivio centrale dello Stato, <i>L'inchiesta sulle condizioni sociali ed economiche della Sicilia. 1875-1876</i>, a cura di Salvatore Carbone e Renato Grispo, con introduzione di Leopoldo Sandri, 2 v., Bologna, Cappelli, 1968-1969.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alessandro Crisafulli, <i>Il sistema ferroviario siciliano e l'inchiesta Borsani-Bonfadini</i>, in <i>Ingegneria Ferroviaria</i>, 55 (2000), n. 7, p. 472.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.girodivite.it/Inchiesta-Franchetti-Sonnino.html"><i>Girodivite: Inchiesta Franchetti-Sonnino</i></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Girodivite%3A+Inchiesta+Franchetti-Sonnino&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.girodivite.it%2FInchiesta-Franchetti-Sonnino.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouthern+question" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Luigi Einaudi, Il buongoverno.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Quote from: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVillari1981" class="citation book cs1">Villari, Rosario (1981). <i>Il Sud nella Storia d'Italia</i>. Roma-Bari: Laterza. p. 520.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Il+Sud+nella+Storia+d%27Italia&rft.place=Roma-Bari&rft.pages=520&rft.pub=Laterza&rft.date=1981&rft.aulast=Villari&rft.aufirst=Rosario&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouthern+question" class="Z3988"></span> [ISBN unspecified]</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The data refer to the sum of those for Abruzzo and Molise, Campania, Apulia, Basilicata, Calabria, Sicily and Sardinia and were obtained from a table (no. 45) compiled by Albert Carreras, which is in: AA. VV., <i>Storia d'Italia</i>, Torino, Einaudi, 1999, ed. speciale il Sole 24 Ore, Milano, 2005, vol. 21 (<i>L'Industria</i>), p. 265.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">This decrease was due both to emigration and to the incorporation of Trentino-Alto Adige (1918), Venezia Giulia (1918), and some areas of Campania and Abruzzo (1927) into north-central Italy, only partially offset by the higher rate of natural population growth in the south compared to the rest of Italy.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Quote from: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDalla_Chiesa2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nando_dalla_Chiesa" title="Nando dalla Chiesa">Dalla Chiesa, Nando</a> (2010). <i>La Convergenza</i>. Melanpo.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+Convergenza&rft.pub=Melanpo&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Dalla+Chiesa&rft.aufirst=Nando&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouthern+question" class="Z3988"></span> [ISBN unspecified]</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.brocardi.it/costituzione/parte-ii/titolo-v/art119.html">"Art. 119 costituzione"</a>. <i>Brocardi.it</i> (in Italian)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-06-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Brocardi.it&rft.atitle=Art.+119+costituzione&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.brocardi.it%2Fcostituzione%2Fparte-ii%2Ftitolo-v%2Fart119.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouthern+question" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gazzettaufficiale.it/eli/id/1950/09/01/050U0646/sg">"Gazzetta Ufficiale"</a>. <i>www.gazzettaufficiale.it</i> (in Italian)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-06-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.gazzettaufficiale.it&rft.atitle=Gazzetta+Ufficiale&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gazzettaufficiale.it%2Feli%2Fid%2F1950%2F09%2F01%2F050U0646%2Fsg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouthern+question" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRomeo" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Romeo, Ilaria. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.collettiva.it/copertine/internazionale/uomini-carbone-lo-scambio-mortale-tra-italia-e-belgio-tyq0jnjs">"Uomini carbone: lo scambio mortale tra Italia e Belgio"</a>. <i>www.collettiva.it</i> (in Italian)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-06-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.collettiva.it&rft.atitle=Uomini+carbone%3A+lo+scambio+mortale+tra+Italia+e+Belgio&rft.aulast=Romeo&rft.aufirst=Ilaria&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.collettiva.it%2Fcopertine%2Finternazionale%2Fuomini-carbone-lo-scambio-mortale-tra-italia-e-belgio-tyq0jnjs&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouthern+question" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/summary/chapter/regional_policy.html?root_default=SUM_1_CODED=26&locale=en">"EU paper on regional policies"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=EU+paper+on+regional+policies&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Feur-lex.europa.eu%2Fsummary%2Fchapter%2Fregional_policy.html%3Froot_default%3DSUM_1_CODED%3D26%26locale%3Den&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouthern+question" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerato2-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerato2_108-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerato2_108-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101214120941/http://www.paolomalanima.it/default_file/Articles/Daniele_%20Malanima.pdf">"10 Daniele - Malanima"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.paolomalanima.it/default_file/Articles/Daniele_%20Malanima.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 14 December 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 December</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=10+Daniele+-+Malanima&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.paolomalanima.it%2Fdefault_file%2FArticles%2FDaniele_%2520Malanima.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouthern+question" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEurispes2020" class="citation web cs1">Eurispes (30 January 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eurispes.eu/news/eurispes-risultati-del-rapporto-italia-2020/">"Risultati del Rapporto Italia 2020"</a>. <i>eurispes.eu</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=eurispes.eu&rft.atitle=Risultati+del+Rapporto+Italia+2020&rft.date=2020-01-30&rft.au=Eurispes&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Feurispes.eu%2Fnews%2Feurispes-risultati-del-rapporto-italia-2020%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouthern+question" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerato4-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerato4_110-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerato4_110-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerato4_110-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dati.istat.it/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=DCCN_PILPRODT"><i><span></span></i>ISTAT - Prodotto interno lordo lato produzione<i><span></span></i></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=ISTAT+-+Prodotto+interno+lordo+lato+produzione&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdati.istat.it%2FIndex.aspx%3FDataSetCode%3DDCCN_PILPRODT&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouthern+question" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerato1-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-autogenerato1_111-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110125043653/http://www.bancaditalia.it/pubblicazioni/pubsto/quastoeco/quadsto_04/Quaderno_storia_economica_4.pdf">"Copia archiviata"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bancaditalia.it/pubblicazioni/pubsto/quastoeco/quadsto_04/Quaderno_storia_economica_4.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 25 January 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 December</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Copia+archiviata&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bancaditalia.it%2Fpubblicazioni%2Fpubsto%2Fquastoeco%2Fquadsto_04%2FQuaderno_storia_economica_4.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouthern+question" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marco Demarco, <i>L'altra metà della storia: spunti e riflessioni su Napoli da Lauro a Bassolino</i>. Guida Editori, 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerato12-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerato12_113-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerato12_113-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140901065718/http://www.go.camcom.it/allegati/pdf/statistica/valore-aggiunto.pdf">"<i>Unioncamere - Scenari di sviluppo delle economie locali italiane 2012</i>"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.go.camcom.it/allegati/pdf/statistica/valore-aggiunto.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 1 September 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 October</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Unioncamere+-+Scenari+di+sviluppo+delle+economie+locali+italiane+2012&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.go.camcom.it%2Fallegati%2Fpdf%2Fstatistica%2Fvalore-aggiunto.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouthern+question" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"That there is a Southern Question, in the economic and political sense of the word, is no longer in doubt. There is a great disparity between the north and the south of the peninsula in the field of human activities, in the intensity of collective life, in the extent and nature of production, and therefore, because of the intimate ties that exist between the welfare and the soul of a people, also a profound difference between the customs, traditions, intellectual and moral world." Giustino Fortunato</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">F.S. Nitti, Nord e Sud, Torino, 1900 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150608132610/http://www.bibliotecadigitalefondazionegramsci.org/index.php?option=com_flippingbook&view=book&id=3:opuscolo-171">"Copia archiviata"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bibliotecadigitalefondazionegramsci.org/index.php?option=com_flippingbook&view=book&id=3:opuscolo-171">the original</a> on 8 June 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 December</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Copia+archiviata&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bibliotecadigitalefondazionegramsci.org%2Findex.php%3Foption%3Dcom_flippingbook%26view%3Dbook%26id%3D3%3Aopuscolo-171&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouthern+question" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nicola Zitara, <i>L'Unità d'Italia: nascita di una colonia</i>, Milano, 1971, p. 37.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Egidio Sterpa, Anatomia della questione meridionale, pp. 152/161 (Francesco Saverio Nitti), Editrice Le Stelle, Milano, 1878.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Morya Longo, Il Sole 24 Ore, 17 marzo 2011.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Giacomo Savarese, Le finanze napoletane e le finanze piemontesi dal 1848 al 1860, Napoli, 1862.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCorriere_della_SeraPaolo_Mieli" class="citation web cs1">Corriere della Sera; Paolo Mieli. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.corriere.it/cultura/12_ottobre_02/mieli-napoli-italiana-opportunismo_70dca328-0c79-11e2-a61b-cf706c012f27.shtml">"Napoli divenne italiana solo per opportunismo"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Napoli+divenne+italiana+solo+per+opportunismo&rft.au=Corriere+della+Sera&rft.au=Paolo+Mieli&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.corriere.it%2Fcultura%2F12_ottobre_02%2Fmieli-napoli-italiana-opportunismo_70dca328-0c79-11e2-a61b-cf706c012f27.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouthern+question" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rosoli-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rosoli_121-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rosoli_121-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.emigrati.it/Emigrazione/Esodo.asp"><i>Fonte: Rielaborazione dati Istat in Gianfausto Rosoli, Un secolo di emigrazione italiana 1876-1976, Roma, Cser, 1978</i></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fonte%3A+Rielaborazione+dati+Istat+in+Gianfausto+Rosoli%2C+Un+secolo+di+emigrazione+italiana+1876-1976%2C+Roma%2C+Cser%2C+1978&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.emigrati.it%2FEmigrazione%2FEsodo.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouthern+question" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120120205333/http://www.rivistapoliticaeconomica.it/2007/mar-apr/">"Rivista di Politica Economica"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rivistapoliticaeconomica.it/2007/mar-apr/">the original</a> on 20 January 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 June</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Rivista+di+Politica+Economica&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rivistapoliticaeconomica.it%2F2007%2Fmar-apr%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouthern+question" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101009093210/http://www.bancaditalia.it/pubblicazioni/pubsto/quastoeco/quadsto_04"><i>Banca d'Italia - n. 4 - Attraverso la lente d'ingrandimento: aspetti provinciali della crescita industriale nell'Italia postunitaria</i></a>, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bancaditalia.it/pubblicazioni/pubsto/quastoeco/quadsto_04">the original</a> on October 9, 2010</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Banca+d%27Italia+-+n.+4+-+Attraverso+la+lente+d%27ingrandimento%3A+aspetti+provinciali+della+crescita+industriale+nell%27Italia+postunitaria&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bancaditalia.it%2Fpubblicazioni%2Fpubsto%2Fquastoeco%2Fquadsto_04&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouthern+question" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFelice2014" class="citation cs2">Felice, Emanuele (7 May 2014), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/6982123"><i>E._Felice - Il Mezzogiorno fra storia e pubblicistica. Una replica a Daniele e Malanima</i></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=E._Felice+-+Il+Mezzogiorno+fra+storia+e+pubblicistica.+Una+replica+a+Daniele+e+Malanima&rft.date=2014-05-07&rft.aulast=Felice&rft.aufirst=Emanuele&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F6982123&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouthern+question" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Massimo Viglione, Francesco Mario Agnoli, <i>La rivoluzione italiana: storia critica del Risorgimento</i>, Roma, 2001, p. 98.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dato-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-dato_126-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dato_126-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">The data for the north-center are obtained by aggregating the data for the regions of Piedmont, Lombardy, Veneto, Friuli-Venezia Giulia, Liguria, Emilia, Tuscany, Umbria and Marche; the data for the south-center are obtained by aggregating the data for the regions of Lazio, Campania, Abruzzo, Molise, Puglia, Basilicata, Calabria and Sicily.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Giustino_Fortunato" title="Giustino Fortunato">Giustino Fortunato</a>, <i>Il Mezzogiorno e lo stato italiano; discorsi politici (1880–1910)</i>, vol. 2, Laterza, 1911, p. 329.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Emilio_Sereni" title="Emilio Sereni">Emilio Sereni</a>, <i>Il capitalismo nelle campagne (1860–1900)</i>, Einaudi, 1947, p. 37.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Emilio_Sereni" title="Emilio Sereni">Emilio Sereni</a>, <i>Il capitalismo nelle campagne (1860–1900)</i>, Einaudi, 1947, p. 38.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Emilio_Sereni" title="Emilio Sereni">Emilio Sereni</a>, <i>Il capitalismo nelle campagne (1860–1900)</i>, Einaudi, 1947, p. 122.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Emilio_Sereni" title="Emilio Sereni">Emilio Sereni</a>, <i>Il capitalismo nelle campagne (1860–1900)</i>, Einaudi, 1947, p. 121.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Emilio_Sereni" title="Emilio Sereni">Emilio Sereni</a>, <i>Il capitalismo nelle campagne (1860–1900)</i>, Einaudi, 1947.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(da L'Unificazione Italiana – Treccani – volume pubblicato con il contributo di Aspen Italia – Sez IV - pag. 420 - 421)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.150anni.it/webi/index.php?s=37&wid=103"><i>La Scuola per i 150 anni dell'Unità d'Italia - Il problema del Mezzogiorno - Il divario di partenza</i></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+Scuola+per+i+150+anni+dell%27Unit%C3%A0+d%27Italia+-+Il+problema+del+Mezzogiorno+-+Il+divario+di+partenza&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.150anni.it%2Fwebi%2Findex.php%3Fs%3D37%26wid%3D103&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouthern+question" class="Z3988"></span>. Carlo Afan de Rivera, <i>Considerazioni su i mezzi da restituire il valore proprio ai doni che la natura ha largamente conceduto al Regno delle Due Sicilie</i>, Napoli 18332 II, pp. 35-38, 40-45, 52-55 - riprodotto in D. Mack Smith, <i>"Il risorgimento italiano. Storia e testi"</i>, Bari, Laterza, 1968, pp. 152-155.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">P. 5, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/AntonioGramsciLaQuestioneMeridionale/Antonio%20Gramsci%20-%20La%20questione%20meridionale#page/n3/mode/2up"><i>La questione meridionale di Antonio Gramsci - Il Mezzogiorno e la guerra 1 – Progetto Manuzio - www.liberliber.it – tratto da: La questione meridionale, Antonio Gramsci; a cura di Franco De Felice e Valentino Parlato. - Roma: Editori Riuniti, 1966. - 159 p.; (Le Idee; 5)</i></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+questione+meridionale+di+Antonio+Gramsci+-+Il+Mezzogiorno+e+la+guerra+1+%E2%80%93+Progetto+Manuzio+-+www.liberliber.it+%E2%80%93+tratto+da%3A+La+questione+meridionale%2C+Antonio+Gramsci%3B+a+cura+di+Franco+De+Felice+e+Valentino+Parlato.+-+Roma%3A+Editori+Riuniti%2C+1966.+-+159+p.%3B+%28Le+Idee%3B+5%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2FAntonioGramsciLaQuestioneMeridionale%2FAntonio%2520Gramsci%2520-%2520La%2520questione%2520meridionale%23page%2Fn3%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouthern+question" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerato9-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerato9_136-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerato9_136-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBanfield1967" class="citation book cs1">Banfield, Edward C. (1967). <i>The moral basis of a backward society</i>. Simon & Schuster. pp. <span class="nowrap">17–</span>18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+moral+basis+of+a+backward+society&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E17-%3C%2Fspan%3E18&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=1967&rft.aulast=Banfield&rft.aufirst=Edward+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouthern+question" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerato8-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-autogenerato8_137-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPutnam1993" class="citation book cs1">Putnam, Robert D. (1993). <i><span></span></i> La tradizione civica nelle regioni italiane<i><span></span></i>. Mondadori.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=+La+tradizione+civica+nelle+regioni+italiane&rft.pub=Mondadori&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=Putnam&rft.aufirst=Robert+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouthern+question" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFC.D.S.C2016" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">C.D.S.C (2016-09-26). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cdsconlus.it/index.php/2016/09/26/le-commissioni-di-inchiesta-sul-brigantaggio-post-unitario/">"Le commissioni di inchiesta sul brigantaggio post-unitario"</a>. <i>www.cdsconlus.it</i> (in Italian)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-06-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.cdsconlus.it&rft.atitle=Le+commissioni+di+inchiesta+sul+brigantaggio+post-unitario&rft.date=2016-09-26&rft.au=C.D.S.C&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdsconlus.it%2Findex.php%2F2016%2F09%2F26%2Fle-commissioni-di-inchiesta-sul-brigantaggio-post-unitario%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouthern+question" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.animi.it/pdf/Leopoldo%20Franchetti%20di%20Guido%20Pescosolido.pdf">"Comitato Nazionale per il Centenario della morte di Leopoldo Franchetti"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Comitato+Nazionale+per+il+Centenario+della+morte+di+Leopoldo+Franchetti&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.animi.it%2Fpdf%2FLeopoldo%2520Franchetti%2520di%2520Guido%2520Pescosolido.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouthern+question" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Fortunato was very pessimistic about the ability of the southerners to pull themselves out of the abyss into which they had been plunged by hostile nature and the misfortunes of their history...". These words are taken from the writings of Gaetano Salvemini and quoted from: Antonio Gramsci, Quaderno 19, Risorgimento Italiano, Turin, Einaudi, 1977 (with introduction and notes by Corrado Vivanti), p. 175 (note).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Antonio Gramsci, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 175 (nota).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"The Bourbons of Naples can be judged as follows: they were sluggish, they did not feel the new times, they never had a high vision, they were often wrong, they often sinned; always from timidity, perhaps never from ferocity. They were not unlike most of the princes of the peninsula, including the Pope. But whatever one may think of them, it cannot be denied that their administration was often excellent, that their finances were good and generally honest". <a href="/wiki/Francesco_Saverio_Nitti" title="Francesco Saverio Nitti">Francesco Saverio Nitti</a>, <i>Nord e Sud</i>, Casa Editrice Nazionale Roux Roux e Viarengo, 1900, p. 31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Salvemini wrote of the petty bourgeoisie of the South: "[...] go one summer afternoon to one of those civic circles where the elite of the country's armchair society is gathered; listen for a few hours to the conversation of these stout people, dull-eyed, hoarse-voiced, coarse and vulgar in word and deed, and note the nonsense, the unreality with which their speeches are filled...". Quoted from <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSalvemini1955" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gaetano_Salvemini" title="Gaetano Salvemini">Salvemini, Gaetano</a> (1955). <i>Scritti sulla Questione Meridionale, 1896-1955</i>. Torino: Einaudi. p. 415.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Scritti+sulla+Questione+Meridionale%2C+1896-1955&rft.place=Torino&rft.pages=415&rft.pub=Einaudi&rft.date=1955&rft.aulast=Salvemini&rft.aufirst=Gaetano&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouthern+question" class="Z3988"></span> [ISBN unspecified]</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Quoted from <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSalvemini1963" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gaetano_Salvemini" title="Gaetano Salvemini">Salvemini, Gaetano</a> (1963). <i>Movimento socialista e questione meridionale IV</i>. Milano: Feltrinelli. p. 647.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Movimento+socialista+e+questione+meridionale+IV&rft.place=Milano&rft.pages=647&rft.pub=Feltrinelli&rft.date=1963&rft.aulast=Salvemini&rft.aufirst=Gaetano&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouthern+question" class="Z3988"></span> [ISBN unspecified]</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tarascio Giacomo, <i>Gramsci e la Questione meridionale : genesi, edizioni e interpretazioni</i>, Franco Angeli, Historia Magistra : rivista di storia critica : 9, 2, 2012.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerato5-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-autogenerato5_146-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.150anni.it/webi/_file/documenti/risorgimento/italiaprimaedopounita/problemamezzogiorno/DivarioPartenza/Divpartenzadoc3.pdf"><i>Luciano Cafagna, Dualismo e sviluppo nella storia d'Italia, Venezia, Marsilio, 1989, pp. 190-193, 206-212.</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Luciano+Cafagna%2C+Dualismo+e+sviluppo+nella+storia+d%27Italia%2C+Venezia%2C+Marsilio%2C+1989%2C+pp.+190-193%2C+206-212.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.150anni.it%2Fwebi%2F_file%2Fdocumenti%2Frisorgimento%2Fitaliaprimaedopounita%2Fproblemamezzogiorno%2FDivarioPartenza%2FDivpartenzadoc3.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouthern+question" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Southern_question&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ebiblio.istat.it/digibib/Annuario%20Statistico%20Italiano/ASI1864.pdf"><i>Annuario statistico italiano - Anno 1864</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Annuario+statistico+italiano+-+Anno+1864&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Febiblio.istat.it%2Fdigibib%2FAnnuario%2520Statistico%2520Italiano%2FASI1864.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouthern+question" class="Z3988"></span>, a cura di Cesare Correnti e Pietro Maestri, Tipografia Letteraria, Torino, 1864</li> <li>Carlo Alianello, <i>La conquista del Sud</i>, Milano, Rusconi, 1972.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdward_C._Banfield1976" class="citation book cs1">Edward C. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 February</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Fondazioneperilsud&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fondazioneperilsud.it%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouthern+question" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.150anni.it/webi/index.php?s=37&wid=103">"La scuola per i 150 anni - Il problema del Mezzogiorno - Il divario di partenza"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=La+scuola+per+i+150+anni+-+Il+problema+del+Mezzogiorno+-+Il+divario+di+partenza&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.150anni.it%2Fwebi%2Findex.php%3Fs%3D37%26wid%3D103&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouthern+question" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Economy_of_Italy" title="Template:Economy of Italy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Economy_of_Italy" title="Template talk:Economy of Italy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Economy_of_Italy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Economy of Italy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Italy&#124;link=Italy_Economy_of_Italy752" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy"><img alt="Italy" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/23px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/35px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/45px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Italy" title="Economy of Italy">Economy of Italy</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Companies_of_Italy" title="Category:Companies of Italy">Companies of Italy</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_coins_in_Italy" title="History of coins in Italy">Currency and coinage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Italy" title="Economic history of Italy">Economic history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_pre-unitarian_Italy" title="Economic history of pre-unitarian Italy">Economic history of pre-unitarian Italy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Italian_regions_by_GDP" title="List of Italian regions by GDP">Regions by GDP</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="10" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/32px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/48px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/64px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Italy" title="Portal:Italy">Italy portal</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Industry_in_Italy" title="Category:Industry in Italy">Industry and business</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence_industry_in_Italy" title="Artificial intelligence industry in Italy">Artificial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_Italy" title="List of companies of Italy">Companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Italy" title="Agriculture in Italy">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_Italy" title="Automotive industry in Italy">Automotive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_(company)" title="Leonardo (company)">Aircraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avio" title="Avio">Aerospace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eni" title="Eni">Chemical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coffee_in_Italy" title="Coffee in Italy">Coffee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Webuild" title="Webuild">Construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_(company)" title="Leonardo (company)">Defence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Italy" title="Education in Italy">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/STMicroelectronics" title="STMicroelectronics">Electronics and semiconductor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Italy" title="Cinema of Italy">Entertainment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Italy" title="Geography of Italy">Forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gambling_in_Italy" title="Gambling in Italy">Gambling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_Italy" title="Healthcare in Italy">Healthcare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_fashion" title="Italian fashion">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Made_in_Italy" title="Made in Italy">Made in Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exports_of_Italy" title="List of exports of Italy">Exports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_in_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Media in Italy">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Italy" title="Cinema of Italy">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Italy" title="Telecommunications in Italy">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_Italy" title="Television in Italy">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Italy" title="Tourism in Italy">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_estate_in_Italy" title="Real estate in Italy">Luxury Real Estate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carrara_marble" title="Carrara marble">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steel_industry_in_Italy" title="Steel industry in Italy">Steel industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fincantieri" title="Fincantieri">Shipbuilding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menarini" title="Menarini">Pharmaceuticals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Italy" title="Science and technology in Italy">Science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology_industry_in_Italy" title="Biotechnology industry in Italy">Biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robotics_in_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Robotics in Italy">Robotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beer_in_Italy" title="Beer in Italy">Beer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wine_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Wine of Italy">Wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_gaming_in_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Video gaming in Italy">Video gaming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Research_institutes_in_Italy" title="Category:Research institutes in Italy">Research</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/CINECA" title="CINECA">CINECA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ELETTRA" title="ELETTRA">ELETTRA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ENEA_(Italy)" title="ENEA (Italy)">ENEA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Space_Agency" title="Italian Space Agency">Italian Space Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erzelli_Hi-Tech_Park" class="mw-redirect" title="Erzelli Hi-Tech Park">Erzelli Hi-Tech Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Istituto_Italiano_di_Tecnologia" title="Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia">Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia</a> (IIT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Istituto_Italiano_per_l%27Intelligenza_Artificiale" class="mw-redirect" title="Istituto Italiano per l'Intelligenza Artificiale">Istituto Italiano per l'Intelligenza Artificiale</a> (AI4I)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milan_Innovation_District" title="Milan Innovation District">Milan Innovation District</a> (MIND)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Energy_in_Italy" title="Category:Energy in Italy">Energy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Italy" title="Renewable energy in Italy">Renewable</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wind_power_in_Italy" title="Wind power in Italy">Wind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Italy" title="Solar power in Italy">Solar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power_in_Italy" title="Geothermal power in Italy">Geothermal</a></li></ul></li> <li>Oil <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_oil_refineries#Italy" title="List of oil refineries">Oil refineries</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Trade and <a href="/wiki/Category:Infrastructure" title="Category:Infrastructure">Infrastructure</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Italy" title="Transport in Italy">Transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Italy" title="Telecommunications in Italy">Communications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Italy" title="Tourism in Italy">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_the_largest_trading_partners_of_Italy" title="List of the largest trading partners of Italy">Trading partners</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Taxation_in_Italy" title="Category:Taxation in Italy">Taxation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Italy" title="Taxation in Italy">Tax system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_trade_unions_in_Italy" title="List of trade unions in Italy">Trade unions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Finance_in_Italy" title="Category:Finance in Italy">Finance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Category:Banking_in_Italy" title="Category:Banking in Italy">banking</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_Italy" title="Banking in Italy">Banking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bank_of_Italy" title="Bank of Italy">Central Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_banks_in_Italy" title="List of banks in Italy">Other banks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assicurazioni_Generali" title="Assicurazioni Generali">Insurance</a></li> <li>Stock Exchange <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Borsa_Italiana" title="Borsa Italiana">Borsa Italiana</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Development</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_rankings_of_Italy" title="International rankings of Italy">International rankings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Italy" title="Science and technology in Italy">Science and technology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2006_Winter_Olympics" title="2006 Winter Olympics">2006 Winter Olympics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2026_Winter_Olympics" title="2026 Winter Olympics">2026 Winter Olympics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bologna_Motor_Show" title="Bologna Motor Show">Bologna Motor Show</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turin_Auto_Show" title="Turin Auto Show">Turin Auto Show</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milano_Monza_Open-Air_Motor_Show" title="Milano Monza Open-Air Motor Show">Milano Monza Open-Air Motor Show</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venice_Biennale" title="Venice Biennale">Venice Biennale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concorso_d%27Eleganza_Villa_d%27Este" title="Concorso d'Eleganza Villa d'Este">Concorso d'Eleganza Villa d'Este</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EICMA" title="EICMA">EICMA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expo_2015" title="Expo 2015">Expo 2015</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euroflora" title="Euroflora">Euroflora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fieracavalli" title="Fieracavalli">Fieracavalli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genoa_International_Boat_Show" title="Genoa International Boat Show">Genoa International Boat Show</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arsenale_di_Venezia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arsenale di Venezia">Venice Boat Show</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucca_Comics_%26_Games" title="Lucca Comics & Games">Lucca Comics & Games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terra_Madre_Salone_del_Gusto" title="Terra Madre Salone del Gusto">Terra Madre Salone del Gusto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Padua" title="Padua">Auto Moto d'Epoca Padova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milan" title="Milan">Milano AutoClassica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milan_Furniture_Fair" class="mw-redirect" title="Milan Furniture Fair">Milan Furniture Fair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milan_Fashion_Week" title="Milan Fashion Week">Milan Fashion Week</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palio_di_Siena" title="Palio di Siena">Palio di Siena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riviera_International_Film_Festival" title="Riviera International Film Festival">Riviera International Film Festival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rome_Film_Festival" title="Rome Film Festival">Rome Film Festival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venice_Film_Festival" title="Venice Film Festival">Venice Film Festival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vinitaly" title="Vinitaly">Vinitaly</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Sounding" title="Italian Sounding">Italian Sounding</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Southern question</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><i><b>See also:</b></i> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Economy_of_Italy" title="Category:Economy of Italy">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Europe" title="Economy of Europe">Economy of Europe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Unification_of_Italy_(Risorgimento)241" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Risorgimento" title="Template:Risorgimento"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Risorgimento" title="Template talk:Risorgimento"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Risorgimento" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Risorgimento"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Unification_of_Italy_(Risorgimento)241" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Italy" title="Unification of Italy">Unification of Italy (<i>Risorgimento</i>)</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_historic_states_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="List of historic states of Italy">Pre-unitary states</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sardinia_(1720%E2%80%931861)" title="Kingdom of Sardinia (1720–1861)">Kingdom of Sardinia</a> (<a href="/wiki/House_of_Savoy" title="House of Savoy">House of Savoy</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Two_Sicilies" title="Kingdom of the Two Sicilies">Kingdom of the Two Sicilies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Lombardy%E2%80%93Venetia" title="Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia">Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Parma" class="mw-redirect" title="Duchy of Parma">Duchy of Parma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Modena_and_Reggio" title="Duchy of Modena and Reggio">Duchy of Modena and Reggio</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="9" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Episodio_delle_cinque_giornate_(Baldassare_Verazzi).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Five Days of Milan"><img alt="Five Days of Milan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Episodio_delle_cinque_giornate_%28Baldassare_Verazzi%29.jpg/150px-Episodio_delle_cinque_giornate_%28Baldassare_Verazzi%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="214" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Episodio_delle_cinque_giornate_%28Baldassare_Verazzi%29.jpg/225px-Episodio_delle_cinque_giornate_%28Baldassare_Verazzi%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Episodio_delle_cinque_giornate_%28Baldassare_Verazzi%29.jpg/300px-Episodio_delle_cinque_giornate_%28Baldassare_Verazzi%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1810" data-file-height="2583" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Italian_unification" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of Italian unification">Timeline</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rimini_Proclamation" title="Rimini Proclamation">Rimini Proclamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbonari" title="Carbonari">Carbonari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_during_the_1820s" title="Revolutions during the 1820s">Revolutions during the 1820s</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1830" title="Revolutions of 1830">Revolutions of 1830</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Young_Italy_(historical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Young Italy (historical)">Young Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Guelphism" title="Neo-Guelphism">Neo-Guelphism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Revolutions of 1848</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848_in_the_Italian_states" title="Revolutions of 1848 in the Italian states">Revolutions of 1848 in the Italian states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_San_Marco" title="Republic of San Marco">Republic of San Marco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic_(19th_century)" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Republic (19th century)">Roman Republic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadrilatero" title="Quadrilatero">Quadrilatero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Italian_War_of_Independence" title="First Italian War of Independence">First Italian War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Days_of_Milan" title="Five Days of Milan">Five Days of Milan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mestre" title="Battle of Mestre">Sortie on Mestre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sicilian_revolution_of_1848" title="Sicilian revolution of 1848">Sicilian revolution of 1848</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ten_Days_of_Brescia" title="Ten Days of Brescia">Ten Days of Brescia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belfiore_martyrs" title="Belfiore martyrs">Belfiore martyrs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_War#Piedmontese_involvement" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plombi%C3%A8res_Agreement" title="Plombières Agreement">Plombières Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Italian_War_of_Independence" title="Second Italian War of Independence">Second Italian War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Provinces_of_Central_Italy" title="United Provinces of Central Italy">United Provinces of Central Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expedition_of_the_Thousand" title="Expedition of the Thousand">Expedition of the Thousand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictatorship_of_Garibaldi" class="mw-redirect" title="Dictatorship of Garibaldi">Dictatorship of Garibaldi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy">Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brigandage_in_Southern_Italy_after_1861" class="mw-redirect" title="Brigandage in Southern Italy after 1861">Brigandage in Southern Italy after 1861</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Question" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Question">Roman Question</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Italian_War_of_Independence" title="Third Italian War of Independence">Third Italian War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Rome" title="Capture of Rome">Capture of Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Guarantees" title="Law of Guarantees">Law of Guarantees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_entry_into_World_War_I" title="Italian entry into World War I">Italian entry into World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Regency_of_Carnaro" title="Italian Regency of Carnaro">Impresa di Fiume</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Symbols</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cockade_of_Italy" title="Cockade of Italy">Cockade of Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Italy" title="Flag of Italy">Flag of Italy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Main leaders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Massimo_d%27Azeglio" title="Massimo d'Azeglio">Massimo d'Azeglio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agostino_Bertani" title="Agostino Bertani">Agostino Bertani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camillo_Benso,_Count_of_Cavour" title="Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour">Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celso_Ceretti" title="Celso Ceretti">Celso Ceretti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federico_Confalonieri" title="Federico Confalonieri">Federico Confalonieri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Crispi" title="Francesco Crispi">Francesco Crispi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Garibaldi" title="Giuseppe Garibaldi">Giuseppe Garibaldi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniele_Manin" title="Daniele Manin">Daniele Manin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Giuseppe Mazzini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bettino_Ricasoli" title="Bettino Ricasoli">Bettino Ricasoli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurelio_Saffi" title="Aurelio Saffi">Aurelio Saffi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annibale_Santorre_di_Rossi_de_Pomarolo,_Count_of_Santarosa" title="Annibale Santorre di Rossi de Pomarolo, Count of Santarosa">Annibale Santore di Santarosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruggero_Settimo" title="Ruggero Settimo">Ruggero Settimo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_Emmanuel_II" title="Victor Emmanuel II">Victor Emmanuel II</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Literature and philosophy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Arrivabene" title="Giovanni Arrivabene">Giovanni Arrivabene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Balbo" title="Cesare Balbo">Cesare Balbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giosu%C3%A8_Carducci" title="Giosuè Carducci">Giosuè Carducci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carlo_Cattaneo" title="Carlo Cattaneo">Carlo Cattaneo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felice_Cavallotti" title="Felice Cavallotti">Felice Cavallotti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vincenzo_Cuoco" title="Vincenzo Cuoco">Vincenzo Cuoco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Ferrari_(philosopher)" title="Giuseppe Ferrari (philosopher)">Giuseppe Ferrari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugo_Foscolo" title="Ugo Foscolo">Ugo Foscolo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vincenzo_Gioberti" title="Vincenzo Gioberti">Vincenzo Gioberti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Domenico_Guerrazzi" title="Francesco Domenico Guerrazzi">Francesco Domenico Guerrazzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giacomo_Leopardi" title="Giacomo Leopardi">Giacomo Leopardi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Lomonaco" title="Francesco Lomonaco">Francesco Lomonaco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goffredo_Mameli" title="Goffredo Mameli">Goffredo Mameli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Manzoni" title="Alessandro Manzoni">Alessandro Manzoni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ippolito_Nievo" title="Ippolito Nievo">Ippolito Nievo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silvio_Pellico" title="Silvio Pellico">Silvio Pellico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carlo_Pisacane" title="Carlo Pisacane">Carlo Pisacane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gian_Domenico_Romagnosi" title="Gian Domenico Romagnosi">Gian Domenico Romagnosi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Rosmini" title="Antonio Rosmini">Antonio Rosmini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Saverio_Salfi" title="Francesco Saverio Salfi">Francesco Saverio Salfi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Opponents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_IX" title="Pope Pius IX">Pope Pius IX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Joseph_I_of_Austria" title="Franz Joseph I of Austria">Franz Joseph I of Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_II_of_the_Two_Sicilies" title="Francis II of the Two Sicilies">Francis II of the Two Sicilies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klemens_von_Metternich" title="Klemens von Metternich">Klemens von Metternich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Radetzky_von_Radetz" title="Joseph Radetzky von Radetz">Joseph Radetzky von Radetz</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Museums</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_the_Risorgimento,_Bologna" title="Museum of the Risorgimento, Bologna">Museum of the Risorgimento (Bologna)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_the_Risorgimento_(Milan)" title="Museum of the Risorgimento (Milan)">Museum of the Risorgimento (Milan)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_the_Risorgimento_(Rome)" class="mw-redirect" title="Museum of the Risorgimento (Rome)">Museum of the Risorgimento (Rome)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_the_Risorgimento_(Turin)" title="Museum of the Risorgimento (Turin)">Museum of the Risorgimento (Turin)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tricolour_Flag_Museum" title="Tricolour Flag Museum">Tricolour Flag Museum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National days</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anniversary_of_the_Unification_of_Italy" title="Anniversary of the Unification of Italy">Anniversary of the Unification of Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Unity_and_Armed_Forces_Day" title="National Unity and Armed Forces Day">National Unity and Armed Forces Day</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Altare_della_Patria" class="mw-redirect" title="Altare della Patria">Altare della Patria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_irredentism" title="Italian irredentism">Italian irredentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_nationalism" title="Italian nationalism">Italian nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redshirts_(Italy)" title="Redshirts (Italy)">Redshirts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revisionism_of_Risorgimento" title="Revisionism of Risorgimento">Revisionism of Risorgimento</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Southern question</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Rome">Third Rome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Italy_articles419" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Italy_topics" title="Template:Italy topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Italy_topics" title="Template talk:Italy topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Italy_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Italy topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Italy_articles419" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Italy" title="Outline of Italy">articles</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Italy" title="History of Italy">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Italian_history" title="Timeline of Italian history">Timeline of Italian history</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By topic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Italian_citizenship" title="History of Italian citizenship">Citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_coins_in_Italy" title="History of coins in Italy">Currency and coinage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Italy" title="Economic history of Italy">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Italian_fashion" title="History of Italian fashion">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Italian_flags" title="List of Italian flags">Flags</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Italy" title="Genetic history of Italy">Genetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_historic_states_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="List of historic states of Italy">Historic states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Italy" title="History of the Jews in Italy">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_history_in_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT history in Italy">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Italy" title="Military history of Italy">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_history_of_Italy" title="Music history of Italy">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Name_of_Italy" title="Name of Italy">Name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_Italy" title="Postage stamps and postal history of Italy">Postage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_rail_transport_in_Italy" title="History of rail transport in Italy">Railways</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Prehistory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Italy" title="Prehistoric Italy">Prehistory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Italy" title="Neolithic Italy">Neolithic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Villanovan_culture" title="Villanovan culture">Villanovan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terramare_culture" title="Terramare culture">Terramare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rinaldone_culture" title="Rinaldone culture">Rinaldone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apennine_culture" title="Apennine culture">Apennine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuragic_civilization" title="Nuragic civilization">Nuragic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golasecca_culture" title="Golasecca culture">Golasecca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canegrate_culture" title="Canegrate culture">Canegrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latial_culture" title="Latial culture">Latial</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Ancient</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_peoples_of_Italy" title="List of ancient peoples of Italy">Ancient peoples</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italic_peoples" title="Italic peoples">Italic peoples</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latins_(Italic_tribe)" title="Latins (Italic tribe)">Latins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osci" title="Osci">Osci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picentes" title="Picentes">Picentes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samnites" title="Samnites">Samnites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbri" title="Umbri">Umbri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adriatic_Veneti" title="Adriatic Veneti">Veneti</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_civilization" title="Etruscan civilization">Etruscans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cisalpine_Gaul" title="Cisalpine Gaul">Celts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magna_Graecia" title="Magna Graecia">Magna Graecia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ligures" title="Ligures">Ligures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Messapians" title="Messapians">Messapians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" title="Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_expansion_in_Italy" title="Roman expansion in Italy">Roman conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Italy" title="Roman Italy">Roman Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Empire</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Middle Ages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italy_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Italy in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> <ul><li>Italy under <a href="/wiki/Odoacer#King_of_Italy" title="Odoacer">Odoacer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostrogothic_Kingdom" title="Ostrogothic Kingdom">Ostrogoths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Italy" title="Byzantine Italy">Byzantium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Lombards" title="Kingdom of the Lombards">Lombards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy_(Holy_Roman_Empire)" title="Kingdom of Italy (Holy Roman Empire)">the Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sardinian_medieval_kingdoms" title="Sardinian medieval kingdoms">the Sardinian Judicates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam_in_southern_Italy" title="History of Islam in southern Italy">Arabs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_conquest_of_southern_Italy" title="Norman conquest of southern Italy">Normans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guelphs_and_Ghibellines" title="Guelphs and Ghibellines">Guelphs and Ghibellines</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lombard_League" title="Lombard League">Lombard League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sicily" title="Kingdom of Sicily">Kingdom of Sicily</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Sicilian_Vespers" title="War of the Sicilian Vespers">War of the Sicilian Vespers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Naples" title="Kingdom of Naples">Kingdom of Naples</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Early modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_city-states" title="Italian city-states">Italian city-states</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Siena" title="Republic of Siena">Siena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Milan" title="Duchy of Milan">Milan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_republics" title="Maritime republics">Maritime republics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Pisa" title="Republic of Pisa">Pisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Amalfi" title="Duchy of Amalfi">Amalfi</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sardinia_(1720%E2%80%931861)" title="Kingdom of Sardinia (1720–1861)">Kingdom of Sardinia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Savoy" title="Duchy of Savoy">Duchy of Savoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Renaissance" title="Italian Renaissance">Renaissance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Wars" title="Italian Wars">Italian Wars</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_early_modern_Italy" title="History of early modern Italy">Early Modern period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy_(Napoleonic)" title="Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic)">Napoleonic Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Lombardy%E2%80%93Venetia" title="Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia">Austrian occupation and Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Two_Sicilies" title="Kingdom of the Two Sicilies">Kingdom of the Two Sicilies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Late modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Italy" title="Unification of Italy">Unification</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Italian_War_of_Independence" title="First Italian War of Independence">First War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Italian_War_of_Independence" title="Second Italian War of Independence">Second War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ni%C3%A7ard_exodus" title="Niçard exodus">Niçard exodus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expedition_of_the_Thousand" title="Expedition of the Thousand">Expedition of the Thousand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy">Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Italian_War_of_Independence" title="Third Italian War of Independence">Third War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Rome" title="Capture of Rome">Capture of Rome</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1861%E2%80%931946)" title="History of the Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)">Monarchy and the World Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Kingdom of Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Empire" title="Italian Empire">Colonial Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Italy_during_World_War_I" title="Military history of Italy during World War I">World War I</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_entry_into_World_War_I" title="Italian entry into World War I">Fourth War of Independence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascist_Italy" title="Fascist Italy">Fascist Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Italy_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Italy during World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Fascist_regime_in_Italy" title="Fall of the Fascist regime in Italy">Fall of the Fascist regime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_resistance_movement" title="Italian resistance movement">Resistance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Italian_Social_Republic" title="Italian Social Republic">Social Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Civil_War" title="Italian Civil War">Civil War</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Contemporary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Italian_Republic" title="History of the Italian Republic">Republic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1946_Italian_institutional_referendum" title="1946 Italian institutional referendum">Institutional referendum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Istrian%E2%80%93Dalmatian_exodus" title="Istrian–Dalmatian exodus">Istrian–Dalmatian exodus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_economic_miracle" title="Italian economic miracle">Economic Boom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Years_of_Lead_(Italy)" title="Years of Lead (Italy)">Years of Lead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maxi_Trial" title="Maxi Trial">Maxi Trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mani_pulite" title="Mani pulite">Mani pulite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Italy" title="COVID-19 pandemic in Italy">Coronavirus pandemic</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Italy" title="Geography of Italy">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italy_(geographical_region)" title="Italy (geographical region)">Italian geographical region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Peninsula">Peninsula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_Italy" title="Climate of Italy">Climate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Italy" title="Climate change in Italy">Climate change</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Italy" title="Geology of Italy">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fauna_of_Italy" title="Fauna of Italy">Fauna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Italy" title="Flora of Italy">Flora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountains_in_Italy" title="List of mountains in Italy">Mountains</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alpine_foothills" title="Alpine foothills">Prealps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alps" title="Alps">Alps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apennine_Mountains" title="Apennine Mountains">Apennines</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanism_of_Italy" title="Volcanism of Italy">Volcanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_volcanoes_in_Italy" title="List of volcanoes in Italy">Volcanoes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_beaches_in_Italy" title="List of beaches in Italy">Beaches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_canals_in_Italy" title="List of canals in Italy">Canals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_caves_in_Italy" title="List of caves in Italy">Caves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_Italy" title="List of earthquakes in Italy">Earthquakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Italy" title="List of islands of Italy">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes_of_Italy" title="List of lakes of Italy">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Marine_Protected_Areas_of_Italy" title="List of Marine Protected Areas of Italy">Marine protected areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_parks_of_Italy" title="List of national parks of Italy">National parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_regional_parks_of_Italy" title="List of regional parks of Italy">Regional parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Italy" title="List of rivers of Italy">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_valleys_of_Italy" title="List of valleys of Italy">Valleys</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Italy" title="Politics of Italy">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Italy" title="Constitution of Italy">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Italy" title="Elections in Italy">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Italy" title="Foreign relations of Italy">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_Italy" title="Government of Italy">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Italy" title="Human rights in Italy">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Italy">LGBT rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Italy" title="Judiciary of Italy">Judiciary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Italy" title="Law of Italy">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_Italy" title="Law enforcement in Italy">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Armed_Forces" title="Italian Armed Forces">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_nationality_law" title="Italian nationality law">Nationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Parliament" title="Italian Parliament">Parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Italy" title="List of political parties in Italy">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_Italy" title="President of Italy">President</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_Italy" title="List of presidents of Italy">List</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Italy" title="Prime Minister of Italy">Prime Minister</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_prime_ministers_of_Italy" title="List of prime ministers of Italy">List</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ministers_(Italy)" title="Council of Ministers (Italy)">Council of Ministers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regions_of_Italy" title="Regions of Italy">Regions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provinces_of_Italy" title="Provinces of Italy">Provinces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_cities_of_Italy" title="Metropolitan cities of Italy">Metropolitan cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Italy" title="List of cities in Italy">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comune" title="Comune">Comune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_municipalities_of_Italy" title="List of municipalities of Italy">Municipalities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_intelligence_agencies" title="Italian intelligence agencies">Security and intelligence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Italy" title="Economy of Italy">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Italy" title="Economy of Italy">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Italian_regions_by_GDP" title="List of Italian regions by GDP">Italian regions by GDP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Italy" title="Agriculture in Italy">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_Italy" title="Automotive industry in Italy">Automotive industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_Italy" title="Banking in Italy">Banking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_banks_in_Italy" title="List of banks in Italy">Banks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bank_of_Italy" title="Bank of Italy">Central Bank</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Italian_brands" title="List of Italian brands">Brands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_Italy" title="List of companies of Italy">Companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Italy" title="Energy in Italy">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exports_of_Italy" title="List of exports of Italy">Exports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Italy" title="Science and technology in Italy">Science and technology</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Southern question</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borsa_Italiana" title="Borsa Italiana">Stock exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Italy" title="Taxation in Italy">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Italy" title="Telecommunications in Italy">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Italy" title="Tourism in Italy">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_trade_unions_in_Italy" title="List of trade unions in Italy">Trade unions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Italy" title="Transport in Italy">Transport</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_airports_in_Italy" title="List of airports in Italy">air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_transport_in_Italy" title="Rail transport in Italy">rail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roads_in_Italy" title="Roads in Italy">road</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_welfare_state" title="Italian welfare state">Welfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_wine" title="Italian wine">Wine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Italy" title="Category:Society of Italy">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nobility_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobility of Italy">Aristocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_Italy" title="Censorship in Italy">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Italy" title="Corruption in Italy">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Italy" title="Crime in Italy">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Italy" title="Demographics of Italy">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Italy" title="Education in Italy">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_diaspora" title="Italian diaspora">Emigration and diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gambling_in_Italy" title="Gambling in Italy">Gambling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_Italy" title="Health in Italy">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_Italy" title="Healthcare in Italy">Healthcare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_Italy" title="Immigration to Italy">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Italian_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Italian inventions and discoveries">Inventions and discoveries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italians" title="Italians">Italians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_from_Italy" title="List of people from Italy">People</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Italy" title="Languages of Italy">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Regional_Italian" title="Regional Italian">Regional</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Italian_provinces_by_life_expectancy" title="List of Italian provinces by life expectancy">Life expectancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orders,_decorations,_and_medals_of_Italy" title="Orders, decorations, and medals of Italy">Orders, decorations, and medals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Italy" title="Poverty in Italy">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Italy" title="Prostitution in Italy">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_public_administration" title="Italian public administration">Public administration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Italy" title="Racism in Italy">Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Italy" title="Religion in Italy">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_Italy" title="Social class in Italy">Social class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrorism_in_Italy" title="Terrorism in Italy">Terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Italy" title="Water supply and sanitation in Italy">Water supply and sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Italy" title="Women in Italy">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Italy" title="Culture of Italy">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duecento" title="Duecento">Duecento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trecento" title="Trecento">Trecento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quattrocento" title="Quattrocento">Quattrocento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinquecento" title="Cinquecento">Cinquecento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seicento" title="Seicento">Seicento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Italian_culture_(1700s)" title="History of Italian culture (1700s)">Settecento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Neoclassical_and_19th-century_art" title="Italian Neoclassical and 19th-century art">Ottocento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Il_Canto_degli_Italiani" title="Il Canto degli Italiani">Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Architecture of Italy">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_art" title="Italian art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_castles_in_Italy" title="List of castles in Italy">Castles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cathedrals_in_Italy" title="List of cathedrals in Italy">Cathedrals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Italy" title="Cinema of Italy">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emblem_of_Italy" title="Emblem of Italy">Coat of arm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_cuisine" title="Italian cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_design" title="Italian design">Design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_fashion" title="Italian fashion">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Italy" title="Flag of Italy">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folklore_of_Italy" title="Folklore of Italy">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_gardens_in_Italy" title="List of gardens in Italy">Gardens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_in_Italy" title="Internet in Italy">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italophilia" title="Italophilia">Italophilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_libraries_in_Italy" title="List of libraries in Italy">Libraries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_literature" title="Italian literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_Italy" title="Mass media in Italy">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museums_in_Italy" title="List of museums in Italy">Museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Italy" title="Music of Italy">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mythology_of_Italy" title="Mythology of Italy">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_Italy" title="National symbols of Italy">National symbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_palaces_in_Italy" title="List of palaces in Italy">Palaces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_philosophy" title="Italian philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Italy" title="Public holidays in Italy">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Italy" title="Sport in Italy">Sport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_Italy" title="Television in Italy">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_Italy" title="Theatre of Italy">Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditions_of_Italy" title="Traditions of Italy">Traditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_Italy" title="List of World Heritage Sites in Italy">World Heritage Sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/16px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/24px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/32px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Italy" title="Portal:Italy">Italy portal</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Italy" title="Category:Italy">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Historiography934" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Historiography" title="Template:Historiography"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Historiography" title="Template talk:Historiography"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Historiography" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Historiography"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Historiography934" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">Historiography</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Historian" title="Historian">Historians</a></b> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_historians" title="List of historians">list</a> / <a href="/wiki/List_of_historians_by_area_of_study" title="List of historians by area of study">by area of study</a></b></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Category:Historians" title="Category:Historians">historians</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Category:Historicity" title="Category:Historicity">historicity</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Category:History" title="Category:History">history</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Category:Theories_of_history" title="Category:Theories of history">theories of history</a></i></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Historical_sources934" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Historical_source" title="Historical source">Historical sources</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primary_source" title="Primary source">Primary sources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_source" title="Secondary source">Secondary sources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertiary_source" title="Tertiary source">Tertiary sources</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Annals" title="Annals">Annals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archive" title="Archive">Archives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artifact_(archaeology)" title="Artifact (archaeology)">Artifacts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeological_site" title="Archaeological site">Archaeological site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronicle" title="Chronicle">Chronicles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Codex" title="Codex">Codices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deed" title="Deed">Deeds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facsimile" title="Facsimile">Facsimiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feature_(archaeology)" title="Feature (archaeology)">Features</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hieroglyph" class="mw-redirect" title="Hieroglyph">Hieroglyphs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_document" title="Historical document">Historical documents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logbook" title="Logbook">Logbooks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuscript" title="Manuscript">Manuscripts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Illuminated_manuscript" title="Illuminated manuscript">Illuminated</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_tradition" title="Oral tradition">Oral tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papyrus" title="Papyrus">Papyri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_text" title="Religious text">Religious texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scroll" title="Scroll">Scrolls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_diary" title="War diary">War diaries</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Service_record" title="Service record">Service records</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Fields_of_study934" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_sciences_of_history" title="Auxiliary sciences of history">Fields of study</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By scale</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Big_History" title="Big History">Big History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_history_(field)" title="World history (field)">World history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_history" title="Human history">Human history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Local_history" title="Local history">Local history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microhistory" title="Microhistory">Microhistory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By source</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archival_science" title="Archival science">Archival science</a> / <a href="/wiki/Library_and_information_science" title="Library and information science">Library and information science</a> (<a href="/wiki/Template:Libraries_and_library_science" title="Template:Libraries and library science">template</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Codicology" title="Codicology">Books</a> / <a href="/wiki/Palaeography" title="Palaeography">Writing systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chorography" title="Chorography">Chorography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronology" title="Chronology">Chronology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chronological_dating" title="Chronological dating">dating</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplomatics" title="Diplomatics">Diplomatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encyclopaedistics" title="Encyclopaedistics">Encyclopaedistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigraphy" title="Epigraphy">Epigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genealogy" title="Genealogy">Genealogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraldry" title="Heraldry">Heraldry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numismatics" title="Numismatics">Numismatics (Money)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onomastics" title="Onomastics">Onomastics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_history" title="Oral history">Oral history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oral_history_preservation" title="Oral history preservation">preservation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phaleristics" title="Phaleristics">Phaleristics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philology" title="Philology">Philology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philately" title="Philately">Postage stamps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosopography" title="Prosopography">Prosopography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigillography" title="Sigillography">Sigillography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toponymy" title="Toponymy">Toponymy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vexillology" title="Vexillology">Vexillology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By topic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paleoanthropology" title="Paleoanthropology">Paleoanthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_history" title="Cultural history">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_ecology" title="Historical ecology">Ecology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Environmental_history" title="Environmental history">Environment</a> / <a href="/wiki/Historical_geography" title="Historical geography">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history" title="Economic history">Economic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Business_history" title="Business history">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_capitalism" title="History of capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perspectives_on_capitalism_by_school_of_thought" title="Perspectives on capitalism by school of thought">Perspectives on capitalism by school of thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_economic_thought" title="History of economic thought">Thought</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_history" title="Intellectual history">Intellectual</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Geistesgeschichte" title="Geistesgeschichte">Geistesgeschichte</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history" title="Maritime history">Maritime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_ecclesiastic_historiography" title="Medieval ecclesiastic historiography">Medieval churches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_historiography" class="mw-redirect" title="Military historiography">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history" title="Political history">Political</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_history" title="Constitutional history">Constitutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_history" title="Diplomatic history">Diplomatic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_sociology" title="Historical sociology">Social</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_feminism" title="History of feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_history" title="Gender history">Gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnohistory" title="Ethnohistory">Indigenous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_history" title="Labor history">Labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_history" title="LGBTQ history">LGBTQ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_history" title="Rural history">Rural</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_history" title="Quantitative history">Quantitative</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_history" title="Urban history">Urban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_history" title="Women's history">Women</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Methodology934" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Historical_method" title="Historical method">Methodology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Case_study" title="Case study">Case study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periodization" title="Periodization">Periodization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Historical_eras" title="Category:Historical eras">Historical eras</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tarikh" title="Tarikh">Tarikh</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-age_system" title="Three-age system">Three-age system</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Approaches,_schools25" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Approaches,<br /> schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Annales_school" title="Annales school">Annales school</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_mentalities" title="History of mentalities">History of mentalities</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nouvelle_histoire" title="Nouvelle histoire">Nouvelle histoire</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiometry" title="Historiometry">Historiometry</a> / <a href="/wiki/Cliometrics" title="Cliometrics">Cliometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_historical_research" title="Comparative historical research">Comparative historical research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_historiography" title="Critical historiography">Critical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decoloniality" title="Decoloniality">Decoloniality</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_history" title="Feminist history">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_anthropology" title="Historical anthropology">Historical anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_determinism" title="Historical determinism">Historical determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historism" title="Historism">Historism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_criticism" title="Historical criticism">Historical-critical method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_historiography" title="Humanistic historiography">Humanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indiscipline_of_history&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Indiscipline of history (page does not exist)">Indiscipline of history</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indisciplina_da_hist%C3%B3ria" class="extiw" title="pt:Indisciplina da história">pt</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leninist_historiography" class="mw-redirect" title="Leninist historiography">Leninist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_historiography" title="Marxist historiography">Marxist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_materialism" title="Historical materialism">Historical materialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalist_historiography" title="Nationalist historiography">Nationalist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancestral_civilisation" title="Ancestral civilisation">Ancestral civilisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalization_of_history" title="Nationalization of history">Nationalization of history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_history" title="People's history">People's history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Subaltern_Studies" title="Subaltern Studies">Subaltern Studies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_history" title="Popular history">Pop history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_history" title="Quantitative history">Quantitative history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_revisionism" title="Historical revisionism">Revisionist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transnational_history" title="Transnational history">Transnational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whig_history" title="Whig history">Whig</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Man_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Man theory">Great Man theory</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Concepts934" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Concepts</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Change_and_continuity" title="Change and continuity">Change and continuity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historic_preservation" title="Historic preservation">Historic preservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historic_recurrence" title="Historic recurrence">Historic recurrence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_significance" title="Historical significance">Historical significance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicity" title="Historicity">Historicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Historiology">Historiology</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiolog%C3%ADa" class="extiw" title="es:Historiología">es</a>]</span> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Theory_of_history&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Theory of history (page does not exist)">Theory of history</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theorie_der_Geschichte" class="extiw" title="de:Theorie der Geschichte">de</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">Philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Specific</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_legend" title="Black legend">Black legend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coloniality_of_knowledge" title="Coloniality of knowledge">Coloniality</a> and <a href="/wiki/Decolonization_of_knowledge" title="Decolonization of knowledge">decolonization of knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_Ages_(historiography)" title="Dark Ages (historiography)">Dark Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_negationism" title="Historical negationism">Historical negationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historian%27s_fallacy" title="Historian's fallacy">Historian's fallacy</a> / <a href="/wiki/Presentism_(historical_analysis)" title="Presentism (historical analysis)">Presentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invented_tradition" title="Invented tradition">Invented tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernisation_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Modernisation theory">Modernisation theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narrative_history" title="Narrative history">Narratives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradigm_shift" title="Paradigm shift">Paradigm shift</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_periods_of_regional_peace" title="List of periods of regional peace">Pax</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Paxes" title="Template:Paxes">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty-year_rule" title="Thirty-year rule">Thirty-year rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transhistoricity" title="Transhistoricity">Transhistoricity</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Translatio_imperii" title="Translatio imperii">Translatio imperii</a></i> / <i><a href="/wiki/Translatio_studii" title="Translatio studii">Translatio studii</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vaticinium_ex_eventu" title="Vaticinium ex eventu">Vaticinium ex eventu</a></i></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Periodization_ofmodern_history50" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Periodization of<br /><a href="/wiki/Modern_era" title="Modern era">modern history</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Civil_War" title="European Civil War">European Civil War</a> / <a href="/wiki/Second_Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Second Thirty Years' War">Second Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_eighteenth_century" title="Long eighteenth century">Long 18th</a> / <a href="/wiki/Long_nineteenth_century" title="Long nineteenth century">19th century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Continuity_thesis" title="Continuity thesis">Continuity thesis</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_country_or_region934" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By country or region</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African_historiography" title="African historiography">Africa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Egypt <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_pyramid_construction_techniques" class="mw-redirect" title="Egyptian pyramid construction techniques">Pyramid construction techniques</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_Egypt_Thesis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Black Egypt Thesis (page does not exist)">Black Egypt Thesis</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hip%C3%B3tesis_del_Egipto_Negro" class="extiw" title="es:Hipótesis del Egipto Negro">es</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_historiography" title="Ethiopian historiography">Ethiopia</a></li> <li>Morocco <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Morocco" title="Greater Morocco">Greater Morocco</a></li></ul></li> <li>Rwanda <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Double_genocide_theory_(Rwanda)" title="Double genocide theory (Rwanda)">Double genocide theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Maafa" title="Maafa">Maafa</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Americas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Canada" title="Historiography of Canada">Canada</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metropolitan-hinterland_thesis" title="Metropolitan-hinterland thesis">Metropolitan-hinterland thesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_history_wars" title="Canadian history wars">Residential schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staples_thesis" title="Staples thesis">Staples thesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Indigenous population history</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Latin_American_studies" title="Latin American studies">Latin America</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Argentina" title="Historiography of Argentina">Argentina</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_May_Revolution" title="Historiography of the May Revolution">May Revolution</a> / <a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_May_Revolution" title="Causes of the May Revolution">Causes</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historical_revisionism_in_Argentina&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historical revisionism in Argentina (page does not exist)">Revisionist</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revisionismo_hist%C3%B3rico_en_Argentina" class="extiw" title="es:Revisionismo histórico en Argentina">es</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Peru&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Peru (page does not exist)">Peru</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iquicha_War_of_1825%E2%80%931828#Historiography" title="Iquicha War of 1825–1828">Iquicha Royalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Colonial_Spanish_America" title="Historiography of Colonial Spanish America">Colonial Spanish America</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Casta" title="Casta">Casta</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_United_States" title="Historiography of the United States">United States</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_history#Historiography" title="African-American history">African-American history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">Nadir of American race relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoabolitionism_(race_relations)" title="Neoabolitionism (race relations)">Neoabolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era#Legacy_and_historiography" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consensus_history" title="Consensus history">Consensus history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclical_theory_(United_States_history)" title="Cyclical theory (United States history)">Cyclical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frontier_thesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Frontier thesis">Frontier thesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_in_the_United_States" title="Political history in the United States">Political history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_eras_of_the_United_States" title="Political eras of the United States">Eras</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_historians" title="Progressive historians">Progressive-era historians</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eurasia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Albania" title="Historiography of Albania">Albania</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dealbanisation" title="Dealbanisation">Dealbanisation</a></li></ul></li> <li>Austria <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_myth" title="Habsburg myth">Habsburg myth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balhae_controversies" title="Balhae controversies">Balhae</a></li> <li>Belarus <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Litvinism" title="Litvinism">Litvinism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_historiography" title="Bulgarian historiography">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_historiography&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Byzantine historiography (page does not exist)">Byzantine Empire</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantinische_Geschichtsschreibung" class="extiw" title="de:Byzantinische Geschichtsschreibung">de</a>]</span> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Byzantine_historiography&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Early Byzantine historiography (page does not exist)">Early</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" class="extiw" title="ru:Ранневизантийская историография">ru</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Croatian_historiography" title="Croatian historiography">Croatia</a></li> <li>Europe <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_ancient_Europe&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of ancient Europe (page does not exist)">Ancient</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" class="extiw" title="ru:Античная историография">ru</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_historiography" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval historiography">Medieval</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" class="extiw" title="ru:Средневековая историография">ru</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=New_Age_historiography&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="New Age historiography (page does not exist)">New Age</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8" class="extiw" title="ru:Историография Нового времени">ru</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li>Georgia <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Aryan_Kartli" title="Aryan Kartli">Aryan Kartli</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenic_historiography" title="Hellenic historiography">Greek</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ages_of_Man" title="Ages of Man">Ages of Man</a></li></ul></li> <li>Iran <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2,500-year_celebration_of_the_Persian_Empire" title="2,500-year celebration of the Persian Empire">2,500-year celebration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Japan" title="Historiography of Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Korea" title="Historiography of Korea">Korea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Korean_nationalist_historiography" title="Korean nationalist historiography">Nationalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goguryeo_controversies" title="Goguryeo controversies">Goguryeo controversies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_in_North_Macedonia" title="Historiography in North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Philippines" title="Historiography of the Philippines">Philippines</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_early_Philippine_settlements" title="Historiography of early Philippine settlements">Early settlements</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiograpy_of_Portugal&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiograpy of Portugal (page does not exist)">Portugal</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiografia_de_Portugal" class="extiw" title="pt:Historiografia de Portugal">pt</a>]</span> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lusotropicalism" title="Lusotropicalism">Lusotropicalism</a></li></ul></li> <li>Romania <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Union" title="Great Union">Great Union</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_historiography" title="Serbian historiography">Serbia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kosovo_Myth" title="Kosovo Myth">Kosovo Myth</a></li></ul></li> <li>Sweden <ul><li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6taland_theory" title="Götaland theory">Götaland theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Switzerland" title="Historiography of Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Taiwanese_historiography" title="History of Taiwanese historiography">Taiwan</a></li> <li>Ukraine <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Executed_Renaissance" title="Executed Renaissance">Executed Renaissance</a></li></ul></li> <li>Vietnam <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Nam_ti%E1%BA%BFn" title="Nam tiến">Nam tiến</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tr%C6%B0ng_sisters" title="Trưng sisters">Trưng sisters</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_historiography" title="Roman historiography">Ancient Rome</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catilinarian_conspiracy#Historiography" title="Catilinarian conspiracy">Catilinarian conspiracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Christianization_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Historiography of Christianization of the Roman Empire">Christianization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantinian_shift" title="Constantinian shift">Constantinian shift</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Romanisation" title="Historiography of Romanisation">Expansion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire">Fall of Western Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosopography_of_ancient_Rome" title="Prosopography of ancient Rome">Prosopography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Succession_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Succession of the Roman Empire">Succession</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Succession_to_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Succession to the Byzantine Empire">Byzantine succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moscow,_third_Rome" title="Moscow, third Rome">Moscow, third Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_claim_to_Roman_succession" title="Ottoman claim to Roman succession">Ottoman claim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_two_emperors" title="Problem of two emperors">Problem of two emperors</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_historiography" title="Chinese historiography">China</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Five_thousand_years_of_Chinese_civilization" title="Five thousand years of Chinese civilization">5000-year civilization assertion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Chinese_archaeology" title="History of Chinese archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wunu_School&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wunu School (page does not exist)">Wunu School</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%97%A0%E5%A5%B4%E6%B4%BE" class="extiw" title="zh:无奴派">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Century_of_humiliation" title="Century of humiliation">Century of humiliation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_dynasty" title="Conquest dynasty">Conquest dynasty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Debate_on_the_Chineseness_of_the_Yuan_and_Qing_dynasties" title="Debate on the Chineseness of the Yuan and Qing dynasties">"Chineseness" debate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Qing_History" title="New Qing History">New Qing History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_ages_of_China" title="Golden ages of China">Golden ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hua%E2%80%93Yi_distinction" title="Hua–Yi distinction">Hua–Yi distinction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Barbarians" title="Four Barbarians">Four Barbarians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinocentrism" title="Sinocentrism">Sinocentrism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-Strengthening_Movement#Evaluation" title="Self-Strengthening Movement">Self-Strengthening Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sprouts_of_capitalism" title="Sprouts of capitalism">Sprouts of capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_sovereignty_debate" title="Tibetan sovereignty debate">Tibetan sovereignty debate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">France</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Cordon_sanitaire_(international_relations)" title="Cordon sanitaire (international relations)">Cordon sanitaire</a></i></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Frankish_Interregnum&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Frankish Interregnum (page does not exist)">Frankish Interregnum</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interr%C3%A8gne_franc" class="extiw" title="fr:Interrègne franc">fr</a>]</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Grand_Si%C3%A8cle" title="Grand Siècle">Grand Siècle</a></i></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Legendary_Saracen_in_France&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Legendary Saracen in France (page does not exist)">Legendary Saracen</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A9gendaire_sarrasin_en_France" class="extiw" title="fr:Légendaire sarrasin en France">fr</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiographical_debate_on_the_location_of_Al%C3%A9sia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiographical debate on the location of Alésia (page does not exist)">Location of Alésia</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiographie_du_d%C3%A9bat_sur_la_localisation_d%27Al%C3%A9sia" class="extiw" title="fr:Historiographie du débat sur la localisation d'Alésia">fr</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Lyon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Lyon (page does not exist)">Lyon</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiographie_de_Lyon" class="extiw" title="fr:Historiographie de Lyon">fr</a>]</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Germany" title="Historiography of Germany">Germany</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Alltagsgeschichte" title="Alltagsgeschichte">Alltagsgeschichte</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borussian_myth" title="Borussian myth">Borussian myth</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Historikerstreit" title="Historikerstreit">Historikerstreit</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sonderweg" title="Sonderweg">Sonderweg</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Strukturgeschichte&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Strukturgeschichte (page does not exist)">Strukturgeschichte</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strukturgeschichte" class="extiw" title="de:Strukturgeschichte">de</a>]</span></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sybel-Ficker_controversy" title="Sybel-Ficker controversy">Sybel-Ficker controversy</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vergangenheitsbew%C3%A4ltigung" title="Vergangenheitsbewältigung">Vergangenheitsbewältigung</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_India" title="Historiography of India">India</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Magadha" title="Greater Magadha">Greater Magadha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indocentrism" title="Indocentrism">Indocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Aryanism" title="Indigenous Aryanism">Indigenous Aryanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ireland#Historiography" title="History of Ireland">Ireland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_(Ireland)#Analysis_of_the_government's_role" title="Great Famine (Ireland)">Great Famine</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/More_Irish_than_the_Irish_themselves" title="More Irish than the Irish themselves">More Irish than the Irish themselves</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revisionism_(Ireland)" title="Revisionism (Ireland)">Revisionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_revolutionary_period" title="Irish revolutionary period">Revolutionary period</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Italy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fascist_Italy#Historiography" title="Fascist Italy">Fascist Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_entry_into_World_War_I" title="Italian entry into World War I">Fourth Italian War of Independence</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Historiae_Patriae_Monumenta" title="Historiae Patriae Monumenta">Historiae Patriae Monumenta</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Series_of_the_Bank_of_Italy" title="Historical Series of the Bank of Italy">Historical Series of the Bank of Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italiani_brava_gente" title="Italiani brava gente">Italians, the good people</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rerum_italicarum_scriptores" title="Rerum italicarum scriptores">Rerum italicarum scriptores</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revisionism_of_Risorgimento" title="Revisionism of Risorgimento">Revisionism of Risorgimento</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Southern question</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Bourbonism" title="Neo-Bourbonism">Neo-Bourbonism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Poland</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Liberty#Assessment" title="Golden Liberty">Golden Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarmatism" title="Sarmatism">Sarmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deluge_(history)#In_popular_culture" title="Deluge (history)">Deluge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partitions_of_Poland#Reasons,_legality_and_justifications" title="Partitions of Poland">Partitions</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_about_Polish_People%27s_Republic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography about Polish People's Republic (page does not exist)">Polish People's Republic</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiografia_PRL" class="extiw" title="pl:Historiografia PRL">pl</a>]</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Russia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Normanism" title="Anti-Normanism">Anti-Normanism</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pre-Revolution_Russian_historiography&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pre-Revolution Russian historiography (page does not exist)">Pre-Revolutionary Russia</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" class="extiw" title="ru:Российская дореволюционная историография">ru</a>]</span> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Skeptic_School&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Skeptic School (page does not exist)">Skeptic School</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0" class="extiw" title="ru:Скептическая школа">ru</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Historiography in the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/October_Revolution#Historiography" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_famine_of_1930%E2%80%931933" title="Soviet famine of 1930–1933">Soviet famine of 1930–1933</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_Holodomor" title="Causes of the Holodomor">Causes of the Holodomor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holodomor_genocide_question" title="Holodomor genocide question">Holodomor genocide question</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holodomor_in_modern_politics" title="Holodomor in modern politics">Holodomor in modern politics</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Spain</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Legend_(Spain)" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Legend (Spain)">Black legend</a> / <a href="/wiki/Black_Legend_(Spain)#White_legend" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Legend (Spain)">White legend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hispanism" title="Hispanism">Hispanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_on_Carlism_during_the_Francoist_era" title="Historiography on Carlism during the Francoist era">Carlism in the Francoist era</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Convivencia" title="Convivencia">Convivencia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Legend_of_the_Spanish_Inquisition" title="Black Legend of the Spanish Inquisition">Inquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Limpieza_de_sangre_controversy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Limpieza de sangre controversy (page does not exist)">Limpieza de sangre controversy</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estatutos_de_limpieza_de_sangre#Los_estatutos_de_limpieza_de_sangre,_¿el_origen_del_racismo_europeo?" class="extiw" title="es:Estatutos de limpieza de sangre">es</a>]</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_revolution_of_Spain&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Islamic revolution of Spain (page does not exist)">Islamic revolution of Spain</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_revoluci%C3%B3n_isl%C3%A1mica_en_Occidente" class="extiw" title="es:La revolución islámica en Occidente">es</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revisionism_(Spain)" title="Revisionism (Spain)">Revisionist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty#Controversy_over_whether_the_American_Viceroyalties_were_Colonies_or_Provinces" title="Viceroyalty">Colonies or Provinces</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_decline&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Spanish decline (page does not exist)">Spanish decline</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decadencia_espa%C3%B1ola" class="extiw" title="es:Decadencia española">es</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ser_de_Espa%C3%B1a&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ser de España (page does not exist)">Ser de España</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ser_de_Espa%C3%B1a" class="extiw" title="es:Ser de España">es</a>]</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Turkey</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kemalist_historiography" title="Kemalist historiography">Kemalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Historiography of the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghaza_thesis" title="Ghaza thesis">Ghaza thesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_decline_thesis" title="Ottoman decline thesis">Decline thesis</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Historiography of the United Kingdom">United<br />Kingdom</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Poor_Laws" title="Historiography of the Poor Laws">Poor Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Scotland" title="Historiography of Scotland">Scotland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_Kingdom_of_Alba" title="Origins of the Kingdom of Alba">Kingdom of Alba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westminster_Stone_theory" title="Westminster Stone theory">Westminster Stone</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storm_over_the_gentry" title="Storm over the gentry">Storm over the gentry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Suffragettes" title="Historiography of the Suffragettes">Suffragette Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tudor_myth" title="Tudor myth">Tudor myth</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ricardian_(Richard_III)" title="Ricardian (Richard III)">Ricardians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winter_of_Discontent#Legacy" title="Winter of Discontent">Winter of Discontent</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="BritishEmpire59" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_British_Empire" title="Historiography of the British Empire">British<br />Empire</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cambridge_School_(imperial_history)" title="Cambridge School (imperial history)">Cambridge School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porter%E2%80%93MacKenzie_debate" title="Porter–MacKenzie debate">Porter–MacKenzie debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_colonial_occupation" title="Second colonial occupation">Second colonial occupation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Oceania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_history_wars" title="Australian history wars">Colonial Australia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_war,_conflict934" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By war, conflict</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Military_historiography" title="Template:Military historiography"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Military_historiography" title="Template talk:Military historiography"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Military_historiography" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Military historiography"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Military_historiography605" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Military" title="Military">Military</a> <a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">historiography</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Military_history" title="Military history">Military history</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_museums" title="List of military museums">List of military museums</a></b></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pre-18th century<br />conflicts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albigensian_Crusade#Legacy" title="Albigensian Crusade">Albigensian Crusade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catharism#Historical_and_current_scholarship" title="Catharism">Catharism debate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Crusades" title="Historiography of the Crusades">Crusades</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_the_crusades" title="Islamic views on the crusades">Islamic views</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Historiography of the Eighty Years' War">Eighty Years' War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Origins of the Eighty Years' War">Origins</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Babylon#Historiography" title="Fall of Babylon">Fall of Babylon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallic_Wars#Historiography" title="Gallic Wars">Gallic Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Bronze_Age_collapse" title="Late Bronze Age collapse">Late Bronze Age collapse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dorian_invasion" title="Dorian invasion">Dorian invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_Peoples" title="Sea Peoples">Sea Peoples</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Peloponnesian_War" title="History of the Peloponnesian War">Peloponnesian War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th and 19th<br />century conflicts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Coalition_Wars(1792–1815)77" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/French_Revolutionary_and_Napoleonic_Wars" title="French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars">Coalition Wars</a><br />(1792–1815)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_French_Revolution" title="Historiography of the French Revolution">French Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=French_pre-revolution&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="French pre-revolution (page does not exist)">Pre-revolution</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pr%C3%A9r%C3%A9volution_fran%C3%A7aise" class="extiw" title="fr:Prérévolution française">fr</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_French_Revolution" title="Causes of the French Revolution">Causes</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=New_Russian_School_(French_Revolution)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="New Russian School (French Revolution) (page does not exist)">New Russian School</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C2%AB%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0%C2%BB_%D0%B2_%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B8_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%83%D0%B7%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B8_XVIII_%D0%B2." class="extiw" title="ru:«Новая русская школа» в историографии Французской революции XVIII в.">ru</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_the_Vend%C3%A9e#Historiography" title="War in the Vendée">War in the Vendée</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_studies" title="Napoleonic studies">Napoleonic era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_invasion_of_Russia#Historical_assessment" title="French invasion of Russia">Invasion of Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Waterloo#Historical_importance" title="Battle of Waterloo">Waterloo</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiographic_issues_about_the_American_Civil_War" title="Historiographic issues about the American Civil War">American Civil War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Origins of the American Civil War">Origins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turning_point_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Turning point of the American Civil War">Turning point</a></li></ul></li> <li>Franco-Prussian War <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_Franco-Prussian_War" title="Causes of the Franco-Prussian War">Causes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Paris_Commune" title="Historiography of the Paris Commune">Paris Commune</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Great_Game" class="mw-redirect" title="Historiography of the Great Game">Great Game</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Rebellion_of_1857#Historiography" title="Indian Rebellion of 1857">Indian Rebellion of 1857</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_Indian_Rebellion_of_1857" title="Causes of the Indian Rebellion of 1857">Causes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Paraguayan_War" title="Historiography of the Paraguayan War">Paraguayan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_War_of_1812" title="Historiography of the War of 1812">War of 1812</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_War_of_1812" title="Origins of the War of 1812">Origins</a></li></ul></li> <li>War of the Pacific <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_War_of_the_Pacific" class="mw-redirect" title="Causes of the War of the Pacific">Causes</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Myth_of_English_aid&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Myth of English aid (page does not exist)">Myth of English aid</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mito_de_la_ayuda_inglesa" class="extiw" title="es:Mito de la ayuda inglesa">es</a>]</span></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_World_War_I" title="Historiography of World War I">World War I</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_causes_of_World_War_I" title="Historiography of the causes of World War I">Causes</a> (<a href="/wiki/Color_book" title="Color book">Color books</a> / <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Fischer_(historian)#Fischer_thesis" title="Fritz Fischer (historian)">Fischer thesis</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Ottoman_genocides" title="Late Ottoman genocides">Late Ottoman genocides</a> (<a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_Armenian_genocide" title="Causes of the Armenian genocide">Causes of the Armenian genocide</a>)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Patriotic_consent&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Patriotic consent (page does not exist)">Patriotic consent</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consentement_patriotique" class="extiw" title="fr:Consentement patriotique">fr</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_famine_of_1917%E2%80%931919" title="Persian famine of 1917–1919">Persian famine of 1917–1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Powder_keg_of_Europe" title="Powder keg of Europe">Powder keg of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schlieffen_Plan#History" title="Schlieffen Plan">Schlieffen Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirit_of_1914" title="Spirit of 1914">Spirit of 1914</a> / <a href="/wiki/Spirit_of_1917" title="Spirit of 1917">1917</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_the_Treaty_of_Brest-Litovsk&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (page does not exist)">Treaty of Brest-Litovsk</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B0" class="extiw" title="ru:Историография Брестского мира">ru</a>]</span></li> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Treaty_ofVersailles73" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles#Historical_assessments" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of<br />Versailles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I_reparations#Analysis" title="World War I reparations">Reparations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_guilt_question" title="War guilt question">War guilt question</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Article_231_of_the_Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles">Article 231</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reichstag_inquiry_into_guilt_for_World_War_I" title="Reichstag inquiry into guilt for World War I">Reichstag inquiry</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Responsibility_for_the_burning_of_Smyrna" title="Responsibility for the burning of Smyrna">Burning of Smyrna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Soviet_War#Aftermath_and_legacy" title="Polish–Soviet War">Polish–Soviet War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_Polish%E2%80%93Soviet_War" title="Causes of the Polish–Soviet War">Causes</a></li></ul></li> <li>Spanish Civil War <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Background_of_the_Spanish_Civil_War" title="Background of the Spanish Civil War">Background</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_World_War_II" title="Historiography of World War II">World War II</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_World_War_II" title="Causes of World War II">Causes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blitzkrieg#Post-war_controversy" title="Blitzkrieg">"Blitzkrieg" concept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broad_front_versus_narrow_front_controversy_in_World_War_II" title="Broad front versus narrow front controversy in World War II">Broad vs. narrow front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_German_resistance_to_Nazism" title="Historiography of German resistance to Nazism">German resistance to Nazism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_foreign_policy_debate" title="Nazi foreign policy debate">Nazi foreign policy debate</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eastern Front</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Molotov%E2%80%93Ribbentrop_Pact#Postwar_commentary_on_motives_of_Stalin_and_Hitler" title="Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact">Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_offensive_plans_controversy" title="Soviet offensive plans controversy">Soviet offensive plans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Uprising#Soviet_stance" title="Warsaw Uprising">Soviets and the Warsaw Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_massacres_of_Poles_in_Volhynia_and_Eastern_Galicia" title="Historiography of the massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia">Massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_the_Winter_War" title="Aftermath of the Winter War">Winter War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Background_of_the_Winter_War" title="Background of the Winter War">Background</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirit_of_the_Winter_War" title="Spirit of the Winter War">Spirit</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_studies" title="Holocaust studies">The Holocaust</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auschwitz_bombing_debate" title="Auschwitz bombing debate">Auschwitz bombing debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_of_the_Holocaust_in_Nazi_Germany_and_German-occupied_Europe" title="Knowledge of the Holocaust in Nazi Germany and German-occupied Europe">Awareness in Nazi Germany and German-occupied Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism%E2%80%93intentionalism_debate" title="Functionalism–intentionalism debate">Functionalism–intentionalism debate</a></li> <li>In relation to the <a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide_and_the_Holocaust" title="Armenian genocide and the Holocaust">Armenian genocide</a> / <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_and_the_Nakba" title="The Holocaust and the Nakba">Nakba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_XII_and_the_Holocaust#Historiography" title="Pope Pius XII and the Holocaust">Pope Pius XII and the Holocaust</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pius_Wars" title="Pius Wars">Pius Wars</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%22Polish_death_camp%22_controversy" title=""Polish death camp" controversy">"Polish death camp"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Responsibility_for_the_Holocaust" title="Responsibility for the Holocaust">Responsibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Holocaust_in_Slovakia" title="Historiography of the Holocaust in Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_uniqueness_debate" title="Holocaust uniqueness debate">Uniqueness</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pacific War</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Debate_over_the_atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Debate over the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_for_Australia" title="Battle for Australia">"Battle for Australia"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengal_famine_of_1943#Historiography" title="Bengal famine of 1943">Bengal famine</a></li> <li>Second Sino-Japanese War <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Nanjing_Massacre" title="Historiography of the Nanjing Massacre">Nanjing Massacre</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Western Front</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Battle_of_France" title="Historiography of the Battle of France">Battle of France</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Guilty_Men" title="Guilty Men">Guilty Men</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9sistancialisme" title="Résistancialisme">Résistancialisme</a></i></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Vichy_France&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Vichy France (page does not exist)">Vichy France</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiographie_du_r%C3%A9gime_de_Vichy" class="extiw" title="fr:Historiographie du régime de Vichy">fr</a>]</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Cold_War" title="Historiography of the Cold War">Cold War</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_Cold_War" title="Origins of the Cold War">Origins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Palestine_war#Historiography" title="1948 Palestine war">1948 Palestine war</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_1948_Palestinian_expulsion_and_flight" title="Causes of the 1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight">Palestinian expulsion and flight</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ongoing_Nakba" title="Ongoing Nakba">Ongoing Nakba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionism_as_settler_colonialism" title="Zionism as settler colonialism">Zionism as settler colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Historians" title="New Historians">New Historians</a></li></ul></li> <li>Malayan Emergency <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Background_and_causes_of_the_Malayan_Emergency" title="Background and causes of the Malayan Emergency">Causes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Algerian_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Historiography of the Algerian War">Algerian War</a></li> <li>Six-Day War <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_Six-Day_War" title="Origins of the Six-Day War">Origins</a></li></ul></li> <li>Iranian revolution <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Background_and_causes_of_the_Iranian_revolution" title="Background and causes of the Iranian revolution">Causes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_and_memory_of_the_Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="Legacy and memory of the Iran–Iraq War">Iran–Iraq War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_the_Falklands_War" title="Aftermath of the Falklands War">Falklands War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Falkland_Islands_sovereignty_dispute" title="Falkland Islands sovereignty dispute">Sovereignty dispute</a></li></ul></li> <li>Sri Lankan civil war <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_Sri_Lankan_civil_war" title="Origins of the Sri Lankan civil war">Origins</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Post-Cold War</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Russo-Georgian War <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Background_of_the_Russo-Georgian_War" title="Background of the Russo-Georgian War">Background</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Responsibility_for_the_Russo-Georgian_War" title="Responsibility for the Russo-Georgian War">Responsibility</a></li></ul></li> <li>Syrian revolution <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Background_and_causes_of_the_Syrian_revolution" title="Background and causes of the Syrian revolution">Causes</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_thesis" title="Conflict thesis">Conflict thesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_gunpowder_and_gun_transmission" title="Historiography of gunpowder and gun transmission">Gunpowder and gun transmission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torsion_mangonel_myth" title="Torsion mangonel myth">Torsion mangonel myth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_and_genocide" title="War and genocide">War and genocide</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Military_historiography" title="Category:Military historiography">Category</a></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_person934" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By person</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Political<br />leaders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Adolf_Hitler" title="Historiography of Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Historiography of Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amin_al-Husseini#Evaluations_of_Husseini's_historical_significance" title="Amin al-Husseini">Amin al-Husseini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurangzeb#Assessments_and_legacy" title="Aurangzeb">Aurangzeb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_Cato_the_Younger" title="Legacy of Cato the Younger">Cato the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_Che_Guevara" title="Legacy of Che Guevara">Che Guevara</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Chiang_Ching-kuo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Chiang Ching-kuo (page does not exist)">Chiang Ching-kuo</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%8D%E8%94%A3%E7%B6%93%E5%9C%8B%E7%9A%84%E8%A9%95%E5%83%B9" class="extiw" title="zh:對蔣經國的評價">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Chiang_Kai_Shek&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Chiang Kai Shek (page does not exist)">Chiang Kai Shek</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%8D%E8%94%A3%E4%B8%AD%E6%AD%A3%E7%9A%84%E8%A9%95%E5%83%B9" class="extiw" title="zh:對蔣中正的評價">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great#Historiography" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine the Great</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palamism#Initial_Western_reactions" title="Palamism">Gregory Palamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_Horatio_Nelson,_1st_Viscount_Nelson" title="Legacy of Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson">Horatio Nelson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypatia#Legacy" title="Hypatia">Hypatia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Jiang_Zemin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Jiang Zemin (page does not exist)">Jiang Zemin</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%8D%E6%B1%9F%E6%BE%A4%E6%B0%91%E7%9A%84%E8%A9%95%E5%83%B9" class="extiw" title="zh:對江澤民的評價">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Joseph_Stalin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Joseph Stalin (page does not exist)">Joseph Stalin</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD,_%D0%98%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%84_%D0%92%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87#Мнения_и_оценки_личности_Сталина" class="extiw" title="ru:Сталин, Иосиф Виссарионович">ru</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_Jos%C3%A9_de_San_Mart%C3%ADn#Historiography" title="Legacy of José de San Martín">José de San Martín</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Juan_Manuel_de_Rosas" title="Historiography of Juan Manuel de Rosas">Juan Manuel de Rosas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_assessment_of_Klemens_von_Metternich" title="Historical assessment of Klemens von Metternich">Klemens von Metternich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_Leonid_Brezhnev" title="Legacy of Leonid Brezhnev">Leonid Brezhnev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Louis_Riel" title="Historiography of Louis Riel">Louis Riel</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Mao_Zedong&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Mao Zedong (page does not exist)">Mao Zedong</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AF%B9%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%85%B1%E4%BA%A7%E5%85%9A%E7%9A%84%E8%AF%84%E8%AE%BA" class="extiw" title="zh:对中国共产党的评论">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reception_and_legacy_of_Muammar_Gaddafi" title="Reception and legacy of Muammar Gaddafi">Muammar Gaddafi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_Napoleon" title="Legacy of Napoleon">Napoleon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neville_Chamberlain#Legacy_and_reputation" title="Neville Chamberlain">Neville Chamberlain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_Pedro_II_of_Brazil" title="Legacy of Pedro II of Brazil">Pedro II of Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar#Legacy" title="Simón Bolívar">Simon Bolivar</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cult_of_personality_of_Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cult of personality of Simón Bolívar (page does not exist)">Cult of personality</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culto_a_la_personalidad_de_Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar" class="extiw" title="es:Culto a la personalidad de Simón Bolívar">es</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bolivarianism" title="Bolivarianism">Bolivarianism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saladin#Recognition_and_legacy" title="Saladin">Saladin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Sun_Yat_Tse&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Sun Yat Tse (page does not exist)">Sun Yat Tse</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%8D%E5%AD%AB%E4%B8%AD%E5%B1%B1%E7%9A%84%E8%A9%95%E5%83%B9" class="extiw" title="zh:對孫中山的評價">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas#Legacy,_veneration,_and_modern_reception" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_reputation_of_Thomas_Jefferson" title="Historical reputation of Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_reputation_of_Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Historical reputation of Ulysses S. Grant">Ulysses S. Grant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_reputation_of_Warren_G._Harding" title="Historical reputation of Warren G. Harding">Warren G. Harding</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Yuan_Shikai&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Yuan Shikai (page does not exist)">Yuan Shikai</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%8D%E8%A2%81%E4%B8%96%E5%87%B1%E7%9A%84%E8%A9%95%E5%83%B9" class="extiw" title="zh:對袁世凱的評價">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Zhou_Enlai&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Zhou Enlai (page does not exist)">Zhou Enlai</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%8D%E5%91%A8%E6%81%A9%E4%BE%86%E7%9A%84%E8%A9%95%E5%83%B9" class="extiw" title="zh:對周恩來的評價">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Zhuge_Liang&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Zhuge Liang (page does not exist)">Zhuge Liang</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%8D%E8%AB%B8%E8%91%9B%E4%BA%AE%E7%9A%84%E8%A9%95%E5%83%B9" class="extiw" title="zh:對諸葛亮的評價">zh</a>]</span></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Historicalrankings71" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_heads_of_government" title="Historical rankings of heads of government">Historical<br />rankings</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_prime_ministers_of_Australia" title="Historical rankings of prime ministers of Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_prime_ministers_of_Canada" title="Historical rankings of prime ministers of Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_chancellors_of_Germany" title="Historical rankings of chancellors of Germany">Modern Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_prime_ministers_of_the_Netherlands" title="Historical rankings of prime ministers of the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_prime_ministers_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Historical rankings of prime ministers of the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="Historical rankings of presidents of the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_impact_of_the_Beatles" title="Cultural impact of the Beatles">The Beatles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darwin_Industry" title="Darwin Industry">Charles Darwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influence_and_reception_of_Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Influence and reception of Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lovecraft_studies" title="Lovecraft studies">H. P. Lovecraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reception_history_of_Jane_Austen" title="Reception history of Jane Austen">Jane Austen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammed" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammed">Muhammed</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historicity_of_Muhammad" title="Historicity of Muhammad">Historicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism%27s_view_of_Muhammad" class="mw-redirect" title="Judaism's view of Muhammad">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Christian_views_on_Muhammad" title="Medieval Christian views on Muhammad">Medieval Christian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Jesus" title="Historical Jesus">Jesus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historicity_of_Jesus" title="Historicity of Jesus">Historicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_Jesus" title="Resurrection of Jesus">Resurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_perspectives_on_Jesus" title="Religious perspectives on Jesus">Religious perspectives</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jesus_in_Christianity" title="Jesus in Christianity">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism%27s_view_of_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Judaism's view of Jesus">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesus_in_Islam" title="Jesus in Islam">Islam</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tolkien_research" title="Tolkien research">J. R. R. Tolkien</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Literary_reception_of_The_Lord_of_the_Rings" title="Literary reception of The Lord of the Rings">The Lord of the Rings</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_impact_of_Madonna" title="Cultural impact of Madonna">Madonna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Controversies_surrounding_Robert_Falcon_Scott" title="Controversies surrounding Robert Falcon Scott">Robert Falcon Scott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socratic_problem" title="Socratic problem">Socrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influence_and_reception_of_S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Influence and reception of Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reputation_of_William_Shakespeare" title="Reputation of William Shakespeare">William Shakespeare</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Other_topics934" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Other topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bears_in_antiquity" title="Bears in antiquity">Bears in antiquity</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crisis_of_historiography&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Crisis of historiography (page does not exist)">Crisis of historiography</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crise_da_historiografia" class="extiw" title="pt:Crise da historiografia">pt</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_feudalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Historiography of feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Library_of_Alexandria" title="Library of Alexandria">Library of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Nationalism in the Middle Ages">Nationalism in the Middle Ages</a></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Professionalization_and_institutionalization_of_history" title="Professionalization and institutionalization of history">Professionalization and institutionalization of history</a></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_salon" title="Historiography of the salon">Salons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analysis_of_Western_European_colonialism_and_colonization" class="mw-redirect" title="Analysis of Western European colonialism and colonization">Western European colonialism and colonization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desacralization_of_knowledge" title="Desacralization of knowledge">Desacralization of knowledge</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Economics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_Great_Recession" title="Causes of the Great Recession">Great Recession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_Great_Depression" title="Causes of the Great Depression">Great Depression</a></li> <li>School of Thoughts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_school_of_economics" title="Historical school of economics">Historical school of economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_historical_school_of_economics" title="English historical school of economics">English historical school of economics</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_religion" title="Historiography of religion">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avestan_geography" title="Avestan geography">Avestan geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_early_Christianity" title="Historiography of early Christianity">Early Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_background_of_the_New_Testament" title="Historical background of the New Testament">Background</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_reliability_of_the_Gospels" title="Historical reliability of the Gospels">Historical reliability of the Gospels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primacy_of_Peter" title="Primacy of Peter">Primacy of Peter</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Papal_supremacy#Opposition" title="Papal supremacy">Opposition to Papal supremacy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-orthodox_Christianity" title="Proto-orthodox Christianity">Proto-orthodox Christianity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_early_Islam" title="Historiography of early Islam">Early Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Quran" title="Criticism of the Quran">Criticism of the Quran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Succession_to_Muhammad" title="Succession to Muhammad">Succession to Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_golden_age" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic golden age">Islamic golden age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kharijites#Legacy" title="Kharijites">Kharijites</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_history_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Ecclesiastical history of the Catholic Church">Ecclesiastical history of the Catholic Church</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Vatican_Council#Controversies" title="Second Vatican Council">Second Vatican Council</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hermeneutics_of_Vatican_Council_II&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hermeneutics of Vatican Council II (page does not exist)">Hermeneutics of Vatican Council II</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ermeneutica_del_Concilio_Vaticano_II" class="extiw" title="it:Ermeneutica del Concilio Vaticano II">it</a>]</span></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hesychast_controversy" title="Hesychast controversy">Hesychast controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformation#Conclusion_and_legacy" title="Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Protestantism" title="Proto-Protestantism">Proto-Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Protestantism" title="Criticism of Protestantism">Criticism of Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestant_work_ethic" title="Protestant work ethic">Protestant work ethic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesuits#Controversies" title="Jesuits">Jesuit historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Jewish_historiography" title="Modern Jewish historiography">Modern Jewish history</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Wissenschaft_des_Judentums" title="Wissenschaft des Judentums">Wissenschaft des Judentums</a></i></li></ul></li> <li>Schools of thought <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_criticism" title="Biblical criticism">Biblical criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_theology" title="Catholic theology">Catholic theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panbabylonism" title="Panbabylonism">Panbabylonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urreligion" title="Urreligion">Urreligion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditionalist_School_(perennialism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Traditionalist School (perennialism)">Perennial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religions_school" title="History of religions school">Religionsgeschichtliche Schule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_School_(history_of_religion)" title="Roman School (history of religion)">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revisionist_school_of_Islamic_studies" title="Revisionist school of Islamic studies">Revisionist school of Islamic studies</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_science" title="Historiography of science">Science</a> /<br />Technology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Merton_thesis" title="Merton thesis">Merton thesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Protestant_Ethic_and_the_Spirit_of_Capitalism" title="The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism">Protestant Ethic and Capitalism</a></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Heroic_theory_of_invention_and_scientific_development" title="Heroic theory of invention and scientific development">Heroic theory of invention and scientific development</a></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_gunpowder_and_gun_transmission" title="Historiography of gunpowder and gun transmission">Gunpowder and gun transmission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torsion_mangonel_myth" title="Torsion mangonel myth">Torsion mangonel myth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Organizations,_publications934" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Organizations, publications</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_heritage_registers" title="List of heritage registers">Heritage registers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_society" title="Historical society">Historical society</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_historical_societies" title="List of historical societies">list</a>)</li> <li><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/History_institutes" class="extiw" title="c:History institutes">History institutes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_history_journals" title="List of history journals">History journals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:History_journals" title="Template:History journals">template</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Related934" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Related</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commemorative_plaque" title="Commemorative plaque">Commemorative plaque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Documentary_film" title="Documentary film">Documentary film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hagiography" title="Hagiography">Hagiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_fiction" title="Historical fiction">Historical fiction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_realism" class="mw-redirect" title="Historical realism">Historical realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiographic_metafiction" title="Historiographic metafiction">Historiographic metafiction</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_geographic_information_system" title="Historical geographic information system">Historical geographic information system</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" 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