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href="#Consequences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Consequences </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consequences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Targets_of_denaturalization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Targets_of_denaturalization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Targets of denaturalization </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Targets_of_denaturalization-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Targets of denaturalization subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Targets_of_denaturalization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ethnic_minorities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethnic_minorities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Ethnic minorities </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethnic_minorities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_dissidents" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_dissidents"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Political dissidents </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_dissidents-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Terrorists_and_foreign_fighters" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Terrorists_and_foreign_fighters"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Terrorists and foreign fighters </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Terrorists_and_foreign_fighters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fraudulent_naturalization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fraudulent_naturalization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Fraudulent naturalization </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fraudulent_naturalization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Loss_of_ties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Loss_of_ties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Loss of ties </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Loss_of_ties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.6 Other </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Human_rights" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_rights"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Human rights </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Human_rights-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only 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.hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Denaturation_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Denaturation (disambiguation)">Denaturation</a> or <a href="/wiki/Denationalized_citizenship" title="Denationalized citizenship">Denationalized citizenship</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1984-092-26,_N%C3%BCrnberg,_Ausweisung_polnischer_Juden.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1984-092-26%2C_N%C3%BCrnberg%2C_Ausweisung_polnischer_Juden.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1984-092-26%2C_N%C3%BCrnberg%2C_Ausweisung_polnischer_Juden.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1984-092-26%2C_N%C3%BCrnberg%2C_Ausweisung_polnischer_Juden.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1984-092-26%2C_N%C3%BCrnberg%2C_Ausweisung_polnischer_Juden.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1984-092-26%2C_N%C3%BCrnberg%2C_Ausweisung_polnischer_Juden.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1984-092-26%2C_N%C3%BCrnberg%2C_Ausweisung_polnischer_Juden.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="546" /></a><figcaption>Denaturalized Polish Jews <a href="/wiki/Polenaktion" class="mw-redirect" title="Polenaktion">expelled</a> from <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg" title="Nuremberg">Nuremberg</a> in October 1938</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="background:#f0f0ff;padding:0.2em;line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Legal_status" title="Legal status">Legal status</a> of <a href="/wiki/Person" title="Person">persons</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-size:110%;"> <a href="/wiki/Birthright" title="Birthright">Birthright</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Place_of_birth" title="Place of birth">Birthplace</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Birth_aboard_aircraft_and_ships" title="Birth aboard aircraft and ships">Aboard aircraft and ships</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jus_sanguinis" title="Jus sanguinis">Jus sanguinis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jus_soli" title="Jus soli">Jus soli</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Birth_tourism" title="Birth tourism">Birth tourism</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-size:110%;"> <a href="/wiki/Nationality" title="Nationality">Nationality</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Citizenship" title="Citizenship">Citizenship</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Statelessness" title="Statelessness">missing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_citizenship" title="Multiple citizenship">multiple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transnational_citizenship" title="Transnational citizenship">transnational</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalization" title="Naturalization">Naturalization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ius_Doni" class="mw-redirect" title="Ius Doni">Ius Doni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oath_of_citizenship" title="Oath of citizenship">Oath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizenship_test" title="Citizenship test">Test</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationality_law" title="Nationality law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loss_of_citizenship" title="Loss of citizenship">Lost citizenship</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">denaturalized</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renunciation_of_citizenship" title="Renunciation of citizenship">renounced</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-size:110%;"> <a href="/wiki/Immigration" title="Immigration">Immigration</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alien_(law)" title="Alien (law)">Alien</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enemy_alien" title="Enemy alien">Enemy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminalization_of_migration" title="Criminalization of migration">Criminalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_protection" title="Diplomatic protection">Diplomatic protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expatriate" title="Expatriate">Expatriate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_worker" title="Foreign worker">Foreign worker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_immigration" title="Illegal immigration">Illegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_law" title="Immigration law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integration_of_immigrants" title="Integration of immigrants">Integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permanent_residency" title="Permanent residency">Permanent residency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refugee" title="Refugee">Refugee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_homeland" title="Right to homeland">Right to homeland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voluntary_return" title="Voluntary return">Voluntary return</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Identity_cleansing" title="Identity cleansing">Identity cleansing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_of_return" title="Right of return">Right of return</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Legal_status_of_persons" title="Template:Legal status of persons"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Legal_status_of_persons" title="Template talk:Legal status of persons"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Legal_status_of_persons" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Legal status of persons"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Denaturalization is the <a href="/wiki/Loss_of_citizenship" title="Loss of citizenship">loss of citizenship</a> against the will of the person concerned. Denaturalization is often applied to ethnic minorities and political dissidents. Denaturalization can be a penalty for actions considered criminal by the state, often only for errors in the naturalization process such as fraud. Since the <a href="/wiki/9/11_attacks" class="mw-redirect" title="9/11 attacks">9/11 attacks</a>, the denaturalization of people accused of <a href="/wiki/Terrorism" title="Terrorism">terrorism</a> has increased[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]. Because of the right to nationality, recognized by multiple international treaties including Article 15 of the <a href="/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights" title="Universal Declaration of Human Rights">Universal Declaration of Human Rights</a>, denaturalization is often considered a <a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">human rights</a> violation. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition">Definition</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Denaturalization&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definition">edit</a>]</div> Denaturalization is the case in which <a href="/wiki/Citizenship" title="Citizenship">citizenship</a> or <a href="/wiki/Nationality" title="Nationality">nationality</a> is revoked by the state against the wishes of the citizen. In practice, there may not be a clear-cut distinction between non-consensual revocation and <a href="/wiki/Renunciation_of_citizenship" title="Renunciation of citizenship">renunciation of citizenship</a>. Some sources distinguish denaturalization, as the reversal of <a href="/wiki/Naturalization" title="Naturalization">naturalization</a>, from denationalization, as the revocation of citizenship more generally.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZalc202130-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibney2017361–362-2">[2]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Denaturalization&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_citizenship" title="History of citizenship">History of citizenship</a></div> Denaturalization can be considered a new form of the ancient custom of <a href="/wiki/Banishment" class="mw-redirect" title="Banishment">banishment</a>, which decreased in use after the establishment of <a href="/wiki/Prisons" class="mw-redirect" title="Prisons">prisons</a> and the reduction in territory considered <a href="/wiki/Terra_nullius" title="Terra nullius">terra nullius</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacklin2021427–428-3">[3]</a> The British practice of <a href="/wiki/Penal_transportation" title="Penal transportation">penal transportation</a> led to 380,000 people being sent into exile in other parts of the empire through the mid-nineteenth century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETroy2019308-4">[4]</a> The modern practice of denaturalization developed in the late nineteenth century at the same time as immigration controls.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibney2017364–365-5">[5]</a> Following the growth of the <a href="/wiki/Welfare_state" title="Welfare state">welfare state</a>, <a href="/wiki/Emigration" title="Emigration">emigration</a> and denaturalization were legalized by many countries for pragmatic reasons in order to avoid having to support poor returnees.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELohr201290-6">[6]</a> The <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a> denaturalized all emigrants who had been abroad for ten years to avoid the return of unsuccessful emigrants.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELohr2012103-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaglioti2017511-8">[8]</a> Naturalized citizens who returned to their country of origin also faced loss of their new nationality as they were considered to have cut their ties with that country. In <a href="/wiki/Canadian_nationality_law" title="Canadian nationality law">Canadian nationality law</a>, this practice continued until 1974.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacklin2021427-9">[9]</a> French law allowed for denaturalization since the late nineteenth century but was rarely used before World War I.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZalc202120–21-10">[10]</a> According to the modern state system, states have a duty to admit their own nationals and may expel non-nationals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacklin2021428-11">[11]</a> Throughout much of the <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western world</a>, denaturalization laws were passed in the early twentieth century, including the <a href="/wiki/Naturalization_Act_of_1906" title="Naturalization Act of 1906">Naturalization Act of 1906</a> in the United States, French laws in 1915 and 1927, and the British <a href="/wiki/History_of_British_nationality_law#British_Nationality_and_Status_of_Aliens_Act_1914" title="History of British nationality law">Nationality and Status of Aliens Act</a> in 1914 and 1918.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeilHandler2018296-12">[12]</a> <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> enhanced scrutiny of the loyalty of naturalized citizens, leading to an increase in denaturalization;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZalc202121-13">[13]</a> nearly all belligerents used denaturalization.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaglioti2017519-14">[14]</a> In many cases, <a href="/wiki/Dissident" title="Dissident">political dissidence</a> (especially Communist beliefs) or suspected sympathy with an enemy country was the reason for denaturalization, although in practice denaturalization primarily targeted people based on their birthplace.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacklin2021428-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaglioti2017519-14">[14]</a> Denationalization laws adopted as an emergency measure during the war persisted afterwards.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaglioti2017519-14">[14]</a> The height of denaturalization was in the first half of the twentieth century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibney2017365-15">[15]</a> Sociologist <a href="/wiki/David_Scott_FitzGerald" title="David Scott FitzGerald">David Scott FitzGerald</a> states, "Racialized denationalizations accompanied expulsions and population transfers on a massive scale following the remaking of nation-states around the two world wars."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFitzGerald2017131-16">[16]</a> Two million former citizens of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a>, the "<a href="/wiki/White_%C3%A9migr%C3%A9" title="White émigré">white émigrés</a>", were denaturalized and made stateless by the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> in 1921.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaglioti2017519-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibney2017365-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZalc202129-17">[17]</a> In the Western world, denaturalization virtually disappeared after <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeilHandler2018296-12">[12]</a> Attempts to denaturalize <a href="/wiki/Japanese_Americans" title="Japanese Americans">Japanese Americans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Japanese_Canadians" title="Japanese Canadians">Japanese Canadians</a> en masse in the aftermath of the war failed due to unfavorable court rulings and changes in public opinion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacklin2021429-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibney2017365–366-19">[19]</a> Court rulings in France and the United States limited the discretionary power of denaturalization.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeilHandler2018296-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibney2017366-20">[20]</a> One argument advanced for the decrease in denaturalization is the increase in human rights norms and growing legal protection against statelessness.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeilHandler2018297-21">[21]</a> The United Kingdom, which has a high rate of denaturalization in the twenty-first century, did not denaturalize anyone between 1973 and 2002.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeilHandler2018296,_308-22">[22]</a> In 2002, it <a href="/wiki/Nationality,_Immigration_and_Asylum_Act_2002" title="Nationality, Immigration and Asylum Act 2002">changed the laws</a> so that the <a href="/wiki/Home_Secretary" title="Home Secretary">Home Secretary</a> could denaturalize individuals without passing through an independent review process prior to the denaturalization taking effect. After the law was changed, there was a surge in the number of denaturalizations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeilHandler2018297–298-23">[23]</a> The <a href="/wiki/9/11_attacks" class="mw-redirect" title="9/11 attacks">9/11 attacks</a> brought on a heightened fear of <a href="/wiki/Terrorism" title="Terrorism">terrorism</a>; governments tried to reduce any legal obstacles to the unlimited exercise of executive power deemed necessary to combat the terrorist threat.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacklin2021430-24">[24]</a> <a href="/wiki/Immigration_law" title="Immigration law">Immigration law</a> was seen as a powerful tool to exclude those people deemed threats to national security, but it could only be wielded against non-citizens. Hence, the introduction or expansion of denaturalization.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacklin2021431–432-25">[25]</a> The countries that introduced, expanded, revived, or considered denaturalization laws include Canada, France, Austria, Germany, Norway, Netherlands, Australia, Egypt, and the Gulf States.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacklin2021434-26">[26]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Consequences">Consequences</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Denaturalization&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Consequences">edit</a>]</div> Denaturalization does not necessarily result in an individual losing the right of <a href="/wiki/Legal_residence" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal residence">legal residence</a> in the country that revokes their citizenship, but it often does.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBolhuisvan_Wijk2020351-27">[27]</a> Denaturalized people are often forced to return to countries with which they have few ties with far-reaching consequences for their family, professional, and social life and well-being.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBolhuisvan_Wijk2020352-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZedner2016230-29">[29]</a> Deportation of denaturalized citizens may require lengthy legal proceedings depending on the case, and the country that they would be deported to may refuse to accept them, for example if it does not recognize them as a citizen.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBolhuisvan_Wijk2020354–356-30">[30]</a> Denaturalization of a person who is abroad usually prevents them from returning to the country.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBolhuisvan_Wijk2020358-31">[31]</a> When applied to entire ethnic groups, denaturalization is often used as part of an attempt to encourage people to leave the country.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcGarry201043-32">[32]</a> In the past, <a href="/wiki/Statelessness" title="Statelessness">statelessness</a> was mostly caused by denaturalization.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBelton201728–29-33">[33]</a> It is disputed whether denaturalization is, in effect, a penal sanction, non-penal national security measure, or something else.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPaulussen2021608-34">[34]</a> Although the majority view is to view denaturalization as punishment, criminologist Milena Tripkovic argues that denaturalization is "a <a href="/wiki/Sui_generis" title="Sui generis">sui generis</a> sanction, which seeks to relieve the polity of those members who fail to satisfy fundamental citizenship requirements".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETripkovic20211044-35">[35]</a> De facto denaturalization is effective loss of citizenship in the absence of a formal withdrawal. An example is <a href="/wiki/Temporary_exclusion_order" class="mw-redirect" title="Temporary exclusion order">temporary exclusion orders</a> that some countries issue in order to bar their own nationals from entry,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibney2017378-36">[36]</a> or <a href="/wiki/Passport" title="Passport">passport</a> revocation that is used to the same effect.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESaid20211814–1815-37">[37]</a> Hundreds of citizens of various European countries, as of 2021<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Denaturalization&action=edit">[update]</a>, are stranded in the Middle East because their government refuses to repatriate them in the absence of formal denaturalization.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESaid20211815–1816-38">[38]</a> Alternately, some countries have effectively abdicated responsibility for their citizens held in indefinite detention in <a href="/wiki/Guantanamo_Bay_detention_camp" title="Guantanamo Bay detention camp">Guantanamo Bay</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibney2017378-36">[36]</a> In many African countries and elsewhere, including the <a href="/wiki/Dominican_Republic" title="Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Texas" title="Texas">Texas</a>, officials deliberately deny the required documentation to people entitled to citizenship, which can have similar consequences as denaturalization. Other children are not registered at birth for logistical reasons.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBelton201734,_36–38-39">[39]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Targets_of_denaturalization">Targets of denaturalization</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Denaturalization&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Targets of denaturalization">edit</a>]</div> Denaturalization is often justified on grounds such as: citizenship as a privilege that can be revoked at any time by the government;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacklin20149,_53–54-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeilHandler2018305-41">[41]</a> "those whose actions demonstrate disloyalty forfeit citizenship through those actions; terrorists do not deserve citizenship; citizenship is devalued when undeserving people hold citizenship, and its value is enhanced by stripping it from undeserving citizens".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacklin2021438-42">[42]</a> Denaturalization is therefore accompanied by discourse of <a href="/wiki/Securitization_(international_relations)" title="Securitization (international relations)">securitization</a> and the belief that threats to security come from outside of the nation. The targets of denaturalization are presented as foreign even when they were born and raised in the country that stripped their citizenship.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacklin2021438–439-43">[43]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Liberal_democratic" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberal democratic">liberal democratic</a> states, denaturalization has always been rare, when compared to the number of naturalizations or even more so the number of citizens.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibney2017360-44">[44]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethnic_minorities">Ethnic minorities</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Denaturalization&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Ethnic minorities">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jews_deported_from_W%C3%BCrzburg_march_down_the_Hindenburgstrasse_from_the_Platzscher_Garten_to_the_railroad_station_4.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Jews_deported_from_W%C3%BCrzburg_march_down_the_Hindenburgstrasse_from_the_Platzscher_Garten_to_the_railroad_station_4.jpg/220px-Jews_deported_from_W%C3%BCrzburg_march_down_the_Hindenburgstrasse_from_the_Platzscher_Garten_to_the_railroad_station_4.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Jews_deported_from_W%C3%BCrzburg_march_down_the_Hindenburgstrasse_from_the_Platzscher_Garten_to_the_railroad_station_4.jpg/330px-Jews_deported_from_W%C3%BCrzburg_march_down_the_Hindenburgstrasse_from_the_Platzscher_Garten_to_the_railroad_station_4.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Jews_deported_from_W%C3%BCrzburg_march_down_the_Hindenburgstrasse_from_the_Platzscher_Garten_to_the_railroad_station_4.jpg/440px-Jews_deported_from_W%C3%BCrzburg_march_down_the_Hindenburgstrasse_from_the_Platzscher_Garten_to_the_railroad_station_4.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1190" /></a><figcaption>Jews <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Germany" title="The Holocaust in Germany">deported from Germany during the Holocaust</a> were denaturalized. Pictured, the deportation of Jews from <a href="/wiki/W%C3%BCrzburg" title="Würzburg">Würzburg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bavaria" title="Bavaria">Bavaria</a>, on 25 April 1942</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kutupalong_Refugee_Camp_(John_Owens-VOA).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Kutupalong_Refugee_Camp_%28John_Owens-VOA%29.jpg/220px-Kutupalong_Refugee_Camp_%28John_Owens-VOA%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Kutupalong_Refugee_Camp_%28John_Owens-VOA%29.jpg/330px-Kutupalong_Refugee_Camp_%28John_Owens-VOA%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Kutupalong_Refugee_Camp_%28John_Owens-VOA%29.jpg/440px-Kutupalong_Refugee_Camp_%28John_Owens-VOA%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4540" data-file-height="2549" /></a><figcaption>Refugee camp for <a href="/wiki/Rohingya" class="mw-redirect" title="Rohingya">Rohingya</a> in Bangladesh. The denaturalization of the Rohingya by Myanmar and their later expulsion caused them to become refugees.<a href="#cite_note-Farmaner-45">[45]</a></figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Romanian_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanian Jews">Romanian Jews</a> were denaturalized between 1864 and 1879 during the contested process of <a href="/wiki/Jewish_emancipation" title="Jewish emancipation">Jewish emancipation</a> in Romania, which led to an international outcry and specific protections for Romanian Jews in the 1878 <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Berlin_(1878)" title="Treaty of Berlin (1878)">Treaty of Berlin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIordachi2019266-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESiegelberg201933-47">[47]</a> In Austria-Hungary, <a href="/wiki/Romani_people" title="Romani people">Romani people</a> were often targeted with arbitrary deprivation of citizenship.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZahra2017716-48">[48]</a> The disintegration of the <a href="/wiki/Austro-Hungarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Austro-Hungarian">Austro-Hungarian</a>, Russian, and <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empires</a> after World War I and their replacement by nation-states led to the "unmixing of peoples", (a process of ethnic and national <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/dissimilation" class="extiw" title="wikt:dissimilation">"dissimilation"</a>) involving mass expulsions, de facto denaturalization, and relegation of ethnic minorities to <a href="/wiki/Second-class_citizenship" class="mw-redirect" title="Second-class citizenship">second-class citizenship</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFitzGerald2017141–142-49">[49]</a> Following the <a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide" title="Armenian genocide">Armenian genocide</a>, Turkey continued the policy of <a href="/wiki/Turkification" title="Turkification">ethnic homogenization</a> in <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a> by denaturalizing Armenians, <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_people" title="Assyrian people">Assyrians or Syriacs</a>, Greeks, and <a href="/wiki/Turkish_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Turkish Jews">Jews</a> who were abroad, and sometimes those who remained in the country.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiebisch-Gümüş2020230,_241-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiner2011371-51">[51]</a> All of the people ethnically cleansed during the <a href="/wiki/Greek%E2%80%93Turkish_population_exchange" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek–Turkish population exchange">Greek–Turkish population exchange</a> lost their original nationality.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma2020100-52">[52]</a> Turkish denaturalization of ethnic minorities was formalized by a series of decrees in the 1920s and 1930s,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMays2020187–188-53">[53]</a> and continued through World War II. By 1943, 93 percent of those denaturalized were Turkish Jews, <a href="/wiki/Turkey_and_the_Holocaust" title="Turkey and the Holocaust">putting them at high risk of dying during the Holocaust</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZalc2021226–227-54">[54]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Second_Czechoslovak_Republic" title="Second Czechoslovak Republic">Second Czechoslovak Republic</a> denaturalized <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_the_Sudetenland#Flight_and_expulsion" title="The Holocaust in the Sudetenland">Jews who fled or were expelled</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Sudetenland" title="Sudetenland">Sudetenland</a>, which had been <a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_the_Sudetenland" class="mw-redirect" title="Annexation of the Sudetenland">annexed to Germany</a> in 1938.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrankl2014551-55">[55]</a> The same year, Poland, which was trying to reduce its Jewish population, passed a law that denaturalized <a href="/wiki/Polish_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish Jews">Polish Jews</a> living abroad.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZahra2017722,_724–725-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcGarry1998622,_630-57">[57]</a> In the United States, citizenship had long been restricted to free whites and those of African descent. A number of <a href="/wiki/Indian_Americans" title="Indian Americans">Indian emigrants</a> gained American citizenship during the early 20th century by <a href="/wiki/Racial_classification_of_Indian_Americans" title="Racial classification of Indian Americans">qualifying as white</a>. However, the 1923 <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a> case <a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Bhagat_Singh_Thind" title="United States v. Bhagat Singh Thind">United States v. Bhagat Singh Thind</a> found that Indians were legally non-white and could not be considered citizens.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> As a result, the US government moved to strip naturalized Indian-Americans of their citizenship, arguing that it had been "illegally procured." A number of denaturalization cases went forward, including against <a href="/wiki/Bhagat_Singh_Thind" title="Bhagat Singh Thind">Thind</a>'s lawyer, a Californian named <a href="/wiki/Sakharam_Ganesh_Pandit" title="Sakharam Ganesh Pandit">Sakharam Ganesh Pandit</a>. However, Pandit successfully argued that he had <a href="/wiki/Equitable_estoppel" class="mw-redirect" title="Equitable estoppel">reasonably relied</a> upon his American citizenship and he would be unjustly harmed by its removal, winning his case in court.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> The federal government subsequently dropped its denaturalization cases against other Indian-Americans.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> The <a href="/w/index.php?title=1933_German_denaturalization_law&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1933 German denaturalization law (page does not exist)">1933 German denaturalization law</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gesetz_%C3%BCber_den_Widerruf_von_Einb%C3%BCrgerungen_und_die_Aberkennung_der_deutschen_Staatsangeh%C3%B6rigkeit" class="extiw" title="de:Gesetz über den Widerruf von Einbürgerungen und die Aberkennung der deutschen Staatsangehörigkeit">de</a>] initially envisioned the denaturalization of a few political dissidents living outside the country.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZalc202130-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESiegelberg2019139-62">[62]</a> All <a href="/wiki/German_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="German Jews">German Jews</a> <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Laws" title="Nuremberg Laws">lost their citizenship rights</a> in 1935<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZalc202130-1">[1]</a> and those who emigrated were denaturalized en masse, often to make it easier to <a href="/wiki/Aryanization" title="Aryanization">confiscate their property</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDean2002233–234-63">[63]</a> Most contemporaries agreed that Nazi Germany's use of denaturalization did not contravene international law.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESiegelberg2019140–141-64">[64]</a> In 1941, all Jewish emigres and German Jews who were deported to <a href="/wiki/Nazi_ghettos" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi ghettos">Nazi ghettos</a> or <a href="/wiki/Nazi_concentration_camps" title="Nazi concentration camps">concentration camps</a> were also denaturalized.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESorkin2019294-65">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFitzGerald2017142-66">[66]</a> In <a href="/wiki/German-occupied_Europe" title="German-occupied Europe">German-occupied Europe</a>, Jews who retained citizenship in a neutral or <a href="/wiki/Axis_powers" title="Axis powers">Axis</a> country were often protected from deportation and death while those who were stateless were at increased risk.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZalc2021226–227,_237-67">[67]</a> <a href="/wiki/Vichy_France" title="Vichy France">Vichy France</a> denaturalized 15,000 people, including 6,000 Jews, in order to "purify the national community"; 1,000 of these denaturalized Jews were murdered.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZalc202116,_302-68">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrubaker1998215-69">[69]</a> The Vichy denaturalization law was abrogated after the end of the war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESorkin2019310-70">[70]</a> Jews in Hungary, Romania, French Algeria, and Italy also were stripped of their citizenship.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFitzGerald2017142-66">[66]</a> At least eight million Germans were <a href="/wiki/Flight_and_expulsion_of_Germans" class="mw-redirect" title="Flight and expulsion of Germans">expelled and denaturalized</a> after World War II.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFitzGerald2017142-66">[66]</a> During the foundation of the <a href="/wiki/State_of_Israel" class="mw-redirect" title="State of Israel">State of Israel</a> in 1948, hundreds of thousands of Palestinians were effectively denaturalized and became <a href="/wiki/Palestinian_refugees" title="Palestinian refugees">refugees</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAkram2021209-71">[71]</a> In 1949, <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a> denaturalized the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Tamils_of_Sri_Lanka" title="Indian Tamils of Sri Lanka">Indian Tamils of Sri Lanka</a> and tried to deport them to India.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcGarry201043-32">[32]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Apartheid_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Apartheid South Africa">apartheid South Africa</a>, millions of <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_South_Africa" title="Ethnic groups in South Africa">black South Africans</a> were stripped of their South African nationality and made citizens of the so-called "<a href="/wiki/Bantustans" class="mw-redirect" title="Bantustans">Bantustans</a>".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFitzGerald2017143-72">[72]</a> Greece has encouraged <a href="/wiki/Slavic_Macedonians" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavic Macedonians">Slavic Macedonians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Turks_of_Greece" class="mw-redirect" title="Turks of Greece">Turks of Greece</a> to emigrate and revoked their citizenship if they left the country.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcGarry1998622–623-73">[73]</a> The denaturalization of the <a href="/wiki/Rohingya" class="mw-redirect" title="Rohingya">Rohingya</a>, an ethnic group in <a href="/wiki/Myanmar" title="Myanmar">Myanmar</a>, according to the <a href="/wiki/Burma_Citizenship_Act_of_1982" class="mw-redirect" title="Burma Citizenship Act of 1982">Burma Citizenship Act of 1982</a>, left them stateless and is cited as a constitutive element of the <a href="/wiki/Rohingya_genocide" title="Rohingya genocide">Rohingya genocide</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Farmaner-45">[45]</a> Several post-Communist countries denaturalized people who did not belong to the dominant ethnic group during the <a href="/wiki/Collapse_of_the_Eastern_Bloc" class="mw-redirect" title="Collapse of the Eastern Bloc">collapse of the Eastern Bloc</a>. In Slovenia, these people are known as "<a href="/wiki/The_Erased" title="The Erased">the Erased</a>". Latvia and Estonia's denaturalization of <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_Russians" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic Russians">ethnic Russians</a> denied citizenship to as much as a third of the population.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBelton201730,_32-74">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERangelov201427-75">[75]</a> By the 21st century, denaturalization on racial grounds became severely stigmatized. Beginning in 2013, an estimated 200,000 <a href="/wiki/Haitians_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Haitians in the Dominican Republic">Dominican citizens of Haitian descent</a> have been retroactively denaturalized in a measure that drew international criticism because it was motivated by desire to reduce the number of <a href="/wiki/Afro-Haitians" title="Afro-Haitians">black Haitians</a> in the country.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFitzGerald2017143–144-76">[76]</a> In 2019, nearly 2 million people, making up 6 percent of the population of <a href="/wiki/Assam" title="Assam">Assam</a>, were excluded from India's <a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Citizens" title="National Register of Citizens">National Register of Citizens</a>. Many people who should be entitled to Indian citizenship lack the necessary documents since birth registration is spotty and Indian law puts the burden of proof on the individual to prove their citizenship. <a href="/wiki/Bengali_Muslims" title="Bengali Muslims">Bengali Muslims</a>, many of whom are illiterate, are at the most risk of being denaturalized. People deemed non-citizens are at risk of indefinite detention.<a href="#cite_note-LSE_Blogs_2020-77">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_dissidents">Political dissidents</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Denaturalization&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Political dissidents">edit</a>]</div> Especially in the early and mid-twentieth century, the United States often used denaturalization against left-wing immigrants, such as anarchists and members of the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_USA" title="Communist Party USA">Communist Party USA</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKraut2020?-79">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibney2017363-80">[80]</a> An example of this policy was the denaturalization of anarchist <a href="/wiki/Emma_Goldman" title="Emma Goldman">Emma Goldman</a>.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> She was deported to Finland— bound for the Soviet Union—amongst a group of over 200 "aliens" in 1920.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> Legal historian <a href="/w/index.php?title=Julia_Rose_Kraut&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Julia Rose Kraut (page does not exist)">Julia Rose Kraut</a> states "ideological deportation and denaturalization punish foreigners in the United States for their beliefs, associations, and expressions through expulsion or the threat of expulsion".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKraut20206-83">[83]</a> This government retaliation against conduct protected by the <a href="/wiki/First_Amendment" class="mw-redirect" title="First Amendment">First Amendment</a> has been criticized as unconstitutional and led to court challenges.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKraut20206–7-84">[84]</a> The use of denaturalization by <a href="/wiki/Liberal_democracies" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberal democracies">liberal democracies</a> is cited by authoritarian states that employ denaturalization as a tool of <a href="/wiki/Political_repression" title="Political repression">political repression</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacklin2021434-26">[26]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Terrorists_and_foreign_fighters">Terrorists and foreign fighters</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Denaturalization&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Terrorists and foreign fighters">edit</a>]</div> Denaturalization is sometimes used against people accused of <a href="/wiki/Terrorism" title="Terrorism">terrorism</a> or taking up arms on behalf of another state. Examples include some international volunteers in the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">Spanish Civil War</a> and citizens of some Arab states, including <a href="/wiki/Osama_bin_Laden" title="Osama bin Laden">Osama bin Laden</a>, who fought in the <a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">Soviet–Afghan War</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPaulussen2021606–607-85">[85]</a> Denaturalization on this basis expanded during the early twenty-first century due to increasing terrorist attacks in Europe and the phenomenon of people traveling to the Middle East to fight for the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_State" title="Islamic State">Islamic State</a> group. Justifications for denaturalization and denial of return include <a href="/wiki/National_security" title="National security">national security</a> and the belief that joining a terrorist group is an act of disloyalty that merits denaturalization.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBolhuisvan_Wijk2020339-86">[86]</a> In some countries, denaturalization can take place only after a conviction for a terrorism-related crime; in other jurisdictions, a conviction is not required and few individuals denaturalized have been convicted of a crime.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBolhuisvan_Wijk2020349-87">[87]</a> In the scholarly literature, it is disputed that denaturalization is an effective <a href="/wiki/Counterterrorism" title="Counterterrorism">counterterrorism</a> tactic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBolhuisvan_Wijk2020340-88">[88]</a> Critics argue that it can lead to additional marginalization and further <a href="/wiki/Radicalization" title="Radicalization">radicalization</a> of the affected individual or their community.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBolhuisvan_Wijk2020340-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPaulussen2021612-89">[89]</a> According to counterterrorism researcher David Malet, "Osama Bin Laden is Exhibit A of the folly of stripping a <a href="/wiki/Foreign_fighter" title="Foreign fighter">foreign fighter</a>’s citizenship and then washing your hands and assuming the individual is no longer your problem."<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> Another consequence of denaturalization is worsening relations with third countries who view it as an illegitimate attempt to export terrorism risks.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBolhuisvan_Wijk2020365-91">[91]</a> In Iraq, suspected Islamic State militants (including foreign fighters) are often subjected to ten-minute trials that often result in the <a href="/wiki/Death_penalty" class="mw-redirect" title="Death penalty">death penalty</a>. Turkey has rejected hosting foreign fighters denaturalized by European countries, and managed to deport denaturalized Europeans back to their countries of origin.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBolhuisvan_Wijk2020362-92">[92]</a> In 2019, US <a href="/wiki/Department_of_Homeland_Security" class="mw-redirect" title="Department of Homeland Security">Department of Homeland Security</a> has employed the software ATLAS, which run on <a href="/wiki/Amazon_Cloud" class="mw-redirect" title="Amazon Cloud">Amazon Cloud</a>. It scanned more than 16.5 million of records of naturalized Americans and flagged approximately 124.000 of them for manual analysis and review by <a href="/wiki/USCIS" class="mw-redirect" title="USCIS">USCIS</a> officers regarding denaturalization.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> Some of the scanned data came from <a href="/wiki/Terrorist_Screening_Database" title="Terrorist Screening Database">Terrorist Screening Database</a> and <a href="/wiki/National_Crime_Information_Center" title="National Crime Information Center">National Crime Information Center</a>. The algorithm and the criteria for the algorithm were secret. This information was revealed through efforts of <a href="/wiki/Open_Society_Justice_Initiative" class="mw-redirect" title="Open Society Justice Initiative">Open Society Justice Initiative</a> and Muslim Advocates, a sister organization of <a href="/wiki/National_Association_of_Muslim_Lawyers" title="National Association of Muslim Lawyers">National Association of Muslim Lawyers</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fraudulent_naturalization">Fraudulent naturalization</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Denaturalization&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Fraudulent naturalization">edit</a>]</div> Many countries allow denaturalization in cases where an applicant for citizenship committed fraud during the <a href="/wiki/Naturalization" title="Naturalization">naturalization</a> process.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacklin20144-95">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibney2017363-80">[80]</a> According to legal scholar <a href="/wiki/Audrey_Macklin" title="Audrey Macklin">Audrey Macklin</a>, "The logic of citizenship revocation for fraud or misrepresentation is that it unwinds the effect of the misleading conduct and restores the situation that would have been obtained had the truth been disclosed."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacklin2021429-18">[18]</a> Denaturalization for fraud is the least controversial form of denaturalization, even when it results of statelessness.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMantu2015329-96">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibney2017363-80">[80]</a> Cases of <a href="/wiki/List_of_denaturalized_former_citizens_of_the_United_States" title="List of denaturalized former citizens of the United States">denaturalization of naturalized Americans</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreitman2005229-97">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFeigin2006579-99">[99]</a> and Canadians who had committed war crimes during World War II and lied on their applications for naturalization attracted widespread media attention, but were relatively rare.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacklin2021429-18">[18]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Loss_of_ties">Loss of ties</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Denaturalization&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Loss of ties">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Convention_on_the_Nationality_of_Married_Women" title="Convention on the Nationality of Married Women">Convention on the Nationality of Married Women</a> and <a href="/wiki/Statelessness" title="Statelessness">Statelessness</a></div> As of 2014<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Denaturalization&action=edit">[update]</a>, more than a dozen <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a> countries provide for denaturalization if a citizen resides abroad for an extended period.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacklin20144-95">[95]</a> Some countries provide for the automatic loss of nationality if a person joins a foreign military or civil service or holds public office in a different country.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESiegelberg2019133-100">[100]</a> Other countries forbid their nationals from holding <a href="/wiki/Multiple_citizenship" title="Multiple citizenship">multiple citizenship</a>, so if a person acquires citizenship of a different country, they are automatically denaturalized.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibney2017362-101">[101]</a> Until 1918, most countries denaturalized women who married foreigners.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacklin2021427-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESiegelberg2019134-102">[102]</a> In the decade after World War I, eighteen countries ended the mandatory loss of citizenship for married women.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESiegelberg2019134-102">[102]</a> Some countries continue to denaturalize women who marry foreigners, which can result in statelessness.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBelton201736-103">[103]</a> Similarly, Canada denaturalizes those born abroad to Canadian parents after the age of 28. Before they turn 28, persons born outside of Canada can reaffirm their citizenship to prevent denaturalization. This provision is little-known, however, leading to many "<a href="/wiki/Lost_Canadians" title="Lost Canadians">Lost Canadians</a>," including persons residing in Canada, who lose their citizenship. These individuals also cannot pass on their citizenship to their children, which can result in statelessness at birth.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other">Other</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Denaturalization&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Other">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/British_nationality_law" title="British nationality law">British nationality law</a></div> According to the <a href="/wiki/Immigration,_Asylum_and_Nationality_Act_2006" title="Immigration, Asylum and Nationality Act 2006">Immigration, Asylum and Nationality Act 2006</a>, the Home Secretary can revoke British nationality if "the Secretary of State is satisfied that such deprivation is conducive to the public good".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacklin2021430-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZedner2016229-105">[105]</a> The broadness of this provision has been the subject of widespread public criticism,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZedner2016229–230-106">[106]</a> and its use is not restricted cases where the individual is argued to be a threat to national security.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETroy2019316-107">[107]</a> Macklin states that the law "enables revocation where the state lacks the substantive or evidentiary basis to prosecute the individual for committing any crime".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacklin2021441-108">[108]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Human_rights">Human rights</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Denaturalization&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Human rights">edit</a>]</div> In her book <a href="/wiki/The_Origins_of_Totalitarianism" title="The Origins of Totalitarianism">The Origins of Totalitarianism</a> (1951), philosopher <a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Hannah Arendt</a> linked nationality to the "<a href="/w/index.php?title=Right_to_have_rights&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Right to have rights (page does not exist)">right to have rights</a>".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPaulussen2021609-109">[109]</a> In 1955, she argued that "No state, no matter how draconian its law, should have the right to deprive citizenship."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESiegelberg2019207-110">[110]</a> Political scientist <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Weil" title="Patrick Weil">Patrick Weil</a> and legal scholar Nicholas Handler write that "the right to be secure in one's citizenship has been a cornerstone of the postwar European liberal political order".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeilHandler2018295-111">[111]</a> Because it interferes with the right to <a href="/wiki/Nationality" title="Nationality">nationality</a>, recognized by multiple international treaties, denaturalization is a serious human rights issue. Some have argued that denaturalization resulting in statelessness is never compatible with <a href="/wiki/International_human_rights_law" title="International human rights law">international human rights law</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPaulussen2021609-109">[109]</a> Denaturalization resulting in statelessness is contrary to the 1961 <a href="/wiki/Convention_on_the_Reduction_of_Statelessness" title="Convention on the Reduction of Statelessness">Convention on the Reduction of Statelessness</a>, unless the nationality was obtained through fraud or the state filed a declaration at the time of <a href="/wiki/Ratification" title="Ratification">ratification</a> noting existing laws prescribing denaturalization for rendering services for, or received emoluments from, another state, or conduct that seriously prejudices the vital interests of that state.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBückende_Groot201838-112">[112]</a> The prohibition of statelessness leads to most denaturalization targeting holders of <a href="/wiki/Multiple_citizenship" title="Multiple citizenship">multiple citizenship</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZedner2016233-113">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacklin2021432–433-114">[114]</a> An exception is British law, which since 2014 allows denaturalization of naturalized British citizens who lack any other citizenship if the Home Secretary believes they could acquire citizenship of another country.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZedner2016233-113">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacklin2021430-24">[24]</a> Macklin states, "Notably, the Home Secretary's belief need not be correct, only reasonable."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacklin2021430-24">[24]</a> Some countries only allow the denaturalization of naturalized citizens, exempting those who are citizens from birth.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacklin2021434-26">[26]</a> Denaturalization while abroad, while intended to prevent return, does not affect the third country's right to return the person to the denationalizing state.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZedner2016237–238-115">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBelton201743-116">[116]</a> Other human rights that can be violated as a result of denaturalization include <a href="/wiki/Non-refoulement" title="Non-refoulement">non-refoulement</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ne_bis_in_idem" class="mw-redirect" title="Ne bis in idem">ne bis in idem</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBolhuisvan_Wijk2020363-117">[117]</a> Deprivation while a person is abroad raises additional issues with the right to personal security and de facto denial of the right to appeal the decision.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBolhuisvan_Wijk2020358–359,_363–364-118">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacklin2021441-108">[108]</a> This method is preferred by the British government because it minimizes accountability and in most cases is successful at permanently removing the person from British territory.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacklin2021430-24">[24]</a> The "Principles on Deprivation of Nationality as a National Security Measure"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInstitute_on_Statelessness_and_Inclusion_(ISI)2020-119">[119]</a> state that in general, "States shall not deprive persons of nationality for the purpose of safeguarding national security."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPaulussen2021609-109">[109]</a> An exception can only exist if the person is convicted of a crime related to national security and is a serious threat, and if other international law obligations are upheld, including the prohibition of statelessness, non-discrimination, <a href="/wiki/Right_to_a_fair_trial" title="Right to a fair trial">right to a fair trial</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Proportionality_(law)" title="Proportionality (law)">proportionality</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPaulussen2021609–610-120">[120]</a> Paulussen argues that, in a national security context, "deprivation of nationality can never be seen as the least intrusive means available and be necessary and proportionate".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPaulussen2021611-121">[121]</a> Others who commit the same crime but have no ties to a foreign country cannot be denaturalized, which means that in practice people are targeted for denaturalization based on their national origin, violating the principle of non-discrimination and creating a hierarchy of citizenship.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPaulussen2021611-121">[121]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Denaturalization&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 19em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZalc202130-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZalc202130_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZalc202130_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZalc202130_1-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFZalc2021">Zalc 2021</a>, p. 30. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibney2017361–362-2"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGibney2017361–362_2-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGibney2017">Gibney 2017</a>, pp. 361–362. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacklin2021427–428-3"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacklin2021427–428_3-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMacklin2021">Macklin 2021</a>, pp. 427–428. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETroy2019308-4"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETroy2019308_4-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTroy2019">Troy 2019</a>, p. 308. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibney2017364–365-5"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGibney2017364–365_5-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGibney2017">Gibney 2017</a>, pp. 364–365. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELohr201290-6"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELohr201290_6-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLohr2012">Lohr 2012</a>, p. 90. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELohr2012103-7"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELohr2012103_7-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLohr2012">Lohr 2012</a>, p. 103. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECaglioti2017511-8"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECaglioti2017511_8-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCaglioti2017">Caglioti 2017</a>, p. 511. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacklin2021427-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacklin2021427_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacklin2021427_9-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMacklin2021">Macklin 2021</a>, p. 427. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZalc202120–21-10"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZalc202120–21_10-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFZalc2021">Zalc 2021</a>, pp. 20–21. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacklin2021428-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacklin2021428_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacklin2021428_11-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMacklin2021">Macklin 2021</a>, p. 428. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeilHandler2018296-12">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeilHandler2018296_12-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeilHandler2018296_12-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeilHandler2018296_12-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFWeilHandler2018">Weil & Handler 2018</a>, p. 296. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZalc202121-13"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZalc202121_13-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFZalc2021">Zalc 2021</a>, p. 21. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECaglioti2017519-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECaglioti2017519_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECaglioti2017519_14-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECaglioti2017519_14-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECaglioti2017519_14-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFCaglioti2017">Caglioti 2017</a>, p. 519. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibney2017365-15">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGibney2017365_15-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGibney2017365_15-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGibney2017">Gibney 2017</a>, p. 365. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFitzGerald2017131-16"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFitzGerald2017131_16-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFitzGerald2017">FitzGerald 2017</a>, p. 131. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZalc202129-17"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZalc202129_17-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFZalc2021">Zalc 2021</a>, p. 29. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacklin2021429-18">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacklin2021429_18-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacklin2021429_18-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacklin2021429_18-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFMacklin2021">Macklin 2021</a>, p. 429. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibney2017365–366-19"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGibney2017365–366_19-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGibney2017">Gibney 2017</a>, pp. 365–366. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibney2017366-20"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGibney2017366_20-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGibney2017">Gibney 2017</a>, p. 366. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeilHandler2018297-21"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeilHandler2018297_21-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWeilHandler2018">Weil & Handler 2018</a>, p. 297. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeilHandler2018296,_308-22"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeilHandler2018296,_308_22-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWeilHandler2018">Weil & Handler 2018</a>, pp. 296, 308. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeilHandler2018297–298-23"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeilHandler2018297–298_23-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWeilHandler2018">Weil & Handler 2018</a>, pp. 297–298. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacklin2021430-24">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacklin2021430_24-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacklin2021430_24-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacklin2021430_24-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacklin2021430_24-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacklin2021430_24-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFMacklin2021">Macklin 2021</a>, p. 430. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacklin2021431–432-25"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacklin2021431–432_25-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMacklin2021">Macklin 2021</a>, pp. 431–432. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacklin2021434-26">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacklin2021434_26-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacklin2021434_26-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacklin2021434_26-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFMacklin2021">Macklin 2021</a>, p. 434. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBolhuisvan_Wijk2020351-27"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBolhuisvan_Wijk2020351_27-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBolhuisvan_Wijk2020">Bolhuis & van Wijk 2020</a>, p. 351. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBolhuisvan_Wijk2020352-28"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBolhuisvan_Wijk2020352_28-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBolhuisvan_Wijk2020">Bolhuis & van Wijk 2020</a>, p. 352. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZedner2016230-29"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZedner2016230_29-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFZedner2016">Zedner 2016</a>, p. 230. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBolhuisvan_Wijk2020354–356-30"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBolhuisvan_Wijk2020354–356_30-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBolhuisvan_Wijk2020">Bolhuis & van Wijk 2020</a>, pp. 354–356. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBolhuisvan_Wijk2020358-31"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBolhuisvan_Wijk2020358_31-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBolhuisvan_Wijk2020">Bolhuis & van Wijk 2020</a>, p. 358. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcGarry201043-32">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcGarry201043_32-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcGarry201043_32-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcGarry2010">McGarry 2010</a>, p. 43. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBelton201728–29-33"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBelton201728–29_33-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBelton2017">Belton 2017</a>, pp. 28–29. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPaulussen2021608-34"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPaulussen2021608_34-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPaulussen2021">Paulussen 2021</a>, p. 608. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETripkovic20211044-35"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETripkovic20211044_35-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTripkovic2021">Tripkovic 2021</a>, p. 1044. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibney2017378-36">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGibney2017378_36-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGibney2017378_36-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGibney2017">Gibney 2017</a>, p. 378. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESaid20211814–1815-37"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESaid20211814–1815_37-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSaid2021">Said 2021</a>, pp. 1814–1815. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESaid20211815–1816-38"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESaid20211815–1816_38-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSaid2021">Said 2021</a>, pp. 1815–1816. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBelton201734,_36–38-39"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBelton201734,_36–38_39-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBelton2017">Belton 2017</a>, pp. 34, 36–38. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacklin20149,_53–54-40"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacklin20149,_53–54_40-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMacklin2014">Macklin 2014</a>, pp. 9, 53–54. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeilHandler2018305-41"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeilHandler2018305_41-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWeilHandler2018">Weil & Handler 2018</a>, p. 305. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacklin2021438-42"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacklin2021438_42-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMacklin2021">Macklin 2021</a>, p. 438. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacklin2021438–439-43"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacklin2021438–439_43-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMacklin2021">Macklin 2021</a>, pp. 438–439. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGibney2017360-44"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGibney2017360_44-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGibney2017">Gibney 2017</a>, p. 360. </li> <li id="cite_note-Farmaner-45">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Farmaner_45-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Farmaner_45-1">b</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration 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mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Denaturalization&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Books">Books</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Denaturalization&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Books">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAkram2021" class="citation book cs1">Akram, Susan M. (2021). "Palestinian Nationality and "Jewish" Nationality: From the Lausanne Treaty to Today". Rethinking Statehood in Palestine. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-38563-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-38563-4"><bdi>978-0-520-38563-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Palestinian+Nationality+and+%E2%80%9CJewish%E2%80%9D+Nationality%3A+From+the+Lausanne+Treaty+to+Today&rft.btitle=Rethinking+Statehood+in+Palestine&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-0-520-38563-4&rft.aulast=Akram&rft.aufirst=Susan+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADenaturalization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBelton2017" class="citation book cs1">Belton, Kristy A. (2017). Statelessness in the Caribbean: The Paradox of Belonging in a Postnational World. University of Pennsylvania Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-9432-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-9432-3"><bdi>978-0-8122-9432-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Statelessness+in+the+Caribbean%3A+The+Paradox+of+Belonging+in+a+Postnational+World&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-8122-9432-3&rft.aulast=Belton&rft.aufirst=Kristy+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADenaturalization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrubaker1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rogers_Brubaker" title="Rogers Brubaker">Brubaker, Rogers</a> (1998). Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-25299-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-25299-8"><bdi>978-0-674-25299-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Citizenship+and+Nationhood+in+France+and+Germany&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-674-25299-8&rft.aulast=Brubaker&rft.aufirst=Rogers&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADenaturalization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFitzGerald2017" class="citation book cs1">FitzGerald, David Scott (2017). "The History of Racialized Citizenship". The Oxford Handbook of Citizenship. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-880585-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-880585-4"><bdi>978-0-19-880585-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+History+of+Racialized+Citizenship&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Citizenship&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-19-880585-4&rft.aulast=FitzGerald&rft.aufirst=David+Scott&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADenaturalization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIordachi2019" class="citation book cs1">Iordachi, Constantin (2019). Liberalism, Constitutional Nationalism, and Minorities: The Making of Romanian Citizenship, c. 1750–1918. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-40111-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-40111-2"><bdi>978-90-04-40111-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Liberalism%2C+Constitutional+Nationalism%2C+and+Minorities%3A+The+Making+of+Romanian+Citizenship%2C+c.+1750%E2%80%931918&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-90-04-40111-2&rft.aulast=Iordachi&rft.aufirst=Constantin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADenaturalization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGibney2017" class="citation book cs1">Gibney, Matthew J. (2017). "Denationalization". The Oxford Handbook of Citizenship. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-880585-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-880585-4"><bdi>978-0-19-880585-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Denationalization&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Citizenship&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-19-880585-4&rft.aulast=Gibney&rft.aufirst=Matthew+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADenaturalization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKraut2020" class="citation book cs1">Kraut, Julia Rose (2020). Threat of Dissent: A History of Ideological Exclusion and Deportation in the United States. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-97606-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-97606-1"><bdi>978-0-674-97606-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Threat+of+Dissent%3A+A+History+of+Ideological+Exclusion+and+Deportation+in+the+United+States&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-0-674-97606-1&rft.aulast=Kraut&rft.aufirst=Julia+Rose&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADenaturalization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLohr2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Eric_Lohr" title="Eric Lohr">Lohr, Eric</a> (2012). Russian Citizenship: From Empire to Soviet Union. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-06780-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-06780-6"><bdi>978-0-674-06780-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russian+Citizenship%3A+From+Empire+to+Soviet+Union&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-674-06780-6&rft.aulast=Lohr&rft.aufirst=Eric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADenaturalization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMantu2015" class="citation book cs1">Mantu, Sandra (2015). Contingent Citizenship: The Law and Practice of Citizenship Deprivation in International, European and National Perspectives. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-29300-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-29300-7"><bdi>978-90-04-29300-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Contingent+Citizenship%3A+The+Law+and+Practice+of+Citizenship+Deprivation+in+International%2C+European+and+National+Perspectives&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-90-04-29300-7&rft.aulast=Mantu&rft.aufirst=Sandra&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADenaturalization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMays2020" class="citation book cs1">Mays, Devi (2020). Forging Ties, Forging Passports: Migration and the Modern Sephardi Diaspora. Stanford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5036-1321-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5036-1321-8"><bdi>978-1-5036-1321-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Forging+Ties%2C+Forging+Passports%3A+Migration+and+the+Modern+Sephardi+Diaspora&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1-5036-1321-8&rft.aulast=Mays&rft.aufirst=Devi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADenaturalization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcGarry2010" class="citation book cs1">McGarry, John (2010). "Institutional and Policy Basis of Ethnic Domination". Political Participation of Minorities: A Commentary on International Standards and Practice. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-956998-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-956998-4"><bdi>978-0-19-956998-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Institutional+and+Policy+Basis+of+Ethnic+Domination&rft.btitle=Political+Participation+of+Minorities%3A+A+Commentary+on+International+Standards+and+Practice&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-19-956998-4&rft.aulast=McGarry&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADenaturalization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRangelov2014" class="citation book cs1">Rangelov, Iavor (2014). Nationalism and the Rule of Law: Lessons from the Balkans and Beyond. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-01219-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-01219-6"><bdi>978-1-107-01219-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nationalism+and+the+Rule+of+Law%3A+Lessons+from+the+Balkans+and+Beyond&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-107-01219-6&rft.aulast=Rangelov&rft.aufirst=Iavor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADenaturalization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSharma2020" class="citation book cs1">Sharma, Nandita (2020). Home Rule: National Sovereignty and the Separation of Natives and Migrants. Duke University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4780-0245-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4780-0245-1"><bdi>978-1-4780-0245-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Home+Rule%3A+National+Sovereignty+and+the+Separation+of+Natives+and+Migrants&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1-4780-0245-1&rft.aulast=Sharma&rft.aufirst=Nandita&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADenaturalization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSiegelberg2019" class="citation book cs1">Siegelberg, Mira L. (2019). Statelessness: A Modern History. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-24051-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-24051-3"><bdi>978-0-674-24051-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Statelessness%3A+A+Modern+History&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-0-674-24051-3&rft.aulast=Siegelberg&rft.aufirst=Mira+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADenaturalization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSorkin2019" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Sorkin" title="David Sorkin">Sorkin, David</a> (2019). Jewish Emancipation: A History Across Five Centuries. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-16494-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-16494-6"><bdi>978-0-691-16494-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jewish+Emancipation%3A+A+History+Across+Five+Centuries&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-0-691-16494-6&rft.aulast=Sorkin&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADenaturalization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZalc2021" class="citation book cs1">Zalc, Claire (2021). Denaturalized: How Thousands Lost Their Citizenship and Lives in Vichy France. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-98771-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-98771-5"><bdi>978-0-674-98771-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Denaturalized%3A+How+Thousands+Lost+Their+Citizenship+and+Lives+in+Vichy+France&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-0-674-98771-5&rft.aulast=Zalc&rft.aufirst=Claire&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADenaturalization" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Journal_articles">Journal articles</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Denaturalization&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Journal articles">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBiner2011" class="citation journal cs1">Biner, Zerrin Özlem (2011). "Multiple imaginations of the state: understanding a mobile conflict about justice and accountability from the perspective of Assyrian–Syriac communities". <a href="/wiki/Citizenship_Studies" title="Citizenship Studies">Citizenship Studies</a>. 15 (3–4): 367–379. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13621025.2011.564789">10.1080/13621025.2011.564789</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144086552">144086552</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Citizenship+Studies&rft.atitle=Multiple+imaginations+of+the+state%3A+understanding+a+mobile+conflict+about+justice+and+accountability+from+the+perspective+of+Assyrian%E2%80%93Syriac+communities&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=3%E2%80%934&rft.pages=367-379&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F13621025.2011.564789&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144086552%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Biner&rft.aufirst=Zerrin+%C3%96zlem&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADenaturalization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBolhuisvan_Wijk2020" class="citation journal cs1">Bolhuis, Maarten P.; van Wijk, Joris (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brill.com/view/journals/emil/22/3/article-p338_2.xml?language%3Den">"Citizenship Deprivation as a Counterterrorism Measure in Europe; Possible Follow-Up Scenarios, Human Rights Infringements and the Effect on Counterterrorism"</a>. European Journal of Migration and Law. 22 (3): 338–365. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F15718166-12340079">10.1163/15718166-12340079</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1388-364X">1388-364X</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:228966461">228966461</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Journal+of+Migration+and+Law&rft.atitle=Citizenship+Deprivation+as+a+Counterterrorism+Measure+in+Europe%3B+Possible+Follow-Up+Scenarios%2C+Human+Rights+Infringements+and+the+Effect+on+Counterterrorism&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=338-365&rft.date=2020&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A228966461%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1388-364X&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F15718166-12340079&rft.aulast=Bolhuis&rft.aufirst=Maarten+P.&rft.au=van+Wijk%2C+Joris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbrill.com%2Fview%2Fjournals%2Femil%2F22%2F3%2Farticle-p338_2.xml%3Flanguage%253Den&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADenaturalization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBückende_Groot2018" class="citation journal cs1">Bücken, Luca; de Groot, René (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1023263X17754036">"Deprivation of nationality under article 8 (3) of the 1961 Convention on the reduction of statelessness"</a>. Maastricht Journal of European and Comparative Law. 25 (1): 38–51. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1023263X17754036">10.1177/1023263X17754036</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:158833491">158833491</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Maastricht+Journal+of+European+and+Comparative+Law&rft.atitle=Deprivation+of+nationality+under+article+8+%283%29+of+the+1961+Convention+on+the+reduction+of+statelessness&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=38-51&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F1023263X17754036&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A158833491%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=B%C3%BCcken&rft.aufirst=Luca&rft.au=de+Groot%2C+Ren%C3%A9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1177%252F1023263X17754036&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADenaturalization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBreitman2005" class="citation book cs1">Breitman, Richard (2005). U.S. intelligence and the Nazis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-85268-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-85268-5"><bdi>978-0-521-85268-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=U.S.+intelligence+and+the+Nazis&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-521-85268-5&rft.aulast=Breitman&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADenaturalization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCaglioti2017" class="citation journal cs1">Caglioti, Daniela L. (2017). "Subjects, Citizens, and Aliens in a Time of Upheaval: Naturalizing and Denaturalizing in Europe during the First World War". 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Dean">Dean, Martin</a> (2002). "The Development and Implementation of Nazi Denaturalization and Confiscation Policy up to the Eleventh Decree to the Reich Citizenship Law". 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Richard, Mark M (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220505030730/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/projects/documents/confidential-report-provides-new-evidence-of-notorious-nazi-cases?ref=us%2523document">Striving for Accountability in the Aftermath of the Holocaust</a> (Report). The Office of Special Investigations. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/projects/documents/confidential-report-provides-new-evidence-of-notorious-nazi-cases?ref=us%2523document">the original</a> on 5 May 2022 – via The New York Times.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Striving+for+Accountability+in+the+Aftermath+of+the+Holocaust&rft.pub=The+Office+of+Special+Investigations&rft.date=2006-12&rft.aulast=Feigin&rft.aufirst=Judy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2Finteractive%2Fprojects%2Fdocuments%2Fconfidential-report-provides-new-evidence-of-notorious-nazi-cases%3Fref%3Dus%252523document&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADenaturalization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFInstitute_on_Statelessness_and_Inclusion_(ISI)2020" class="citation report cs1">Institute on Statelessness and Inclusion (ISI) (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.refworld.org/docid/5f3bf26d4.html">Principles on Deprivation of Nationality as a Security Measure</a> (Report). Retrieved 5 May 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Principles+on+Deprivation+of+Nationality+as+a+Security+Measure&rft.date=2020&rft.au=Institute+on+Statelessness+and+Inclusion+%28ISI%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.refworld.org%2Fdocid%2F5f3bf26d4.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADenaturalization" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Nationality_laws" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nationality_laws" title="Template:Nationality laws"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nationality_laws" title="Template talk:Nationality laws"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nationality_laws" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nationality laws"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Nationality_laws" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Nationality_law" title="Nationality law">Nationality laws</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By continent</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.3em; text-align:center;">Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_nationality_law" title="Algerian nationality law">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angolan_nationality_law" title="Angolan nationality law">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beninese_nationality_law" title="Beninese nationality law">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botswanan_nationality_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Botswanan nationality law">Botswana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burkinabe_nationality_law" title="Burkinabe nationality law">Burkina Faso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burundian_nationality_law" title="Burundian nationality law">Burundi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cameroonian_nationality_law" title="Cameroonian nationality law">Cameroon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cape_Verdean_nationality_law" title="Cape Verdean nationality law">Cape Verde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_African_nationality_law" title="Central African nationality law">Central African Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chadian_nationality_law" title="Chadian nationality law">Chad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comorian_nationality_law" title="Comorian nationality law">Comoros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congolese_nationality_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Congolese nationality law">Congo Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_nationality_law" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo nationality law">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Djiboutian_nationality_law" title="Djiboutian nationality law">Djibouti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_nationality_law" title="Egyptian nationality law">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equatoguinean_nationality_law" title="Equatoguinean nationality law">Equatorial Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eritrean_nationality_law" title="Eritrean nationality law">Eritrea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emaswati_nationality_law" title="Emaswati nationality law">Eswatini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_nationality_law" title="Ethiopian nationality law">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabonese_nationality_law" title="Gabonese nationality law">Gabon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gambian_nationality_law" title="Gambian nationality law">The Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghanaian_nationality_law" title="Ghanaian nationality law">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guinean_nationality_law" title="Guinean nationality law">Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bissau-Guinean_nationality_law" title="Bissau-Guinean nationality law">Guinea-Bissau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivorian_nationality_law" title="Ivorian nationality law">Ivory Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenyan_nationality_law" title="Kenyan nationality law">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basotho_nationality_law" title="Basotho nationality law">Lesotho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberian_nationality_law" title="Liberian nationality law">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libyan_nationality_law" title="Libyan nationality law">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malagasy_nationality_law" title="Malagasy nationality law">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malawian_nationality_law" title="Malawian nationality law">Malawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malian_nationality_law" title="Malian nationality law">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauritanian_nationality_law" title="Mauritanian nationality law">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauritian_nationality_law" title="Mauritian nationality law">Mauritius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moroccan_nationality_law" title="Moroccan nationality law">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozambican_nationality_law" title="Mozambican nationality law">Mozambique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Namibian_nationality_law" title="Namibian nationality law">Namibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigerien_nationality_law" title="Nigerien nationality law">Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigerian_nationality_law" title="Nigerian nationality law">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rwandan_nationality_law" title="Rwandan nationality law">Rwanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9an_nationality_law" title="São Toméan nationality law">São Tomé and Príncipe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senegalese_nationality_law" title="Senegalese nationality law">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seychellois_nationality_law" title="Seychellois nationality law">Seychelles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leonean_nationality_law" title="Sierra Leonean nationality law">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_nationality_law" title="Somali nationality law">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somaliland_citizenship_and_nationality" class="mw-redirect" title="Somaliland citizenship and nationality">Somaliland</a>3</li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_nationality_law" title="South African nationality law">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Sudanese_nationality_law" title="South Sudanese nationality law">South Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudanese_nationality_law" title="Sudanese nationality law">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanzanian_nationality_law" title="Tanzanian nationality law">Tanzania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Togolese_nationality_law" title="Togolese nationality law">Togo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_nationality_law" title="Tunisian nationality law">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugandan_nationality_law" title="Ugandan nationality law">Uganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sahrawi_citizenship_and_nationality" class="mw-redirect" title="Sahrawi citizenship and nationality">Western Sahara</a>3</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zambian_nationality_law" title="Zambian nationality law">Zambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zimbabwean_nationality_law" title="Zimbabwean nationality law">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.3em; text-align:center;">Americas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.3em; text-align:center;">North</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antiguan_and_Barbudian_nationality_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Antiguan and Barbudian nationality law">Antigua and Barbuda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bahamian_nationality_law" title="Bahamian nationality law">Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbadian_nationality_law" title="Barbadian nationality law">Barbados</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belizean_nationality_law" title="Belizean nationality law">Belize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_nationality_law" title="Canadian nationality law">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Costa_Rican_nationality_law" title="Costa Rican nationality law">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_nationality_law" title="Cuban nationality law">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominican_nationality_law" title="Dominican nationality law">Dominica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominican_Republic_nationality_law" title="Dominican Republic nationality law">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salvadoran_nationality_law" title="Salvadoran nationality law">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_nationality_law" title="Danish nationality law">Greenland (Kingdom of Denmark)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grenadian_nationality_law" title="Grenadian nationality law">Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guatemalan_nationality_law" title="Guatemalan nationality law">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Haitian_nationality_and_citizenship" title="History of Haitian nationality and citizenship">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honduran_nationality_law" title="Honduran nationality law">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamaican_nationality_law" title="Jamaican nationality law">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_nationality_law" title="Mexican nationality law">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicaraguan_nationality_law" title="Nicaraguan nationality law">Nicaragua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panamanian_nationality_law" title="Panamanian nationality law">Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kittitian_and_Nevisian_nationality_law" title="Kittitian and Nevisian nationality law">St. Kitts and Nevis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Lucian_nationality_law" title="Saint Lucian nationality law">St. Lucia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vincentian_nationality_law" title="Vincentian nationality law">St. Vincent and the Grenadines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinidadian_and_Tobagonian_nationality_law" title="Trinidadian and Tobagonian nationality law">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_nationality_law" title="United States nationality law">United States</a> (<a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rican_citizenship_and_nationality" title="Puerto Rican citizenship and nationality">Puerto Rico</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Virgin_Islander_citizenship_and_nationality" title="United States Virgin Islander citizenship and nationality">US Virgin Islands</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.3em; text-align:center;">South</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argentine_nationality_law" title="Argentine nationality law">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bolivian_nationality_law" title="Bolivian nationality law">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brazilian_nationality_law" title="Brazilian nationality law">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chilean_nationality_law" title="Chilean nationality law">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colombian_nationality_law" title="Colombian nationality law">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecuadorian_nationality_law" title="Ecuadorian nationality law">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guyanese_nationality_law" title="Guyanese nationality law">Guyana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paraguayan_nationality_law" title="Paraguayan nationality law">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peruvian_nationality_law" title="Peruvian nationality law">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surinamese_nationality_law" title="Surinamese nationality law">Suriname</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uruguayan_nationality_law" title="Uruguayan nationality law">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venezuelan_nationality_law" title="Venezuelan nationality law">Venezuela</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.3em; text-align:center;">Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afghan_nationality_law" title="Afghan nationality law">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bahraini_nationality_law" title="Bahraini nationality law">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangladeshi_nationality_law" title="Bangladeshi nationality law">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhutanese_nationality_law" title="Bhutanese nationality law">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruneian_nationality_law" title="Bruneian nationality law">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_nationality_law" title="Cambodian nationality law">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_nationality_law" title="Chinese nationality law">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Timorese_nationality_law" title="East Timorese nationality law">East Timor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_nationality_law" title="Indian nationality law">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_nationality_law" title="Indonesian nationality law">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_nationality_law" title="Iranian nationality law">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_nationality_law" title="Iraqi nationality law">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_citizenship_law" title="Israeli citizenship law">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_nationality_law" title="Japanese nationality law">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordanian_nationality_law" title="Jordanian nationality law">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazakhstani_nationality_law" title="Kazakhstani nationality law">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kyrgyzstani_nationality_law&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kyrgyzstani nationality law (page does not exist)">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuwaiti_nationality_law" title="Kuwaiti nationality law">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laotian_nationality_law&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Laotian nationality law (page does not exist)">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_nationality_law" title="Lebanese nationality law">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_nationality_law" title="Malaysian nationality law">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_nationality_law" title="Mongolian nationality law">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myanmar_nationality_law" title="Myanmar nationality law">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepali_nationality_law" title="Nepali nationality law">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Korean_nationality_law" title="North Korean nationality law">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omani_nationality_law" title="Omani nationality law">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistani_nationality_law" title="Pakistani nationality law">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Palestinian_nationality" title="History of Palestinian nationality">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_nationality_law" title="Philippine nationality law">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qatari_nationality_law" title="Qatari nationality law">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabian_nationality_law" title="Saudi Arabian nationality law">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singaporean_nationality_law" title="Singaporean nationality law">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Korean_nationality_law" title="South Korean nationality law">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Lankan_nationality_law" title="Sri Lankan nationality law">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_nationality_law" title="Syrian nationality law">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tajikistani_nationality_law&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tajikistani nationality law (page does not exist)">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_nationality_law" title="Taiwanese nationality law">Taiwan</a>3</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thai_nationality_law" title="Thai nationality law">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_nationality_law" title="Turkish nationality law">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkmen_nationality_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Turkmen nationality law">Turkmenistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emirati_nationality_law" title="Emirati nationality law">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Uzbek_nationality_law&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Uzbek nationality law (page does not exist)">Uzbekistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_passport" title="Vietnamese passport">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yemeni_nationality_law&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yemeni nationality law (page does not exist)">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.3em; text-align:center;">Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.3em; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Citizenship_of_the_European_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Citizenship of the European Union">European Union</a> and <a href="/wiki/Schengen_Area" title="Schengen Area">Schengen Area</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_nationality_law" title="Austrian nationality law">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_nationality_law" title="Belgian nationality law">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_nationality_law" title="Bulgarian nationality law">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Croatian_nationality_law" title="Croatian nationality law">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cypriot_nationality_law" title="Cypriot nationality law">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_nationality_law" title="Czech nationality law">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_nationality_law" title="Danish nationality law">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estonian_nationality_law" title="Estonian nationality law">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_nationality_law" title="Finnish nationality law">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_nationality_law" title="French nationality law">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_nationality_law" title="German nationality law">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_nationality_law" title="Greek nationality law">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_nationality_law" title="Hungarian nationality law">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icelandic_nationality_law" title="Icelandic nationality law">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_nationality_law" title="Irish nationality law">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_nationality_law" title="Italian nationality law">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latvian_nationality_law" title="Latvian nationality law">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liechtensteiner_nationality_law" title="Liechtensteiner nationality law">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_nationality_law" title="Lithuanian nationality law">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luxembourg_nationality_law" title="Luxembourg nationality law">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maltese_nationality_law" title="Maltese nationality law">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_nationality_law" title="Dutch nationality law">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_nationality_law" title="Norwegian nationality law">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_nationality_law" title="Polish nationality law">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_nationality_law" title="Portuguese nationality law">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_nationality_law" title="Romanian nationality law">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovak_nationality_law" title="Slovak nationality law">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovenian_nationality_law" title="Slovenian nationality law">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_nationality_law" title="Spanish nationality law">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_nationality_law" title="Swedish nationality law">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_nationality_law" title="Swiss nationality law">Switzerland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.3em; text-align:center;">Rest of Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_nationality_law" title="Albanian nationality law">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_nationality_law" title="Armenian nationality law">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andorran_nationality_law" title="Andorran nationality law">Andorra</a>2</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijani_nationality_law" title="Azerbaijani nationality law">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_citizenship" class="mw-redirect" title="Belarusian citizenship">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina_nationality_law" title="Bosnia and Herzegovina nationality law">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_nationality_law" title="Georgian nationality law">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kosovan_nationality_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Kosovan nationality law">Kosovo</a>3</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moldovan_nationality_law" title="Moldovan nationality law">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mon%C3%A9gasque_nationality_law" title="Monégasque nationality law">Monaco</a>2</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montenegrin_nationality_law" title="Montenegrin nationality law">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationality_law_of_North_Macedonia" title="Nationality law of North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Cyprus_citizenship" title="Northern Cyprus citizenship">Northern Cyprus</a>3</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_citizenship_law" title="Russian citizenship law">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Marino_nationality_law" title="San Marino nationality law">San Marino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_nationality_law" title="Serbian nationality law">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_nationality_law" title="Turkish nationality law">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_nationality_law" title="Ukrainian nationality law">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_nationality_law" title="British nationality law">United Kingdom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.3em; text-align:center;">Oceania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_nationality_law" title="Australian nationality law">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronesian_nationality_law" title="Micronesian nationality law">Federated States of Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fijian_nationality_law" title="Fijian nationality law">Fiji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nauruan_nationality_law" title="Nauruan nationality law">Nauru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I-Kiribati_nationality_law" class="mw-redirect" title="I-Kiribati nationality law">Kiribati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshallese_nationality_law" title="Marshallese nationality law">Marshall Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_nationality_law" title="New Zealand nationality law">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palauan_nationality_law" title="Palauan nationality law">Palau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papua_New_Guinean_nationality_law" title="Papua New Guinean nationality law">Papua New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samoan_nationality_law" title="Samoan nationality law">Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solomon_Islands_nationality_law" title="Solomon Islands nationality law">Solomon Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tongan_nationality_law" title="Tongan nationality law">Tonga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuvaluan_nationality_law" title="Tuvaluan nationality law">Tuvalu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_nationality_law" title="United States nationality law">United States</a> (<a href="/wiki/American_Samoan_citizenship_and_nationality" title="American Samoan citizenship and nationality">American Samoa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Northern_Mariana_citizenship_and_nationality" title="Northern Mariana citizenship and nationality">Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guamanian_citizenship_and_nationality" title="Guamanian citizenship and nationality">Guam</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ni-Vanuatu_nationality_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Ni-Vanuatu nationality law">Vanuatu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.3em; text-align:center;">International organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_citizen" title="Commonwealth citizen">Commonwealth of Nations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Union_citizenship" title="European Union citizenship">European Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizenship_of_the_Mercosur" title="Citizenship of the Mercosur">Mercosur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_Passport_Union" title="Nordic Passport Union">Nordic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CARICOM_Single_Market_and_Economy" title="CARICOM Single Market and Economy">Caribbean Community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Union#Migration" title="African Union">African Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By procedure</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Loss_of_citizenship" title="Loss of citizenship">Loss of citizenship</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Denaturalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renunciation_of_citizenship" title="Renunciation of citizenship">Renunciation of citizenship</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalization" title="Naturalization">Naturalization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Birth_aboard_aircraft_and_ships" title="Birth aboard aircraft and ships">Birth aboard aircraft and ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ius_sanguinis" class="mw-redirect" title="Ius sanguinis">Ius sanguinis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ius_soli" class="mw-redirect" title="Ius soli">Ius soli</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repatriation" title="Repatriation">Repatriation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By result</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Citizenship" title="Citizenship">Citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_citizenship" title="Multiple citizenship">Multiple citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passport" title="Passport">Passport</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internal_passport" title="Internal passport">Internal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permanent_residency" title="Permanent residency">Permanent residency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_of_return" title="Right of return">Right of return</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-class_citizen" title="Second-class citizen">Second-class citizen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statelessness" title="Statelessness">Statelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Travel_visa" title="Travel visa">Travel visa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Defunct</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Laws" title="Nuremberg Laws">Nazi Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_citizenship" title="Roman citizenship">Ancient Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_nationality_law" title="Soviet nationality law">Soviet Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-size:88%;"><div> <ul><li>1 <a href="/wiki/British_Overseas_Territories" title="British Overseas Territories">British Overseas Territories</a>.</li> <li>2 Open border with <a href="/wiki/Schengen_Area" title="Schengen Area">Schengen Area</a>.</li> <li>3 Partially recognized.</li> <li><img alt="" 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