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mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Jewish scholarship after destruction of Second Temple subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Jewish_scholarship_after_destruction_of_Second_Temple-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Who_influences_whom?" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Who_influences_whom?"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Who influences whom?</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Who_influences_whom?-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Karaism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Karaism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1</span> <span>Karaism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Karaism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophic_synthesis_begins" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophic_synthesis_begins"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.2</span> <span>Philosophic synthesis begins</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philosophic_synthesis_begins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jewish_philosophy_before_Maimonides" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jewish_philosophy_before_Maimonides"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Jewish philosophy before Maimonides</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Jewish_philosophy_before_Maimonides-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Jewish philosophy before Maimonides subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Jewish_philosophy_before_Maimonides-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-"Hiwi_the_Heretic"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#"Hiwi_the_Heretic""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>"Hiwi the Heretic"</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-"Hiwi_the_Heretic"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sa'adya_Gaon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sa'adya_Gaon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Sa'adya Gaon</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sa'adya_Gaon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-David_ibn_Merwan_al-Mukkamas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#David_ibn_Merwan_al-Mukkamas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>David ibn Merwan al-Mukkamas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-David_ibn_Merwan_al-Mukkamas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Samuel_ibn_Naghrillah" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Samuel_ibn_Naghrillah"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Samuel ibn Naghrillah</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Samuel_ibn_Naghrillah-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Solomon_ibn_Gabirol" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Solomon_ibn_Gabirol"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Solomon ibn Gabirol</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Solomon_ibn_Gabirol-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Abraham_bar-Hiyya_Ha-Nasi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Abraham_bar-Hiyya_Ha-Nasi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Abraham bar-Hiyya Ha-Nasi</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Abraham_bar-Hiyya_Ha-Nasi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hibat_Allah" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hibat_Allah"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Hibat Allah</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hibat_Allah-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nethan'el_al-Fayyumi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nethan'el_al-Fayyumi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.8</span> <span>Nethan'el al-Fayyumi</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nethan'el_al-Fayyumi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bahya_ben_Joseph_ibn_Paquda" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bahya_ben_Joseph_ibn_Paquda"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.9</span> <span>Bahya ben Joseph ibn Paquda</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bahya_ben_Joseph_ibn_Paquda-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Yehuda_Ha-Levi_and_the_Kuzari" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Yehuda_Ha-Levi_and_the_Kuzari"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.10</span> <span>Yehuda Ha-Levi and the Kuzari</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Yehuda_Ha-Levi_and_the_Kuzari-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Abraham_ibn_Daud" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Abraham_ibn_Daud"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.11</span> <span>Abraham ibn Daud</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Abraham_ibn_Daud-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_notable_Jewish_philosophers_pre-Maimonides" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_notable_Jewish_philosophers_pre-Maimonides"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.12</span> <span>Other notable Jewish philosophers pre-Maimonides</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_notable_Jewish_philosophers_pre-Maimonides-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Maimonides" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Maimonides"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Maimonides</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Maimonides-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medieval_Jewish_philosophy_after_Maimonides" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medieval_Jewish_philosophy_after_Maimonides"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Medieval Jewish philosophy after Maimonides</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Medieval_Jewish_philosophy_after_Maimonides-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Medieval Jewish philosophy after Maimonides subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Medieval_Jewish_philosophy_after_Maimonides-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Yosef_ben_Yehuda_of_Ceuta" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Yosef_ben_Yehuda_of_Ceuta"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Yosef ben Yehuda of Ceuta</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Yosef_ben_Yehuda_of_Ceuta-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jacob_Anatoli" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jacob_Anatoli"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Jacob Anatoli</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jacob_Anatoli-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hillel_ben_Samuel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hillel_ben_Samuel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Hillel ben Samuel</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hillel_ben_Samuel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Shemtob_Ben_Joseph_Ibn_Falaquera" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shemtob_Ben_Joseph_Ibn_Falaquera"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Shemtob Ben Joseph Ibn Falaquera</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shemtob_Ben_Joseph_Ibn_Falaquera-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Joseph_ben_Abba_Mari_ibn_Kaspi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Joseph_ben_Abba_Mari_ibn_Kaspi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Joseph ben Abba Mari ibn Kaspi</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Joseph_ben_Abba_Mari_ibn_Kaspi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gersonides" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gersonides"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6</span> <span>Gersonides</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gersonides-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Moses_Narboni" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Moses_Narboni"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.7</span> <span>Moses Narboni</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Moses_Narboni-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Isaac_ben_Sheshet_Perfet" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Isaac_ben_Sheshet_Perfet"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.8</span> <span>Isaac ben Sheshet Perfet</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Isaac_ben_Sheshet_Perfet-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hasdai_ben_Abraham_Crescas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hasdai_ben_Abraham_Crescas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.9</span> <span>Hasdai ben Abraham Crescas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hasdai_ben_Abraham_Crescas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Simeon_ben_Zemah_Duran" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Simeon_ben_Zemah_Duran"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.10</span> <span>Simeon ben Zemah Duran</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Simeon_ben_Zemah_Duran-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Joseph_Albo" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Joseph_Albo"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.11</span> <span>Joseph Albo</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Joseph_Albo-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hoter_ben_Solomon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hoter_ben_Solomon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.12</span> <span>Hoter ben Solomon</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hoter_ben_Solomon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Don_Isaac_Abravanel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Don_Isaac_Abravanel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.13</span> <span>Don Isaac Abravanel</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Don_Isaac_Abravanel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Leone_Ebreo" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Leone_Ebreo"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.14</span> <span>Leone Ebreo</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Leone_Ebreo-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticisms_of_Kabbalah" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticisms_of_Kabbalah"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.15</span> <span>Criticisms of Kabbalah</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criticisms_of_Kabbalah-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_notable_Jewish_philosophers_post-Maimonides" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_notable_Jewish_philosophers_post-Maimonides"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.16</span> <span>Other notable Jewish philosophers post-Maimonides</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_notable_Jewish_philosophers_post-Maimonides-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Renaissance_Jewish_philosophy_and_philosophers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Renaissance_Jewish_philosophy_and_philosophers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Renaissance Jewish philosophy and philosophers</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Renaissance_Jewish_philosophy_and_philosophers-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Renaissance Jewish philosophy and philosophers subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Renaissance_Jewish_philosophy_and_philosophers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Elias_ben_Moise_del_Medigo" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Elias_ben_Moise_del_Medigo"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Elias ben Moise del Medigo</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Elias_ben_Moise_del_Medigo-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Moses_Almosnino" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Moses_Almosnino"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Moses Almosnino</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Moses_Almosnino-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Moses_ben_Jehiel_Ha-Kohen_Porto-Rafa_(Rapaport)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Moses_ben_Jehiel_Ha-Kohen_Porto-Rafa_(Rapaport)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Moses ben Jehiel Ha-Kohen Porto-Rafa (Rapaport)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Moses_ben_Jehiel_Ha-Kohen_Porto-Rafa_(Rapaport)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Abraham_ben_Judah_ha-Levi_Minz" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Abraham_ben_Judah_ha-Levi_Minz"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Abraham ben Judah ha-Levi Minz</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Abraham_ben_Judah_ha-Levi_Minz-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Meir_ben_Isaac_Katzellenbogen" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Meir_ben_Isaac_Katzellenbogen"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>Meir ben Isaac Katzellenbogen</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Meir_ben_Isaac_Katzellenbogen-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Elijah_Ba'al_Shem_of_Chelm" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Elijah_Ba'al_Shem_of_Chelm"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.6</span> <span>Elijah Ba'al Shem of Chelm</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Elijah_Ba'al_Shem_of_Chelm-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eliezer_ben_Elijah_Ashkenazi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eliezer_ben_Elijah_Ashkenazi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.7</span> <span>Eliezer ben Elijah Ashkenazi</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eliezer_ben_Elijah_Ashkenazi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_notable_Renaissance_Jewish_philosophers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_notable_Renaissance_Jewish_philosophers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.8</span> <span>Other notable Renaissance Jewish philosophers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_notable_Renaissance_Jewish_philosophers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Seventeenth-century_Jewish_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Seventeenth-century_Jewish_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Seventeenth-century Jewish philosophy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Seventeenth-century_Jewish_philosophy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Seventeenth-century Jewish philosophy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Seventeenth-century_Jewish_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Yosef_Shlomo_ben_Eliyahu_Dal_Medigo" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Yosef_Shlomo_ben_Eliyahu_Dal_Medigo"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Yosef Shlomo ben Eliyahu Dal Medigo</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Yosef_Shlomo_ben_Eliyahu_Dal_Medigo-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Baruch_Spinoza" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Baruch_Spinoza"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Baruch Spinoza</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Baruch_Spinoza-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tzvi_Hirsch_ben_Yaakov_Ashkenazi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tzvi_Hirsch_ben_Yaakov_Ashkenazi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Tzvi Hirsch ben Yaakov Ashkenazi</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tzvi_Hirsch_ben_Yaakov_Ashkenazi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jacob_Emden" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jacob_Emden"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Jacob Emden</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jacob_Emden-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_seventeenth-century_Jewish_philosophers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_seventeenth-century_Jewish_philosophers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.5</span> <span>Other seventeenth-century Jewish philosophers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_seventeenth-century_Jewish_philosophers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophical_criticisms_of_Kabbalah" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophical_criticisms_of_Kabbalah"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.6</span> <span>Philosophical criticisms of Kabbalah</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philosophical_criticisms_of_Kabbalah-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eighteenth_and_nineteenth-century_Jewish_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eighteenth_and_nineteenth-century_Jewish_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Eighteenth and nineteenth-century Jewish philosophy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Eighteenth_and_nineteenth-century_Jewish_philosophy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Eighteenth and nineteenth-century Jewish philosophy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Eighteenth_and_nineteenth-century_Jewish_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Traditionalist_attitudes_towards_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Traditionalist_attitudes_towards_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Traditionalist attitudes towards philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Traditionalist_attitudes_towards_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-20th_and_21st-century_Jewish_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#20th_and_21st-century_Jewish_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>20th and 21st-century Jewish philosophy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-20th_and_21st-century_Jewish_philosophy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle 20th and 21st-century Jewish philosophy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-20th_and_21st-century_Jewish_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Jewish_existentialism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jewish_existentialism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Jewish existentialism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jewish_existentialism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jewish_rationalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jewish_rationalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Jewish rationalism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jewish_rationalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Holocaust_theology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Holocaust_theology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3</span> <span>Holocaust theology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Holocaust_theology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reconstructionist_theology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reconstructionist_theology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.4</span> <span>Reconstructionist theology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reconstructionist_theology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Process_theology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Process_theology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.5</span> <span>Process theology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Process_theology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kabbalah_and_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kabbalah_and_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.6</span> <span>Kabbalah and philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kabbalah_and_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contemporary_Jewish_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contemporary_Jewish_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.7</span> <span>Contemporary Jewish philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contemporary_Jewish_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Philosophers_who_are_associated_with_Orthodox_Judaism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophers_who_are_associated_with_Orthodox_Judaism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.7.1</span> <span>Philosophers who are associated with Orthodox Judaism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philosophers_who_are_associated_with_Orthodox_Judaism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophers_who_are_associated_with_Conservative_Judaism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophers_who_are_associated_with_Conservative_Judaism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.7.2</span> <span>Philosophers who are associated with Conservative Judaism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philosophers_who_are_associated_with_Conservative_Judaism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophers_who_are_associated_with_Reform_and_Progressive_Judaism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophers_who_are_associated_with_Reform_and_Progressive_Judaism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.7.3</span> <span>Philosophers who are associated with Reform and Progressive Judaism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philosophers_who_are_associated_with_Reform_and_Progressive_Judaism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jewish_philosophers_whose_philosophy_is_not_necessarily_focused_on_Jewish_themes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jewish_philosophers_whose_philosophy_is_not_necessarily_focused_on_Jewish_themes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.7.4</span> <span>Jewish philosophers whose philosophy is not necessarily focused on Jewish themes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jewish_philosophers_whose_philosophy_is_not_necessarily_focused_on_Jewish_themes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet 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Available in 34 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-34" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">34 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D8%A9_%D9%8A%D9%87%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="فلسفة يهودية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="فلسفة يهودية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prederouriezh_yuzev" title="Prederouriezh yuzev – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Prederouriezh yuzev" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia_jueva" title="Filosofia jueva – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Filosofia jueva" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%BCdische_Philosophie" title="Jüdische Philosophie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Jüdische Philosophie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosof%C3%ADa_jud%C3%ADa" title="Filosofía judía – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Filosofía judía" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juda_filozofio" title="Juda filozofio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Juda filozofio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87_%DB%8C%D9%87%D9%88%D8%AF%DB%8C" title="فلسفه یهودی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فلسفه یهودی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie_juive" title="Philosophie juive – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Philosophie juive" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9C%A0%EB%8C%80_%EC%B2%A0%ED%95%99" title="유대 철학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="유대 철학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juda_filozofio" title="Juda filozofio – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Juda filozofio" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filsafat_Yahudi" title="Filsafat Yahudi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Filsafat Yahudi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia_ebraica" title="Filosofia ebraica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Filosofia ebraica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%99%D7%94%D7%95%D7%93%D7%99%D7%AA" title="פילוסופיה יהודית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פילוסופיה יהודית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BA_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Еврейлік философия – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Еврейлік философия" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zsid%C3%B3_filoz%C3%B3fia" title="Zsidó filozófia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Zsidó filozófia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fil%C3%B4z%C3%B4fia_jiosy" title="Filôzôfia jiosy – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Filôzôfia jiosy" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87_%D9%8A%D9%87%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%87" title="فلسفه يهوديه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="فلسفه يهوديه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joodse_filosofie" title="Joodse filosofie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Joodse filosofie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%A6%E3%83%80%E3%83%A4%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="ユダヤ哲学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ユダヤ哲学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%B8disk_filosofi" title="Jødisk filosofi – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Jødisk filosofi" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%8A%D9%87%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%8A_%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87" title="يهودي فلسفه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="يهودي فلسفه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia_judaica" title="Filosofia judaica – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Filosofia judaica" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Еврейская философия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Еврейская философия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BDidovsk%C3%A1_filozofia" title="Židovská filozofia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Židovská filozofia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%88%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%98%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Јеврејска филозофија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Јеврејска филозофија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jevrejska_filozofija" title="Jevrejska filozofija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Jevrejska filozofija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juutalainen_filosofia" title="Juutalainen filosofia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Juutalainen filosofia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judisk_filosofi" title="Judisk filosofi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Judisk filosofi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%A4_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="யூத மெய்யியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="யூத மெய்யியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahudi_felsefesi" title="Yahudi felsefesi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Yahudi felsefesi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%84%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%84%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Єврейська філософія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Єврейська філософія" 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size:175%;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Jewish philosophy</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Guide_for_the_Perplexed_by_Maimonides.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Guide for the Perplexed"><img alt="Guide for the Perplexed" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Guide_for_the_Perplexed_by_Maimonides.jpg/175px-Guide_for_the_Perplexed_by_Maimonides.jpg" decoding="async" width="175" height="245" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Guide_for_the_Perplexed_by_Maimonides.jpg/263px-Guide_for_the_Perplexed_by_Maimonides.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Guide_for_the_Perplexed_by_Maimonides.jpg/350px-Guide_for_the_Perplexed_by_Maimonides.jpg 2x" data-file-width="549" data-file-height="768" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><span style="font-size:120%"><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Judaism" title="Hellenistic Judaism">Hellenistic</a></span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist" style="border-top:solid 1px #aaa;border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;"> <ul><li><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><b>Positions:</b> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hasmoneans" class="mw-redirect" title="Hasmoneans">Hasmonean</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Sadducees" title="Sadducees">Sadducean</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Pharisees" title="Pharisees">Pharisee</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Boethusians" title="Boethusians">Boethusian</a></li></ul></div></div></li> <li><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><b>People:</b> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristobulus_of_Alexandria" title="Aristobulus of Alexandria">Aristobulus of Alexandria</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Philo" title="Philo">Philo of Alexandria</a></li></ul></div></div></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><span style="font-size:120%"><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_the_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Jews in the Middle Ages">Medieval</a></span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist" style="border-top:solid 1px #aaa;border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;"> <ul><li><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><b>Influenced by:</b> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brethren_of_Purity" title="Brethren of Purity">Brethren of Purity</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Bajjah" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Bajjah">Ibn Bajjah (Avempace)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ismailism" class="mw-redirect" title="Ismailism">Ismaili philosophy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Kalam" title="Jewish Kalam">Jewish Kalam</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Kabbalah" title="Kabbalah">Kabbalah</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_Judaism" title="Rabbinic Judaism">Rabbinic Judaism</a></li></ul></div></div></li></ul> <ul><li><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><b>Spanish and European:</b> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hasdai_ibn_Shaprut" title="Hasdai ibn Shaprut">Hasdai ibn Shaprut</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Solomon_ibn_Gabirol" title="Solomon ibn Gabirol">Ibn Gabirol</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_bar_Hiyya" title="Abraham bar Hiyya">Abraham bar Hiyya</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Bahya_ibn_Paquda" title="Bahya ibn Paquda">Bahya ibn Paquda</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Judah_Halevi" title="Judah Halevi">Judah Halevi</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_ibn_Daud" title="Abraham ibn Daud">Abraham ibn Daud</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_ibn_Tzaddik" title="Joseph ibn Tzaddik">Joseph ibn Tzaddik</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_ibn_Ezra" title="Abraham ibn Ezra">Abraham ibn Ezra</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Nachmanides" title="Nachmanides">Nachmanides</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_ibn_Tibbon" title="Samuel ibn Tibbon">Samuel ibn Tibbon</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_ben_Judah_of_Ceuta" title="Joseph ben Judah of Ceuta">Joseph ben Judah</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Shem-Tov_ibn_Falaquera" title="Shem-Tov ibn Falaquera">Shem-Tov ibn Falaquera</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Gersonides" title="Gersonides">Gersonides</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Moses_ben_Joshua" title="Moses ben Joshua">Moses of Narbonne</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_ben_Sheshet" title="Isaac ben Sheshet">Isaac ben Sheshet</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Hasdai_Crescas" title="Hasdai Crescas">Hasdai Crescas</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Albo" title="Joseph Albo">Joseph Albo</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Elia_del_Medigo" title="Elia del Medigo">Elia del Medigo</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Judah_Minz" title="Judah Minz">Judah Minz</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Abarbanel" title="Isaac Abarbanel">Isaac Abarbanel</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Judah_Leon_Abravanel" title="Judah Leon Abravanel">Judah Leon Abravanel</a></li></ul></div></div></li></ul> <ul><li><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><b>Yemenite:</b> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natan%27el_al-Fayyumi" title="Natan'el al-Fayyumi">Natan'el al-Fayyumi</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Hoter_ben_Shlomo" title="Hoter ben Shlomo">Mansur ibn Sulayman al-Ghamari</a></li></ul></div></div></li></ul> <ul><li><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><b>Other:</b> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Israeli_ben_Solomon" title="Isaac Israeli ben Solomon">Isaac Israeli</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Saadia_Gaon" title="Saadia Gaon">Saadia Gaon</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/David_ibn_Merwan_al-Mukkamas" title="David ibn Merwan al-Mukkamas">al-Mukkamas</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Hibat_Allah_Abu%27l-Barakat_al-Baghdaadi" class="mw-redirect" title="Hibat Allah Abu'l-Barakat al-Baghdaadi">Hibat Allah Abu'l-Barakat</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Kammuna" title="Ibn Kammuna">Ibn Kammuna</a></li></ul></div></div></li></ul> <ul><li><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><b>Positions:</b> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides#Influence" title="Maimonides">Maimonidean / Anti-Maimonidean</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Kabbalists" class="mw-redirect" title="Kabbalists">Kabbalist</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Karaism" class="mw-redirect" title="Karaism">Karaism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Talmudists" class="mw-redirect" title="Talmudists">Talmudic</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Tosafists" class="mw-redirect" title="Tosafists">Tosafist</a></li></ul></div></div></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><span style="font-size:120%"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_denominations" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish denominations">Modern</a></span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist" style="border-top:solid 1px #aaa;border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;"> <ul><li><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><b>Positions:</b> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Jewish_philosophy" title="Orthodox Jewish philosophy">Orthodox</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Sephardic_Judaism" class="mw-redirect" title="Sephardic Judaism">Sephardic</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Chabad_philosophy" title="Chabad philosophy">Chabad</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Hasidic_philosophy" title="Hasidic philosophy">Chassidic</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Judaism" title="Conservative Judaism">Conservative</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Reform_Judaism" title="Reform Judaism">Reform</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_existentialism" title="Jewish existentialism">Existentialist</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Reconstructionist_Judaism" title="Reconstructionist Judaism">Reconstructionist</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_theology" title="Holocaust theology">Holocaust</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Renewal" title="Jewish Renewal">Renewal</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Hasidism" title="Neo-Hasidism">Neo-Hasidic</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Mussar_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Mussar movement">Mussar</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Dor_Daim" title="Dor Daim">Rambamist</a></li></ul></div></div></li> <li><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><b>People:</b> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Sanches" title="Francisco Sanches">Francisco Sanches</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Uriel_da_Costa" title="Uriel da Costa">Uriel da Costa</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Salomon_Maimon" title="Salomon Maimon">Salomon Maimon</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Solomon_Delmedigo" title="Joseph Solomon Delmedigo">Joseph Solomon Delmedigo</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Elijah_Ba%27al_Shem_of_Chelm" class="mw-redirect" title="Elijah Ba'al Shem of Chelm">Elijah Ba'al Shem of Chelm</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Eliezer_ben_Elijah_Ashkenazi" title="Eliezer ben Elijah Ashkenazi">Eliezer ben Elijah Ashkenazi</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Tzvi_Ashkenazi" title="Tzvi Ashkenazi">Tzvi Ashkenazi</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Emden" title="Jacob Emden">Jacob Emden</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Hirsch" title="Samuel Hirsch">Samuel Hirsch</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Shneur_Zalman_of_Liadi" title="Shneur Zalman of Liadi">Shneur Zalman of Liadi</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Simcha_Bunim_of_Peshischa" title="Simcha Bunim of Peshischa">Simcha Bunim of Peshischa</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Samson_Raphael_Hirsch" title="Samson Raphael Hirsch">Samson Raphael Hirsch</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Abendana" title="Jacob Abendana">Jacob Abendana</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Cardoso" title="Isaac Cardoso">Isaac Cardoso</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/David_Nieto" title="David Nieto">David Nieto</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Orobio_de_Castro" title="Isaac Orobio de Castro">Isaac Orobio de Castro</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Moses_Mendelssohn" title="Moses Mendelssohn">Moses Mendelssohn</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_David_Luzzatto" title="Samuel David Luzzatto">Samuel David Luzzatto</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Elijah_Benamozegh" title="Elijah Benamozegh">Elijah Benamozegh</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Moses_Hess" title="Moses Hess">Moses Hess</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Eliezer_Berkovits" title="Eliezer Berkovits">Eliezer Berkovits</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Eliyahu_Eliezer_Dessler" title="Eliyahu Eliezer Dessler">Eliyahu Dessler</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Monsieur_Chouchani" title="Monsieur Chouchani">Monsieur Chouchani</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Levinas" title="Emmanuel Levinas">Emmanuel Levinas</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Buber" title="Martin Buber">Martin Buber</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Gershom_Scholem" title="Gershom Scholem">Gershom Scholem</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Isaac_Kook" title="Abraham Isaac Kook">Abraham Isaac Kook</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_B._Soloveitchik" title="Joseph B. Soloveitchik">Joseph Soloveitchik</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Menachem_Mendel_Schneerson" title="Menachem Mendel Schneerson">Menachem Mendel Schneerson</a></li></ul></div></div></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><span style="font-size:120%">Topics</span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist" style="border-top:solid 1px #aaa;border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;"> <ul><li><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anger_in_Judaism" title="Anger in Judaism">Anger</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Jews_as_the_chosen_people" title="Jews as the chosen people">Chosen people</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_eschatology" title="Jewish eschatology">Eschatology</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethics" title="Jewish ethics">Ethics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_principles_of_faith" title="Jewish principles of faith">Faith</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Judaism" title="God in Judaism">God</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Happiness_in_Judaism" title="Happiness in Judaism">Happiness</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Holiness_in_Judaism" title="Holiness in Judaism">Holiness</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_theology" title="Holocaust theology">Holocaust</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Messiah_in_Judaism" title="Messiah in Judaism">Messiah</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Microcosm%E2%80%93macrocosm_analogy_in_Jewish_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Microcosm–macrocosm analogy in Jewish philosophy">Microcosm–macrocosm</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Tzadik" title="Tzadik">Righteousness</a></li></ul></div></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output 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.navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Jewish_philosophy" title="Template:Jewish philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Jewish_philosophy" title="Template talk:Jewish philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Jewish_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Jewish philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist" style="border-collapse:collapse;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Judaism" title="Outline of Judaism">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size:175%;"><a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Star_of_David" title="Star of David"><img alt="Star of David" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/60px-Star_of_David.svg.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/90px-Star_of_David.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/120px-Star_of_David.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="693" /></a></span> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Ten_Commandments" title="Ten Commandments"><img alt="Ten Commandments" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Lukhot_Habrit.svg/60px-Lukhot_Habrit.svg.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="71" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Lukhot_Habrit.svg/90px-Lukhot_Habrit.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Lukhot_Habrit.svg/120px-Lukhot_Habrit.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="205" data-file-height="243" /></a></span> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Temple_menorah" title="Menorah"><img alt="Menorah" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Menora.svg/70px-Menora.svg.png" decoding="async" width="70" height="59" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Menora.svg/105px-Menora.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Menora.svg/140px-Menora.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="732" data-file-height="621" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_religious_movements" title="Jewish religious movements">Movements</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Judaism" title="Orthodox Judaism">Orthodox</a><br /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haredi_Judaism" title="Haredi Judaism">Haredi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Orthodox_Judaism" title="Modern Orthodox Judaism">Modern</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Judaism" title="Conservative Judaism">Conservative</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservadox" title="Conservadox">Conservadox</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reform_Judaism" title="Reform Judaism">Reform</a></li></ul> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Karaite_Judaism" title="Karaite Judaism">Karaite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstructionist_Judaism" title="Reconstructionist Judaism">Reconstructionist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Renewal" title="Jewish Renewal">Renewal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_Judaism" title="Humanistic Judaism">Humanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haymanot" title="Haymanot">Haymanot</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Philosophy</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_principles_of_faith" title="Jewish principles of faith">Principles of faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabbalah" title="Kabbalah">Kabbalah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Messiah_in_Judaism" title="Messiah in Judaism">Messiah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethics" title="Jewish ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_as_the_chosen_people" title="Jews as the chosen people">Chosenness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Judaism" title="God in Judaism">God</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_God_in_Judaism" title="Names of God in Judaism">Names</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musar_movement" title="Musar movement">Musar movement</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Sifrei_Kodesh" title="Sifrei Kodesh">Texts</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Tanakh</a><br /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nevi%27im" title="Nevi'im">Nevi'im</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketuvim" title="Ketuvim">Ketuvim</a></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chumash_(Judaism)" title="Chumash (Judaism)">Ḥumash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siddur" title="Siddur">Siddur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piyyut" title="Piyyut">Piyutim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zohar" title="Zohar">Zohar</a></li></ul> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_literature" title="Rabbinic literature">Rabbinic</a><br /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mishnah" title="Mishnah">Mishnah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud">Talmud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midrash" title="Midrash">Midrash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tosefta" title="Tosefta">Tosefta</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">Law</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mishneh_Torah" title="Mishneh Torah">Mishneh Torah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arba%27ah_Turim" title="Arba'ah Turim">Tur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shulchan_Aruch" title="Shulchan Aruch">Shulchan Aruch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mishnah_Berurah" title="Mishnah Berurah">Mishnah Berurah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aruch_HaShulchan" title="Aruch HaShulchan">Aruch HaShulchan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashrut" title="Kashrut">Kashrut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tzniut" title="Tzniut">Tzniut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tzedakah" title="Tzedakah">Tzedakah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niddah" title="Niddah">Niddah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Laws_of_Noah" title="Seven Laws of Noah">Noahide laws</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Four_Holy_Cities" title="Four Holy Cities">Holy cities</a>/<a href="/wiki/Category:Jewish_holy_places" title="Category:Jewish holy places">places</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safed" title="Safed">Safed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebron" title="Hebron">Hebron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiberias" title="Tiberias">Tiberias</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Synagogue" title="Synagogue">Synagogue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beth_midrash" title="Beth midrash">Beth midrash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikveh" title="Mikveh">Mikveh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sukkah" title="Sukkah">Sukkah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chevra_kadisha" title="Chevra kadisha">Chevra kadisha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_in_Jerusalem" title="Temple in Jerusalem">Holy Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabernacle" title="Tabernacle">Tabernacle</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_leadership" title="Jewish leadership">Important figures</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abraham" title="Abraham">Abraham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac" title="Isaac">Isaac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacob" title="Jacob">Jacob</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moses" title="Moses">Moses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aaron" title="Aaron">Aaron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David" title="David">David</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solomon" title="Solomon">Solomon</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sarah" title="Sarah">Sarah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebecca" title="Rebecca">Rebecca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rachel" title="Rachel">Rachel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leah" title="Leah">Leah</a></li></ul> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_rabbis" title="List of rabbis">Rabbinic sages</a></b><br /><a href="/wiki/Chazal" title="Chazal">Chazal</a><br /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tannaim" title="Tannaim">Tannaim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amoraim" title="Amoraim">Amoraim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Savoraim" title="Savoraim">Savoraim</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geonim" title="Geonim">Geonim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rishonim" title="Rishonim">Rishonim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acharonim" title="Acharonim">Acharonim</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Category:Jewish_religious_occupations" title="Category:Jewish religious occupations">Religious roles</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rabbi" title="Rabbi">Rabbi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebbe" title="Rebbe">Rebbe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posek" title="Posek">Posek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazzan" title="Hazzan">Hazzan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beth_din" title="Beth din">Dayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosh_yeshiva" title="Rosh yeshiva">Rosh yeshiva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohel" title="Mohel">Mohel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kohen" title="Kohen">Kohen</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">Culture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jewish_education" title="Jewish education">education</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brit_milah" title="Brit milah">Brit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeved_habat" title="Zeved habat">Zeved habat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pidyon_haben" title="Pidyon haben">Pidyon haben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bar_and_bat_mitzvah" title="Bar and bat mitzvah">Bar and bat mitzvah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_on_marriage" title="Jewish views on marriage">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bereavement_in_Judaism" title="Bereavement in Judaism">Bereavement</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yeshiva" title="Yeshiva">Yeshiva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kollel" title="Kollel">Kollel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheder" title="Cheder">Cheder</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Ritual objects</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Torah_scroll" title="Torah scroll">Sefer Torah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tallit" title="Tallit">Tallit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tefillin" title="Tefillin">Tefillin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tzitzit" title="Tzitzit">Tzitzit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kippah" title="Kippah">Kippah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mezuzah" title="Mezuzah">Mezuzah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanukkah_menorah" title="Hanukkah menorah">Menorah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shofar" title="Shofar">Shofar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_species" title="Four species">Four species</a><br /> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Etrog" title="Etrog">Etrog</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lulav" title="Lulav">Lulav</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hadass" title="Hadass">Hadass</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Aravah_(Sukkot)" title="Aravah (Sukkot)">Arava</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kittel" title="Kittel">Kittel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gartel" title="Gartel">Gartel</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_prayer" title="Jewish prayer">Prayers</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shema" title="Shema">Shema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amidah" title="Amidah">Amidah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleinu" title="Aleinu">Aleinu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaddish" title="Kaddish">Kaddish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minyan" title="Minyan">Minyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birkat_Hamazon" title="Birkat Hamazon">Birkat Hamazon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shehecheyanu" title="Shehecheyanu">Shehecheyanu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hallel" title="Hallel">Hallel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Havdalah" title="Havdalah">Havdalah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tachanun" title="Tachanun">Tachanun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kol_Nidre" title="Kol Nidre">Kol Nidre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selichot" title="Selichot">Selichot (S'lichot)</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_holidays" title="Jewish holidays">Major holidays</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rosh_Hashanah" title="Rosh Hashanah">Rosh Hashanah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yom_Kippur" title="Yom Kippur">Yom Kippur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sukkot" title="Sukkot">Sukkot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passover" title="Passover">Pesach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shavuot" title="Shavuot">Shavuot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purim" title="Purim">Purim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanukkah" title="Hanukkah">Hanukkah</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Category:Judaism_and_other_religions" title="Category:Judaism and other religions">Other religions</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_Judaism" title="Christianity and Judaism">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_and_Judaism" title="Hinduism and Judaism">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic%E2%80%93Jewish_relations" title="Islamic–Jewish relations">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism_and_Mormonism" title="Judaism and Mormonism">Mormonism</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samaritanism" title="Samaritanism">Samaritanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Christian" title="Judeo-Christian">Judeo-Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_on_religious_pluralism" title="Jewish views on religious pluralism">Pluralism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Related topics</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Judaism" title="Criticism of Judaism">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">Antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Judaism" title="Anti-Judaism">Anti-Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_theology" title="Holocaust theology">Holocaust theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_Jewish_music" title="Religious Jewish music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_on_Jesus" title="Jewish views on Jesus">Jesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_on_Muhammad" title="Jewish views on Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="font-weight:bold;"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/14px-Star_of_David.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/21px-Star_of_David.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/28px-Star_of_David.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="693" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Judaism" title="Portal:Judaism">Judaism portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Judaism" title="Outline of Judaism">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size:180%;"><a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a> and <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="font-weight:normal;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jew_(word)" title="Jew (word)">Etymology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Who_is_a_Jew%3F" title="Who is a Jew?">Who is a Jew?</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Religion</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Judaism" title="God in Judaism">God in Judaism</a> (<a href="/wiki/Names_of_God_in_Judaism" title="Names of God in Judaism">names</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_principles_of_faith" title="Jewish principles of faith">Principles of faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitzvah" title="Mitzvah">Mitzvot</a> (<a href="/wiki/613_commandments" title="613 commandments">613</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">Halakha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shabbat" title="Shabbat">Shabbat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_holidays" title="Jewish holidays">Holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_prayer" title="Jewish prayer">Prayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tzedakah" title="Tzedakah">Tzedakah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laws_and_customs_of_the_Land_of_Israel_in_Judaism" title="Laws and customs of the Land of Israel in Judaism"><span class="wrap">Land of Israel</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brit_milah" title="Brit milah">Brit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bar_and_bat_mitzvah" title="Bar and bat mitzvah"><span class="wrap">Bar and bat mitzvah</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_on_marriage" title="Jewish views on marriage">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bereavement_in_Judaism" title="Bereavement in Judaism">Bereavement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baal_teshuva_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Baal teshuva movement">Baal teshuva</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethics" title="Jewish ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabbalah" title="Kabbalah">Kabbalah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minhag" title="Minhag">Customs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nusach_(Jewish_custom)" title="Nusach (Jewish custom)">Rites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synagogue" title="Synagogue">Synagogue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rabbi" title="Rabbi">Rabbi</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Sifrei_Kodesh" title="Sifrei Kodesh">Texts</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Tanakh</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nevi%27im" title="Nevi'im">Nevi'im</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketuvim" title="Ketuvim">Ketuvim</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud">Talmud</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mishnah" title="Mishnah">Mishnah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemara" title="Gemara">Gemara</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_literature" title="Rabbinic literature">Rabbinic</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Midrash" title="Midrash">Midrash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tosefta" title="Tosefta">Tosefta</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Targum" title="Targum">Targum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beit_Yosef_(book)" title="Beit Yosef (book)">Beit Yosef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mishneh_Torah" title="Mishneh Torah">Mishneh Torah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arba%27ah_Turim" title="Arba'ah Turim">Tur</a></li> <li><span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Shulchan_Aruch" title="Shulchan Aruch">Shulchan Aruch</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zohar" title="Zohar">Zohar</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_history" title="Jewish history">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> General</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Jewish_history" title="Timeline of Jewish history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_of_Israel" title="Land of Israel">Land of Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_name_Judea" title="Timeline of the name Judea">Name "Judea"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_antisemitism" title="History of antisemitism">Antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Judaism" title="Anti-Judaism">Anti-Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jews" title="Persecution of Jews">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_leadership" title="Jewish leadership">Leaders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Jewish_historiography" title="Modern Jewish historiography">Modern historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Jewish_population" title="Historical Jewish population">Historical population comparisons</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Israel_and_Judah" title="History of ancient Israel and Judah">Ancient Israel</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twelve_Tribes_of_Israel" title="Twelve Tribes of Israel">Twelve Tribes of Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Judah" title="Kingdom of Judah"><span class="wrap">Kingdom of Judah</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_(Samaria)" title="Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)">Kingdom of Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Jerusalem_in_Judaism" title="Jerusalem in Judaism">in Judaism</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Jerusalem" title="Timeline of Jerusalem">timeline</a>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_in_Jerusalem" title="Temple in Jerusalem"><span class="wrap">Temple in Jerusalem</span></a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Solomon%27s_Temple" title="Solomon's Temple">First</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Second_Temple" title="Second Temple">Second</a>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_captivity" title="Assyrian captivity"><span class="wrap">Assyrian captivity</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_captivity" title="Babylonian captivity"><span class="wrap">Babylonian captivity</span></a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Second_Temple_period" title="Second Temple period">Second Temple period</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yehud_Medinata" title="Yehud Medinata">Yehud Medinata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maccabean_Revolt" title="Maccabean Revolt">Maccabean Revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasmonean_dynasty" title="Hasmonean dynasty"><span class="wrap">Hasmonean dynasty</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanhedrin" title="Sanhedrin">Sanhedrin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_schisms" title="Jewish schisms">Schisms</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Pharisees" title="Pharisees">Pharisees</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sadducees" title="Sadducees">Sadducees</a>, <a href="/wiki/Essenes" title="Essenes">Essenes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zealots" title="Zealots">Zealots</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sicarii" title="Sicarii">Sicarii</a>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Temple_Judaism" title="Second Temple Judaism">Second Temple Judaism</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Judaism" title="Hellenistic Judaism">Hellenistic Judaism</a></span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish%E2%80%93Roman_wars" title="Jewish–Roman wars">Jewish–Roman wars</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/First_Jewish-Roman_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First Jewish-Roman War">Great Revolt</a></span>, <span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Diaspora_revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Diaspora revolt">Diaspora</a></span>, <span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Bar_Kokhba_revolt" title="Bar Kokhba revolt">Bar Kokhba</a></span>)</li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_period" title="Rabbinic period">Rabbinic period</a> and Middle Ages</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_Judaism" title="Rabbinic Judaism">Rabbinic Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire">History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_Judaism" title="Christianity and Judaism"><span class="wrap">Christianity and Judaism</span></a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Jews_and_Christmas" title="Jews and Christmas">Jews and Christmas</a>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_and_Judaism" title="Hinduism and Judaism"><span class="wrap">Hinduism and Judaism</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic%E2%80%93Jewish_relations" title="Islamic–Jewish relations"><span class="wrap"><span class="nowrap">Islamic–Jewish</span> relations</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_European_Jews_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="History of European Jews in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_age_of_Jewish_culture_in_Spain" title="Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain">Golden Age</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Modern era</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabbateans" title="Sabbateans">Sabbateans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_atheism" title="Jewish atheism">Jewish atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_emancipation" title="Jewish emancipation">Emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Yishuv" title="Old Yishuv">Old Yishuv</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Zionism" title="History of Zionism">Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="History of the Jews in the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">The Holocaust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Israel" title="History of Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_conflict" title="Arab–Israeli conflict"><span class="wrap"><span class="nowrap">Arab–Israeli</span> conflict</span></a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethnic_divisions" title="Jewish ethnic divisions">Communities</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews" title="Ashkenazi Jews">Ashkenazim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galician_Jews" title="Galician Jews">Galician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Litvaks" title="Litvaks">Litvak</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Jews" title="Mizrahi Jews">Mizrahim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardic_Jews" title="Sephardic Jews">Sephardim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Jews" title="Yemenite Jews">Teimanim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta_Israel" title="Beta Israel">Beta Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_Jews" title="Georgian Jews">Gruzinim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mountain_Jews" title="Mountain Jews">Juhurim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukharan_Jews" title="Bukharan Jews">Bukharim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Jews" title="Italian Jews">Italkim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romaniote_Jews" title="Romaniote Jews">Romanyotim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cochin_Jews" title="Cochin Jews">Cochinim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bene_Israel" title="Bene Israel">Bene Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berber_Jews" title="Berber Jews">Berber</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Related groups</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sephardic_Bnei_Anusim" title="Sephardic Bnei Anusim">Bnei Anusim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lemba_people" title="Lemba people">Lemba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Karaites" title="Crimean Karaites">Crimean Karaites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krymchaks" title="Krymchaks">Krymchaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaifeng_Jews" title="Kaifeng Jews">Kaifeng Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igbo_Jews" title="Igbo Jews">Igbo Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritans" title="Samaritans">Samaritans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crypto-Judaism" title="Crypto-Judaism">Crypto-Jews</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anusim" title="Anusim">Anusim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%B6nmeh" title="Dönmeh">Dönmeh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marrano" title="Marrano">Marranos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neofiti" title="Neofiti">Neofiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xueta" title="Xueta">Xueta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_tribes_of_Arabia" title="Jewish tribes of Arabia">Mosaic Arabs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subbotniks" title="Subbotniks">Subbotniks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noahidism" title="Noahidism">Noahides</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_population_by_country" title="Jewish population by country">Population</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judaism_by_country" title="Judaism by country">Judaism by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_Jews" title="Lists of Jews">Lists of Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_diaspora" title="Jewish diaspora">Diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Jewish_population_by_country" title="Historical Jewish population by country">Historical population by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_studies_of_Jews" title="Genetic studies of Jews">Genetic studies</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_and_Judaism_in_the_Land_of_Israel" title="History of the Jews and Judaism in the Land of Israel">Land of Israel</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Yishuv" title="Old Yishuv">Old Yishuv</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yishuv" title="Yishuv">New Yishuv</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_Jews" title="Israeli Jews">Israeli Jews</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Africa" title="History of the Jews in Africa">Africa</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Algeria" title="History of the Jews in Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Angola" title="History of the Jews in Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_of_Bilad_el-Sudan" title="Jews of Bilad el-Sudan">Bilad-el-Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Botswana" title="History of the Jews in Botswana">Botswana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Cameroon" title="History of the Jews in Cameroon">Cameroon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Cape_Verde" title="History of the Jews in Cape Verde">Cape Verde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Benin" title="History of the Jews in Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="History of the Jews in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Djibouti" title="History of the Jews in Djibouti">Djibouti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Egypt" title="History of the Jews in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Ethiopia" title="History of the Jews in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Eritrea" title="History of the Jews in Eritrea">Eritrea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Eswatini" title="History of the Jews in Eswatini">Eswatini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Gabon" title="History of the Jews in Gabon">Gabon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Gambia" title="History of the Jews in the Gambia">Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Ghana" title="History of the Jews in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Guinea" title="History of the Jews in Guinea">Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Guinea-Bissau" title="History of the Jews in Guinea-Bissau">Guinea-Bissau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Ivory_Coast" title="History of the Jews in Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kenya" title="History of the Jews in Kenya">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Libya" title="History of the Jews in Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_Madagascar" class="mw-redirect" title="Jews in Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Malawi" title="History of the Jews in Malawi">Malawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Mali" title="History of the Jews in Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Mauritius" title="History of the Jews in Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Moroccan_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Moroccan Jews">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Mozambique" title="History of the Jews in Mozambique">Mozambique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Namibia" title="History of the Jews in Namibia">Namibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Nigeria" title="History of the Jews in Nigeria">Nigeria</a> (<a href="/wiki/Igbo_Jews" title="Igbo Jews">Igbo</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="History of the Jews in the Republic of the Congo">Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe" title="History of the Jews in São Tomé and Príncipe">São Tomé and Príncipe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Sierra_Leone" title="History of the Jews in Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jews_in_Somalia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Jews in Somalia">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_South_Africa" title="History of the Jews in South Africa"><span class="wrap">South Africa</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Sudan" title="History of the Jews in Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Tanzania" title="History of the Jews in Tanzania">Tanzania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Tunisia" title="History of the Jews in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Uganda" title="History of the Jews in Uganda">Uganda</a> (<a href="/wiki/Abayudaya" title="Abayudaya">Abayudaya</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Zambia" title="History of the Jews in Zambia">Zambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Zimbabwe" title="History of the Jews in Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Asia</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Afghanistan" title="History of the Jews in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Bahrain" title="History of the Jews in Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Cambodia" title="History of the Jews in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_China" title="History of the Jews in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_Hong_Kong" class="mw-redirect" title="Jews in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_India" title="History of the Jews in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Indonesia" title="History of the Jews in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Iran" title="History of the Jews in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Iraq" title="History of the Jews in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_and_Judaism_in_the_Land_of_Israel" title="History of the Jews and Judaism in the Land of Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Japan" title="History of the Jews in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Jordan" title="History of the Jews in Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kazakhstan" title="History of the Jews in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kurdistan" title="History of the Jews in Kurdistan">Kurdistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kuwait" title="History of the Jews in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kyrgyzstan" title="History of the Jews in Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Lebanon" title="History of the Jews in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Malaysia" title="History of the Jews in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Mongolia" title="History of the Jews in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Myanmar" title="History of the Jews in Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism_in_Nepal" title="Judaism in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Oman" title="History of the Jews in Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Pakistan" title="History of the Jews in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Philippines" title="History of the Jews in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Qatar" title="History of the Jews in Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="History of the Jews in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_South_Korea" title="History of the Jews in South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Singapore" title="History of the Jews in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Sri_Lanka" title="History of the Jews in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Syria" title="History of the Jews in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Tajikistan" title="History of the Jews in Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_Taiwan" class="mw-redirect" title="Jews in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Thailand" title="History of the Jews in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Turkey" title="History of the Jews in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" title="History of the Jews in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Uzbekistan" title="History of the Jews in Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Vietnam" title="History of the Jews in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Jews" title="Yemenite Jews">Yemen</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Europe" title="History of the Jews in Europe">Europe</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Armenia" title="History of the Jews in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Austria" title="History of the Jews in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Azerbaijan" title="History of the Jews in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Belarus" title="History of the Jews in Belarus">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Bulgaria" title="History of the Jews in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Cyprus" title="History of the Jews in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Czech_lands" title="History of the Jews in the Czech lands">Czechia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Denmark" title="History of the Jews in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Estonia" title="History of the Jews in Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Finland" title="History of the Jews in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_France" title="History of the Jews in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_Jews" title="Georgian Jews">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Germany" title="History of the Jews in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Greece" title="History of the Jews in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Hungary" title="History of the Jews in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Italy" title="History of the Jews in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Latvia" title="History of the Jews in Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Lithuania" title="History of the Jews in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Moldova" title="History of the Jews in Moldova">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Netherlands" title="History of the Jews in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Norway" title="History of the Jews in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Poland" title="History of the Jews in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Portugal" title="History of the Jews in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Romania" title="History of the Jews in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Russia" title="History of the Jews in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Serbia" title="History of the Jews in Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Spain" title="History of the Jews in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Sweden" title="History of the Jews in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Ukraine" title="History of the Jews in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of the Jews in the United Kingdom"><span class="wrap">United Kingdom</span></a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Northern America</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Canada" title="History of the Jews in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States" title="History of the Jews in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_Greenland" title="Jews in Greenland">Greenland</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Latin_America_and_the_Caribbean" title="History of the Jews in Latin America and the Caribbean">Latin America and Caribbean</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Argentina" title="History of the Jews in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Bolivia" title="History of the Jews in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Brazil" title="History of the Jews in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Chile" title="History of the Jews in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Colombia" title="History of the Jews in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Cuba" title="History of the Jews in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="History of the Jews in the Dominican Republic"><span class="wrap">Dominican Republic</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Ecuador" title="History of the Jews in Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_El_Salvador" title="History of the Jews in El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Guyana" title="History of the Jews in Guyana">Guyana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Haiti" title="History of the Jews in Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Jamaica" title="History of the Jews in Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Mexico" title="History of the Jews in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Paraguay" title="History of the Jews in Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Peru" title="History of the Jews in Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Puerto_Rico" title="History of the Jews in Puerto Rico"><span class="wrap">Puerto Rico</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Suriname" title="History of the Jews in Suriname">Suriname</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Uruguay" title="History of the Jews in Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Venezuela" title="History of the Jews in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Oceania" title="History of the Jews in Oceania">Oceania</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Australia" title="History of the Jews in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Fiji" title="History of the Jews in Fiji">Fiji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Guam" title="History of the Jews in Guam">Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_New_Zealand" title="History of the Jews in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Palau" title="History of the Jews in Palau">Palau</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_religious_movements" title="Jewish religious movements">Denominations</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Judaism" title="Orthodox Judaism">Orthodox</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Orthodox_Judaism" title="Modern Orthodox Judaism">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haredi_Judaism" title="Haredi Judaism">Haredi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reform_Judaism" title="Reform Judaism"><span class="wrap">Reform</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Judaism" title="Conservative Judaism">Conservative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karaite_Judaism" title="Karaite Judaism">Karaite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstructionist_Judaism" title="Reconstructionist Judaism">Reconstructionist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Renewal" title="Jewish Renewal">Renewal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Science" title="Jewish Science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haymanot" title="Haymanot">Haymanot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_Judaism" title="Humanistic Judaism">Humanistic</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">Culture</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Customs</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Minyan" title="Minyan">Minyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_wedding" title="Jewish wedding">Wedding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_religious_clothing" title="Jewish religious clothing">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niddah" title="Niddah">Niddah</a></li> <li><span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Pidyon_haben" title="Pidyon haben">Pidyon haben</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashrut" title="Kashrut">Kashrut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shidduch" title="Shidduch">Shidduch</a></li> <li><span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Zeved_habat" title="Zeved habat">Zeved habat</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversion_to_Judaism" title="Conversion to Judaism"><span class="wrap">Conversion to Judaism</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aliyah" title="Aliyah">Aliyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiloni" title="Hiloni">Hiloni</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Jewish_music" title="Jewish music">Music</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_Jewish_music" title="Religious Jewish music">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_Jewish_music" title="Secular Jewish music">Secular</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Jewish_art" title="Jewish art">Art</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Jewish_art" title="Ancient Jewish art">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_theatre" title="Yiddish theatre">Yiddish theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_dance" title="Jewish dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_humor" title="Jewish humor">Humour</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Jewish_cuisine" title="Jewish cuisine">Cuisine</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Jewish_cuisine" title="American Jewish cuisine">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_cuisine#Ashkenazi" title="Jewish cuisine">Ashkenazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukharan_Jewish_cuisine" title="Bukharan Jewish cuisine">Bukharan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Jewish_cuisine" title="Ethiopian Jewish cuisine">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_cuisine" title="Israeli cuisine">Israeli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Israelite_cuisine" title="Ancient Israelite cuisine">Israelite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Jewish_cuisine" title="Mizrahi Jewish cuisine">Mizrahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardic_Jewish_cuisine" title="Sephardic Jewish cuisine">Sephardic</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Jewish_literature" title="Jewish literature">Literature</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_literature" title="Israeli literature">Israeli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_literature" title="Yiddish literature">Yiddish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_American_literature" title="Jewish American literature">American</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_languages" title="Jewish languages">Languages</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeshivish" title="Yeshivish">Yeshivish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Koine_Greek" title="Jewish Koine Greek">Jewish Koine Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yevanic_language" title="Yevanic language">Yevanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tat" title="Judeo-Tat">Judeo-Tat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_Sign_Language" title="Israeli Sign Language">Shassi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iranian_languages" title="Judeo-Iranian languages">Judaeo-Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Spanish" title="Judaeo-Spanish">Judaeo-Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Gascon" title="Judeo-Gascon">Judeo-Gascon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Jewish_Sign_Language" title="Algerian Jewish Sign Language">Ghardaïa Sign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukharian_(Judeo-Tajik_dialect)" title="Bukharian (Judeo-Tajik dialect)">Bukharian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knaanic_language" title="Knaanic language">Knaanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zarphatic_language" title="Zarphatic language">Zarphatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Italian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Italian languages">Judeo-Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Georgian" title="Judaeo-Georgian">Judaeo-Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Aramaic_languages" title="Judeo-Aramaic languages">Judeo-Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Arabic_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Arabic dialects">Judeo-Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Berber_language" title="Judeo-Berber language">Judeo-Berber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Malayalam" title="Judeo-Malayalam">Judeo-Malayalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domari_language" title="Domari language">Domari</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Judaism_and_politics" title="Judaism and politics">Politics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Jewish_political_movements" title="Jewish political movements">Jewish political movements</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Autonomism" title="Jewish Autonomism">Autonomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bundism" title="Bundism">Bundism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_feminism" title="Jewish feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_left" title="Jewish left">Leftism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_secularism" title="Jewish secularism">Secularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Territorial_Organization" title="Jewish Territorial Organization">Territorialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Agudath_Israel" title="World Agudath Israel">World Agudath Israel</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_Zionists" title="General Zionists">General</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Zionism" title="Green Zionism">Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_Zionism" title="Labor Zionism">Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kahanism" title="Kahanism">Kahanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revisionist_Maximalism" title="Revisionist Maximalism">Maximalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Zionism" title="Neo-Zionism">Neo-Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_Zionism" title="Religious Zionism">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revisionist_Zionism" title="Revisionist Zionism">Revisionist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Zionism" title="Post-Zionism">Post-Zionism</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Jews_and_Judaism" title="Category:Jews and Judaism">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Judaism" title="Portal:Judaism">Portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a 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.sidebar-phi-title{font-weight:bold;padding-bottom:0em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-phi-title a{color:black}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-phi-img{padding:0.8em 0.8em 1em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-phi-above{padding:0.5em 1.5em 0.5em;display:block;background-color:#efefef}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-phi button{padding:0 0.2em}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks philosophy-sidebar plainlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle sidebar-phi-pre">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle sidebar-phi-title"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">Philosophy</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image sidebar-phi-img"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Greek_uc_phi_icon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Greek_uc_phi_icon.svg/80px-Greek_uc_phi_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Greek_uc_phi_icon.svg/120px-Greek_uc_phi_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Greek_uc_phi_icon.svg/160px-Greek_uc_phi_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above sidebar-phi-above"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/10px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/15px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/21px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Philosophy_and_thinking" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Philosophy and thinking">Contents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy" title="Outline of philosophy">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy" title="Index of philosophy">Lists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_philosophy" title="Glossary of philosophy">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy" title="Category:Philosophy">Categories</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophical_schools_and_traditions" title="Category:Philosophical schools and traditions">Philosophies</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_by_period" title="Category:Philosophy by period">By period</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Ancient Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient Greek</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy#Philosophic_traditions_by_region" title="Outline of philosophy">By region</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_philosophy" title="Ethiopian philosophy">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubuntu_philosophy" title="Ubuntu philosophy">South Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_philosophy" title="Indonesian philosophy">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_philosophy" title="Japanese philosophy">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_philosophy" title="Korean philosophy">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_philosophy" title="Vietnamese philosophy">Vietnam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_American_philosophy" title="Indigenous American philosophy">Indigenous American</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_philosophy" title="Aztec philosophy">Aztec philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_philosophy" title="Middle Eastern philosophy">Middle Eastern philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Iranian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_philosophy" title="American philosophy">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_philosophy" title="British philosophy">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_philosophy" title="French philosophy">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_philosophy" title="German philosophy">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_philosophy" title="Italian philosophy">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_philosophy" title="Russian philosophy">Russian</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Religious_philosophy" title="Religious philosophy">By religion</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoist_philosophy" title="Taoist philosophy">Taoist</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Category:Branches_of_philosophy" title="Category:Branches of philosophy">Branches</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Meta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Science</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_philosophers" title="Lists of philosophers">Philosophers</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_aestheticians" title="List of aestheticians">Aesthetic philosophers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_epistemologists" title="List of epistemologists">Epistemologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethicists" title="List of ethicists">Ethicists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_logicians" title="List of logicians">Logicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_metaphysicians" title="List of metaphysicians">Metaphysicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_mind" title="List of philosophers of mind">Philosophers of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_sociopolitical_thinkers" title="Index of sociopolitical thinkers">Social and political philosophers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_philosophy" title="Women in philosophy">Women in philosophy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_sidebar" title="Template:Philosophy sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_sidebar" title="Template talk:Philosophy sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Jewish philosophy</b> (<a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>: <span lang="he" dir="rtl">פילוסופיה יהודית</span>) includes all <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a> carried out by <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a>, or in relation to the religion of <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a>. Until modern <i><a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a></i> (Jewish Enlightenment) and <a href="/wiki/Jewish_emancipation" title="Jewish emancipation">Jewish emancipation</a>, Jewish philosophy was preoccupied with attempts to reconcile coherent new ideas into the tradition of <a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_Judaism" title="Rabbinic Judaism">Rabbinic Judaism</a>, thus organizing emergent ideas that are not necessarily Jewish into a uniquely Jewish scholastic framework and world-view. With their acceptance into modern society, Jews with secular educations embraced or developed entirely new philosophies to meet the demands of the world in which they now found themselves. </p><p>Medieval re-discovery of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">ancient Greek philosophy</a> among the <a href="/wiki/Geonim" title="Geonim">Geonim</a> of 10th century Babylonian academies brought rationalist philosophy into <a href="/wiki/Tanakh" class="mw-redirect" title="Tanakh">Biblical</a>-<a href="/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud">Talmudic</a> Judaism. The philosophy was generally in competition with <a href="/wiki/Kabbalah" title="Kabbalah">Kabbalah</a>. Both schools would become part of classic <a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_literature" title="Rabbinic literature">rabbinic literature</a>, though the decline of scholastic <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalism</a> coincided with historical events which drew Jews to the Kabbalistic approach. For <a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews" title="Ashkenazi Jews">Ashkenazi Jews</a>, emancipation and encounter with secular thought from the 18th century onwards altered how philosophy was viewed. <a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews" title="Ashkenazi Jews">Ashkenazi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Sephardi Jews">Sephardi</a> communities had later more ambivalent interaction with secular culture than in Western Europe. In the varied responses to modernity, Jewish philosophical ideas were developed across the range of emerging <a href="/wiki/Jewish_religious_movements" title="Jewish religious movements">religious movements</a>. These developments could be seen as either continuations of or breaks from the canon of <a href="/wiki/Rabbinic" class="mw-redirect" title="Rabbinic">rabbinic</a> philosophy of the Middle Ages, as well as the other historical <a href="/wiki/Dialectic" title="Dialectic">dialectic</a> aspects of Jewish thought, and resulted in diverse contemporary Jewish attitudes to philosophical methods. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ancient_Jewish_philosophy">Ancient Jewish philosophy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Ancient Jewish philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philo_of_Alexandria">Philo of Alexandria</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Philo of Alexandria"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PhiloThevet.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/PhiloThevet.jpg/100px-PhiloThevet.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/PhiloThevet.jpg/150px-PhiloThevet.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/PhiloThevet.jpg/200px-PhiloThevet.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1635" data-file-height="1983" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Philo" title="Philo">Philo</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Philo" title="Philo">Philo</a> attempted to fuse and harmonize Greek and Jewish philosophy through allegory, which he learned from Jewish exegesis and <a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Philo attempted to make his philosophy the means of defending and justifying Jewish religious <i>truths</i>. These <i>truths</i> he regarded as fixed and determinate, and philosophy was used as an aid to <i>truth</i>, and a means of arriving at it. To this end Philo chose from philosophical tenets of Greeks, refusing those that did not harmonize with Judaism such as Aristotle's doctrine of the <i>eternity and indestructibility of the world</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Jewish_scholarship_after_destruction_of_Second_Temple">Jewish scholarship after destruction of Second Temple</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Jewish scholarship after destruction of Second Temple"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>With the Roman destruction of the <a href="/wiki/Second_Temple" title="Second Temple">Second Temple</a> in 70 CE, <a href="/wiki/Second_Temple_Judaism" title="Second Temple Judaism">Second Temple Judaism</a> was in disarray,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but Jewish traditions were preserved especially thanks to the shrewd maneuvers of <a href="/wiki/Johanan_ben_Zakai" class="mw-redirect" title="Johanan ben Zakai">Johanan ben Zakai</a>, who saved the <a href="/wiki/Sanhedrin" title="Sanhedrin">Sanhedrin</a> and moved it to <a href="/wiki/Yavne" title="Yavne">Yavne</a>. Philosophical speculation was not a central part of <a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_Judaism" title="Rabbinic Judaism">Rabbinic Judaism</a>, although some have seen the <a href="/wiki/Mishnah" title="Mishnah">Mishnah</a> as a philosophical work.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Rabbi_Akiva" title="Rabbi Akiva">Rabbi Akiva</a> has also been viewed as a philosophical figure.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His statements include: </p> <ol><li><i>"How favored is man, for he was created after an image. For in an image, Elohim made man." </i>(Gen. ix. 6)</li> <li><i>"Everything is foreseen; but freedom </i>[of will]<i> is given to every man."</i></li> <li><i>"The world is governed by mercy... but the divine decision is made by the preponderance of the good or bad in one's actions."</i></li></ol> <p>After the <a href="/wiki/Bar_Kokhba_revolt" title="Bar Kokhba revolt">Bar Kokhba revolt</a>, rabbinic scholars gathered in <a href="/wiki/Tiberias" title="Tiberias">Tiberias</a> and <a href="/wiki/Safed" title="Safed">Safed</a> to re-assemble and re-assess Judaism, its laws, theology, liturgy, beliefs and leadership structure. In 219 CE, the <a href="/wiki/Sura_Academy" title="Sura Academy">Sura Academy</a> (from which <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Kalam" title="Jewish Kalam">Jewish Kalam</a> emerged many centuries later) was founded by <a href="/wiki/Abba_Arika" class="mw-redirect" title="Abba Arika">Abba Arika</a>. For the next five centuries, Talmudic academies focused upon reconstituting Judaism and little, if any, philosophic investigation was pursued.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Who_influences_whom?"><span id="Who_influences_whom.3F"></span>Who influences whom?</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Who influences whom?"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Early_Islamic_philosophy" title="Early Islamic philosophy">Early Islamic philosophy</a></div> <p>Rabbinic Judaism had limited philosophical activity until it was challenged by <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>, Karaite Judaism, and <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>—with Tanach, Mishnah, and Talmud, there was no need for a philosophic framework. From an economic viewpoint, <a href="/wiki/Radhanite" title="Radhanite">Radhanite</a> trade dominance was being usurped by coordinated Christian and Islamic forced-conversions, and torture, compelling Jewish scholars to understand nascent economic threats. These investigations triggered new ideas and intellectual exchange among Jewish and Islamic scholars in the areas of jurisprudence, mathematics, astronomy, logic and philosophy. Jewish scholars influenced Islamic scholars and Islamic scholars influenced Jewish scholars. Contemporary scholars continue to debate who was Muslim and who was Jew—some "Islamic scholars" were "Jewish scholars" prior to forced conversion to Islam, some Jewish scholars willingly converted to Islam, such as <a href="/wiki/Abdullah_ibn_Salam" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdullah ibn Salam">Abdullah ibn Salam</a>, while others later reverted to Judaism, and still others, born and raised as Jews, were ambiguous in their religious beliefs such as <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Rawandi" title="Ibn al-Rawandi">ibn al-Rawandi</a>, although they lived according to the customs of their neighbors.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Around 700 CE, ʿAmr ibn ʿUbayd Abu ʿUthman al-Basri introduces two streams of thought that influence Jewish, Islamic and Christian scholars: </p> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/Qadariyah" title="Qadariyah">Qadariyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bahshamiyya" title="Bahshamiyya">Bahshamiyya</a> <a href="/wiki/Mu%CA%BFtazila" class="mw-redirect" title="Muʿtazila">Muʿtazila</a></li></ol> <p>The story of the Bahshamiyya Muʿtazila and Qadariyah is as important, if not more so, as the intellectual symbiosis of Judaism and Islam in Islamic Spain. </p><p>Around 733 CE, <a href="/wiki/Mar_(title)" title="Mar (title)">Mar</a> Natronai ben Habibai moves to <a href="/wiki/Kairouan" title="Kairouan">Kairouan</a>, then to Spain, transcribing the <a href="/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud">Talmud</a> <i>Bavli</i> for the Academy at Kairouan from memory—later taking a copy with him to Spain.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Karaism">Karaism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Karaism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Karaite_Judaism" title="Karaite Judaism">Karaite Judaism</a></div> <p>Borrowing from the <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)" title="Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)">Mutakallamin</a> of <a href="/wiki/Basra" title="Basra">Basra</a>, the Karaites were the first Jewish group to subject Judaism to <i>Muʿtazila</i>. Rejecting the Talmud and rabbinical tradition, Karaites took liberty to reinterpret the <a href="/wiki/Tanakh" class="mw-redirect" title="Tanakh">Tanakh</a>. This meant abandoning foundational Jewish belief structures. Some scholars suggest that the major impetus for the formation of Karaism was a reaction to the rapid rise of Shi'i Islam, which recognized Judaism as a fellow monotheistic faith but claimed that it detracted from monotheism by deferring to rabbinic authority. Karaites absorbed certain aspects of Jewish sects such as the followers of <a href="/wiki/Abu_Isa" title="Abu Isa">Abu Isa</a> (Shi'ism), <a href="/wiki/Maliki" class="mw-redirect" title="Maliki">Maliki</a> (Sunnis) and Yudghanites (Sufis), who were influenced by East-Islamic scholarship yet deferred to the <a href="/wiki/Ash%27ari" class="mw-redirect" title="Ash'ari">Ash'ari</a> when contemplating the sciences.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Philosophic_synthesis_begins">Philosophic synthesis begins</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Philosophic synthesis begins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)" title="Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)">Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238443738">.mw-parser-output .locmap .od{position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .id{position:absolute;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .locmap .l0{font-size:0;position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv{line-height:110%;position:absolute;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv>div{display:inline;padding:1px}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:left}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pv>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pl>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pr>div{background:#fff!important;color:#000!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .locmap{filter:grayscale(0.6)}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data .locmap div{background:transparent!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .locmap{filter:grayscale(0.6)}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pv>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pl>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pr>div{background:white!important;color:#000!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data .locmap div{background:transparent!important}}</style><div class="locmap noviewer noresize thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:152px"><div style="position:relative;width:150px;border:1px solid lightgray"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Iraq_adm_location_map.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Jewish philosophy is located in Iraq"><img alt="Jewish philosophy is located in Iraq" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Iraq_adm_location_map.svg/150px-Iraq_adm_location_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Iraq_adm_location_map.svg/225px-Iraq_adm_location_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Iraq_adm_location_map.svg/300px-Iraq_adm_location_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1240" data-file-height="1263" /></a></span><div class="od notheme" style="top:46.032%;left:46.781%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Pumbedita"><img alt="Pumbedita" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pl" style="width:6em;right:5px"><div><a href="/wiki/Pumbedita" title="Pumbedita">Pumbedita</a></div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:62.548%;left:57.619%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Sura"><img alt="Sura" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pl" style="width:6em;right:5px"><div><a href="/wiki/Sura_(city)" title="Sura (city)">Sura</a></div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:47.043%;left:57.352%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Baghdad"><img alt="Baghdad" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div><a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a></div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:77.419%;left:89.676%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Basra"><img alt="Basra" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pl" style="width:6em;right:5px"><div><a href="/wiki/Basra" title="Basra">Basra</a></div></div></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Iraq_adm_location_map.svg" title="File:Iraq adm location map.svg">class=notpageimage| </a></div><a href="/wiki/Asuristan" class="mw-redirect" title="Asuristan">Asuristan</a> (shown: modern <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>), also called <a href="/wiki/Talmudic_Academies_in_Babylonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Talmudic Academies in Babylonia">Babylonia</a>: Centers of Ancient Jewish scholarship</div></div></div> <p>The spread of Islam throughout the Middle East and North Africa rendered Muslim all that was once Jewish. Greek philosophy, science, medicine and mathematics was absorbed by Jewish scholars living in the Arab world due to Arabic translations of those texts; remnants of the <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Alexandria" title="Library of Alexandria">Library of Alexandria</a>. Early Jewish converts to Islam brought with them stories from their heritage, known as <i><a href="/wiki/Isra%27iliyyat" class="mw-redirect" title="Isra'iliyyat">Isra'iliyyat</a></i>, which told of the <i>Banu Isra'il</i>, the pious men of ancient Israel. One of the most famous early mystics of <a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Sufism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hasan_of_Basra" class="mw-redirect" title="Hasan of Basra">Hasan of Basra</a>, introduced numerous <i>Isra'iliyyat</i> legends into Islamic scholarship, stories that went on to become representative of Islamic mystical ideas of piety of Sufism. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Hai_Gaon" class="mw-redirect" title="Hai Gaon">Hai Gaon</a> of <a href="/wiki/Pumbedita_Academy" title="Pumbedita Academy">Pumbedita Academy</a> begins a new phase in Jewish scholarship and investigation (<i>hakirah</i>); Hai Gaon augments Talmudic scholarship with non-Jewish studies. Hai Gaon was a savant with an exact knowledge of the theological movements of his time so much so that <a href="/wiki/Moses_ibn_Ezra" title="Moses ibn Ezra">Moses ibn Ezra</a> called him a <a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">mutakallim</a>. Hai was competent to argue with followers of Qadariyyah and Mutazilites, sometimes adopting their polemic methods. Through correspondence with Talmudic Academies at Kairouan, Cordoba and Lucena, Hai Gaon passes along his discoveries to Talmudic scholars therein. </p><p>The teachings of the <a href="/wiki/Brethren_of_Purity" title="Brethren of Purity">Brethren of Purity</a> were carried to the West by the Cordovan <a href="/wiki/Hadith_scholar" class="mw-redirect" title="Hadith scholar">hadith scholar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alchemy_and_chemistry_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Alchemy and chemistry in the medieval Islamic world">alchemist</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Maslama_al-Qurtubi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Maslama al-Qurtubi (page does not exist)">Maslama al-Qurṭubī</a> (died 964),<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> where they would be of central importance to the <a href="/wiki/Golden_age_of_Jewish_culture_in_Spain" title="Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain">Jewish philosophers of Islamic Spain</a>. One of the themes emphasized by the Brethren of Purity and adopted by most Spanish Jewish philosophers is the <a href="/wiki/Microcosm-macrocosm_analogy_in_Jewish_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Microcosm-macrocosm analogy in Jewish philosophy">microcosm-macrocosm analogy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From the 10th century on, Spain became a center of philosophical learning as is reflected by the explosion of philosophical inquiry among Jews, Muslims and Christians.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Jewish_philosophy_before_Maimonides">Jewish philosophy before Maimonides</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Jewish philosophy before Maimonides"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id=""Hiwi_the_Heretic""><span id=".22Hiwi_the_Heretic.22"></span>"Hiwi the Heretic"</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: "Hiwi the Heretic""><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to Sa'adya Gaon, the Jewish community of <a href="/wiki/Balkh" title="Balkh">Balkh</a> (Afghanistan) was divided into two groups: "Jews" and "people that are called Jews"; <a href="/wiki/Hiwi_al-Balkhi" title="Hiwi al-Balkhi">Hiwi al-Balkhi</a> was a member of the latter. Hiwi is generally considered to be the very first "Jewish" philosopher to subject the Pentateuch to critical analysis.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hiwi is viewed by some scholars as an intellectually conflicted man torn between Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Gnostic Christianity, and Manichaean thought.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Hiwi espoused the belief that miraculous acts, described in the Pentateuch, are simply examples of people using their skills of reasoning to undertake, and perform, seemingly miraculous acts.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As examples of this position, he argued that the parting of the Red Sea was a natural phenomenon, and that Moses' claim to greatness lay merely in his ability to calculate the right moment for the crossing. He also emphasized that the Egyptian magicians were able to reproduce several of Moses' "miracles," proving that they could not have been so unique. According to scholars, Hiwi's gravest mistake was having the Pentateuch redacted to reflect his own views - then had those redacted texts, which became popular, distributed to children.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since his views contradicted the views of both Rabbanite and Karaite scholars, Hiwi was declared a heretic. In this context, however, we can also regard Hiwi, while flawed, as the very first critical biblical commentator; zealous rationalistic views of Hiwi parallel those of <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Rawandi" title="Ibn al-Rawandi">Ibn al-Rawandi</a>. </p><p>Saʿadya Gaon dedicated an entire treatise, written in rhyming Hebrew, to a refutation of Ḥīwī's arguments, two fragments of which, preserved in the <a href="/wiki/Cairo_Geniza" title="Cairo Geniza">Cairo Geniza</a>, have been published (Davidson, 1915; Schirmann, 1965).<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ḥīwī's criticisms are also noted in Abraham ibn Ezra's commentary on the Pentateuch. Sa'adya Gaon denounced Hiwi as an extreme rationalist, a "Mulhidun", or atheist/deviator. Abraham Ibn Daud described HIwi as a sectarian who "denied the Torah, yet used it to formulate a new Torah of his liking".<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sa'adya_Gaon"><span id="Sa.27adya_Gaon"></span>Sa'adya Gaon</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Sa'adya Gaon"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>"<a href="/wiki/Saadia_Gaon" title="Saadia Gaon">Saadia Gaon</a>, son of a <a href="/wiki/Proselyte" title="Proselyte">proselyte</a>, is considered the greatest early Jewish philosopher after Solomon. During his early years in <a href="/wiki/Tulunids" title="Tulunids">Tulunid</a> Egypt, the <a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid Caliphate</a> ruled Egypt; the leaders of the <a href="/wiki/Tulunids" title="Tulunids">Tulunids</a> were Ismaili Imams. Their influence upon the Jewish academies of Egypt resonate in the works of Sa'adya. Sa'adya's <i><a href="/wiki/Emunoth_ve-Deoth" class="mw-redirect" title="Emunoth ve-Deoth">Emunoth ve-Deoth</a></i> ("Beliefs and Opinions") was originally called <i>Kitab al-Amanat wal-l'tikadat</i> ("Book of the Articles of Faith and Doctrines of Dogma"); it was the first systematic presentation and philosophic foundation of the dogmas of Judaism, completed at Sura Academy in 933 CE." </p><p>Little known is that Saadia traveled to <a href="/wiki/Tiberias" title="Tiberias">Tiberias</a> in 915CE to study with Abū 'l-Kathīr Yaḥyā ibn Zakariyyāʾ, "a Jewish theologian and Bible translator. He is not mentioned in any Jewish source, and apart from the Andalusian heresiographer and polemicist <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Hazm" title="Ibn Hazm">Ibn Hazm</a>, who mentions him as a Jewish mutakallim (rational theologian), our main source of information is the <i>Kitāb al-Tanbīh</i> by the Muslim historian <a href="/wiki/Al-Masudi" title="Al-Masudi">al-Masʿūdī</a> (d. 956). In his brief survey of Arabic translations of the Bible, al-Masʿūdī states that the Israelites rely for exegesis and translation of the Hebrew books—i.e., the Torah, Prophets, and Psalms, twenty-four books in all, he says—on a number of Israelites whom they praise highly, almost all of whom he has met in person. He mentions Abū ʾl-Kathīr as one of them, and also Saadia ("Saʿīd ibn Yaʿqūb al-Fayyūmī"). Regardless of what we do not know, Saadia traveled to Tiberias (home of the learned scribes and exegetes) to learn and he chose Abū 'l-Kathīr Yaḥyā ibn Zakariyyāʾ al-Katib al-Tabariya. The extent of Abū ʾl-Kathīr's influence on Saadia's thought cannot be established, however."<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Abū ʾl-Kathīr's profession is also unclear. al-Masʿūdī calls him a <i>kātib</i>, which has been variously interpreted as secretary, government official, (biblical) scribe, Masorete, and book copyist. For lack of further information, some scholars have tried to identify Abū ʾl-Kathīr with the Hebrew grammarian Abū ʿAlī Judah ben ʿAllān, likewise of Tiberias, who seems to have been a Karaite Jew. However, al-Masūdī unequivocally describes Abu ʾl-Kathīr (as well as his student Saadia) as an ashmaʿthī (Rabbanite). </p><p>In "Book of the Articles of Faith and Doctrines of Dogma" Saadia declares the rationality of the Jewish religion with the caveat that reason must capitulate wherever it contradicts tradition. Dogma takes precedence over reason. Saadia closely followed the rules of the <a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">Muʿtazila</a> school of Abu Ali al-Jubba'i in composing his works.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was Saadia who laid foundations for Jewish rationalist theology which built upon the work of the Muʿtazila, thereby shifting Rabbinic Judaism from mythical explanations of the rabbis to reasoned explanations of the intellect. Saadia advanced the criticisms of Muʿtazila by <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Rawandi" title="Ibn al-Rawandi">Ibn al-Rawandi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="David_ibn_Merwan_al-Mukkamas">David ibn Merwan al-Mukkamas</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: David ibn Merwan al-Mukkamas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238443738"><div class="locmap noviewer noresize thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:122px"><div style="position:relative;width:120px;border:1px solid lightgray"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Syria_adm_location_map.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Jewish philosophy is located in Syria"><img alt="Jewish philosophy is located in Syria" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Syria_adm_location_map.svg/120px-Syria_adm_location_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="105" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Syria_adm_location_map.svg/180px-Syria_adm_location_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Syria_adm_location_map.svg/240px-Syria_adm_location_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="921" data-file-height="806" /></a></span><div class="od notheme" style="top:29.464%;left:52.778%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Raqqa, Abbasid Caliphate, Babylon"><img alt="Raqqa, Abbasid Caliphate, Babylon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div><a href="/wiki/Raqqa" title="Raqqa">Raqqa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Syria" title="History of the Jews in Syria">Babylon</a></div></div></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Syria_adm_location_map.svg" title="File:Syria adm location map.svg">class=notpageimage| </a></div>Rakka in modern Syria</div></div></div> <p><a href="/wiki/David_ibn_Merwan_al-Mukkamas" title="David ibn Merwan al-Mukkamas">David ibn Merwan al-Mukkamas</a> was author of the earliest known Jewish philosophical work of the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, a commentary on the <i><a href="/wiki/Sefer_Yetzirah" title="Sefer Yetzirah">Sefer Yetzirah</a></i>; he is regarded as the father of Jewish medieval philosophy. Al-Mukkamas was first to introduce the <i>methods</i> of <a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">Kalam</a> into Judaism and the first Jew to mention Aristotle in his writings. He was a <a href="/wiki/Proselyte" title="Proselyte">proselyte</a> of Rabbinic Judaism (not <a href="/wiki/Karaite_Judaism" title="Karaite Judaism">Karaite Judaism</a>, as some argue); al-Mukkamas was a student of physician, and renowned Christian philosopher, Hana. His close interaction with Hana, and his familial affiliation with Islam gave al-Mukkamas a unique view of religious belief and theology. </p><p>In 1898 <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Harkavy" title="Abraham Harkavy">Abraham Harkavy</a> discovered, in Imperial Library of St. Petersburg, fifteen of the twenty chapters of David's philosophical work entitled <i>Ishrun Maḳalat</i> (Twenty Chapters) of which 15 survive. One of the oldest surviving witnesses to early Kalām, it begins with epistemological investigations, turns to proofs of the creation of the world and the subsequent existence of a Creator, discusses the unity of the Creator (including the divine attributes), and concludes with theodicy (humanity and revelation) and a refutation of other religions (mostly lost). </p><p>In 915 CE, Sa'adya Gaon left for Palestine, where, according to al-Masʿūdī (Tanbīh, 113), he perfected his education at the feet of Abū 'l-Kathīr Yaḥyā ibn Zakariyyāʾ al-Katib al-Tabari (d. 320/932). The latter is also mentioned by Ibn Ḥazm in his K. al-Fiṣlal wa 'l-niḥal, iii, 171, as being, together with Dāwūd ibn Marwān al-Muqammiṣ and Sa'adya himself, one of the mutakallimūn of the Jews.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since al-Muqammiṣ made few references to specifically Jewish issues and very little of his work was translated from Arabic into Hebrew, he was largely forgotten by Jewish tradition. Nonetheless, he had a significant impact on subsequent Jewish philosophical followers of the Kalām, such as Saʿadya Gaon.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238443738"><div class="locmap noviewer noresize thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:102px"><div style="position:relative;width:100px;border:1px solid lightgray"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Jewish philosophy is located in Spain"><img alt="Jewish philosophy is located in Spain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg/100px-Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="86" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg/150px-Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg/200px-Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1579" data-file-height="1355" /></a></span><div class="od notheme" style="top:56.546%;left:24.181%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Mérida"><img alt="Mérida" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pv" style="width:6em;bottom:5px;left:-3em"><div><a href="/wiki/Taifa_of_Badajoz" title="Taifa of Badajoz">Mérida</a></div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:67.348%;left:34.898%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Córdoba"><img alt="Córdoba" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pv" style="width:6em;top:5px;left:-3em"><div><a href="/wiki/Taifa_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" title="Taifa of Córdoba">Córdoba</a></div></div></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg" title="File:Spain location map with provinces.svg">class=notpageimage| </a></div><a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9rida,_Spain" title="Mérida, Spain">Mérida</a> and <a href="/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba,_Spain#History" title="Córdoba, Spain">Cordoba</a> in modern <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Spain#Moorish_Spain_(711_to_1492)" title="History of the Jews in Spain">Spain</a></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Samuel_ibn_Naghrillah">Samuel ibn Naghrillah</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Samuel ibn Naghrillah"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Samuel_ibn_Naghrillah" title="Samuel ibn Naghrillah">Samuel ibn Naghrillah</a>, born in <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9rida,_Spain" title="Mérida, Spain">Mérida, Spain</a>, lived in <a href="/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba,_Andalusia" class="mw-redirect" title="Córdoba, Andalusia">Córdoba</a> and was a child prodigy and student of Hanoch ben Moshe. Samuel ibn Naghrillah, <a href="/wiki/Hasdai_ibn_Shaprut" title="Hasdai ibn Shaprut">Hasdai ibn Shaprut</a>, and Moshe ben Hanoch founded the Lucena Yeshiva that produced such brilliant scholars as <a href="/wiki/Isaac_ibn_Ghiyyat" title="Isaac ibn Ghiyyat">Isaac ibn Ghiyyat</a> and Maimon ben Yosef, the father of <a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a>. Ibn Naghrillah's son, Yosef, provided refuge for two sons of <a href="/wiki/Hezekiah_Gaon" class="mw-redirect" title="Hezekiah Gaon">Hezekiah Gaon</a>; Daud Ibn Chizkiya Gaon Ha-Nasi and Yitzhak Ibn Chizkiya Gaon Ha-Nasi. Though not a philosopher, he did build the infrastructure to allow philosophers to thrive. In 1070 the gaon Isaac ben Moses ibn Sakri of Denia, Spain traveled to the East and acted as <i>rosh yeshivah</i> of the Baghdad Academy. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Solomon_ibn_Gabirol">Solomon ibn Gabirol</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Solomon ibn Gabirol"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238443738"><div class="locmap noviewer noresize thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:102px"><div style="position:relative;width:100px;border:1px solid lightgray"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Jewish philosophy is located in Spain"><img alt="Jewish philosophy is located in Spain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg/100px-Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="86" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg/150px-Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg/200px-Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1579" data-file-height="1355" /></a></span><div class="od notheme" style="top:81.788%;left:36.831%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Málaga"><img alt="Málaga" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div><a href="/wiki/Taifa_of_M%C3%A1laga" title="Taifa of Málaga">Málaga</a></div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:50.822%;left:64.784%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Valencia"><img alt="Valencia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pl" style="width:6em;right:5px"><div><a href="/wiki/Taifa_of_Valencia" title="Taifa of Valencia">Valencia</a></div></div></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg" title="File:Spain location map with provinces.svg">class=notpageimage| </a></div>Malaga & Valencia in modern <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Spain" title="History of the Jews in Spain">Spain</a></div></div></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Solomon_ibn_Gabirol" title="Solomon ibn Gabirol">Solomon ibn Gabirol</a> was born in <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A1laga" title="Málaga">Málaga</a> then moved to <a href="/wiki/Valencia" title="Valencia">Valencia</a>. Ibn Gabirol was one of the first teachers of <a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a> in Europe. His role has been compared to that of Philo. Ibn Gabirol occidentalized Greco-Arabic philosophy and restored it to Europe. The philosophical teachings of Philo and ibn Gabirol were largely ignored by fellow Jews; the parallel may be extended by adding that Philo and ibn Gabirol both exercised considerable influence in secular circles; Philo upon early Christianity and Ibn Gabirol upon the scholars of medieval Christianity. Christian scholars, including <a href="/wiki/Albertus_Magnus" title="Albertus Magnus">Albertus Magnus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a>, defer to him frequently. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Abraham_bar-Hiyya_Ha-Nasi">Abraham bar-Hiyya Ha-Nasi</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Abraham bar-Hiyya Ha-Nasi"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238443738"><div class="locmap noviewer noresize thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:102px"><div style="position:relative;width:100px;border:1px solid lightgray"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:France_location_map-Regions_and_departements-2016.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Jewish philosophy is located in France"><img alt="Jewish philosophy is located in France" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/France_location_map-Regions_and_departements-2016.svg/100px-France_location_map-Regions_and_departements-2016.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="96" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/France_location_map-Regions_and_departements-2016.svg/150px-France_location_map-Regions_and_departements-2016.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/France_location_map-Regions_and_departements-2016.svg/200px-France_location_map-Regions_and_departements-2016.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1922" /></a></span><div class="od notheme" style="top:74.508%;left:65.999%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Arles"><img alt="Arles" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pv" style="width:6em;bottom:5px;left:-3em"><div><a href="/wiki/Arles" title="Arles">Arles</a></div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:96.352%;left:50.525%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Barcelona"><img alt="Barcelona" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div><a href="/wiki/Barcelona#History" title="Barcelona">Barcelona</a></div></div></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:France_location_map-Regions_and_departements-2016.svg" title="File:France location map-Regions and departements-2016.svg">class=notpageimage| </a></div>bar-Hiyya-<a href="/wiki/Catalonia#History" title="Catalonia">Barcelona</a> then <a href="/wiki/Arles#History" title="Arles">Arles</a></div></div></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Abraham_bar_Hiyya" title="Abraham bar Hiyya">Abraham bar Hiyya</a>, of <a href="/wiki/Barcelona" title="Barcelona">Barcelona</a> and later <a href="/wiki/Arles" title="Arles">Arles</a>-<a href="/wiki/Provence" title="Provence">Provence</a>, was a student of his father <a href="/wiki/Hiyya_al-Daudi" title="Hiyya al-Daudi">Hiyya al-Daudi</a> and one of the most important figures in the scientific movement which made the Jews of Provence, Spain and Italy the intermediaries between <a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a>, Muʿtazila and Christian Europe. He aided this scientific movement by original works, translations and as interpreter for another translator, <a href="/wiki/Plato_Tiburtinus" title="Plato Tiburtinus">Plato Tiburtinus</a>. Bar-Hiyya's best student was <a href="/wiki/V" title="V">v</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (April 2020)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> His philosophical works are "Meditation of the Soul", an ethical work written from a rationalistic religious viewpoint, and an apologetic epistle addressed to <a href="/wiki/Judah_ben_Barzillai" title="Judah ben Barzillai">Judah ben Barzillai</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hibat_Allah">Hibat Allah</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Hibat Allah"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Originally known by his Hebrew name Nethanel Baruch ben Melech al-Balad,<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Abu%27l-Barak%C4%81t_al-Baghd%C4%81d%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu'l-Barakāt al-Baghdādī">Abu'l-Barakāt al-Baghdādī</a>, known as <i>Hibat Allah</i>, was a Jewish philosopher and physicist and father-in-law of Maimonides who converted to Islam in his twilight years - once head of the Baghdad Yeshiva and considered the leading philosopher of Iraq. </p><p>Historians differ over the motive for his conversion to Islam. Some suggest it was a reaction to a social slight inflicted upon him because he was a Jew, while others suggest he was forcibly converted at the edge of a sword (which prompted Maimonides to comment upon <a href="/wiki/Anusim" title="Anusim">Anusim</a>). Despite his conversion to Islam, his works continued to be studied at the Jewish Baghdad Academy, a well-known academy, into the thirteenth century. He was a follower of Avicenna's teaching, who proposed an explanation of the acceleration of falling bodies by the accumulation of successive increments of power with successive increments of velocity. </p><p>His writings include <i>Kitāb al-Muʿtabar</i> ("The Book of What Has Been Established by Personal Reflection"); a philosophical commentary on the Kohelet, written in Arabic using Hebrew aleph bet; and the treatise "On the Reason Why the Stars Are Visible at Night and Hidden in Daytime." According to Hibat Allah, <i>Kitāb al-Muʿtabar</i> consists in the main of critical remarks jotted down by him over the years while reading philosophical text, and published at the insistence of his friends, in the form of a philosophical work. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nethan'el_al-Fayyumi"><span id="Nethan.27el_al-Fayyumi"></span>Nethan'el al-Fayyumi</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Nethan'el al-Fayyumi"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238443738"><div class="locmap noviewer noresize thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:102px"><div style="position:relative;width:100px;border:1px solid lightgray"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Yemen_adm_location_map.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Jewish philosophy is located in Yemen"><img alt="Jewish philosophy is located in Yemen" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Yemen_adm_location_map.svg/100px-Yemen_adm_location_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="65" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Yemen_adm_location_map.svg/150px-Yemen_adm_location_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Yemen_adm_location_map.svg/200px-Yemen_adm_location_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1524" data-file-height="995" /></a></span><div class="od notheme" style="top:50.999%;left:18.488%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Sana'a, Ayyubid Yemen"><img alt="Sana'a, Ayyubid Yemen" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div><a href="/wiki/Sana%27a#History" class="mw-redirect" title="Sana'a">Sana'a</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ayyubid_dynasty" title="Ayyubid dynasty">Ayyubid</a> <a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Jews" title="Yemenite Jews">Yemen</a></div></div></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Yemen_adm_location_map.svg" title="File:Yemen adm location map.svg">class=notpageimage| </a></div>Sana'a in Modern <a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a></div></div></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Natan%27el_al-Fayyumi" title="Natan'el al-Fayyumi">Natan'el al-Fayyumi</a><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of Yemen, was the twelfth-century author of <i>Bustan al-Uqul</i> ("Garden of Intellects"), a Jewish version of <a href="/wiki/Isma%27ilism" title="Isma'ilism">Ismaili</a> <a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shi'i</a> doctrines. Like the Ismailis, Natan'el al-Fayyumi argued that God sent different prophets to various nations of the world, containing legislations suited to the particular temperament of each individual nation. Ismaili doctrine holds that a single universal religious truth lies at the root of the different religions. Some Jews accepted this model of religious pluralism, leading them to view <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a> as a legitimate prophet, though not Jewish, sent to preach to the <a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arabs</a>, just as the Hebrew prophets had been sent to deliver their messages to Israel; others<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (November 2022)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> refused this notion in entirety. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bahya_ben_Joseph_ibn_Paquda">Bahya ben Joseph ibn Paquda</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Bahya ben Joseph ibn Paquda"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238443738"><div class="locmap noviewer noresize thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:102px"><div style="position:relative;width:100px;border:1px solid lightgray"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Jewish philosophy is located in Spain"><img alt="Jewish philosophy is located in Spain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg/100px-Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="86" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg/150px-Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg/200px-Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1579" data-file-height="1355" /></a></span><div class="od notheme" style="top:28.278%;left:61.388%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Zaragosa"><img alt="Zaragosa" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pv" style="width:6em;bottom:5px;left:-3em"><div><a href="/wiki/Taifa_of_Zaragoza" title="Taifa of Zaragoza">Zaragosa</a></div></div></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg" title="File:Spain location map with provinces.svg">class=notpageimage| </a></div>Zaragoza in modern <a href="/wiki/Taifa_of_Zaragoza" title="Taifa of Zaragoza">Spain</a></div></div></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Bahya_ibn_Paquda" title="Bahya ibn Paquda">Bahye ben Yosef Ibn Paquda</a>, of Zaragoza, was author of the first Jewish system of ethics <i>Al Hidayah ila Faraid al-hulub</i>, ("Guide to the Duties of the Heart"). Bahya often followed the method of the Arabian encyclopedists known as "the <a href="/wiki/Brethren_of_Purity" title="Brethren of Purity">Brethren of Purity</a>" but adopts some of Sufi tenets rather than Ismaili. According to Bahya, the Torah appeals to reason and knowledge as proofs of God's existence. It is therefore a duty incumbent upon every one to make God an object of speculative reason and knowledge, in order to arrive at true faith. Baḥya borrows from <a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Sufism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Kalam" title="Jewish Kalam">Jewish Kalam</a> integrating them into Neoplatonism. Proof that Bahya borrowed from Sufism is underscored by the fact that the title of his eighth gate, <i>Muḥasabat al-Nafs</i> ("Self-Examination"), is reminiscent of the Sufi <i>Abu Abd Allah Ḥarith Ibn-Asad</i>, who has been surnamed <i>El Muḥasib</i> ("the self-examiner"), because—say his biographers—"he was always immersed in introspection"<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Yehuda_Ha-Levi_and_the_Kuzari">Yehuda Ha-Levi and the Kuzari</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Yehuda Ha-Levi and the Kuzari"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238443738"><div class="locmap noviewer noresize thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:102px"><div style="position:relative;width:100px;border:1px solid lightgray"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Jewish philosophy is located in Spain"><img alt="Jewish philosophy is located in Spain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg/100px-Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="86" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg/150px-Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg/200px-Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1579" data-file-height="1355" /></a></span><div class="od notheme" style="top:46.845%;left:39.973%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Toledo"><img alt="Toledo" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pv" style="width:6em;bottom:5px;left:-3em"><div><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Castile#12th_century:_A_link_between_Christianity_and_Islam" title="Kingdom of Castile">Toledo</a></div></div></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg" title="File:Spain location map with provinces.svg">class=notpageimage| </a></div><a href="/wiki/Toledo,_Spain" title="Toledo, Spain">Toledo</a> in modern <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Spain" title="History of the Jews in Spain">Spain</a></div></div></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Judah_Halevi" title="Judah Halevi">Judah Halevi</a> of <a href="/wiki/Toledo,_Spain" title="Toledo, Spain">Toledo, Spain</a> defended Rabbinic Judaism against Islam, Christianity and Karaite Judaism. He was a student of <a href="/wiki/Moses_ibn_Ezra" title="Moses ibn Ezra">Moses ibn Ezra</a> whose education came from <a href="/wiki/Isaac_ibn_Ghiyyat" title="Isaac ibn Ghiyyat">Isaac ibn Ghiyyat</a>; trained as a Rationalist, he shed it in favor of Neoplatonism. Like <a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">al-Ghazali</a>, Judah Halevi attempted to liberate religion from the bondage of philosophical systems. In particular, in a work written in <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> <i>Kitab al-Ḥujjah wal-Dalil fi Nuṣr al-Din al-Dhalil</i>, translated by <a href="/wiki/Judah_ben_Saul_ibn_Tibbon" title="Judah ben Saul ibn Tibbon">Judah ben Saul ibn Tibbon</a>, by the title <i><a href="/wiki/Kuzari" title="Kuzari">Kuzari</a></i> he elaborates upon his views of Judaism relative to other religions of the time. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238443738"><div class="locmap noviewer noresize thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:102px"><div style="position:relative;width:100px;border:1px solid lightgray"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Jewish philosophy is located in Spain"><img alt="Jewish philosophy is located in Spain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg/100px-Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="86" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg/150px-Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg/200px-Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1579" data-file-height="1355" /></a></span><div class="od notheme" style="top:67.348%;left:34.898%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Cordoba, Almoravid al-Andalus"><img alt="Cordoba, Almoravid al-Andalus" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div><a href="/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba,_Andalusia#History" class="mw-redirect" title="Córdoba, Andalusia">Cordoba</a>, <a href="/wiki/Almoravid_dynasty" title="Almoravid dynasty">Almoravid</a> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Spain#Taifas,_Almoravids_and_Almohads" title="History of the Jews in Spain">al-Andalus</a></div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:46.845%;left:39.973%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Toledo"><img alt="Toledo" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pv" style="width:6em;bottom:5px;left:-3em"><div><a href="/wiki/Taifa_of_Toledo" title="Taifa of Toledo">Toledo</a></div></div></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg" title="File:Spain location map with provinces.svg">class=notpageimage| </a></div><a href="/wiki/Almoravid_dynasty" title="Almoravid dynasty">Almoravid</a> <a href="/wiki/Taifa_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" title="Taifa of Córdoba">Córdoba</a></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Abraham_ibn_Daud">Abraham ibn Daud</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Abraham ibn Daud"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238443738"><div class="locmap noviewer noresize thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:102px"><div style="position:relative;width:100px;border:1px solid lightgray"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Jewish philosophy is located in Spain"><img alt="Jewish philosophy is located in Spain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg/100px-Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="86" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg/150px-Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg/200px-Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1579" data-file-height="1355" /></a></span><div class="od notheme" style="top:67.348%;left:34.898%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Cordoba, Almohad Caliphate"><img alt="Cordoba, Almohad Caliphate" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div><a href="/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba,_Andalusia#History" class="mw-redirect" title="Córdoba, Andalusia">Cordoba</a>, <a href="/wiki/Almohad_Caliphate" title="Almohad Caliphate">Almohad Caliphate</a></div></div></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg" title="File:Spain location map with provinces.svg">class=notpageimage| </a></div><a href="/wiki/Almohad_Caliphate" title="Almohad Caliphate">Almohad</a> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Spain#Moorish_Spain_(711_to_1492)" title="History of the Jews in Spain">Córdoba</a></div></div></div><p><a href="/wiki/Abraham_ibn_Daud" title="Abraham ibn Daud">Abraham ibn Daud</a> was a student of Rabbi Baruch ben Yitzhak Ibn Albalia, his maternal uncle. Ibn Daud's philosophical work written in Arabic, <i>Al-'akidah al-Rafiyah</i> ("The Sublime Faith"), has been preserved in Hebrew by the title <i>Emunah Ramah</i>. Ibn Daud did not introduce a new philosophy, but he was the first to introduce a more thorough systematic form derived from <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>. Accordingly, <a href="/wiki/Hasdai_Crescas" title="Hasdai Crescas">Hasdai Crescas</a> mentions Ibn Daud as the only Jewish philosopher among the predecessors of Maimonides.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Overshadowed by Maimonides, ibn Daud's <i>Emunah Ramah</i>, a work to which Maimonides was indebted, received little notice from later philosophers. "True philosophy", according to Ibn Daud, "does not entice us from religion; it tends rather to strengthen and solidify it. Moreover, it is the duty of every thinking Jew to become acquainted with the harmony existing between the fundamental doctrines of Judaism and those of philosophy, and, wherever they seem to contradict one another, to seek a mode of reconciling them". <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238443738"></p><div class="locmap noviewer noresize thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:102px"><div style="position:relative;width:100px;border:1px solid lightgray"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Morocco_location_map.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Jewish philosophy is located in Morocco"><img alt="Jewish philosophy is located in Morocco" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Morocco_location_map.svg/100px-Morocco_location_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="81" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Morocco_location_map.svg/150px-Morocco_location_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Morocco_location_map.svg/200px-Morocco_location_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1223" data-file-height="995" /></a></span><div class="od notheme" style="top:24.767%;left:66.023%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Fez"><img alt="Fez" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pv" style="width:6em;top:5px;left:-3em"><div><a href="/wiki/Fes" class="mw-redirect" title="Fes">Fez</a></div></div></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Morocco_location_map.svg" title="File:Morocco location map.svg">class=notpageimage| </a></div><a href="/wiki/Fes#History" class="mw-redirect" title="Fes">Fez</a> in <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Morocco#Arab_conquest_and_the_Idrisids_(703–1146)" title="History of the Jews in Morocco">Morocco</a></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_notable_Jewish_philosophers_pre-Maimonides">Other notable Jewish philosophers pre-Maimonides</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Other notable Jewish philosophers pre-Maimonides"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_ibn_Ezra" title="Abraham ibn Ezra">Abraham ibn Ezra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_ibn_Ghiyyat" title="Isaac ibn Ghiyyat">Isaac ibn Ghiyyat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moses_ibn_Ezra" title="Moses ibn Ezra">Moses ibn Ezra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yehuda_Alharizi" title="Yehuda Alharizi">Yehuda Alharizi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_ibn_Tzaddik" title="Joseph ibn Tzaddik">Joseph ibn Tzaddik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_ibn_Tibbon" title="Samuel ibn Tibbon">Samuel ibn Tibbon</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Maimonides">Maimonides</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Maimonides"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maim%C3%B2nides.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Maim%C3%B2nides.jpg/150px-Maim%C3%B2nides.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Maim%C3%B2nides.jpg/225px-Maim%C3%B2nides.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Maim%C3%B2nides.jpg/300px-Maim%C3%B2nides.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption>Artist's depiction, sculpture of Maimonides</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238443738"><div class="locmap noviewer noresize thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:102px"><div style="position:relative;width:100px;border:1px solid lightgray"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Egypt_adm_location_map.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Jewish philosophy is located in Egypt"><img alt="Jewish philosophy is located in Egypt" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Egypt_adm_location_map.svg/100px-Egypt_adm_location_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="92" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Egypt_adm_location_map.svg/150px-Egypt_adm_location_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Egypt_adm_location_map.svg/200px-Egypt_adm_location_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1055" data-file-height="973" /></a></span><div class="od notheme" style="top:19.444%;left:53.69%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Location of Fostat in modern Egypt"><img alt="Location of Fostat in modern Egypt" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pv" style="width:6em;top:5px;left:-3em"><div>Location of <a href="/wiki/Fustat" title="Fustat">Fostat</a> in modern <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a></div></div></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Egypt_adm_location_map.svg" title="File:Egypt adm location map.svg">class=notpageimage| </a></div><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid</a> <a href="/wiki/Fustat" title="Fustat">Fostat</a></div></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Maimonides#Philosophy" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a> wrote <i><a href="/wiki/The_Guide_for_the_Perplexed" title="The Guide for the Perplexed">The Guide for the Perplexed</a></i> — his most influential philosophic work. He was a student of his father, Rabbi Maimon ben Yosef (a student of <a href="/wiki/Joseph_ibn_Migash" title="Joseph ibn Migash">Joseph ibn Migash</a>) in Cordoba, Spain. When his family fled Spain, for Fez, Maimonides enrolled in the Academy of Fez and studied under Rabbi Yehuda Ha-Kohen Ibn Soussan — a student of <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Alfasi" title="Isaac Alfasi">Isaac Alfasi</a>. Maimonides strove to reconcile Aristotelian philosophy and science with the teachings of Torah. In some ways his position was parallel to that of <a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a>; in reaction to the attacks on Avicennian Aristotelism, Maimonides embraced and defended a stricter Aristotelism without Neoplatonic additions. The principles which inspired all of Maimonides' philosophical activity was identical those of <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Ibn_Daud" class="mw-redirect" title="Abraham Ibn Daud">Abraham Ibn Daud</a>: there can be no contradiction between the truths which God has revealed and the findings of the human intellect in science and philosophy. Maimonides departed from the teachings of Aristotle by suggesting that the world is not eternal, as Aristotle taught, but was created <i><a href="/wiki/Ex_nihilo" class="mw-redirect" title="Ex nihilo">ex nihilo</a></i>. In "Guide for the Perplexed" (1:17 & 2:11)" Maimonides explains that Israel lost its <a href="/wiki/Tradition" title="Tradition">Mesorah</a> in exile, and with it "we lost our science and philosophy — only to be rejuvenated in Al Andalus within the context of interaction and intellectual investigation of Jewish, Christian and Muslim texts. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Medieval_Jewish_philosophy_after_Maimonides">Medieval Jewish philosophy after Maimonides</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Medieval Jewish philosophy after Maimonides"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Maimonides writings almost immediately came under attack from Karaites, Dominican Christians, <a href="/wiki/Tosafot" title="Tosafot">Tosafists</a> of Provence, <a href="/wiki/Ashkenaz" title="Ashkenaz">Ashkenaz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Al_Andalus" class="mw-redirect" title="Al Andalus">Al Andalus</a>. Scholars suggest that Maimonides instigated the <a href="/wiki/Maimonidean_Controversy" title="Maimonidean Controversy">Maimonidean Controversy</a> when he verbally attacked <a href="/wiki/Samuel_ben_Ali" title="Samuel ben Ali">Samuel ben Ali</a> ("Gaon of Baghdad") as "one whom people accustom from his youth to believe that there is none like him in his generation," and he sharply attacked the "monetary demands" of the academies. Samuel ben Ali was an anti-Maimonidean operating in Babylon to undermine the works of Maimonides and those of Maimonides' patrons (the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Constantini&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Constantini (page does not exist)">Al-Constantini</a> family from North Africa). To illustrate the reach of the Maimonidean Controversy, Samuel ben Ali, the chief opponent of Maimonides in the East, was excommunicated by Daud Ibn Hodaya al Daudi (Exilarch of Mosul). Maimonides' attacks on Samuel ben Ali may not have been entirely altruistic given the position of Maimonides' in-laws in competing Yeshivas. </p><p>In Western Europe, the controversy was halted by the burning of Maimonides' works by Christian Dominicans in 1232. <a href="/wiki/Avraham_son_of_Rambam" class="mw-redirect" title="Avraham son of Rambam">Avraham son of Rambam</a>, continued fighting for his father's beliefs in the East; desecration of Maimonides' tomb, at <a href="/wiki/Tiberias" title="Tiberias">Tiberias</a> by Jews, was a profound shock to Jews throughout the Diaspora and caused all to pause and reflect upon what was being done to the fabric of Jewish culture. This compelled many anti-Maimonideans to recant their assertions and realize what cooperation with Christians meant to them, their texts and their communities. </p><p>Maimonidean controversy flared up again<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> at the beginning of the fourteenth century when Rabbi <a href="/wiki/Shlomo_ben_Aderet" class="mw-redirect" title="Shlomo ben Aderet">Shlomo ben Aderet</a>, under influence from <a href="/wiki/Asher_ben_Jehiel" title="Asher ben Jehiel">Asher ben Jehiel</a>, issued a <a href="/wiki/Herem_(censure)" title="Herem (censure)">cherem</a> on "any member of the community who, being under twenty-five years, shall study the works of the Greeks on natural science and metaphysics." </p><p>Contemporary Kabbalists, Tosafists and Rationalists continue to engage in lively, sometimes caustic, debate in support of their positions and influence in the Jewish world. At the center of many of these debates are "Guide for the Perplexed", "13 Principles of Faith", "Mishnah Torah", and his commentary on <a href="/wiki/Anusim" title="Anusim">Anusim</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ceuta_(neutral).PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Ceuta_%28neutral%29.PNG/120px-Ceuta_%28neutral%29.PNG" decoding="async" width="120" height="62" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Ceuta_%28neutral%29.PNG/180px-Ceuta_%28neutral%29.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Ceuta_%28neutral%29.PNG/240px-Ceuta_%28neutral%29.PNG 2x" data-file-width="1993" data-file-height="1038" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ceuta" title="Ceuta">Ceuta, North African Spain</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Yosef_ben_Yehuda_of_Ceuta">Yosef ben Yehuda of Ceuta</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Yosef ben Yehuda of Ceuta"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238443738"><div class="locmap noviewer noresize thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:102px"><div style="position:relative;width:100px;border:1px solid lightgray"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Syria_adm_location_map.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Jewish philosophy is located in Syria"><img alt="Jewish philosophy is located in Syria" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Syria_adm_location_map.svg/100px-Syria_adm_location_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="88" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Syria_adm_location_map.svg/150px-Syria_adm_location_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Syria_adm_location_map.svg/200px-Syria_adm_location_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="921" data-file-height="806" /></a></span><div class="od notheme" style="top:24.704%;left:29.051%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Ayyubid Aleppo"><img alt="Ayyubid Aleppo" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div><a href="/wiki/Ayyubid_dynasty" title="Ayyubid dynasty">Ayyubid</a> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Syria#Aleppo" title="History of the Jews in Syria">Aleppo</a></div></div></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Syria_adm_location_map.svg" title="File:Syria adm location map.svg">class=notpageimage| </a></div><a href="/wiki/Aleppo" title="Aleppo">Aleppo</a> in modern <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a></div></div></div><p><a href="/wiki/Joseph_ben_Judah_of_Ceuta" title="Joseph ben Judah of Ceuta">Joseph ben Judah of Ceuta</a> was the son of Rabbi Yehuda Ha-Kohen Ibn Soussan and a student of Maimonides for whom the <i>Guide for the Perplexed</i> is written. Yosef traveled from <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a> to <a href="/wiki/Fustat" title="Fustat">Fustat</a> to study logic, mathematics, and astronomy under Maimonides. Philosophically, Yosef's dissertation, in Arabic, on the problem of "Creation" is suspected to have been written before contact with Maimonides. It is entitled <i>Ma'amar bimehuyav ha-metsiut ve'eykhut sidur ha-devarim mimenu vehidush ha'olam</i> ("A Treatise as to (1) Necessary Existence (2) The Procedure of Things from the Necessary Existence and (3) The Creation of the World"). </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jacob_Anatoli">Jacob Anatoli</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Jacob Anatoli"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Anatoli" title="Jacob Anatoli">Jacob Anatoli</a> is generally regarded as a pioneer in the application of the Maimonidean Rationalism to the study of Jewish texts. He was the son-in-law of <a href="/wiki/Samuel_ibn_Tibbon" title="Samuel ibn Tibbon">Samuel ibn Tibbon</a>, translator of Maimonides. Due to these family ties Anatoli was introduced to the philosophy of Maimonides, the study of which was such a great revelation to him that he, in later days, referred to it as the beginning of his intelligent and true comprehension of the Scriptures, while he frequently alluded to Ibn Tibbon as one of the two masters who had instructed and inspired him. Anatoli wrote the <i>Malmad</i> exhibiting his broad knowledge of classic Jewish exegetes, as well as Plato, Aristotle, Averroes, and the Vulgate, as well as with a large number of Christian institutions, some of which he ventures to criticize, such as celibacy and monastic castigation, as well as certain heretics and he repeatedly appeals to his readers for a broader cultivation of the classic languages and the non-Jewish branches of learning. To Anatoli, all men are formed in the image of God, although the Jews stand under a particular obligation to further the true cognition of God simply by reason of their election, "the Greeks had chosen wisdom as their pursuit; the Romans, power; and the Jews, religiousness" </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hillel_ben_Samuel">Hillel ben Samuel</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Hillel ben Samuel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Firstly, <a href="/wiki/Hillel_ben_Samuel" title="Hillel ben Samuel">Hillel ben Samuel</a>'s importance in the history of medieval Jewish philosophy lies in his attempt to deal, systematically, with the question of the immortality of the soul. Secondly, Hillel played a major role in the controversies of 1289–90 concerning the philosophical works of Maimonides. Thirdly, Hillel was the first devotee of Jewish learning and Philosophy in Italy, bringing a close to a period of relative ignorance of Hakira in Verona (Italy). And finally, Hillel is one of the early Latin translators of "the wise men of the nations" (non-Jewish scholars). </p><p>Defending Maimonides, Hillel addressed a letter to his friend Maestro Gaio asking him to use his influence with the Jews of Rome against Maimonides' opponents (Solomon Petit). He also advanced the bold idea of gathering together Maimonides' defenders and opponents in Alexandria, in order to bring the controversy before a court of Babylonian rabbis, whose decision would be binding on both factions. Hillel was certain the verdict would favor Maimonides. </p><p>Hillel wrote a commentary on the 25 propositions appearing at the beginning of the second part of the Guide of the Perplexed, and three philosophical treatises, which were appended to Tagmulei ha-Nefesh: the first on knowledge and free will; the second on the question of why mortality resulted from the sin of Adam; the third on whether or not the belief in the fallen angels is a true belief. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Shemtob_Ben_Joseph_Ibn_Falaquera">Shemtob Ben Joseph Ibn Falaquera</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Shemtob Ben Joseph Ibn Falaquera"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238443738"><div class="locmap noviewer noresize thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:102px"><div style="position:relative;width:100px;border:1px solid lightgray"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:France_location_map-Regions_and_departements-2016.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Jewish philosophy is located in France"><img alt="Jewish philosophy is located in France" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/France_location_map-Regions_and_departements-2016.svg/100px-France_location_map-Regions_and_departements-2016.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="96" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/France_location_map-Regions_and_departements-2016.svg/150px-France_location_map-Regions_and_departements-2016.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/France_location_map-Regions_and_departements-2016.svg/200px-France_location_map-Regions_and_departements-2016.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1922" /></a></span><div class="od notheme" style="top:79.204%;left:55.723%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Narbonne"><img alt="Narbonne" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pv" style="width:6em;bottom:5px;left:-3em"><div><a href="/wiki/Narbonne#History" title="Narbonne">Narbonne</a></div></div></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:France_location_map-Regions_and_departements-2016.svg" title="File:France location map-Regions and departements-2016.svg">class=notpageimage| </a></div><a href="/wiki/Narbonne#History" title="Narbonne">Narbonne</a> in modern <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_France#Carolingian_period" title="History of the Jews in France">France</a></div></div></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Shem-Tov_ibn_Falaquera" title="Shem-Tov ibn Falaquera">Shem-Tov ibn Falaquera</a> was a Spanish-born philosopher who pursued reconciliation between Jewish dogma and philosophy. Scholars speculate he was a student of Rabbi <a href="/wiki/David_Kimhi" title="David Kimhi">David Kimhi</a> whose family fled Spain to Narbonne.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ibn Falaquera lived an ascetic live of solitude.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ibn Falaquera's two leading philosophic authorities were Averroes and Maimonides. Ibn Falaquera defended the <i>"Guide for the Perplexed"</i> against attacks of anti-Maimonideans.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He knew the works of the Islamic philosophers better than any Jewish scholar of his time, and made many of them available to other Jewish scholars – often without attribution (<i>Reshit Hokhmah</i>). Ibn Falaquera did not hesitate to modify Islamic philosophic texts when it suited his purposes. For example, Ibn Falaquera turned Alfarabi's account of the origin of philosophic religion into a discussion of the origin of the "virtuous city". Ibn Falaquera's other works include, but are not limited to Iggeret Hanhagat ha-Guf we ha-Nefesh, a treatise in verse on the control of the body and the soul. </p> <ul><li><i>Iggeret ha-Wikkuaḥ</i>, a dialogue between a religious Jew and a Jewish philosopher on the harmony of philosophy and religion.</li> <li><i>Reshit Ḥokmah</i>, treating of moral duties, of the sciences, and of the necessity of studying philosophy.</li> <li><i>Sefer ha-Ma'alot</i>, on different degrees of human perfection.</li> <li><i>Moreh ha-Moreh</i>, commentary on the philosophical part of Maimonides' "Guide for the Perplexed".</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Joseph_ben_Abba_Mari_ibn_Kaspi">Joseph ben Abba Mari ibn Kaspi</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Joseph ben Abba Mari ibn Kaspi"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Caspi" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph Caspi">Ibn Kaspi</a> was a fierce advocate of Maimonides to such an extent that he left for Egypt in 1314 in order to hear explanations on the Guide of the Perplexed from Maimonides' grandchildren. When he heard that the Guide of the Perplexed was being studied in the Muslim philosophical schools of Fez, he left for that town (in 1332) in order to observe their method of study. </p><p>Ibn Kaspi began writing when he was 17 years old on topics which included logic, linguistics, ethics, theology, biblical exegesis, and super-commentaries to Abraham Ibn Ezra and Maimonides. Philosophic systems he followed were Aristotle's and Averroes'. He defines his aim as "not to be a fool who believes in everything, but only in that which can be verified by proof...and not to be of the second unthinking category which disbelieves from the start of its inquiry," since "certain things must be accepted by tradition, because they cannot be proven." Scholars continue to debate whether ibn Kaspi was a heretic or one of Judaisms most illustrious scholars.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gersonides">Gersonides</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Gersonides"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238443738"><div class="locmap noviewer noresize thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:102px"><div style="position:relative;width:100px;border:1px solid lightgray"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:France_location_map-Regions_and_departements-2016.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Jewish philosophy is located in France"><img alt="Jewish philosophy is located in France" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/France_location_map-Regions_and_departements-2016.svg/100px-France_location_map-Regions_and_departements-2016.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="96" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/France_location_map-Regions_and_departements-2016.svg/150px-France_location_map-Regions_and_departements-2016.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/France_location_map-Regions_and_departements-2016.svg/200px-France_location_map-Regions_and_departements-2016.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1922" /></a></span><div class="od notheme" style="top:75.829%;left:79.101%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Bagnols Avignon Papacy"><img alt="Bagnols Avignon Papacy" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pl" style="width:6em;right:5px"><div><a href="/wiki/Bagnols-en-For%C3%AAt" title="Bagnols-en-Forêt">Bagnols</a> <a href="/wiki/Avignon_Papacy" title="Avignon Papacy">Avignon Papacy</a></div></div></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:France_location_map-Regions_and_departements-2016.svg" title="File:France location map-Regions and departements-2016.svg">class=notpageimage| </a></div><a href="/wiki/Bagnols-en-For%C3%AAt" title="Bagnols-en-Forêt">Bagnols</a> in Modern <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_France#Carolingian_period" title="History of the Jews in France">France</a></div></div></div> <p>Rabbi <a href="/wiki/Gersonides" title="Gersonides">Levi ben Gershon</a> was a student of his father <a href="/wiki/Gerson_ben_Solomon_of_Arles" class="mw-redirect" title="Gerson ben Solomon of Arles">Gerson ben Solomon of Arles</a>, who in turn was a student of <a href="/wiki/Shem-Tov_ibn_Falaquera" title="Shem-Tov ibn Falaquera">Shem-Tov ibn Falaquera</a>. Gersonides is best known for his work <i>Milhamot HaShem</i> ("Wars of the Lord"). <i>Milhamot HaShem</i> is modelled after the "<a href="/wiki/Guide_for_the_Perplexed" class="mw-redirect" title="Guide for the Perplexed">Guide for the Perplexed</a>". Gersonides and his father were avid students of the works of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_of_Aphrodisias" title="Alexander of Aphrodisias">Alexander of Aphrodisias</a>, Aristotle, <a href="/wiki/Empedocles" title="Empedocles">Empedocles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hippocrates" title="Hippocrates">Hippocrates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homer</a>, Plato, <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pythagoras" title="Pythagoras">Pythagoras</a>, <a href="/wiki/Themistius" title="Themistius">Themistius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theophrastus" title="Theophrastus">Theophrastus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ali_ibn_Abbas_al-Magusi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ali ibn Abbas al-Magusi">Ali ibn Abbas al-Magusi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ali_ibn_Ridwan" title="Ali ibn Ridwan">Ali ibn Ridwan</a>, Averroes, <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Qusta_ibn_Luqa" title="Qusta ibn Luqa">Qusta ibn Luqa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Al-Farabi</a>, Al-Fergani, Chonain, Isaac Israeli, <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Tufail" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Tufail">Ibn Tufail</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Zuhr" title="Ibn Zuhr">Ibn Zuhr</a>, Isaac Alfasi, and Maimonides.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Gersonides held that God does not have complete foreknowledge of human acts. "Gersonides, bothered by the old question of how God's foreknowledge is compatible with <a href="/wiki/Human_freedom" class="mw-redirect" title="Human freedom">human freedom</a>, suggests that what God knows beforehand is all the choices open to each individual. God does not know, however, which choice the individual, in his freedom, will make."<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Moses_Narboni">Moses Narboni</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Moses Narboni"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238443738"><div class="locmap noviewer noresize thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:102px"><div style="position:relative;width:100px;border:1px solid lightgray"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:France_location_map-Regions_and_departements-2016.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Jewish philosophy is located in France"><img alt="Jewish philosophy is located in France" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/France_location_map-Regions_and_departements-2016.svg/100px-France_location_map-Regions_and_departements-2016.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="96" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/France_location_map-Regions_and_departements-2016.svg/150px-France_location_map-Regions_and_departements-2016.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/France_location_map-Regions_and_departements-2016.svg/200px-France_location_map-Regions_and_departements-2016.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1922" /></a></span><div class="od notheme" style="top:79.204%;left:55.723%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Perpignan Kingdom of Aragon"><img alt="Perpignan Kingdom of Aragon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div><a href="/wiki/Perpignan" title="Perpignan">Perpignan</a> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aragon" title="Kingdom of Aragon">Kingdom of Aragon</a></div></div></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:France_location_map-Regions_and_departements-2016.svg" title="File:France location map-Regions and departements-2016.svg">class=notpageimage| </a></div><a href="/wiki/Perpignan" title="Perpignan">Perpignan</a> in modern <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_France#Carolingian_period" title="History of the Jews in France">France</a></div></div></div><p><a href="/wiki/Moses_ben_Joshua" title="Moses ben Joshua">Moses ben Joshua</a> composed commentaries on Islamic philosophical works. As an admirer of Averroes, he devoted a great deal of study to his works and wrote commentaries on a number of them. His best-known work is his <i>Shelemut ha-Nefesh</i> ("Treatise on the Perfection of the Soul"). Moses began studying philosophy with his father when he was thirteen, later studying with Moses ben David Caslari and <a href="/wiki/Abraham_ben_David_Caslari" title="Abraham ben David Caslari">Abraham ben David Caslari</a> - both of whom were students of <a href="/wiki/Kalonymus_ben_Kalonymus" title="Kalonymus ben Kalonymus">Kalonymus ben Kalonymus</a>. Moses believed that Judaism was a guide to the highest degree of theoretical and moral truth. He believed that the Torah had both a simple, direct meaning accessible to the average reader as well as a deeper, metaphysical meaning accessible to thinkers. Moses rejected the belief in miracles, instead believing they could be explained, and defended man's free will by philosophical arguments. </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Isaac_ben_Sheshet_Perfet">Isaac ben Sheshet Perfet</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Isaac ben Sheshet Perfet"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238443738"><div class="locmap noviewer noresize thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:102px"><div style="position:relative;width:100px;border:1px solid lightgray"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Jewish philosophy is located in Spain"><img alt="Jewish philosophy is located in Spain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg/100px-Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="86" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg/150px-Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg/200px-Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1579" data-file-height="1355" /></a></span><div class="od notheme" style="top:31.1%;left:82.199%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Barcelona"><img alt="Barcelona" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pl" style="width:6em;right:5px"><div><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aragon" title="Kingdom of Aragon">Barcelona</a></div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:50.822%;left:64.784%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Valencia"><img alt="Valencia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pl" style="width:6em;right:5px"><div><a href="/wiki/Valencia,_Spain#History" class="mw-redirect" title="Valencia, Spain">Valencia</a></div></div></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg" title="File:Spain location map with provinces.svg">class=notpageimage| </a></div><a href="/wiki/Barcelona" title="Barcelona">Barcelona</a> and <a href="/wiki/Valencia,_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Valencia, Spain">Valencia</a> in modern <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Spain" title="History of the Jews in Spain">Spain</a></div></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238443738"><div class="locmap noviewer noresize thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:102px"><div style="position:relative;width:100px;border:1px solid lightgray"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Algeria_location_map.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Jewish philosophy is located in Algeria"><img alt="Jewish philosophy is located in Algeria" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Algeria_location_map.svg/100px-Algeria_location_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="99" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Algeria_location_map.svg/150px-Algeria_location_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Algeria_location_map.svg/200px-Algeria_location_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1287" data-file-height="1278" /></a></span><div class="od notheme" style="top:5.627%;left:57.057%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Algiers"><img alt="Algiers" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pl" style="width:6em;right:5px"><div><a href="/wiki/Algiers#History" title="Algiers">Algiers</a></div></div></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Algeria_location_map.svg" title="File:Algeria location map.svg">class=notpageimage| </a></div><a href="/wiki/Algiers#History" title="Algiers">Algiers</a> in modern <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Algeria" title="History of the Jews in Algeria">Algeria</a></div></div></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Isaac_ben_Sheshet" title="Isaac ben Sheshet">Isaac ben Sheshet</a> Perfet, of Barcelona, studied under <a href="/wiki/Hasdai_Crescas" title="Hasdai Crescas">Hasdai Crescas</a> and Rabbi <a href="/wiki/Nissim_ben_Reuben" class="mw-redirect" title="Nissim ben Reuben">Nissim ben Reuben</a> Gerondi. <a href="/wiki/Nissim_ben_Reuben" class="mw-redirect" title="Nissim ben Reuben">Nissim ben Reuben</a> Gerondi was a steadfast Rationalist who did not hesitate to refute leading authorities, such as <a href="/wiki/Rashi" title="Rashi">Rashi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rabbeinu_Tam" title="Rabbeinu Tam">Rabbeinu Tam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moses_ben_Nahman" class="mw-redirect" title="Moses ben Nahman">Moses ben Nahman</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Solomon_ben_Adret" class="mw-redirect" title="Solomon ben Adret">Solomon ben Adret</a>. The pogroms of 1391, against Jews of Spain, forced Isaac to flee to Algiers - where he lived out his life. Isaac's responsa evidence a profound knowledge of the philosophical writings of his time; in one of Responsa No. 118 he explains the difference between the opinion of <i>Gersonides</i> and that of <i>Abraham ben David of Posquières</i> on free will, and gives his own views on the subject. He was an adversary of Kabbalah who never spoke of the Sefirot; he quotes another philosopher when reproaching kabbalists with "<i>believing in the "Ten" (Sefirot) as the Christians believe in the Trinity</i>".<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hasdai_ben_Abraham_Crescas">Hasdai ben Abraham Crescas</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Hasdai ben Abraham Crescas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238443738"><div class="locmap noviewer noresize thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:102px"><div style="position:relative;width:100px;border:1px solid lightgray"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Jewish philosophy is located in Spain"><img alt="Jewish philosophy is located in Spain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg/100px-Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="86" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg/150px-Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg/200px-Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1579" data-file-height="1355" /></a></span><div class="od notheme" style="top:31.1%;left:82.199%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Barcelona"><img alt="Barcelona" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pl" style="width:6em;right:5px"><div><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aragon" title="Kingdom of Aragon">Barcelona</a></div></div></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg" title="File:Spain location map with provinces.svg">class=notpageimage| </a></div><a href="/wiki/Barcelona" title="Barcelona">Barcelona</a> in modern <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Spain" title="History of the Jews in Spain">Spain</a></div></div></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Hasdai_Crescas" title="Hasdai Crescas">Hasdai Crescas</a>, of Barcelona, was a leading rationalist on issues of natural law and free-will. His views can be seen as precursors to <a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a>'s. His work, <i><a href="/wiki/Or_Adonai" title="Or Adonai">Or Adonai</a></i>, became a classic refutation of medieval <a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a>, and harbinger of the scientific revolution in the 16th century. Hasdai Crescas was a student of <a href="/wiki/Nissim_ben_Reuben" class="mw-redirect" title="Nissim ben Reuben">Nissim ben Reuben</a> Gerondi, who in turn was a student of Reuben ben Nissim Gerondi. Crescas was a rabbi and the head of the Jewish community of Aragon, and in some ways of all Hispanic Jewry, during one of its most critical periods.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among his fellow students and friends, his best friend was <a href="/wiki/Isaac_ben_Sheshet" title="Isaac ben Sheshet">Isaac ben Sheshet</a> Perfet. Crescas' students won accolades as participants in the <a href="/wiki/Disputation_of_Tortosa" title="Disputation of Tortosa">Disputation of Tortosa</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Simeon_ben_Zemah_Duran">Simeon ben Zemah Duran</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Simeon ben Zemah Duran"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Influenced by the teaching of Rabbi <a href="/wiki/Nissim_of_Gerona" title="Nissim of Gerona">Nissim of Gerona</a>, via Ephraim Vidal's Yeshiva in Majorca, Duran's commentary <i>Magen Avot</i> ("The Shield of the Fathers"), which influenced <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Albo" title="Joseph Albo">Joseph Albo</a>, is important. He was also a student of philosophy, astronomy, mathematics, and especially of medicine, which he practiced for a number of years at Palma, in Majorca. <i>Magen Avot</i> deals with concepts such as the nature of God, the eternity of the Torah, the coming of the Messiah, and the Resurrection of the dead. Duran believed that Judaism has three dogmas only: the existence of God, the Torah's Divine origin, and Reward and Punishment; in this regard he was followed by Joseph Albo. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Joseph_Albo">Joseph Albo</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Joseph Albo"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238443738"><div class="locmap noviewer noresize thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:102px"><div style="position:relative;width:100px;border:1px solid lightgray"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Jewish philosophy is located in Spain"><img alt="Jewish philosophy is located in Spain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg/100px-Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="86" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg/150px-Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg/200px-Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1579" data-file-height="1355" /></a></span><div class="od notheme" style="top:17.526%;left:57.143%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Monreal, Kingdom of Navarre"><img alt="Monreal, Kingdom of Navarre" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pl" style="width:6em;right:5px"><div><a href="/wiki/Monreal,_Navarre" title="Monreal, Navarre">Monreal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Navarre" title="Kingdom of Navarre">Kingdom of Navarre</a></div></div></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Spain_location_map_with_provinces.svg" title="File:Spain location map with provinces.svg">class=notpageimage| </a></div><a href="/wiki/Monreal,_Navarre" title="Monreal, Navarre">Monreal</a> in modern <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Spain" title="History of the Jews in Spain">Spain</a></div></div></div><p><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Albo" title="Joseph Albo">Joseph Albo</a>, of Monreal, was a student of <a href="/wiki/Hasdai_Crescas" title="Hasdai Crescas">Hasdai Crescas</a>. He wrote <i>Sefer ha-Ikkarim</i> ("Book of Principles"), a classic work on the fundamentals of Judaism. Albo narrows the fundamental Jewish principles of faith from thirteen to three - </p><dl><dd><dl><dd><dl><dd><dl><dd><dl><dd><dl><dd><ul><li>belief in the existence of God,</li> <li>belief in revelation, and</li> <li>belief in divine justice, as related to the idea of immortality.</li></ul></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>Albo rejects the assumption that <a href="/wiki/Creation_ex_nihilo" class="mw-redirect" title="Creation ex nihilo">creation ex nihilo</a> is essential in belief in God. Albo freely criticizes Maimonides' thirteen principles of belief and Crescas' six principles. According to Albo, "belief in the Messiah is only a 'twig' unnecessary to the soundness of the trunk"; not essential to Judaism. Nor is it true, according to Albo, that every law is binding. Although every ordinance has the power of conferring happiness in its observance, it is not true that every law must be observed, or that through the neglect of a part of the law, a Jew would violate the divine covenant or be damned. Contemporary Orthodox Jews, however, vehemently disagree with Albo's position believing that all Jews are divinely obligated to fulfill every applicable commandment. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hoter_ben_Solomon">Hoter ben Solomon</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Hoter ben Solomon"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238443738"><div class="locmap noviewer noresize thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:102px"><div style="position:relative;width:100px;border:1px solid lightgray"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Yemen_adm_location_map.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Jewish philosophy is located in Yemen"><img alt="Jewish philosophy is located in Yemen" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Yemen_adm_location_map.svg/100px-Yemen_adm_location_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="65" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Yemen_adm_location_map.svg/150px-Yemen_adm_location_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Yemen_adm_location_map.svg/200px-Yemen_adm_location_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1524" data-file-height="995" /></a></span><div class="od notheme" style="top:50.999%;left:18.488%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Sana'a, Rasulid Yemen"><img alt="Sana'a, Rasulid Yemen" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div><a href="/wiki/Sana%27a#History" class="mw-redirect" title="Sana'a">Sana'a</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rasulid" class="mw-redirect" title="Rasulid">Rasulid</a> <a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Jews" title="Yemenite Jews">Yemen</a></div></div></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Yemen_adm_location_map.svg" title="File:Yemen adm location map.svg">class=notpageimage| </a></div>Sana'a in modern <a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a></div></div></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Hoter_ben_Shlomo" title="Hoter ben Shlomo">Hoter ben Shlomo</a> was a scholar and philosopher in Yemen heavily influenced by Nethanel ben al-Fayyumi, Maimonides, Saadia Gaon and al-Ghazali. The connection between the "Epistle of the <a href="/wiki/Brethren_of_Purity" title="Brethren of Purity">Brethren of Purity</a>" and Ismailism suggests the adoption of this work as one of the main sources of what would become known as "Jewish Ismailism" as found in Late Medieval Yemenite Judaism. "Jewish Ismailism" consisted of adapting, to Judaism, a few Ismaili doctrines about cosmology, prophecy, and hermeneutics. There are many examples of the <a href="/wiki/Brethren_of_Purity" title="Brethren of Purity">Brethren of Purity</a> influencing <a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Jew" class="mw-redirect" title="Yemenite Jew">Yemenite Jewish</a> philosophers and authors in the period 1150–1550.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some traces of Brethren of Purity doctrines, as well as of their <a href="/wiki/Numerology" title="Numerology">numerology</a>, are found in two Yemenite philosophical <a href="/wiki/Midrashim" class="mw-redirect" title="Midrashim">midrashim</a> written in 1420–1430: <i>Midrash ha-hefez</i> ("The Glad Learning") by Zerahyah ha-Rofé (a/k/a Yahya al-Tabib) and the <i>Siraj al-'uqul</i> ("Lamp of Intellects") by Hoter ben Solomon. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Don_Isaac_Abravanel">Don Isaac Abravanel</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Don Isaac Abravanel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238443738"><div class="locmap noviewer noresize thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:102px"><div style="position:relative;width:100px;border:1px solid lightgray"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Portugal_location_map.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Jewish philosophy is located in Portugal"><img alt="Jewish philosophy is located in Portugal" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Portugal_location_map.svg/100px-Portugal_location_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Portugal_location_map.svg/150px-Portugal_location_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Portugal_location_map.svg/200px-Portugal_location_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="612" data-file-height="1173" /></a></span><div class="od notheme" style="top:64.286%;left:16.237%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Lisboa, House of Aviz"><img alt="Lisboa, House of Aviz" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div><a href="/wiki/Lisboa" class="mw-redirect" title="Lisboa">Lisboa</a>, <a href="/wiki/House_of_Aviz" title="House of Aviz">House of Aviz</a></div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:20.536%;left:30.711%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Porto, Portugal"><img alt="Porto, Portugal" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div><a href="/wiki/History_of_Porto" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Porto">Porto</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Portugal#Portugal" title="History of the Jews in Portugal">Portugal</a></div></div></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Portugal_location_map.svg" title="File:Portugal location map.svg">class=notpageimage| </a></div><a href="/wiki/Lisboa" class="mw-redirect" title="Lisboa">Lisboa</a> in modern <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Portugal#Portugal" title="History of the Jews in Portugal">Portugal</a></div></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238443738"><div class="locmap noviewer noresize thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:122px"><div style="position:relative;width:120px;border:1px solid lightgray"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Albania_(location_map).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Jewish philosophy is located in Albania"><img alt="Jewish philosophy is located in Albania" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Albania_%28location_map%29.svg/120px-Albania_%28location_map%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Albania_%28location_map%29.svg/180px-Albania_%28location_map%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Albania_%28location_map%29.svg/240px-Albania_%28location_map%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="1169" /></a></span><div class="od notheme" style="top:91.139%;left:50.594%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Venician Corfu"><img alt="Venician Corfu" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venician</a> <a href="/wiki/Corfu#Venetian_policies_and_legacy" title="Corfu">Corfu</a></div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:76.432%;left:5.808%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Ottoman Italy"><img alt="Ottoman Italy" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pv" style="width:6em;top:5px;left:-3em"><div><a href="/wiki/Otranto" title="Otranto">Ottoman</a> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Italy" title="History of the Jews in Italy">Italy</a></div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:68.056%;left:36.979%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Ottoman Vlorë"><img alt="Ottoman Vlorë" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#Expansion_and_peak_(1453–1566)" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a> <a href="/wiki/Vlor%C3%AB#History" title="Vlorë">Vlorë</a></div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:25%;left:97.917%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Skopje"><img alt="Skopje" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pl" style="width:6em;right:5px"><div><a href="/wiki/Skopje" title="Skopje">Skopje</a></div></div></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Albania_(location_map).svg" title="File:Albania (location map).svg">class=notpageimage| </a></div><a href="/wiki/Corfu" title="Corfu">Corfu</a> in modern <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a></div></div></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Abravanel" class="mw-redirect" title="Isaac Abravanel">Isaac Abravanel</a>, statesman, philosopher, Bible commentator, and financier who commented on Maimonides' thirteen principles in his <i>Rosh Amanah</i>. <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Abravanel" class="mw-redirect" title="Isaac Abravanel">Isaac Abravanel</a> was steeped in Rationalism by the Ibn Yahya family, who had a residence immediately adjacent to the <i>Great Synagogue of Lisbon</i> (also built by the Ibn Yahya Family). His most important work, <i>Rosh Amanah</i> ("The Pinnacle of Faith"), defends Maimonides' thirteen articles of belief against attacks of Hasdai Crescas and Yosef Albo. <i>Rosh Amanah</i> ends with the statement that "Maimonides compiled these articles merely in accordance with the fashion of other nations, which set up axioms or fundamental principles for their science". </p><p><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Abravanel" class="mw-redirect" title="Isaac Abravanel">Isaac Abravanel</a> was born and raised in Lisbon; a student of the Rabbi of Lisbon, <i>Yosef ben Shlomo Ibn Yahya</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rabbi Yosef was a poet, religious scholar, rebuilder of <i>Ibn Yahya Synagogue of Calatayud</i>, well versed in rabbinic literature and in the learning of his time, devoting his early years to the study of Jewish philosophy. The Ibn Yahya family were renowned physicians, philosophers and accomplished aides to the Portuguese Monarchy for centuries. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238443738"><div class="locmap noviewer noresize thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:122px"><div style="position:relative;width:120px;border:1px solid lightgray"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Italy_provincial_location_map_2016.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Jewish philosophy is located in Italy"><img alt="Jewish philosophy is located in Italy" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Italy_provincial_location_map_2016.svg/120px-Italy_provincial_location_map_2016.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Italy_provincial_location_map_2016.svg/180px-Italy_provincial_location_map_2016.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Italy_provincial_location_map_2016.svg/240px-Italy_provincial_location_map_2016.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1034" data-file-height="1299" /></a></span><div class="od notheme" style="top:16.397%;left:44.266%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Padua & Verona, Republic of Venice"><img alt="Padua & Verona, Republic of Venice" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Italy#Refugees_from_Spain" title="History of the Jews in Italy">Padua</a> & <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Italy#Refugees_from_Spain" title="History of the Jews in Italy">Verona</a>, <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Republic of Venice</a></div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:24.736%;left:21.352%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Genoa, Republic of Genoa"><img alt="Genoa, Republic of Genoa" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pv" style="width:6em;top:5px;left:-3em"><div><a href="/wiki/Genoa" title="Genoa">Genoa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Republic of Genoa</a></div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:76.722%;left:55.99%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Kingdom of Sicily"><img alt="Kingdom of Sicily" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pv" style="width:6em;top:5px;left:-3em"><div><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sicily#Angevin_Sicily" title="Kingdom of Sicily">Kingdom of Sicily</a></div></div></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Italy_provincial_location_map_2016.svg" title="File:Italy provincial location map 2016.svg">class=notpageimage| </a></div>Padua and Verona in modern <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a></div></div></div> <p>Isaac's grandfather, Samuel Abravanel, was forcibly converted to Christianity during the pogroms of 1391 and took the Spanish name "<i>Juan Sanchez de Sevilla</i>". Samuel fled Castile-León, Spain, in 1397 for Lisbon, Portugal, and reverted to Judaism - shedding his <i><a href="/wiki/Converso" title="Converso">Converso</a></i> after living among Christians for six years. Conversions outside Judaism, coerced or otherwise, had a strong impact upon young Isaac, later compelling him to forfeit his immense wealth in an attempt to redeem Iberian Jewry from coercion of the <a href="/wiki/Alhambra_Decree" title="Alhambra Decree">Alhambra Decree</a>. There are parallels between what he writes, and documents produced by Inquisitors, that present <a href="/wiki/Conversos" class="mw-redirect" title="Conversos">conversos</a> as ambivalent to Christianity and sometimes even ironic in their expressions regarding their new religion - <a href="/wiki/Crypto-jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Crypto-jews">crypto-jews</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Leone_Ebreo">Leone Ebreo</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Leone Ebreo"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Judah_Leon_Abravanel" title="Judah Leon Abravanel">Judah Leon Abravanel</a> was a Portuguese physician, poet and philosopher. His work <i>Dialoghi d'amore</i> ("Dialogues of Love"), written in Italian, was one of the most important philosophical works of his time. In an attempt to circumvent a plot hatched by local Catholic Bishops to kidnap his son, Judah sent his son from Castile to Portugal with a nurse, but by order of the king the son was seized and baptized<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. This was a devastating insult to Judah and his family, and was a source of bitterness throughout Judah's life and the topic of his writings years later; especially since this was not the first time the Abravanel Family was subjected to such embarrassment at the hands of the Catholic Church. </p><p>Judah's <i>Dialoghi</i> is regarded as the finest of Humanistic Period works. His neoplatonism is derived from the Hispanic Jewish community, especially the works of <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Gabirol" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Gabirol">Ibn Gabirol</a>. Platonic notions of reaching towards a nearly impossible ideal of beauty, wisdom, and perfection encompass the whole of his work. In <i>Dialoghi d'amore</i>, Judah defines love in philosophical terms. He structures his three dialogues as a conversation between two abstract "characters": Philo, representing love or appetite, and Sophia, representing science or wisdom, Philo+Sophia (philosophia). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Criticisms_of_Kabbalah">Criticisms of Kabbalah</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Criticisms of Kabbalah"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The word "Kabbalah" was used in medieval Jewish texts to mean "tradition", see <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Ibn_Daud" class="mw-redirect" title="Abraham Ibn Daud">Abraham Ibn Daud</a>'s <i>Sefer Ha-Qabbalah</i> also known as the "Book of our Tradition". "Book of our Tradition" does not refer to mysticism of any kind - it chronicles "our tradition of scholarship and study" in two Babylonian Academies, through the Geonim, into Talmudic Yeshivas of Spain. In Talmudic times there was a mystic tradition in Judaism, known as <i>Maaseh Bereshith</i> (the work of creation) and <i>Maaseh Merkavah</i> (the work of the chariot); Maimonides interprets these texts as referring to Aristotelian physics and metaphysics as interpreted in the light of Torah. </p><p>In the 13th century, however, a mystical-esoteric system emerged which became known as "the <a href="/wiki/Kabbalah" title="Kabbalah">Kabbalah</a>". Many of the beliefs associated with Kabbalah had long been rejected by philosophers. <a href="/wiki/Saadia_Gaon" title="Saadia Gaon">Saadia Gaon</a> had taught in his book <i>Emunot v'Deot</i> that Jews who believe in <i><a href="/wiki/Gilgul" title="Gilgul">gilgul</a></i> have adopted a non-Jewish belief. <a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a> rejected many texts of <i><a href="/wiki/Heichalot" class="mw-redirect" title="Heichalot">Heichalot</a></i>, particularly <i><a href="/wiki/Shi%27ur_Qomah" title="Shi'ur Qomah">Shi'ur Qomah</a></i> whose anthropomorphic vision of God he considered heretical. </p><p>In the 13th century, Meir ben Simon of Narbonne wrote an epistle (included in <i>Milhhemet Mitzvah</i>) against early Kabbalists, singled out <i><a href="/wiki/Sefer_Bahir" class="mw-redirect" title="Sefer Bahir">Sefer Bahir</a></i>, rejecting the attribution of its authorship to the tanna R. Nehhunya ben ha-Kanah and describing some of its content: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>... And we have heard that a book had already been written for them, which they call Bahir, that is 'bright' but no light shines through it. This book has come into our hands and we have found that they falsely attribute it to Rabbi Nehunya ben Haqqanah. haShem forbid! There is no truth in this... The language of the book and its whole content show that it is the work of someone who lacked command of either literary language or good style, and in many passages it contains words which are out and out heresy.</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_notable_Jewish_philosophers_post-Maimonides">Other notable Jewish philosophers post-Maimonides</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Other notable Jewish philosophers post-Maimonides"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jedaiah_ben_Abraham_Bedersi" title="Jedaiah ben Abraham Bedersi">Jedaiah ben Abraham Bedersi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nissim_of_Gerona" title="Nissim of Gerona">Nissim of Gerona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacob_ben_Machir_ibn_Tibbon" title="Jacob ben Machir ibn Tibbon">Jacob ben Machir ibn Tibbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Nathan_ben_Kalonymus" title="Isaac Nathan ben Kalonymus">Isaac Nathan ben Kalonymus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judah_Messer_Leon" title="Judah Messer Leon">Judah Messer Leon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_ben_Judah_Messer_Leon" title="David ben Judah Messer Leon">David ben Judah Messer Leon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obadiah_ben_Jacob_Sforno" title="Obadiah ben Jacob Sforno">Obadiah ben Jacob Sforno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judah_Moscato" title="Judah Moscato">Judah Moscato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azariah_dei_Rossi" title="Azariah dei Rossi">Azariah dei Rossi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Aboab_I" title="Isaac Aboab I">Isaac Aboab I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Campanton" class="mw-redirect" title="Isaac Campanton">Isaac Campanton</a> a.k.a. "the gaon of Castile"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_ben_Moses_Arama" title="Isaac ben Moses Arama">Isaac ben Moses Arama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Profiat_Duran" title="Profiat Duran">Profiat Duran</a> a <a href="/wiki/Converso" title="Converso">Converso</a>, Duran wrote <i>Be Not Like Your Fathers</i></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Renaissance_Jewish_philosophy_and_philosophers">Renaissance Jewish philosophy and philosophers</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Renaissance Jewish philosophy and philosophers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:OttomanEmpireIn1683.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/OttomanEmpireIn1683.png/200px-OttomanEmpireIn1683.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/OttomanEmpireIn1683.png/300px-OttomanEmpireIn1683.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/OttomanEmpireIn1683.png/400px-OttomanEmpireIn1683.png 2x" data-file-width="1966" data-file-height="1850" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Turkey#Ottoman_era" title="History of the Jews in Turkey">Ottoman Empire welcomed Jews expelled from Spain & Portugal</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Some of the Monarchies of Asia Minor and European welcomed expelled Jewish Merchants, scholars and theologians. Divergent Jewish philosophies evolved against the backdrop of new cultures, new languages and renewed theological exchange. Philosophic exploration continued through the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> period as the center-of-mass of Jewish Scholarship shifted to France, Germany, Italy, and Turkey. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Elias_ben_Moise_del_Medigo">Elias ben Moise del Medigo</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Elias ben Moise del Medigo"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238443738"><div class="locmap noviewer noresize thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:102px"><div style="position:relative;width:100px;border:1px solid lightgray"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Greece_location_map.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Jewish philosophy is located in Greece"><img alt="Jewish philosophy is located in Greece" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Greece_location_map.svg/100px-Greece_location_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="82" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Greece_location_map.svg/150px-Greece_location_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Greece_location_map.svg/200px-Greece_location_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1003" data-file-height="825" /></a></span><div class="od notheme" style="top:90.095%;left:55.861%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Candia"><img alt="Candia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pl" style="width:6em;right:5px"><div><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Candia</a></div></div></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Greece_location_map.svg" title="File:Greece location map.svg">class=notpageimage| </a></div>Heraklion in modern <a href="/wiki/Crete" title="Crete">Crete</a></div></div></div><p><a href="/wiki/Elia_del_Medigo" title="Elia del Medigo">Elia del Medigo</a> was a descendant of <i><a href="/wiki/Judah_ben_Eliezer_ha-Levi_Minz" class="mw-redirect" title="Judah ben Eliezer ha-Levi Minz">Judah ben Eliezer ha-Levi Minz</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Moses_ben_Isaac_ha-Levi_Minz" title="Moses ben Isaac ha-Levi Minz">Moses ben Isaac ha-Levi Minz</a></i>. Eli'ezer del Medigo, of Rome, received the surname "Del Medigo" after studying medicine. The name was later changed from <i>Del Medigo</i> to <i>Ha-rofeh</i>. He was the father and teacher of a long line of rationalist philosophers and scholars. Non-Jewish students of Delmedigo classified him as an "Averroist", however, he saw himself as a follower of Maimonides. Scholastic association of Maimonides and Ibn Rushd would have been a natural one; Maimonides, towards the end of his life, was impressed with the Ibn Rushd commentaries and recommended them to his students. The followers of Maimonides (Maimonideans) had therefore been, for several generations before Delmedigo, the leading users, translators and disseminators of the works of Ibn Rushd in Jewish circles, and advocates for Ibn Rushd even after Islamic rejection of his radical views. Maimonideans regarded Maimonides and Ibn Rushd as following the same general line. In his book, Delmedigo portrays himself as defender of Maimonidean Judaism, and — like many Maimonideans — he emphasized the rationality of Jewish tradition. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238443738"></p><div class="locmap noviewer noresize thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:102px"><div style="position:relative;width:100px;border:1px solid lightgray"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Greece_location_map.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Jewish philosophy is located in Greece"><img alt="Jewish philosophy is located in Greece" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Greece_location_map.svg/100px-Greece_location_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="82" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Greece_location_map.svg/150px-Greece_location_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Greece_location_map.svg/200px-Greece_location_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1003" data-file-height="825" /></a></span><div class="od notheme" style="top:18.473%;left:35.648%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Salonika, Ottoman Empire"><img alt="Salonika, Ottoman Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pv" style="width:6em;top:5px;left:-3em"><div><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_of_Thessaloniki" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Jews of Thessaloniki">Salonika</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></div></div></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Greece_location_map.svg" title="File:Greece location map.svg">class=notpageimage| </a></div>Thessaloniki in modern <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Moses_Almosnino">Moses Almosnino</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Moses Almosnino"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Moses_Almosnino" title="Moses Almosnino">Moses Almosnino</a> was born <a href="/wiki/Thessaloniki" title="Thessaloniki">Thessaloniki</a> 1515 - died Constantinople abt 1580. He was a student of <a href="/wiki/Levi_Ibn_Chaviv" class="mw-redirect" title="Levi Ibn Chaviv">Levi Ibn Habib</a>, who was in turn a student of <a href="/wiki/Jacob_ibn_Habib" title="Jacob ibn Habib">Jacob ibn Habib</a>, who was, in turn, a student of <a href="/wiki/Nissim_ben_Reuben" class="mw-redirect" title="Nissim ben Reuben">Nissim ben Reuben</a>. In 1570 he wrote a commentary on the Pentateuch titled "<i>Yede Mosheh</i>" (The Hands of Moses); also an exposition of the Talmudical treatise "<i>Abot</i>" (Ethics of the Fathers), published in Salonica in 1563; and a collection of sermons delivered upon various occasions, particularly funeral orations, entitled "<i>Meammeẓ Koaḥ</i>" (Re-enforcing Strength). </p><p>al-Ghazâlî's <i>Intentions of the Philosophers</i> (<i>De'ôt ha-Fîlôsôfîm or Kavvanôt ha-Fîlôsôfîm</i>) was one of the most widespread philosophical texts studied among Jews in Europe having been translated in 1292 by <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Albalag" title="Isaac Albalag">Isaac Albalag</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later Hebrew commentators include Moses Narboni, and Moses Almosnino. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238443738"><div class="locmap noviewer noresize thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:102px"><div style="position:relative;width:100px;border:1px solid lightgray"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Italy_provincial_location_map_2016.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Jewish philosophy is located in Italy"><img alt="Jewish philosophy is located in Italy" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Italy_provincial_location_map_2016.svg/100px-Italy_provincial_location_map_2016.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Italy_provincial_location_map_2016.svg/150px-Italy_provincial_location_map_2016.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Italy_provincial_location_map_2016.svg/200px-Italy_provincial_location_map_2016.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1034" data-file-height="1299" /></a></span><div class="od notheme" style="top:16.397%;left:44.266%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Padua & Verona, Republic of Venice"><img alt="Padua & Verona, Republic of Venice" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pv" style="width:6em;top:5px;left:-3em"><div><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Italy#Refugees_from_Spain" title="History of the Jews in Italy">Padua</a> & <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Italy#Refugees_from_Spain" title="History of the Jews in Italy">Verona</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Republic_of_Venice#15th_century" title="History of the Republic of Venice">Republic of Venice</a></div></div></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Italy_provincial_location_map_2016.svg" title="File:Italy provincial location map 2016.svg">class=notpageimage| </a></div>Padua & Verona in modern <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Moses_ben_Jehiel_Ha-Kohen_Porto-Rafa_(Rapaport)"><span id="Moses_ben_Jehiel_Ha-Kohen_Porto-Rafa_.28Rapaport.29"></span>Moses ben Jehiel Ha-Kohen Porto-Rafa (Rapaport)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Moses ben Jehiel Ha-Kohen Porto-Rafa (Rapaport)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Moses ben Jehiel Ha-Kohen Porto-Rafa (Rapaport), was a member of the German family "Rafa" (from whom the Delmedigo family originates) that settled in the town of Porto in the vicinity of Verona, Italy, and became the progenitors of the renowned Rapaport rabbinic family. In 1602 Moses served as rabbi of Badia Polesine in Piedmont. Moses was a friend of <a href="/wiki/Leon_Modena" class="mw-redirect" title="Leon Modena">Leon Modena</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Abraham_ben_Judah_ha-Levi_Minz">Abraham ben Judah ha-Levi Minz</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Abraham ben Judah ha-Levi Minz"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Abraham ben Judah ha-Levi Minz was an Italian rabbi who flourished at Padua in the first half of the 16th century, father-in-law of Meïr Katzenellenbogen. Minz studied chiefly under his father, Judah Minz, whom he succeeded as rabbi and head of the yeshiva of Padua. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Meir_ben_Isaac_Katzellenbogen">Meir ben Isaac Katzellenbogen</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Meir ben Isaac Katzellenbogen"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238443738"><div class="locmap noviewer noresize thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:102px"><div style="position:relative;width:100px;border:1px solid lightgray"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Germany_adm_location_map.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Jewish philosophy is located in Germany"><img alt="Jewish philosophy is located in Germany" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Germany_adm_location_map.svg/100px-Germany_adm_location_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Germany_adm_location_map.svg/150px-Germany_adm_location_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Germany_adm_location_map.svg/200px-Germany_adm_location_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1073" data-file-height="1272" /></a></span><div class="od notheme" style="top:64.557%;left:27.71%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Mainz - Katzenelnbogen, Germany"><img alt="Mainz - Katzenelnbogen, Germany" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div><a href="/wiki/Mainz" title="Mainz">Mainz</a> - <a href="/wiki/Katzenelnbogen" title="Katzenelnbogen">Katzenelnbogen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a></div></div></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Germany_adm_location_map.svg" title="File:Germany adm location map.svg">class=notpageimage| </a></div>Location of Mainz in modern <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a></div></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238443738"><div class="locmap noviewer noresize thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:102px"><div style="position:relative;width:100px;border:1px solid lightgray"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Czech_Republic_adm_location_map.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Jewish philosophy is located in Czech Republic"><img alt="Jewish philosophy is located in Czech Republic" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Czech_Republic_adm_location_map.svg/100px-Czech_Republic_adm_location_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="61" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Czech_Republic_adm_location_map.svg/150px-Czech_Republic_adm_location_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Czech_Republic_adm_location_map.svg/200px-Czech_Republic_adm_location_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1004" data-file-height="611" /></a></span><div class="od notheme" style="top:40.556%;left:35.36%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Prague, Czech Republic"><img alt="Prague, Czech Republic" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div><a href="/wiki/Prague" title="Prague">Prague</a>, <a href="/wiki/Czech_Republic" title="Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></div></div></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Czech_Republic_adm_location_map.svg" title="File:Czech Republic adm location map.svg">class=notpageimage| </a></div>Location of Prague in modern <a href="/wiki/Czech_Republic" title="Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></div></div></div> <p>Meir ben Isaac Katzellenbogen was born in Prague where together with <a href="/wiki/Shalom_Shachna" title="Shalom Shachna">Shalom Shachna</a> he studied under <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Pollak" title="Jacob Pollak">Jacob Pollak</a>. Many rabbis, including Moses Isserles, addressed him in their responsa as the <i>"av bet din of the republic of Venice."</i> The great scholars of the Renaissance with whom he corresponded include <i>Shmuel ben Moshe di Modena</i>, <i>Joseph Katz</i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Solomon_Luria" title="Solomon Luria">Solomon Luria</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Moses_Isserles" title="Moses Isserles">Moses Isserles</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Obadiah_Sforno" class="mw-redirect" title="Obadiah Sforno">Obadiah Sforno</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Moses_Alashkar" title="Moses Alashkar">Moses Alashkar</a></i>. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238443738"><div class="locmap noviewer noresize thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:102px"><div style="position:relative;width:100px;border:1px solid lightgray"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Poland_adm_location_map.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Jewish philosophy is located in Poland"><img alt="Jewish philosophy is located in Poland" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Poland_adm_location_map.svg/100px-Poland_adm_location_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="97" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Poland_adm_location_map.svg/150px-Poland_adm_location_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Poland_adm_location_map.svg/200px-Poland_adm_location_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="861" data-file-height="837" /></a></span><div class="od notheme" style="top:60.8%;left:81.963%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Lublin/Chelm, Poland-Lithuania"><img alt="Lublin/Chelm, Poland-Lithuania" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pl" style="width:6em;right:5px"><div><a href="/wiki/Lublin" title="Lublin">Lublin</a>/<a href="/wiki/Chelm" class="mw-redirect" title="Chelm">Chelm</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Poland-Lithuania</a></div></div></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Poland_adm_location_map.svg" title="File:Poland adm location map.svg">class=notpageimage| </a></div>Lublin & Chelm in modern <a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Elijah_Ba'al_Shem_of_Chelm"><span id="Elijah_Ba.27al_Shem_of_Chelm"></span>Elijah Ba'al Shem of Chelm</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Elijah Ba'al Shem of Chelm"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Rabbi <a href="/wiki/Elijah_Ba%27al_Shem_of_Chelm" class="mw-redirect" title="Elijah Ba'al Shem of Chelm">Elijah Ba'al Shem of Chelm</a> was a student of Rabbi <a href="/wiki/Solomon_Luria" title="Solomon Luria">Solomon Luria</a> who was, in turn a student of Rabbi <a href="/wiki/Shalom_Shachna" title="Shalom Shachna">Shalom Shachna</a> - father-in-law and teacher of <a href="/wiki/Moses_Isserles" title="Moses Isserles">Moses Isserles</a>. <a href="/wiki/Elijah_Ba%27al_Shem_of_Chelm" class="mw-redirect" title="Elijah Ba'al Shem of Chelm">Elijah Ba'al Shem of Chelm</a> was also a cousin of <a href="/wiki/Moses_Isserles" title="Moses Isserles">Moses Isserles</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eliezer_ben_Elijah_Ashkenazi">Eliezer ben Elijah Ashkenazi</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Eliezer ben Elijah Ashkenazi"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Rabbi <a href="/wiki/Eliezer_ben_Elijah_Ashkenazi" title="Eliezer ben Elijah Ashkenazi">Eliezer ben Elijah Ashkenazi</a> Ha-rofeh Ashkenazi of Nicosia ("the physician") the author of <i>Yosif Lekah</i> on the Book of Esther. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_notable_Renaissance_Jewish_philosophers">Other notable Renaissance Jewish philosophers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Other notable Renaissance Jewish philosophers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Sanches" title="Francisco Sanches">Francisco Sanches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miguel_de_Barrios" title="Miguel de Barrios">Miguel de Barrios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uriel_da_Costa" title="Uriel da Costa">Uriel da Costa</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Seventeenth-century_Jewish_philosophy">Seventeenth-century Jewish philosophy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Seventeenth-century Jewish philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238443738"><div class="locmap noviewer noresize thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:102px"><div style="position:relative;width:100px;border:1px solid lightgray"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Germany_adm_location_map.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Jewish philosophy is located in Germany"><img alt="Jewish philosophy is located in Germany" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Germany_adm_location_map.svg/100px-Germany_adm_location_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Germany_adm_location_map.svg/150px-Germany_adm_location_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Germany_adm_location_map.svg/200px-Germany_adm_location_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1073" data-file-height="1272" /></a></span><div class="od notheme" style="top:19.203%;left:44.83%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Altona, Hamburg, Denmark"><img alt="Altona, Hamburg, Denmark" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pv" style="width:6em;top:5px;left:-3em"><div><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Jewish_community_in_Hamburg" title="Portuguese Jewish community in Hamburg">Altona, Hamburg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Denmark</a></div></div></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Germany_adm_location_map.svg" title="File:Germany adm location map.svg">class=notpageimage| </a></div>Altona, Hamburg in modern <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a></div></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238443738"><div class="locmap noviewer noresize thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:102px"><div style="position:relative;width:100px;border:1px solid lightgray"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Greece_location_map.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Jewish philosophy is located in Greece"><img alt="Jewish philosophy is located in Greece" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Greece_location_map.svg/100px-Greece_location_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="82" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Greece_location_map.svg/150px-Greece_location_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Greece_location_map.svg/200px-Greece_location_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1003" data-file-height="825" /></a></span><div class="od notheme" style="top:90.095%;left:55.861%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Candia"><img alt="Candia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pl" style="width:6em;right:5px"><div><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Candia</a></div></div></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Greece_location_map.svg" title="File:Greece location map.svg">class=notpageimage| </a></div>Heraklion in modern <a href="/wiki/Crete" title="Crete">Crete</a></div></div></div> <p>With expulsion from Spain came the dissemination of Jewish philosophical investigation throughout the Mediterranean Basin, Northern Europe and the Western Hemisphere. The center-of-mass of Rationalism shifted to France, Italy, Germany, Crete, Sicily and Netherlands. Expulsion from Spain and the coordinated pogroms of Europe resulted in the cross-pollination of variations on Rationalism incubated within diverse communities. This period is also marked by the intellectual exchange among leaders of the Christian Reformation and Jewish scholars. Of particular note is the line of Rationalists who migrated out of Germany, and present-day Italy into Crete, and other areas of the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> seeking safety and protection from the endless pogroms fomented by the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Habsburg" title="House of Habsburg">House of Habsburg</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholic Church</a> against Jews. </p><p>Rationalism was incubating in places far from Spain. From stories told by Rabbi <a href="/wiki/Elijah_Ba%27al_Shem_of_Chelm" class="mw-redirect" title="Elijah Ba'al Shem of Chelm">Elijah Ba'al Shem of Chelm</a>, German-speaking Jews, descendants of Jews who migrated back to Jerusalem after Charlemagne's invitation was revoked in Germany many centuries earlier, who lived in Jerusalem during the 11th century, were influenced by prevailing <a href="/wiki/Mutazilite" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutazilite">Mutazilite</a> scholars of Jerusalem. A German-speaking Palestinian Jew saved the life of a young German man surnamed "Dolberger". When the knights of the <a href="/wiki/First_Crusade" title="First Crusade">First Crusade</a> came to besiege Jerusalem, one of Dolberger's family members rescued German-speaking Jews in Palestine and brought them back to the safety of Worms, Germany, to repay the favor.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further evidence of German communities in the holy city comes in the form of halakic questions sent from Germany to Jerusalem during the second half of the eleventh century.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>All of the foregoing resulted in an explosion of new ideas and philosophic paths. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Yosef_Shlomo_ben_Eliyahu_Dal_Medigo">Yosef Shlomo ben Eliyahu Dal Medigo</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Yosef Shlomo ben Eliyahu Dal Medigo"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Solomon_Delmedigo" title="Joseph Solomon Delmedigo">Joseph Solomon Delmedigo</a> was a physician and teacher – Baruch Spinoza was a student of his works.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Baruch_Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Baruch Spinoza"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spinoza.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Spinoza.jpg/120px-Spinoza.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Spinoza.jpg/180px-Spinoza.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Spinoza.jpg/240px-Spinoza.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1377" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a> founded <a href="/wiki/Spinozism" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a>, broke with <a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_Judaism" title="Rabbinic Judaism">Rabbinic Jewish</a> tradition, and was placed in <i><a href="/wiki/Herem_(censure)" title="Herem (censure)">herem</a></i> by the <a href="/wiki/Beit_Din" class="mw-redirect" title="Beit Din">Beit Din</a> of <a href="/wiki/Amsterdam" title="Amsterdam">Amsterdam</a>. The influence in his work from <a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a> and <a href="/wiki/Leone_Ebreo" class="mw-redirect" title="Leone Ebreo">Leone Ebreo</a> is evident. <a href="/wiki/Elia_del_Medigo" title="Elia del Medigo">Elia del Medigo</a> claims to be a student of the works of Spinoza. Some contemporary critics (e.g., Wachter, <i>Der Spinozismus im Judenthum</i>) claimed to detect the influence of the <a href="/wiki/Kabbalah" title="Kabbalah">Kabbalah</a>, while others (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" class="mw-redirect" title="Gottfried Leibniz">Leibniz</a>) regarded Spinozism as a revival of <a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a> – a talmudist manner of referencing to Maimonidean Rationalism. In the centuries that have lapsed since the <i>herem</i> declaration, scholars<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (March 2014)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> have re-examined the works of Spinoza and find them to reflect a body of work and thinking that is not unlike some contemporary streams of Judaism. For instance, while Spinoza was accused of <a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">pantheism</a>, scholars<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (March 2014)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> have come to view his work as advocating <a href="/wiki/Panentheism" title="Panentheism">panentheism</a>, a valid contemporary view easily accommodated by contemporary Judaism. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tzvi_Hirsch_ben_Yaakov_Ashkenazi">Tzvi Hirsch ben Yaakov Ashkenazi</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Tzvi Hirsch ben Yaakov Ashkenazi"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Rabbi <a href="/wiki/Tzvi_Ashkenazi" title="Tzvi Ashkenazi">Tzvi Hirsch ben Yaakov Ashkenazi</a> was a student of his father, but most notably also a student of his grandfather Rabbi <a href="/wiki/Elijah_Ba%27al_Shem_of_Chelm" class="mw-redirect" title="Elijah Ba'al Shem of Chelm">Elijah Ba'al Shem of Chelm</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jacob_Emden">Jacob Emden</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Jacob Emden"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Rabbi <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Emden" title="Jacob Emden">Jacob Emden</a> was a student of his father Rabbi <a href="/wiki/Tzvi_Ashkenazi" title="Tzvi Ashkenazi">Tzvi Hirsch ben Yaakov Ashkenazi</a> a rabbi in Amsterdam. Emden, a steadfast Talmudist, was a prominent opponent of the <a href="/wiki/Sabbateans" title="Sabbateans">Sabbateans</a> (Messianic Kabbalists who followed Sabbatai Tzvi). Although anti-Maimonidean, Emden should be noted for his critical examination of the Zohar concluding that large parts of it were forged. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_seventeenth-century_Jewish_philosophers">Other seventeenth-century Jewish philosophers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Other seventeenth-century Jewish philosophers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Abendana" title="Jacob Abendana">Jacob Abendana</a> Sephardic Rabbi and Philosopher</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Cardoso" title="Isaac Cardoso">Isaac Cardoso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Nieto" title="David Nieto">David Nieto</a> Sephardic Rabbi and Philosopher</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Orobio_de_Castro" title="Isaac Orobio de Castro">Isaac Orobio de Castro</a> Sephardic Rabbi and Philosopher</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philosophical_criticisms_of_Kabbalah">Philosophical criticisms of Kabbalah</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Philosophical criticisms of Kabbalah"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kabbalah" title="Kabbalah">Kabbalah</a></div> <p>Rabbi <a href="/wiki/Leon_Modena" class="mw-redirect" title="Leon Modena">Leone di Modena</a> wrote that if we<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (March 2014)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> were to accept the Kabbalah, then the Christian trinity would indeed be compatible with Judaism, as the Trinity closely resembles the Kabbalistic doctrine of the Sefirot. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Eighteenth_and_nineteenth-century_Jewish_philosophy">Eighteenth and nineteenth-century Jewish philosophy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: Eighteenth and nineteenth-century Jewish philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238443738"><div class="locmap noviewer noresize thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:152px"><div style="position:relative;width:150px;border:1px solid lightgray"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Germany_adm_location_map.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Jewish philosophy is located in Germany"><img alt="Jewish philosophy is located in Germany" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Germany_adm_location_map.svg/150px-Germany_adm_location_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Germany_adm_location_map.svg/225px-Germany_adm_location_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Germany_adm_location_map.svg/300px-Germany_adm_location_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1073" data-file-height="1272" /></a></span><div class="od notheme" style="top:41.354%;left:67.5%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Dessau"><img alt="Dessau" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pv" style="width:6em;bottom:5px;left:-3em"><div><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Germany#From_Moses_Mendelssohn_(1778)_to_the_Nazis_(1933)" title="History of the Jews in Germany">Dessau</a></div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:21.873%;left:17.06%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Emden"><img alt="Emden" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pv" style="width:6em;top:5px;left:-3em"><div><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Germany#From_Moses_Mendelssohn_(1778)_to_the_Nazis_(1933)" title="History of the Jews in Germany">Emden</a></div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:55.278%;left:15.99%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Bonn"><img alt="Bonn" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pv" style="width:6em;top:5px;left:-3em"><div><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Germany#From_Moses_Mendelssohn_(1778)_to_the_Nazis_(1933)" title="History of the Jews in Germany">Bonn</a></div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:40.722%;left:69.33%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Coswig, Anhalt"><img alt="Coswig, Anhalt" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pv" style="width:6em;top:5px;left:-3em"><div><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Germany#From_Moses_Mendelssohn_(1778)_to_the_Nazis_(1933)" title="History of the Jews in Germany">Coswig, Anhalt</a></div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:40.595%;left:46.78%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Seesen"><img alt="Seesen" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pl" style="width:6em;right:5px"><div><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Germany#From_Moses_Mendelssohn_(1778)_to_the_Nazis_(1933)" title="History of the Jews in Germany">Seesen</a></div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:19.203%;left:44.83%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Altona, Hamburg"><img alt="Altona, Hamburg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div><a href="/wiki/Taxation_of_the_Jews#Jews_in_Hamburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Taxation of the Jews">Altona, Hamburg</a></div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:63.165%;left:31.82%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Frankfurt"><img alt="Frankfurt" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div><a href="/wiki/History_of_Frankfurt_am_Main#Jewish_Frankfurt_am_Main" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Frankfurt am Main">Frankfurt</a></div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:64.557%;left:27.71%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Mainz/Katzenelnbogen"><img alt="Mainz/Katzenelnbogen" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pv" style="width:6em;top:5px;left:-3em"><div><a href="/wiki/Mainz" title="Mainz">Mainz</a>/<a href="/wiki/Katzenelnbogen" title="Katzenelnbogen">Katzenelnbogen</a></div></div></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Germany_adm_location_map.svg" title="File:Germany adm location map.svg">class=notpageimage| </a></div>Germany - centers of Jewish scholarship</div></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238443738"><div class="locmap noviewer noresize thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:102px"><div style="position:relative;width:100px;border:1px solid lightgray"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:United_Kingdom_adm_location_map.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Jewish philosophy is located in the United Kingdom"><img alt="Jewish philosophy is located in the United Kingdom" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/United_Kingdom_adm_location_map.svg/100px-United_Kingdom_adm_location_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/United_Kingdom_adm_location_map.svg/150px-United_Kingdom_adm_location_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/United_Kingdom_adm_location_map.svg/200px-United_Kingdom_adm_location_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="886" data-file-height="1369" /></a></span><div class="od notheme" style="top:79.108%;left:82.364%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="London"><img alt="London" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pv" style="width:6em;top:5px;left:-3em"><div><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_England" title="History of the Jews in England">London</a></div></div></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:United_Kingdom_adm_location_map.svg" title="File:United Kingdom adm location map.svg">class=notpageimage| </a></div>London in modern <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></div></div></div> <p>A new era began in the 18th century with the thought of <a href="/wiki/Moses_Mendelssohn" title="Moses Mendelssohn">Moses Mendelssohn</a>. Mendelssohn has been described as the "'third Moses,' with whom begins a new era in Judaism," just as new eras began with <a href="/wiki/Moses" title="Moses">Moses the prophet</a> and with <a href="/wiki/Moses_Maimonides" class="mw-redirect" title="Moses Maimonides">Moses Maimonides</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mendelssohn was a <a href="/wiki/German_Jew" class="mw-redirect" title="German Jew">German Jewish</a> philosopher to whose ideas the renaissance of European Jews, <a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a> (the Jewish Enlightenment) is indebted. He has been referred to as the father of Reform Judaism, although Reform spokesmen have been "resistant to claim him as their spiritual father".<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mendelssohn came to be regarded as a leading cultural figure of his time by both <a href="/wiki/German_people" class="mw-redirect" title="German people">Germans</a> and Jews. His most significant book was <i><a href="/wiki/Jerusalem_(Mendelssohn)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jerusalem (Mendelssohn)">Jerusalem oder über religiöse Macht und Judentum</a></i> (<i>Jerusalem</i>), first published in 1783. </p><p>Alongside Mendelssohn, other important Jewish philosophers of the eighteenth century included: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Menachem_Mendel_Lefin" title="Menachem Mendel Lefin">Menachem Mendel Lefin</a>, anti-Hasidic <a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a> philosopher</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salomon_Maimon" title="Salomon Maimon">Salomon Maimon</a>, Enlightenment philosopher</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Satanow" title="Isaac Satanow">Isaac Satanow</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a> philosopher</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Naphtali_Ullman&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Naphtali Ullman (page does not exist)">Naphtali Ullman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a> philosopher<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Important Jewish philosophers of the nineteenth century included: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elijah_Benamozegh" title="Elijah Benamozegh">Elijah Benamozegh</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Sephardic" class="mw-redirect" title="Sephardic">Sephardic</a> rabbi and philosopher</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Cohen" title="Hermann Cohen">Hermann Cohen</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantian" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Kantian">neo-Kantian</a> Jewish philosopher</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moses_Hess" title="Moses Hess">Moses Hess</a>, a secular Jewish philosopher and one of the founders of <a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samson_Raphael_Hirsch" title="Samson Raphael Hirsch">Samson Raphael Hirsch</a>, leader of the <a href="/wiki/Torah_im_Derech_Eretz" title="Torah im Derech Eretz">Torah im Derech Eretz</a> school of 19th century neo-Orthodoxy</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Hirsch" title="Samuel Hirsch">Samuel Hirsch</a>, a leader of <a href="/wiki/Reform_Judaism" title="Reform Judaism">Reform Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nachman_Krochmal" title="Nachman Krochmal">Nachman Krochmal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a> philosopher in <a href="/wiki/Galicia_(eastern_Europe)" class="mw-redirect" title="Galicia (eastern Europe)">Galicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_David_Luzzatto" title="Samuel David Luzzatto">Samuel David Luzzatto</a> a <a href="/wiki/Sephardic" class="mw-redirect" title="Sephardic">Sephardic</a> rabbi and philosopher</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a>, German <a href="/wiki/Economist" title="Economist">economist</a> and Jewish philosopher.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Traditionalist_attitudes_towards_philosophy">Traditionalist attitudes towards philosophy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: Traditionalist attitudes towards philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Haredi_Judaism" title="Haredi Judaism">Haredi Judaism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hasidic_philosophy" title="Hasidic philosophy">Hasidic philosophy</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Haredi" class="mw-redirect" title="Haredi">Haredi</a> traditionalists who emerged in reaction to the <a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a> considered the fusion of religion and philosophy as difficult because classical philosophers start with no preconditions for which conclusions they must reach in their investigation, while classical religious believers have a set of religious principles of faith that they hold one must believe. Most Haredim contended that one cannot simultaneously be a philosopher and a true adherent of a revealed religion. In this view, all attempts at synthesis ultimately fail. Rabbi <a href="/wiki/Nachman_of_Breslov" title="Nachman of Breslov">Nachman of Breslov</a>, for example, viewed all philosophy as untrue and heretical. In this he represents one strand of <a href="/wiki/Hasidic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hasidic">Hasidic</a> thought, with creative emphasis on the emotions. </p><p>Other exponents of <a href="/wiki/Hasidic_philosophy" title="Hasidic philosophy">Hasidism</a> had a more positive attitude towards philosophy. In the <a href="/wiki/Chabad" title="Chabad">Chabad</a> writings of <a href="/wiki/Schneur_Zalman_of_Liadi" class="mw-redirect" title="Schneur Zalman of Liadi">Schneur Zalman of Liadi</a>, Hasidut is seen as able to unite all parts of Torah thought, from the schools of philosophy to mysticism, by uncovering the illuminating Divine essence that permeates and transcends all approaches. Interpreting the verse from <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Job" title="Book of Job">Job</a>, "from my flesh I see <a href="/wiki/HaShem" class="mw-redirect" title="HaShem">HaShem</a>", Shneur Zalman explained the inner meaning, or "soul", of the Jewish mystical tradition in intellectual form, by means of analogies drawn from the human realm. As explained and continued by the later leaders of Chabad, this enabled the human mind to grasp concepts of Godliness, and so enable the heart to feel the love and awe of God, emphasised by all the founders of hasidism, in an internal way. This development, the culminating level of the Jewish mystical tradition, in this way bridges philosophy and mysticism, by expressing the transcendent in human terms. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="20th_and_21st-century_Jewish_philosophy">20th and 21st-century Jewish philosophy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: 20th and 21st-century Jewish philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Martin_Buber_portrait.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Martin_Buber_portrait.jpg/220px-Martin_Buber_portrait.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="296" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Martin_Buber_portrait.jpg/330px-Martin_Buber_portrait.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Martin_Buber_portrait.jpg/440px-Martin_Buber_portrait.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1785" data-file-height="2399" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Martin_Buber" title="Martin Buber">Martin Buber</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jewish_existentialism">Jewish existentialism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=57" title="Edit section: Jewish existentialism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Jewish_existentialism" title="Jewish existentialism">Jewish existentialism</a></div> <p>One of the major trends in modern Jewish philosophy was the attempt to develop a theory of Judaism through <a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">existentialism</a>. Among the early Jewish existentialist philosophers was <a href="/wiki/Lev_Shestov" title="Lev Shestov">Lev Shestov</a> (Jehuda Leib Schwarzmann), a Russian-Jewish philosopher. One of the most influential Jewish existentialists in the first half of the 20th century was <a href="/wiki/Franz_Rosenzweig" title="Franz Rosenzweig">Franz Rosenzweig</a>. While researching his doctoral dissertation on the 19th-century German philosopher <a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel</a>, Rosenzweig reacted against Hegel's idealism and developed an existential approach. Rosenzweig, for a time, considered conversion to Christianity, but in 1913, he turned to Jewish philosophy. He became a philosopher and student of <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Cohen" title="Hermann Cohen">Hermann Cohen</a>. Rosenzweig's major work, <i>Star of Redemption</i>, is his new philosophy in which he portrays the relationships between haShem, humanity and world as they are connected by creation, revelation and redemption. Orthodox rabbi <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Soloveitchik" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph Soloveitchik">Joseph Soloveitchik</a>, and Conservative rabbis <a href="/wiki/Neil_Gillman" title="Neil Gillman">Neil Gillman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Elliot_N._Dorff" title="Elliot N. Dorff">Elliot N. Dorff</a> have also been described as existentialists.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">French</a> philosopher and <a href="/wiki/Talmudic" class="mw-redirect" title="Talmudic">Talmudic</a> commentator <a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Levinas" title="Emmanuel Levinas">Emmanuel Levinas</a>, whose approach grew out of the <a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">phenomenological</a> tradition in philosophy, has also been described as a Jewish existentialist.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jewish_rationalism">Jewish rationalism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=58" title="Edit section: Jewish rationalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hermann_Cohen_(lithograph_by_Karl_Doerbecker).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Hermann_Cohen_%28lithograph_by_Karl_Doerbecker%29.jpg/220px-Hermann_Cohen_%28lithograph_by_Karl_Doerbecker%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="304" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Hermann_Cohen_%28lithograph_by_Karl_Doerbecker%29.jpg/330px-Hermann_Cohen_%28lithograph_by_Karl_Doerbecker%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Hermann_Cohen_%28lithograph_by_Karl_Doerbecker%29.jpg/440px-Hermann_Cohen_%28lithograph_by_Karl_Doerbecker%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="880" data-file-height="1216" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Cohen" title="Hermann Cohen">Hermann Cohen</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Rationalism has re-emerged as a popular perspective among Jews.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Contemporary Jewish rationalism often draws on ideas associated with medieval philosophers such as Maimonides and modern Jewish rationalists such as <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Cohen" title="Hermann Cohen">Hermann Cohen</a>. </p><p>Cohen was a German Jewish neo-Kantian philosopher who turned to Jewish subjects at the end of his career in the early 20th century, picking up on ideas of Maimonides. In America, <a href="/wiki/Steven_Schwarzschild" title="Steven Schwarzschild">Steven Schwarzschild</a> continued Cohen's legacy.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another prominent contemporary Jewish rationalist is <a href="/wiki/Lenn_Goodman" class="mw-redirect" title="Lenn Goodman">Lenn Goodman</a>, who works out of the traditions of medieval Jewish rationalist philosophy. <a href="/wiki/Conservative_Judaism" title="Conservative Judaism">Conservative</a> rabbis <a href="/wiki/Alan_Mittleman" title="Alan Mittleman">Alan Mittleman</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Theological_Seminary_of_America" title="Jewish Theological Seminary of America">Jewish Theological Seminary</a><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Elliot_N._Dorff" title="Elliot N. Dorff">Elliot N. Dorff</a> of <a href="/wiki/American_Jewish_University" title="American Jewish University">American Jewish University</a><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> also see themselves in the rationalist tradition, as does David Novak of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Toronto" title="University of Toronto">University of Toronto</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Novak works in the natural law tradition, which is one version of rationalism. </p><p>Philosophers in modern-day Israel in the rationalist tradition include <a href="/wiki/David_Hartman_(rabbi)" title="David Hartman (rabbi)">David Hartman</a><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Moshe_Halbertal" title="Moshe Halbertal">Moshe Halbertal</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238443738"><div class="locmap noviewer noresize thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:102px"><div style="position:relative;width:100px;border:1px solid lightgray"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Israel_location_map_with_stripes.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Jewish philosophy is located in Israel"><img alt="Jewish philosophy is located in Israel" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Israel_location_map_with_stripes.svg/100px-Israel_location_map_with_stripes.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Israel_location_map_with_stripes.svg/150px-Israel_location_map_with_stripes.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Israel_location_map_with_stripes.svg/200px-Israel_location_map_with_stripes.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="614" data-file-height="1141" /></a></span><div class="od notheme" style="top:34.119%;left:43.923%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Ramat Gan, Israel"><img alt="Ramat Gan, Israel" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pv" style="width:6em;top:5px;left:-3em"><div><a href="/wiki/Bar-Ilan_University" title="Bar-Ilan University">Ramat Gan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a></div></div></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Israel_location_map_with_stripes.svg" title="File:Israel location map with stripes.svg">class=notpageimage| </a></div>Ramat Gan in modern <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a></div></div></div> <p>Some Orthodox rationalists in Israel take a "restorationist"<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2010)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> approach, reaching back in time for tools to simplify Rabbinic Judaism and bring all Jews, regardless of status or stream of Judaism, closer to observance of Halacha, Mitzvot, Kashrut and embrace of Maimonides' "13 Principles of Faith". <a href="/wiki/Dor_Daim" title="Dor Daim">Dor Daim</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dor_Daim#Talmide_ha-Rambam" title="Dor Daim">Rambamists</a> are two groups who reject mysticism as a "superstitious innovation" to an otherwise clear and succinct set of Laws and rules. According to these rationalists, there is shame and disgrace attached to failure to investigate matters of religious principle using the fullest powers of human reason and intellect. One cannot be considered wise, or perceptive, if one does not attempt to understand the origins, and establish the correctness, of one's beliefs. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Holocaust_theology">Holocaust theology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=59" title="Edit section: Holocaust theology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Holocaust_theology" title="Holocaust theology">Holocaust theology</a></div> <p>Judaism has traditionally taught that God is <a href="/wiki/Omnipotence" title="Omnipotence">omnipotent</a>, <a href="/wiki/Omniscience" title="Omniscience">omniscient</a> and <a href="/wiki/Omnibenevolence" title="Omnibenevolence">omnibenevolent</a>. Yet, these claims are in jarring <a href="/wiki/Inconsistent_triad" title="Inconsistent triad">contrast with the fact that there is much evil in the world</a>. Perhaps the most difficult question that monotheists have confronted is "how can one reconcile the existence of this view of God with the existence of evil?" or "how can there be good without bad?" "how can there be a God without a devil?" This is <a href="/wiki/The_problem_of_evil" class="mw-redirect" title="The problem of evil">the problem of evil</a>. Within all monotheistic faiths many answers (<a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">theodicies</a>) have been proposed. However, in light of the magnitude of evil seen in the <a href="/wiki/Holocaust" class="mw-redirect" title="Holocaust">Holocaust</a>, many people have re-examined classical views on this subject. How can people still have any kind of faith after the Holocaust? This set of Jewish philosophies is discussed in the article on <a href="/wiki/Holocaust_theology" title="Holocaust theology">Holocaust theology</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reconstructionist_theology">Reconstructionist theology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=60" title="Edit section: Reconstructionist theology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Reconstructionist_Judaism" title="Reconstructionist Judaism">Reconstructionist Judaism</a></div> <p>Perhaps the most controversial form of Jewish philosophy that developed in the early 20th century was the religious naturalism of Rabbi <a href="/wiki/Mordecai_Kaplan" title="Mordecai Kaplan">Mordecai Kaplan</a>. His theology was a variant of <a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">pragmatist</a> philosophy. Dewey's naturalism combined atheist beliefs with religious terminology in order to construct a philosophy for those who had lost faith in traditional Judaism. In agreement with the classical medieval Jewish thinkers, Kaplan affirmed that haShem is not personal, and that all anthropomorphic descriptions of haShem are, at best, imperfect metaphors. Kaplan's theology went beyond this to claim that haShem is the sum of all natural processes that allow man to become self-fulfilled. Kaplan wrote that "to believe in haShem means to take for granted that it is man's destiny to rise above the brute and to eliminate all forms of violence and exploitation from human society." </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Process_theology">Process theology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=61" title="Edit section: Process theology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A recent trend has been to reframe Jewish theology through the lens of <a href="/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">process philosophy</a>, more specifically <a href="/wiki/Process_theology" title="Process theology">process theology</a>. Process philosophy suggests that fundamental elements of the universe are occasions of experience. According to this notion, what people commonly think of as concrete objects are actually successions of these occasions of experience. Occasions of experience can be collected into groupings; something complex such as a human being is thus a grouping of many smaller occasions of experience. In this view, everything in the universe is characterized by experience (not to be confused with consciousness); there is no mind-body duality under this system, because "mind" is simply seen as a very developed kind of experiencing entity. </p><p>Intrinsic to this worldview is the notion that all experiences are influenced by prior experiences, and will influence all future experiences. This process of influencing is never deterministic; an occasion of experience consists of a process of comprehending other experiences, and then reacting to it. This is the "process" in "process philosophy". Process philosophy gives God a special place in the universe of occasions of experience. God encompasses all the other occasions of experience but also transcends them; thus process philosophy is a form of <a href="/wiki/Panentheism" title="Panentheism">panentheism</a>. </p><p>The original ideas of process theology were developed by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Hartshorne" title="Charles Hartshorne">Charles Hartshorne</a> (1897–2000), and influenced a number of <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Jewish</a> theologians, including <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">British</a> philosopher Samuel Alexander (1859–1938), and <a href="/wiki/Rabbis" class="mw-redirect" title="Rabbis">Rabbis</a> <a href="/wiki/Max_Kadushin" title="Max Kadushin">Max Kadushin</a>, Milton Steinberg and Levi A. Olan, Harry Slominsky, and <a href="/wiki/Bradley_Shavit_Artson" title="Bradley Shavit Artson">Bradley Shavit Artson</a>. <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Joshua_Heschel" title="Abraham Joshua Heschel">Abraham Joshua Heschel</a> has also been linked to this tradition.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kabbalah_and_philosophy">Kabbalah and philosophy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=62" title="Edit section: Kabbalah and philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Kabbalah continued to be central to <a href="/wiki/Haredi_Orthodox_Judaism" class="mw-redirect" title="Haredi Orthodox Judaism">Haredi Orthodox Judaism</a>, which generally rejected philosophy, although the <a href="/wiki/Chabad" title="Chabad">Chabad</a> strain of <a href="/wiki/Chasidism" class="mw-redirect" title="Chasidism">Chasidism</a> showed a more positive attitude towards philosophy. Meanwhile, non-Orthodox Jewish thought in the latter 20th century saw resurgent interest in <a href="/wiki/Kabbalah" title="Kabbalah">Kabbalah</a>. In academic studies, <a href="/wiki/Gershom_Scholem" title="Gershom Scholem">Gershom Scholem</a> began the critical investigation of Jewish mysticism, while in non-Orthodox <a href="/wiki/Jewish_denominations" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish denominations">Jewish denominations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Renewal" title="Jewish Renewal">Jewish Renewal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neo-Hasidism" title="Neo-Hasidism">Neo-Hasidism</a>, spiritualised worship. Many philosophers do not consider this a form of philosophy, as Kabbalah is a collection of esoteric methods of textual interpretation. Mysticism is generally understood as an alternative to philosophy, not a variant of philosophy. </p><p>Among the modern critics of Kabbalah was <a href="/wiki/Yihhyah_Qafahh" class="mw-redirect" title="Yihhyah Qafahh">Yihhyah Qafahh</a>, who wrote a book entitled <i><a href="/wiki/Milhamoth_ha-Shem" title="Milhamoth ha-Shem">Milhamoth ha-Shem</a></i>, (<i>Wars of the Name</i>) against what he perceived as the false teachings of the Zohar and the false Kabbalah of Isaac Luria. He is credited with spearheading the <a href="/wiki/Dor_Daim" title="Dor Daim">Dor Daim</a>. <a href="/wiki/Yeshayahu_Leibowitz" title="Yeshayahu Leibowitz">Yeshayahu Leibowitz</a> publicly shared the views expressed in Rabbi <a href="/wiki/Yihhyah_Qafahh" class="mw-redirect" title="Yihhyah Qafahh">Yihhyah Qafahh</a>'s book <i>Milhhamoth ha-Shem</i> and elaborated upon these views in his many writings. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Contemporary_Jewish_philosophy">Contemporary Jewish philosophy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=63" title="Edit section: Contemporary Jewish philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Philosophers_who_are_associated_with_Orthodox_Judaism">Philosophers who are associated with Orthodox Judaism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=64" title="Edit section: Philosophers who are associated with Orthodox Judaism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Jewish_philosophy" title="Orthodox Jewish philosophy">Orthodox Jewish philosophy</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eliezer_Berkovits" title="Eliezer Berkovits">Eliezer Berkovits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monsieur_Chouchani" title="Monsieur Chouchani">Monsieur Chouchani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliyahu_Dessler" class="mw-redirect" title="Eliyahu Dessler">Eliyahu Dessler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israel_Eldad" title="Israel Eldad">Israel Eldad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elimelech_of_Lizhensk" title="Elimelech of Lizhensk">Elimelech of Lizhensk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hartman_(rabbi)" title="David Hartman (rabbi)">David Hartman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samson_Raphael_Hirsch" title="Samson Raphael Hirsch">Samson Raphael Hirsch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Isaac_Kook" title="Abraham Isaac Kook">Abraham Isaac Kook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeshayahu_Leibowitz" title="Yeshayahu Leibowitz">Yeshayahu Leibowitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menachem_Mendel_of_Kotzk" title="Menachem Mendel of Kotzk">Menachem Mendel of Kotzk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nachman_of_Breslov" title="Nachman of Breslov">Nachman of Breslov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Rosenzweig" title="Franz Rosenzweig">Franz Rosenzweig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamar_Ross" title="Tamar Ross">Tamar Ross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Rynhold" title="Daniel Rynhold">Daniel Rynhold</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yehoshua_Zimmerman&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yehoshua Zimmerman (page does not exist)">Yehoshua Zimmerman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menachem_Mendel_Schneerson" title="Menachem Mendel Schneerson">Menachem Mendel Schneerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Soloveitchik" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph Soloveitchik">Joseph Soloveitchik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Wyschogrod" title="Michael Wyschogrod">Michael Wyschogrod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaim_Volozhin" class="mw-redirect" title="Chaim Volozhin">Chaim Volozhin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shneur_Zalman_of_Liadi" title="Shneur Zalman of Liadi">Shneur Zalman of Liadi</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Philosophers_who_are_associated_with_Conservative_Judaism">Philosophers who are associated with Conservative Judaism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=65" title="Edit section: Philosophers who are associated with Conservative Judaism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Conservative_Judaism" title="Conservative Judaism">Conservative Judaism</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bradley_Shavit_Artson" title="Bradley Shavit Artson">Bradley Shavit Artson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elliot_N._Dorff" title="Elliot N. Dorff">Elliot N. Dorff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neil_Gillman" title="Neil Gillman">Neil Gillman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Joshua_Heschel" title="Abraham Joshua Heschel">Abraham Joshua Heschel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_E._Kaufman" title="William E. Kaufman">William E. Kaufman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Kadushin" title="Max Kadushin">Max Kadushin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_Mittleman" title="Alan Mittleman">Alan Mittleman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Novak" title="David Novak">David Novak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ira_F._Stone" title="Ira F. Stone">Ira F. Stone</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Philosophers_who_are_associated_with_Reform_and_Progressive_Judaism">Philosophers who are associated with Reform and Progressive Judaism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=66" title="Edit section: Philosophers who are associated with Reform and Progressive Judaism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Reform_Judaism" title="Reform Judaism">Reform Judaism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reconstructionist_Judaism" title="Reconstructionist Judaism">Reconstructionist Judaism</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rachel_Adler" title="Rachel Adler">Rachel Adler</a> (American rabbi, author and <a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">Feminist</a> philosopher)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Baeck" title="Leo Baeck">Leo Baeck</a> (leader in German <a href="/wiki/Reform_Judaism" title="Reform Judaism">Liberal Judaism</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Borowitz" title="Eugene Borowitz">Eugene Borowitz</a> (leader in American <a href="/wiki/Reform_Judaism" title="Reform Judaism">Reform Judaism</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emil_Fackenheim" title="Emil Fackenheim">Emil Fackenheim</a> (German-Canadian-Israeli philosopher)</li> <li>Avigdor Chaim Gold (German-Israeli philosopher)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Jewish_philosophers_whose_philosophy_is_not_necessarily_focused_on_Jewish_themes">Jewish philosophers whose philosophy is not necessarily focused on Jewish themes</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=67" title="Edit section: Jewish philosophers whose philosophy is not necessarily focused on Jewish themes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the twentieth and twenty-first centuries there have also been many philosophers who are Jewish or of Jewish descent, and whose Jewish background might influence their approach to some degree, but whose writing is not necessarily focused on issues specific to Judaism. These include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Theodor W. Adorno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Agassi" title="Joseph Agassi">Joseph Agassi</a>, an Israeli philosopher of science who developed <a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a>'s ideas<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Hannah Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Raymond Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Zygmunt Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Benjamin" title="Walter Benjamin">Walter Benjamin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Henri Bergson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Isaiah Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Bloch" title="Ernst Bloch">Ernst Bloch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allan_Bloom" title="Allan Bloom">Allan Bloom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Bloom" title="Harold Bloom">Harold Bloom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_Bordo" title="Susan Bordo">Susan Bordo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judith_Butler" title="Judith Butler">Judith Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Noam Chomsky</a>, an American linguist, philosopher, cognitive scientist, and political activist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%C3%A9l%C3%A8ne_Cixous" title="Hélène Cixous">Hélène Cixous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Danto" title="Arthur Danto">Arthur Danto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Derrida" title="Jacques Derrida">Jacques Derrida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hubert_Dreyfus" title="Hubert Dreyfus">Hubert Dreyfus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Dworkin" title="Ronald Dworkin">Ronald Dworkin</a>, an American philosopher of law</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yehuda_Elkana" title="Yehuda Elkana">Yehuda Elkana</a>, an Israeli philosopher of science</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bracha_L._Ettinger" title="Bracha L. Ettinger">Bracha L. Ettinger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viktor_Frankl" title="Viktor Frankl">Viktor Frankl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Erich Fromm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamar_Gendler" title="Tamar Gendler">Tamar Gendler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emma_Goldman" title="Emma Goldman">Emma Goldman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewis_Gordon" title="Lewis Gordon">Lewis Gordon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Halberstam" title="Jack Halberstam">Jack Halberstam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%81gnes_Heller" title="Ágnes Heller">Ágnes Heller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Horkheimer" title="Max Horkheimer">Max Horkheimer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Edmund Husserl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alberto_Jori" title="Alberto Jori">Alberto Jori</a>, an Italian-Jewish philosopher</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Jonas" title="Hans Jonas">Hans Jonas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melanie_Klein" title="Melanie Klein">Melanie Klein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarah_Kofman" title="Sarah Kofman">Sarah Kofman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siegfried_Kracauer" title="Siegfried Kracauer">Siegfried Kracauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Saul Kripke</a>, a metaphysician and modal logician</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Leopold_Neumann" class="mw-redirect" title="Franz Leopold Neumann">Franz Leopold Neumann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Levinas" title="Emmanuel Levinas">Emmanuel Levinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_L%C3%A9vi-Strauss" title="Claude Lévi-Strauss">Claude Lévi-Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard-Henri_L%C3%A9vy" title="Bernard-Henri Lévy">Bernard-Henri Lévy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benny_L%C3%A9vy" title="Benny Lévy">Benny Lévy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_L%C3%B6wenthal" title="Leo Löwenthal">Leo Löwenthal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Luxemburg" title="Rosa Luxemburg">Rosa Luxemburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Luk%C3%A1cs" title="György Lukács">György Lukács</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Herbert Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nagel" title="Thomas Nagel">Thomas Nagel</a>, a Serbia-born Jewish philosopher</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Martha Nussbaum</a>, an American moral and political philosopher</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adi_Ophir" title="Adi Ophir">Adi Ophir</a>, an Israeli philosopher of science and moral philosopher</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Pollock" title="Friedrich Pollock">Friedrich Pollock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moishe_Postone" title="Moishe Postone">Moishe Postone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a>, an American analytic philosopher</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Ayn Rand</a>, a Russian-American Jewish philosopher who focused upon Aristotle's reason</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avital_Ronell" title="Avital Ronell">Avital Ronell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Murray Rothbard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_J._Sandel" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael J. Sandel">Michael J. Sandel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eve_Kosofsky_Sedgwick" title="Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick">Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick</a>, an American Queer theorist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lev_Shestov" title="Lev Shestov">Lev Shestov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judith_N._Shklar" title="Judith N. Shklar">Judith N. Shklar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Singer" title="Peter Singer">Peter Singer</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Utilitarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Utilitarian">utilitarian</a> philosopher</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_Soble" title="Alan Soble">Alan Soble</a>, writes in <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_sex" title="Philosophy of sex">philosophy of sex</a>, American-born, Romanian-Russian ethnicity</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_Sontag" title="Susan Sontag">Susan Sontag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandy_Stone_(artist)" title="Sandy Stone (artist)">Sandy Stone</a> theorist, artist and a founder of <a href="/wiki/Transgender_studies" title="Transgender studies">transgender studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">Leo Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Tarski" title="Alfred Tarski">Alfred Tarski</a> - Polish logician</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Michael Walzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Wallerstein" title="Immanuel Wallerstein">Immanuel Wallerstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irvin_D._Yalom" title="Irvin D. Yalom">Irvin D. Yalom</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=68" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 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href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=69" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=281&letter=P">"Philo Judæus"</a>. 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New York: The Jewish Theological Seminary of America, 1915.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarzena_Zawanowska2012" class="citation web cs1">Marzena Zawanowska (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopedia-of-jews-in-the-islamic-world/hiwi-al-balkhi-SIM_0009940">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>" Ḥīwī al-Balkhī." Encyclopedia of Jews in the Islamic World. Executive Editor Norman A. Stillman"</a>. Brillonline.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Lasker (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopedia-of-jews-in-the-islamic-world/muqammis-david-ibn-marwan-al-SIM_0016080">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>" Muqammiṣ, David Ibn Marwān al-." Encyclopedia of Jews in the Islamic World. Executive Editor Norman A. Stillman"</a>. Brillonline.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 July</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%22+Muqammi%E1%B9%A3%2C+David+Ibn+Marw%C4%81n+al-.%22+Encyclopedia+of+Jews+in+the+Islamic+World.+Executive+Editor+Norman+A.+Stillman&rft.pub=Brillonline.com&rft.date=2012&rft.au=Daniel+J.+Lasker&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Freferenceworks.brillonline.com%2Fentries%2Fencyclopedia-of-jews-in-the-islamic-world%2Fmuqammis-david-ibn-marwan-al-SIM_0016080&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Jews in Islamic countries in the Middle Ages Volume 28 of Études sur le judaïsme médiéval" by Moshe Gil and David Strassler, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-13882-X" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-13882-X">90-04-13882-X</a>, 9789004138827</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A history of Jewish philosophy in the Middle Ages By <a href="/wiki/Colette_Sirat" title="Colette Sirat">Colette Sirat</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=134&letter=B&search=Bahya#ixzz0Tx3CqjNq">"Bahya Ben Joseph Ibn Paḳuda"</a>. JewishEncyclopedia.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-10-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Bahya+Ben+Joseph+Ibn+Pa%E1%B8%B3uda&rft.pub=JewishEncyclopedia.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishencyclopedia.com%2Fview.jsp%3Fartid%3D134%26letter%3DB%26search%3DBahya%23ixzz0Tx3CqjNq&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Or Adonai</i>, ch. i.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stroumsa, S. (1993) 'On the Maimonidean Controversy in the East: the Role of Abu 'l-Barakat al-Baghdadi', in H. Ben-Shammai (ed.) Hebrew and Arabic Studies in Honour of Joshua Blau, Tel Aviv and Jerusalem. (On the role of Abu 'l-Barakat's writings in the resurrection controversy of the twelfth century; in Hebrew.)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The encyclopædia britannica: a dictionary of arts, sciences ..., Volume 13 edited by Hugh Chisholm, Pg 174</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A short biographical article about Rabeinu Shem Tov Ben Yosef Falaquera, one of the great Rishonim who was a defender of the Rambam, and the author of the Moreh HaMoreh on the Rambam's Moreh Nevuchim. Published in the Jewish Quarterly Review journal (Vol .1 1910/1911).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Torah and Sophia: The Life and Thought of Shem Tov Ibn Falaquera (Monographs of the Hebrew Union College) by Raphael Jospe</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/kaspi-joseph-ben-abba-mari-ibn"><i>Jewish Virtual Library</i></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jewish+Virtual+Library&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishvirtuallibrary.org%2Fkaspi-joseph-ben-abba-mari-ibn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span> </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacobs1990" class="citation book cs1">Jacobs, Louis (1990). <i>God, Torah, Israel: traditionalism without fundamentalism</i>. Cincinnati: Hebrew Union College Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87820-052-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-87820-052-5"><bdi>0-87820-052-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/21039224">21039224</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=God%2C+Torah%2C+Israel%3A+traditionalism+without+fundamentalism&rft.place=Cincinnati&rft.pub=Hebrew+Union+College+Press&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F21039224&rft.isbn=0-87820-052-5&rft.aulast=Jacobs&rft.aufirst=Louis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Responsa No. 159</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSadik2020" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shalom_Sadik&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shalom Sadik (page does not exist)">Sadik, Shalom</a> (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2020/entries/crescas/">"Hasdai Crescas"</a>. <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 May</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Hasdai+Crescas&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Sadik&rft.aufirst=Shalom&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Fsum2020%2Fentries%2Fcrescas%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">D. Blumenthal, "An Illustration of the Concept 'Philosophic Mysticism' from Fifteenth Century Yemen," and "A Philosophical-Mystical Interpretation of a Shi'ur Qomah Text."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Isaac Abarbanel's stance toward tradition: defense, dissent, and dialogue" By Eric Lawee</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Steinschneider 1893, 1:296–311; Harvey 2001</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0016_0_16007.html">"Porto-Rafa (Rapaport), Moses ben Jehiel Ha-Kohen"</a>. Jewishvirtuallibrary.org<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-10-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Porto-Rafa+%28Rapaport%29%2C+Moses+ben+Jehiel+Ha-Kohen&rft.pub=Jewishvirtuallibrary.org&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishvirtuallibrary.org%2Fjsource%2Fjudaica%2Fejud_0002_0016_0_16007.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Seder ha-Dorot", p. 252, 1878 ed.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Epstein, in "Monatsschrift", xlvii. 344; Jerusalem: Under the Arabs</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Blesséd Spinoza: a biography of the philosopher", by Lewis Browne, The Macmillan Company, 1932, University of Wisconsin - Madison</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=446&letter=M">"Mendelssohn"</a>. JewishEncyclopedia.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-10-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Mendelssohn&rft.pub=JewishEncyclopedia.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishencyclopedia.com%2Fview.jsp%3Fartid%3D446%26letter%3DM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wein (1997), p. 44. (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=11f9xBbOBBEC&pg=PA44">Google books</a>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Shmuel Feiner, <i>The Jewish Enlightenment</i> 72-3</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Benjamin A. Wurgaft, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.myjewishlearning.com/beliefs/Theology/Thinkers_and_Thought/Jewish_Philosophy/Philosophies/Modern/Emmanuel_Levinas.shtml">Emmanuel Levinas</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326111249/http://www.myjewishlearning.com/beliefs/Theology/Thinkers_and_Thought/Jewish_Philosophy/Philosophies/Modern/Emmanuel_Levinas.shtml">Archived</a> 2015-03-26 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, myjewishlearning.com.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Jewish Rationalism Reemergent," <i>Conservative Judaism,</i> Volume 36, Issue 4, Page 81</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Steven Schwarzschild, "To Re-Cast Rationalism," <i>Judaism</i> 2 (1962).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130313185226/http://www.jtsa.edu/x12578.xml">"The Jewish Theological Seminary"</a>. Jtsa.edu. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jtsa.edu/x12578.xml">the original</a> on 2013-03-13<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-10-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Jewish+Theological+Seminary&rft.pub=Jtsa.edu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jtsa.edu%2Fx12578.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.adath-shalom.ca/dorf_rev.htm">"From Medievaland Modern Theories Of Revelation By Elliot N. Dorff"</a>. Adath-shalom.ca<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-10-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=From+Medievaland+Modern+Theories+Of+Revelation+By+Elliot+N.+Dorff&rft.pub=Adath-shalom.ca&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.adath-shalom.ca%2Fdorf_rev.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Tradition in the public square: a David Novak reader</i>, page xiv</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120624183933/http://etd.lib.fsu.edu/theses/available/etd-09182003-143438/unrestricted/07_aed_chapter2.pdf">"Halakhic Latitudinarianism: David Hartman on the commanded life"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Etd.lib.fsu.edu. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://etd.lib.fsu.edu/theses/available/etd-09182003-143438/unrestricted/07_aed_chapter2.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2012-06-24<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-10-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Halakhic+Latitudinarianism%3A+David+Hartman+on+the+commanded+life&rft.pub=Etd.lib.fsu.edu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fetd.lib.fsu.edu%2Ftheses%2Favailable%2Fetd-09182003-143438%2Funrestricted%2F07_aed_chapter2.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Noam Zion, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hartmaninstitute.com/uploads/Holidays/Elu-02062008_0957_45.pdf">Elu v'Elu: Two Schools of Halakha Face Off On Issues of Human Autonomy, Majority Rule and Divine Voice of Authority</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120724090413/http://www.hartmaninstitute.com/uploads/Holidays/Elu-02062008_0957_45.pdf">Archived</a> 2012-07-24 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, p. 8</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoore1989" class="citation book cs1">Moore, Donald J. (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LdfdS5YwOHoC"><i>The Human and the Holy: The Spirituality of Abraham Joshua Heschel</i></a>. New York: Fordham University Press. pp. 82–83. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0823212361" title="Special:BookSources/978-0823212361"><bdi>978-0823212361</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Human+and+the+Holy%3A+The+Spirituality+of+Abraham+Joshua+Heschel&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=82-83&rft.pub=Fordham+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0823212361&rft.aulast=Moore&rft.aufirst=Donald+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLdfdS5YwOHoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">As early as 1934 <a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a> wrote of the search for truth as "one of the strongest motives for scientific discovery." Still, he describes in <i>Objective Knowledge</i> (1972) early concerns about the much-criticized notion of truth as correspondence. Then came the semantic theory of truth formulated by the logician Alfred Tarski and published in 1933. Popper writes of learning in 1935 of the consequences of Tarski's theory, to his intense joy. The theory met critical objections to truth as correspondence and thereby rehabilitated it. The theory also seemed, in Popper's eyes, to support metaphysical realism and the regulative idea of a search for truth. Popper coined the term critical rationalism to describe his philosophy. Contemporary Jewish philosophers who follow Popper's philosophy include <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Agassi" title="Joseph Agassi">Joseph Agassi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adi_Ophir" title="Adi Ophir">Adi Ophir</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yehuda_Elkana" title="Yehuda Elkana">Yehuda Elkana</a>.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=70" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>Online sources</b> </p> <ul><li><span class="languageicon">(in Hebrew)</span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.daat.ac.il/daat/mahshevt/mhshvtis.htm">Material by topic, daat.ac.il</a></li> <li><span class="languageicon">(in Hebrew and English)</span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hsf.bgu.ac.il/cjt/files/links.html#philosophy">Primary Sources, Ben Gurion University</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110514004359/http://hsf.bgu.ac.il/cjt/files/links.html#philosophy">Archived</a> 2011-05-14 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><span class="languageicon">(in English)</span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.halachabrura.org/alephlink.htm">Online materials, Halacha Brura Institute</a></li> <li><span class="languageicon">(in Hebrew)</span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cms.education.gov.il/EducationCMS/Units/Tochniyot_Limudim/Machshevet_Mmd">From the Israeli high-school syllabus, education.gov.il</a></li> <li><span class="languageicon">(in English)</span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hebrew.sadnatenosh.org/">Articles on Jewish Philosophy-Haim Lifshitz and Isaac Lifshitz</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090831073351/http://hebrew.sadnatenosh.org/">Archived</a> 2009-08-31 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><span class="languageicon">(in English)</span> <a href="/wiki/Free_will_in_theology#In_Jewish_thought" title="Free will in theology">Free will in Jewish Philosophy</a></li> <li><span class="languageicon">(in English)</span> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKriesel2015" class="citation book cs1">Kriesel, Howard (2015). <i>Judaism as Philosophy: Studies in Maimonides and the Medieval Jewish Philosophers of Provence</i>. Boston: <a href="/wiki/Academic_Studies_Press" title="Academic Studies Press">Academic Studies Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2Fj.ctt21h4xpc">10.2307/j.ctt21h4xpc</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781618111791" title="Special:BookSources/9781618111791"><bdi>9781618111791</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt21h4xpc">j.ctt21h4xpc</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Judaism+as+Philosophy%3A+Studies+in+Maimonides+and+the+Medieval+Jewish+Philosophers+of+Provence&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=Academic+Studies+Press&rft.date=2015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctt21h4xpc%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2Fj.ctt21h4xpc&rft.isbn=9781618111791&rft.aulast=Kriesel&rft.aufirst=Howard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="position:relative; top: -2px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Open_access" title="open access publication – free to read"><img alt="Open access icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg/9px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg/14px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg/18px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></span></li></ul> <p><b>Print sources</b> </p> <ul><li>Daniel H. Frank and Oliver Leaman (eds.), <i>History of Jewish Philosophy</i>. London: Routledge, 1997. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-08064-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-08064-9">0-415-08064-9</a></li> <li>Colette Sirat, <i>A History of Jewish Philosophy in the Middle Ages</i>. Cambridge University Press, 1990. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-39727-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-39727-8">0-521-39727-8</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_philosophy&action=edit&section=71" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050308032809/http://radicalacademy.com/adiphiljewishindex.htm">Adventures in Philosophy - Jewish Philosophy Index (radicalacademy.com)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ditext.com/runes/j.html">Jewish Philosophy, The Dictionary of Philosophy (Dagobert D. Runes)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090530082824/http://english.sadnatenosh.org/">Rabbi Haim Lifshitz-articles review Jewish Philosophy</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewishideas.org/">Rabbi Marc Angel's Project reflecting a fusion of Modern Orthodoxy and Sephardic Judaism</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.yeshiva.co/midrash/?cat=299">Jewish thought and spirituality</a> - articles and <a href="/wiki/Shiur_(Torah)" class="mw-redirect" title="Shiur (Torah)">Shiurim</a> in the Yeshiva site</li> <li>Joseph Isaac Lifshitz, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.conversationsonphilanthropy.org/journal-contribution/towards-a-modern-idea-of-charity/">"Towards a Modern Idea of Charity"</a>, Conversations On Philanthropy</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://research.lib.buffalo.edu/jewishthought">University at Buffalo Research Guide of Jewish Thought</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">Antisemitism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xueta_Christianity" title="Xueta Christianity">Xueta Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionism,_race_and_genetics" class="mw-redirect" title="Zionism, race and genetics">Zionism, race and genetics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gentile" title="Gentile">Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groups_claiming_affiliation_with_Israelites" title="Groups claiming affiliation with Israelites">Groups claiming affiliation with Israelites</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Diaspora" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_diaspora" title="Jewish diaspora">Diaspora</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews" title="Ashkenazi Jews">Ashkenazim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrikaner-Jews" title="Afrikaner-Jews">Afrikaner-Jode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuts" title="Chuts">Chuts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galician_Jews" title="Galician Jews">Galitzianers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Litvaks" title="Litvaks">Lita'im</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oberlander_Jews" title="Oberlander Jews">Oberlander Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Udmurtia_and_Tatarstan" title="History of the Jews in Udmurtia and Tatarstan">Udmurt and Tatar Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unterlander_Jews" title="Unterlander Jews">Unterlander Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yekke" title="Yekke">Yekkes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta_Israel" title="Beta Israel">Beta Israel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beta_Abraham" title="Beta Abraham">Beta Abraham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falash_Mura" title="Falash Mura">Falash Mura</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desi_Jews" title="Desi Jews">Desi Jews</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bene_Israel" title="Bene Israel">Bene Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cochin_Jews" title="Cochin Jews">Kochinim</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%B6nmeh" title="Dönmeh">Dönmeh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_Jews" title="Georgian Jews">Gruzínim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Jews" title="Italian Jews">Italkim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neofiti" title="Neofiti">Neofiti</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaifeng_Jews" title="Kaifeng Jews">Kaifeng Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karaite_Judaism" title="Karaite Judaism">Karaites</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantinopolitan_Karaites" title="Constantinopolitan Karaites">Constantinopolitan Karaites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Karaites" title="Crimean Karaites">Crimean Karaites</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kurdistan" title="History of the Jews in Kurdistan">Kurdish Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krymchaks" title="Krymchaks">Krymchaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lemba_people" title="Lemba people">Lemba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_Jews" title="Maghrebi Jews">Maghrebi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Berber_Jews" title="Berber Jews">Berber Jews</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Jews" title="Mizrahi Jews">Mizrahi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Afghanistan" title="History of the Jews in Afghanistan">Afghan Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Alexandria" title="History of the Jews in Alexandria">Alexandrian Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baghdadi_Jews" title="Baghdadi Jews">Baghdadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukharan_Jews" title="Bukharan Jews">Bukharan Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Egypt" title="History of the Jews in Egypt">Egyptian Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mountain_Jews" title="Mountain Jews">Mountain Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_Jews" title="Palestinian Jews">Palestinian Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian Jews">Persian Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urfalim" title="Urfalim">Urfalim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Jews" title="Yemenite Jews">Teimanim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adeni_Jews" title="Adeni Jews">Adeni Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habbani_Jews" title="Habbani Jews">Ḥabbanim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Hadramaut" title="History of the Jews in Hadramaut">Hadhrami Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Saada" title="History of the Jews in Saada">Saada Jews</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musta%27arabi_Jews" title="Musta'arabi Jews">Mustaʿravim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_tribes_of_Arabia" title="Jewish tribes of Arabia">Jewish tribes of Arabia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romaniote_Jews" title="Romaniote Jews">Romaniote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardic_Jews" title="Sephardic Jews">Sephardim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_and_Portuguese_Jews" title="Spanish and Portuguese Jews">Eastern Sephardim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Livorno" title="History of the Jews in Livorno">Livornese Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_African_Sephardim" title="North African Sephardim">North African Sephardim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradesi_Jews" title="Paradesi Jews">Paradesi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Meshuchrarim" title="Meshuchrarim">Meshuchrarim</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardic_Bnei_Anusim" title="Sephardic Bnei Anusim">Sephardic Bnei Anusim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xueta" title="Xueta">Xuetes</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_languages" title="Jewish languages">Languages</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Jewish_diaspora_languages" title="List of Jewish diaspora languages">Diasporic</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Hebrew" title="Ashkenazi Hebrew">Ashkenazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Hebrew" title="Sephardi Hebrew">Sephardi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Hebrew" title="Mizrahi Hebrew">Mizrahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Hebrew" title="Yemenite Hebrew">Yemenite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiberian_Hebrew" title="Tiberian Hebrew">Tiberian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritan_Hebrew" title="Samaritan Hebrew">Samaritan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manually_coded_language#List_of_signed_languages" title="Manually coded language">Signed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Hebrew" title="Medieval Hebrew">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mishnaic_Hebrew" title="Mishnaic Hebrew">Mishnaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_vocalization" title="Babylonian vocalization">Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_vocalization" title="Palestinian vocalization">Palestinian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Catalan" title="Judaeo-Catalan">Catalanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Berber_language" title="Judeo-Berber language">Judeo-Amazigh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Arabic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Arabic languages">Judeo-Arabic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iraqi_Arabic" title="Judeo-Iraqi Arabic">Yahudic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baghdad_Jewish_Arabic" title="Baghdad Jewish Arabic">Judeo-Baghdadi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Moroccan_Arabic" title="Judeo-Moroccan Arabic">Judeo-Moroccan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tripolitanian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tripolitanian Arabic">Judeo-Tripolitanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tunisian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tunisian Arabic">Judeo-Tunisian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Yemeni_Arabic" title="Judeo-Yemeni Arabic">Judeo-Yemeni</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Aramaic_languages" title="Judeo-Aramaic languages">Judaeo-Aramaic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Targum_(Aramaic_dialects)" title="Targum (Aramaic dialects)">Targum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Barzani" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Barzani">Barzani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Betanure" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Betanure">Betanure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Zab_Jewish_Neo-Aramaic" title="Trans-Zab Jewish Neo-Aramaic">Hulaulá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Zakho" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Zakho">Lishana Deni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Urmia" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Urmia">Lishán Didán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-Zab_Jewish_Neo-Aramaic" title="Inter-Zab Jewish Neo-Aramaic">Lishanid Noshan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Aramaic" title="Biblical Aramaic">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Babylonian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Babylonian Aramaic">Talmudic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Palestinian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Palestinian Aramaic">Palestinian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galilean_dialect" title="Galilean dialect">Galilean</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Aragonese" title="Judaeo-Aragonese">Judeo-Aragonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_English_varieties" title="Jewish English varieties">Jewish English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yeshivish" title="Yeshivish">Yeshivish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yinglish" class="mw-redirect" title="Yinglish">Yinglish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heblish" class="mw-redirect" title="Heblish">Heblish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Gascon" title="Judeo-Gascon">Judeo-Gascon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yevanic_language" title="Yevanic language">Judaeo-Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Italian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Italian languages">Judeo-Italian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Piedmontese" title="Judaeo-Piedmontese">Judaeo-Piedmontese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Latin" title="Judeo-Latin">Judeo-Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Malayalam" title="Judeo-Malayalam">Judeo-Malayalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Marathi" title="Judeo-Marathi">Judeo-Marathi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Proven%C3%A7al" title="Judeo-Provençal">Judaeo-Occitan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Persian" title="Judeo-Persian">Judeo-Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bukharian_(Judeo-Tajik_dialect)" title="Bukharian (Judeo-Tajik dialect)">Bukhori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Borujerdi" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Borujerdi">Judeo-Borujerdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Golpaygani" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Golpaygani">Judeo-Golpaygani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Hamedani" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Hamedani">Judeo-Hamedani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Shirazi" title="Judeo-Shirazi">Judeo-Shirazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tat" title="Judeo-Tat">Juhuri</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Portuguese" title="Judaeo-Portuguese">Judaeo-Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Urdu" title="Judeo-Urdu">Judeo-Urdu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karaim_language" title="Karaim language">Karaim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kayla_dialect" title="Kayla dialect">Kayliñña</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Georgian" title="Judaeo-Georgian">Kivruli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knaanic_language" title="Knaanic language">Knaanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Koine_Greek" title="Jewish Koine Greek">Koiné Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krymchak_language" title="Krymchak language">Krymchak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lachoudisch" title="Lachoudisch">Lachoudisch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Spanish" title="Judaeo-Spanish">Ladino</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haketia" title="Haketia">Haketia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetuani_Ladino" title="Tetuani Ladino">Tetuani</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lotegorisch" title="Lotegorisch">Lotegorisch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qwara_dialect" title="Qwara dialect">Qwareña</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Jewish_Sign_Language" title="Algerian Jewish Sign Language">Shassagh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_Sign_Language" title="Israeli Sign Language">Shassi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Proven%C3%A7al" title="Judeo-Provençal">Shuadit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_dialects" title="Yiddish dialects">dialects</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Yiddish">Eastern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galitzish" class="mw-redirect" title="Galitzish">Galitzish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithuanian Yiddish">Litvish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poylish" class="mw-redirect" title="Poylish">Poylish</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Klezmer-loshn" title="Klezmer-loshn">Klezmer-loshn</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Yiddish">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Alsatian" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Alsatian">Judeo-Alsatian</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lachoudisch" title="Lachoudisch">Lachoudisch</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scots-Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Scots-Yiddish">Scots-Yiddish</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zarphatic_language" title="Zarphatic language">Zarphatic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_principles_of_faith" title="Jewish principles of faith">Beliefs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mitzvah" title="Mitzvah">Mitzvah</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_authority" title="Rabbinic authority">Rabbinic authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_as_the_chosen_people" title="Jews as the chosen people">Chosen people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversion_to_Judaism" title="Conversion to Judaism">Conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_eschatology" title="Jewish eschatology">Eschatology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Messiah_in_Judaism" title="Messiah in Judaism">Messiah</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethics" title="Jewish ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holiness_in_Judaism" title="Holiness in Judaism">Holiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Judaism" title="God in Judaism">God</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_God_in_Judaism" title="Names of God in Judaism">Names of God</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">Halakha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabbalah" title="Kabbalah">Kabbalah</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sefirot" title="Sefirot">Sefirot</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_of_Israel" title="Land of Israel">Land of Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Who_is_a_Jew%3F" title="Who is a Jew?">Who is a Jew?</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Branches_of_Judaism" class="mw-redirect" title="Branches of Judaism">Branches</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_religious_movements" title="Jewish religious movements">Religious movements</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Judaism" title="Orthodox Judaism">Orthodox</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haredi_Judaism" title="Haredi Judaism">Haredi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Litvishe" class="mw-redirect" title="Litvishe">Litvaks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Orthodox_Judaism" title="Modern Orthodox Judaism">Modern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Judaism" title="Conservative Judaism">Conservative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reform_Judaism" title="Reform Judaism">Reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstructionist_Judaism" title="Reconstructionist Judaism">Reconstructionist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_Judaism" title="Humanistic Judaism">Humanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Hasidism" title="Neo-Hasidism">Neo-Hasidism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Renewal" title="Jewish Renewal">Renewal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolog_Judaism" title="Neolog Judaism">Neolog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationships_between_Jewish_religious_movements" title="Relationships between Jewish religious movements">relations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haymanot" title="Haymanot">Haymanot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Judaism" title="Hellenistic Judaism">Hellenistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karaite_Judaism" title="Karaite Judaism">Karaite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritanism" title="Samaritanism">Samaritanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Science" title="Jewish Science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_secularism" title="Jewish secularism">Secularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_schisms" title="Jewish schisms">Schisms</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_literature" title="Jewish literature">Literature</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sifrei_Kodesh" title="Sifrei Kodesh">Sifrei Kodesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Tanakh</a>/Hebrew <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nevi%27im" title="Nevi'im">Nevi'im</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketuvim" title="Ketuvim">Ketuvim</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_literature" title="Rabbinic literature">Rabbinic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mishnah" title="Mishnah">Mishnah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud">Talmud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tosefta" title="Tosefta">Tosefta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midrash" title="Midrash">Midrash</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_texts_of_Kabbalah" title="Primary texts of Kabbalah">Kabbalah texts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hekhalot_literature" title="Hekhalot literature">Hekhalot literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pardes_Rimonim" title="Pardes Rimonim">Pardes Rimonim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sefer_HaBahir" class="mw-redirect" title="Sefer HaBahir">Sefer HaBahir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etz_Chaim_(book)" title="Etz Chaim (book)">Sefer HaEtz Chaim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sefer_Raziel_HaMalakh" title="Sefer Raziel HaMalakh">Sefer Raziel HaMalakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sefer_Yetzirah" title="Sefer Yetzirah">Sefer Yetzirah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zohar" title="Zohar">Zohar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shulchan_Aruch" title="Shulchan Aruch">Shulchan Aruch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siddur" title="Siddur">Siddur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_literature" title="Hebrew literature">Hebrew literature</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_astrology" title="Jewish astrology">Astrology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_on_astrology" title="Jewish views on astrology">perspectives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monen" title="Monen">Monen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_astronomy" title="Hebrew astronomy">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_calendar" title="Hebrew calendar">Calendar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_holidays" title="Jewish holidays">Holidays</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_cuisine" title="Jewish cuisine">Cuisine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kashrut" title="Kashrut">Kashrut</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_education" title="Jewish education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_leadership" title="Jewish leadership">Leadership</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rabbi" title="Rabbi">Rabbi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebbe" title="Rebbe">Rebbe</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_on_marriage" title="Jewish views on marriage">Marriage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Divorce_in_Judaism" class="mw-redirect" title="Divorce in Judaism">Divorce</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_music" title="Jewish music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_mythology" title="Jewish mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_name" title="Jewish name">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_political_movements" title="Jewish political movements">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_prayer" title="Jewish prayer">Prayer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Synagogue" title="Synagogue">Synagogue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazzan" title="Hazzan">Hazzan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_symbolism" title="Jewish symbolism">Symbolism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_studies" title="Jewish studies">Studies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Center_for_Jewish_History" title="Center for Jewish History">Center for Jewish History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Jewish_Historical_Society" title="American Jewish Historical Society">American Jewish Historical Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Sephardi_Federation" title="American Sephardi Federation">American Sephardi Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Baeck_Institute_New_York" title="Leo Baeck Institute New York">Leo Baeck Institute New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeshiva_University_Museum" title="Yeshiva University Museum">Yeshiva University Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/YIVO" title="YIVO">YIVO Institute for Jewish Research</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Center_of_Contemporary_Jewish_Documentation" title="Center of Contemporary Jewish Documentation">Center of Contemporary Jewish Documentation</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopaedia_Judaica" title="Encyclopaedia Judaica">Encyclopaedia Judaica</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_studies_on_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic studies on Jews">Genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jew_(word)" title="Jew (word)">Jew (word)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Jewish_Encyclopedia" title="The Jewish Encyclopedia">Jewish Encyclopedia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Virtual_Library" title="Jewish Virtual Library">Jewish Virtual Library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Israel" title="National Library of Israel">National Library of Israel</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_YIVO_Encyclopedia_of_Jews_in_Eastern_Europe" title="The YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe">YIVO Encyclopedia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Holocaust_Memorial_Museum" title="United States Holocaust Memorial Museum">United States Holocaust Memorial Museum</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_the_Holocaust" title="Encyclopedia of the Holocaust">Encyclopedia of the Holocaust</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_Encyclopedia" class="mw-redirect" title="Holocaust Encyclopedia">Holocaust Encyclopedia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism_and_other_religions" class="mw-redirect" title="Judaism and other religions">Relations with other religions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_Judaism" title="Christianity and Judaism">Christian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anabaptist%E2%80%93Jewish_relations" title="Anabaptist–Jewish relations">Anabaptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_Judaism" title="Catholic Church and Judaism">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism_and_Mormonism" title="Judaism and Mormonism">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism_and_Judaism" title="Protestantism and Judaism">Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_and_Christmas" title="Jews and Christmas">Jews and Christmas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_and_Halloween" title="Jews and Halloween">Jews and Halloween</a></li></ul></li> <li>non-Christian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judaism_and_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Judaism and Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic%E2%80%93Jewish_relations" title="Islamic–Jewish relations">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_and_Judaism" title="Hinduism and Judaism">Hinduism</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><i>Italics</i> indicate <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">extinct languages</a> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Jews_and_Judaism" title="Category:Jews and Judaism">Category</a></b></li> <li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" 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style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Theology" title="Template:Theology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Theology" title="Template talk:Theology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Theology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Theology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Theology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">Theology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Conceptions_of_God" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Conceptions_of_God" title="Conceptions of God">Conceptions of God</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Theism" title="Theism">Theism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">Deism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dystheism" title="Dystheism">Dystheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henotheism" title="Henotheism">Henotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeticism" title="Hermeticism">Hermeticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kathenotheism" title="Kathenotheism">Kathenotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nontheism" title="Nontheism">Nontheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monolatry" title="Monolatry">Monolatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">Monotheism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urmonotheismus" title="Urmonotheismus">Urmonotheismus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">Mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panentheism" title="Panentheism">Panentheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandeism" title="Pandeism">Pandeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">Pantheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">Polydeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">Polytheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(movement)" title="Spiritualism (movement)">Spiritualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theistic_finitism" title="Theistic finitism">Theistic finitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theopanism" title="Theopanism">Theopanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deity" title="Deity">Deity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divinity" title="Divinity">Divinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_of_God" title="Gender of God">Gender of God</a> <i>and gods</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Goddess" title="Goddess">Goddess</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numen" title="Numen">Numen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/God" title="God">Singular god</a><br />theologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By faith</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Abrahamic_religions" title="God in Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic religions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_the_Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="God in the Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Judaism" title="God in Judaism">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Christianity" title="God in Christianity">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Islam" title="God in Islam">Islam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creator_in_Buddhism" title="Creator in Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Hinduism" title="God in Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Jainism" title="God in Jainism">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Sikhism" title="God in Sikhism">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahura_Mazda" title="Ahura Mazda">Zoroastrianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_(philosophy)" title="Absolute (philosophy)">Absolute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emanationism" title="Emanationism">Emanationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logos" title="Logos">Logos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God" title="God">Supreme Being</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">God as</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_the_Sustainer" title="God the Sustainer">Sustainer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good" title="Good">Good</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ahura_Mazda" title="Ahura Mazda">Ahura Mazda</a>, <a href="/wiki/Father_of_Greatness" title="Father of Greatness">Father of Greatness</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Trinity" title="Trinity">Trinitarianism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Athanasian_Creed" title="Athanasian Creed">Athanasian Creed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johannine_Comma" title="Johannine Comma">Comma Johanneum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consubstantiality" title="Consubstantiality">Consubstantiality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homoousion" title="Homoousion">Homoousian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homoiousian" title="Homoiousian">Homoiousian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypostasis_(philosophy_and_religion)" title="Hypostasis (philosophy and religion)">Hypostasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perichoresis" title="Perichoresis">Perichoresis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shield_of_the_Trinity" title="Shield of the Trinity">Shield of the Trinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinitarian_formula" title="Trinitarian formula">Trinitarian formula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinity" title="Trinity">Trinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinitarianism_in_the_Church_Fathers" title="Trinitarianism in the Church Fathers">Trinity of the Church Fathers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinitarian_universalism" title="Trinitarian universalism">Trinitarian universalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eschatology" title="Eschatology">Eschatology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afterlife" title="Afterlife">Afterlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apocalypticism" title="Apocalypticism">Apocalypticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fate_of_the_unlearned" title="Fate of the unlearned">Fate of the unlearned</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fitra" title="Fitra">Fitra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heaven" title="Heaven">Heaven</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hell" title="Hell">Hell</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="By_religion" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By religion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_eschatology" title="Buddhist eschatology">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_eschatology" title="Christian eschatology">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_eschatology" title="Hindu eschatology">Hindu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_eschatology" title="Islamic eschatology">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_eschatology" title="Jewish eschatology">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_Incantations_Scripture" title="Divine Incantations Scripture">Taoist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frashokereti" title="Frashokereti">Zoroastrian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Feminist_theology" title="Feminist theology">Feminist</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Buddhism" title="Women in Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_feminism" title="Christian feminism">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Hinduism" title="Women in Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_feminism" title="Islamic feminism">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_feminism" title="Jewish feminism">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mormonism_and_women" title="Mormonism and women">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goddess" title="Goddess">Goddesses</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attributes_of_God_in_Christianity" title="Attributes of God in Christianity">Attributes of God in Christianity</a> / <a href="/wiki/God_in_Islam" title="God in Islam">in Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Binitarianism" title="Binitarianism">Binitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demiurge" title="Demiurge">Demiurge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_simplicity" title="Divine simplicity">Divine simplicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_presence" title="Divine presence">Divine presence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egotheism" title="Egotheism">Egotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exotheology" title="Exotheology">Exotheology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_theology" title="Holocaust theology">Holocaust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Godhead_in_Christianity" title="Godhead in Christianity">Godhead in Christianity</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/God_in_Mormonism" title="God in Mormonism">Latter Day Saints</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Architect_of_the_Universe" title="Great Architect of the Universe">Great Architect of the Universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Spirit" title="Great Spirit">Great Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apophatic_theology" title="Apophatic theology">Apophatic theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olelbis" title="Olelbis">Olelbis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_theism" title="Open theism">Open theism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_god" title="Personal god">Personal god</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenological_definition_of_God" class="mw-redirect" title="Phenomenological definition of God">Phenomenological definition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo%27s_view_of_God" class="mw-redirect" title="Philo's view of God">Philo's view</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_theology" title="Process theology">Process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tian" title="Tian">Tian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unmoved_mover" title="Unmoved mover">Unmoved mover</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Names_of_God" title="Names of God">Names of God</a> in</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_God_in_Christianity" title="Names of God in Christianity">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_titles_and_names_of_Krishna" title="List of titles and names of Krishna">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_God_in_Islam" title="Names of God in Islam">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tirthankara" title="Tirthankara">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_God_in_Judaism" title="Names of God in Judaism">Judaism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_faith" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By faith</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Christian" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christian_theology" title="Christian theology">Christian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christian_theology" title="History of Christian theology">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Christian_theology" title="Outline of Christian theology">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_canon" title="Biblical canon">Biblical canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Christianity" title="Glossary of Christianity">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paterology" title="Paterology">Paterology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christology" title="Christology">Christology</a></li> <li><a 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Christianity">Soteriology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%C4%80stika_and_n%C4%81stika" title="Āstika and nāstika">Hindu</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ayyavazhi_theology" title="Ayyavazhi theology">Ayyavazhi theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaishnavism" title="Vaishnavism">Krishnology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Islamic_theology" title="Schools of Islamic theology">Islamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tawhid" title="Tawhid">Oneness</a> of <a href="/wiki/God_in_Islam" title="God in Islam">God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prophets_and_messengers_in_Islam" title="Prophets and messengers in 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href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">Philosophy of mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Philosophy of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practical_philosophy" title="Practical philosophy">Practical philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_philosophy" title="Theoretical philosophy">Theoretical philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_emotions" title="Aesthetic emotions">Aesthetic response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formalism_(art)" title="Formalism (art)">Formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_theory_of_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Institutional theory of art">Institutionalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_particularism" title="Epistemological particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deontology" title="Deontology">Deontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compatibilism" title="Compatibilism">Compatibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_determinism" title="Hard determinism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incompatibilism" title="Incompatibilism">Incompatibilism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_incompatibilism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hard incompatibilism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergentism" title="Emergentism">Emergentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Normativity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Event_(philosophy)" title="Event (philosophy)">Event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">Process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conceptualism" title="Conceptualism">Conceptualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_era" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By era</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">By era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculturalism" title="Agriculturalism">Agriculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">Logicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">Chinese naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangism" title="Yangism">Yangism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greco-</a><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Roman</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Presocratic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_School_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionian School (philosophy)">Ionians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academic_Skepticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic Skepticism">Academic Skepticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Platonism" title="Middle Platonism">Middle Platonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_the_Sextii" title="School of the Sextii">School of the Sextii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagoreanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sophistic" title="Second Sophistic">Second Sophistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80j%C4%ABvika" title="Ājīvika">Ājīvika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aj%C3%B1ana" title="Ajñana">Ajñana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Cārvāka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anekantavada" title="Anekantavada">Anekantavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sy%C4%81dv%C4%81da" class="mw-redirect" title="Syādvāda">Syādvāda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvāstivadā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pudgalavada" title="Pudgalavada">Pudgalavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sautr%C4%81ntika" title="Sautrāntika">Sautrāntika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svatantrika%E2%80%93Prasa%E1%B9%85gika_distinction" title="Svatantrika–Prasaṅgika distinction">Svatantrika and Prasangika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogacara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Persian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mazdakism" title="Mazdakism">Mazdakism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">East Asian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Neotaoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Korean Confucianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustinianism" title="Augustinianism">Augustinianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotism" title="Scotism">Scotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occamism" title="Occamism">Occamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Indian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achintya_Bheda_Abheda" title="Achintya Bheda Abheda">Acintya bheda abheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhedabheda" title="Bhedabheda">Bhedabheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dvaita_Vedanta" title="Dvaita Vedanta">Dvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimbarka_Sampradaya" title="Nimbarka Sampradaya">Nimbarka Sampradaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuddhadvaita" title="Shuddhadvaita">Shuddhadvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Nyāya">Navya-Nyāya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Illuminationism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">ʿIlm al-Kalām</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">Sufi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Jewish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)" title="Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)">Judeo-Islamic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Realism" title="Classical Realism">Classical Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivism_and_individualism" 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title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-scholasticism" title="Neo-scholasticism">Neo-scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaardianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krausism" title="Krausism">Krausism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newtonianism" title="Newtonianism">Newtonianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzscheanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinozism" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Analytic feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Analytical Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_philosophy" title="Experimental philosophy">Experimental philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsificationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and externalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Moral realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Quinean naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postanalytic_philosophy" title="Postanalytic philosophy">Postanalytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawlsian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a 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style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Marxism" title="Neo-Marxism">Neo-Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_historicism" title="New historicism">New Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posthumanism" title="Posthumanism">Posthumanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">Postmodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western Marxism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_School" title="Kyoto School">Kyoto School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism" title="Objectivism">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcritique" title="Postcritique">Postcritique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_cosmism" title="Russian cosmism">Russian cosmism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_region" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>By region</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy#Philosophic_traditions_by_region" title="Outline of philosophy">By region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ubuntu_philosophy" title="Ubuntu philosophy">Bantu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_philosophy" title="Ethiopian philosophy">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africana_philosophy" title="Africana philosophy">Africana</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 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