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climates</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Reconstructing_ancient_climates-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Reconstructing ancient climates subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Reconstructing_ancient_climates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Proxies_for_climate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Proxies_for_climate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Proxies for climate</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Proxies_for_climate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Direct_Quantitative_Measurements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Direct_Quantitative_Measurements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1</span> <span>Direct Quantitative Measurements</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Direct_Quantitative_Measurements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ice" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ice"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.2</span> <span>Ice</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ice-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dendroclimatology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dendroclimatology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.3</span> <span>Dendroclimatology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dendroclimatology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sedimentary_content" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sedimentary_content"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.4</span> <span>Sedimentary content</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sedimentary_content-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sclerochronology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sclerochronology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.5</span> <span>Sclerochronology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sclerochronology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Landscapes_and_landforms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Landscapes_and_landforms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.6</span> <span>Landscapes and landforms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Landscapes_and_landforms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Timing_of_proxies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Timing_of_proxies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Timing of proxies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Timing_of_proxies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notable_climate_events_in_Earth_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_climate_events_in_Earth_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Notable climate events in Earth history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notable_climate_events_in_Earth_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History_of_the_atmosphere" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_of_the_atmosphere"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>History of the atmosphere</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History_of_the_atmosphere-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History of the atmosphere subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History_of_the_atmosphere-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Earliest_atmosphere" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Earliest_atmosphere"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Earliest atmosphere</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Earliest_atmosphere-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_atmosphere" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_atmosphere"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Second atmosphere</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_atmosphere-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Third_atmosphere" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Third_atmosphere"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Third atmosphere</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Third_atmosphere-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Climate_during_geological_ages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Climate_during_geological_ages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Climate during geological ages</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Climate_during_geological_ages-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Climate during geological ages subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Climate_during_geological_ages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Precambrian_climate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Precambrian_climate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Precambrian climate</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Precambrian_climate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phanerozoic_climate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phanerozoic_climate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Phanerozoic climate</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phanerozoic_climate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Quaternary_climate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Quaternary_climate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Quaternary climate</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Quaternary_climate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Climate_forcings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Climate_forcings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Climate forcings</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Climate_forcings-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Climate forcings subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Climate_forcings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Internal_processes_and_forcings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Internal_processes_and_forcings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Internal processes and forcings</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Internal_processes_and_forcings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_forcings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_forcings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>External forcings</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_forcings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mechanisms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mechanisms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Mechanisms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mechanisms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Paleoclimatology</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 52 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-52" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">52 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoklimatologie" title="Paleoklimatologie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Paleoklimatologie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%AE_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%85" title="علم المناخ القديم – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="علم المناخ القديم" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoiqlim" title="Paleoiqlim – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Paleoiqlim" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B3%CD%98-kh%C3%AC-h%C4%81u-ha%CC%8Dk" title="Kó͘-khì-hāu-ha̍k – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Kó͘-khì-hāu-ha̍k" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE-%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="पुरा-जलवायुबिज्ञान – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="पुरा-जलवायुबिज्ञान" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoklimatologija" title="Paleoklimatologija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Paleoklimatologija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoclimatologia" title="Paleoclimatologia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Paleoclimatologia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoklimatologie" title="Paleoklimatologie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Paleoklimatologie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pal%C3%A4oklimatologie" title="Paläoklimatologie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Paläoklimatologie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoklimatoloogia" title="Paleoklimatoloogia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Paleoklimatoloogia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%B1%CE%B9%CE%BF%CE%BA%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%BC%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Παλαιοκλιματολογία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Παλαιοκλιματολογία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoclimatolog%C3%ADa" title="Paleoclimatología – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Paleoclimatología" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoklimatologio" title="Paleoklimatologio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Paleoklimatologio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoklimatologia" title="Paleoklimatologia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Paleoklimatologia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%DB%8C%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D8%A7%D9%82%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%85%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="دیرین‌اقلیم‌شناسی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="دیرین‌اقلیم‌شناسی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pal%C3%A9oclimatologie" title="Paléoclimatologie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Paléoclimatologie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pail%C3%A9ichl%C3%ADomeola%C3%ADocht" title="Pailéichlíomeolaíocht – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Pailéichlíomeolaíocht" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoclimatolox%C3%ADa" title="Paleoclimatoloxía – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Paleoclimatoloxía" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B3%A0%EA%B8%B0%ED%9B%84%ED%95%99" title="고기후학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="고기후학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoklimatologija" title="Paleoklimatologija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Paleoklimatologija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoklimatologi" title="Paleoklimatologi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Paleoklimatologi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fornloftslagsfr%C3%A6%C3%B0i" title="Fornloftslagsfræði – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Fornloftslagsfræði" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoclimatologia" title="Paleoclimatologia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Paleoclimatologia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%95%D7%A7%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%98%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%92%D7%99%D7%94" title="פלאוקלימטולוגיה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פלאוקלימטולוגיה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9E%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%9D%E1%83%99%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="პალეოკლიმატოლოგია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="პალეოკლიმატოლოგია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Палеоклиматология – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Палеоклиматология" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleuclimatulugia" title="Paleuclimatulugia – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Paleuclimatulugia" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoklimatol%C3%B3gia" title="Paleoklimatológia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Paleoklimatológia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Палеоклиматологија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Палеоклиматологија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoklimatologi" title="Paleoklimatologi – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Paleoklimatologi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C5%AB_k%C3%A9-h%C3%A2iu-h%C5%8Fk" title="Gū ké-hâiu-hŏk – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Gū ké-hâiu-hŏk" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoklimatologie" title="Paleoklimatologie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Paleoklimatologie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E6%B0%97%E5%80%99%E5%AD%A6" title="古気候学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="古気候学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoklimatologi" title="Paleoklimatologi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Paleoklimatologi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoklimatologi" title="Paleoklimatologi – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Paleoklimatologi" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoiqlimshunoslik" title="Paleoiqlimshunoslik – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Paleoiqlimshunoslik" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoklimatologia" title="Paleoklimatologia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Paleoklimatologia" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoclimatologia" title="Paleoclimatologia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Paleoclimatologia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoclimatologie" title="Paleoclimatologie – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Paleoclimatologie" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Палеоклиматология – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Палеоклиматология" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palaeoclimatology" title="Palaeoclimatology – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Palaeoclimatology" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoklimatol%C3%B3gia" title="Paleoklimatológia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Paleoklimatológia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Палеоклиматологија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Палеоклиматологија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoklimatologija" title="Paleoklimatologija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Paleoklimatologija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoklimatologia" title="Paleoklimatologia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Paleoklimatologia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoklimatologi" title="Paleoklimatologi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Paleoklimatologi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B9%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2" title="ภูมิอากาศบรรพกาลวิทยา – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ภูมิอากาศบรรพกาลวิทยา" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoklimatoloji" title="Paleoklimatoloji – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Paleoklimatoloji" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Палеокліматологія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Палеокліматологія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%E1%BB%95_kh%C3%AD_h%E1%BA%ADu_h%E1%BB%8Dc" title="Cổ khí hậu học – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Cổ khí hậu học" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoklimatolohiya" title="Paleoklimatolohiya – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Paleoklimatolohiya" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E6%B0%A3%E5%80%99%E5%AD%B8" title="古氣候學 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="古氣候學" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q191069#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Paleoclimatology" title="View the 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.mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="width:20.0em;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="padding:0 0em 0.2em; font-size:175%; line-height:1.0em;"><a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">Paleontology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding:0 0 0.4em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tyrannosaurus_Rex_Holotype.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Tyrannosaurus_Rex_Holotype.jpg/220px-Tyrannosaurus_Rex_Holotype.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Tyrannosaurus_Rex_Holotype.jpg/330px-Tyrannosaurus_Rex_Holotype.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Tyrannosaurus_Rex_Holotype.jpg/440px-Tyrannosaurus_Rex_Holotype.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4928" data-file-height="3264" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #e6d8ac; border:1px solid #b9ad8a; text-align: center; padding-left:0.0em;;color: var(--color-base)">Fossils</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">Fossilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trace_fossil" title="Trace fossil">Trace fossil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microfossil" title="Microfossil">Microfossil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_preparation" title="Fossil preparation">Fossil preparation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_fossil" class="mw-redirect" title="Index fossil">Index fossil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fossils" class="mw-redirect" title="List of fossils">List of fossils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fossil_sites" title="List of fossil sites">List of fossil sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lagerst%C3%A4tte" title="Lagerstätte">Lagerstätte fossil beds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_transitional_fossils" class="mw-redirect" title="List of transitional fossils">List of transitional fossils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_human_evolution_fossils" title="List of human evolution fossils">List of human evolution fossils</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #e6d8ac; border:1px solid #b9ad8a; text-align: center; padding-left:0.0em;;color: var(--color-base)">Natural history</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_event" title="Extinction event">Extinction event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochronology" title="Geochronology">Geochronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geologic_time_scale" title="Geologic time scale">Geologic time scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geologic_record" title="Geologic record">Geologic record</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary history of life">History of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Origin of life</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Paleoclimatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of evolution">Timeline of evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transitional_fossil" title="Transitional fossil">Transitional fossil</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #e6d8ac; border:1px solid #b9ad8a; text-align: center; padding-left:0.0em;;color: var(--color-base)">Organs and processes</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_avian_flight" title="Origin of avian flight">Avian flight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cells" title="Evolution of cells">Cells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_multicellularity" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of multicellularity">Multicells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_eye" title="Evolution of the eye">Eyes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_flagella" title="Evolution of flagella">Flagella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_hair" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of hair">Hair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_mammalian_auditory_ossicles" title="Evolution of mammalian auditory ossicles">Mammalian auditory ossicles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosaic_evolution" title="Mosaic evolution">Mosaic evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_nervous_systems" title="Evolution of nervous systems">Nervous systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_sexual_reproduction" title="Evolution of sexual reproduction">Sex</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #e6d8ac; border:1px solid #b9ad8a; text-align: center; padding-left:0.0em;;color: var(--color-base)">Evolution of various taxa</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_birds" title="Evolution of birds">Birds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Butterfly_evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Butterfly evolution">Butterflies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cephalopods" title="Evolution of cephalopods">Cephalopods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cetaceans" title="Evolution of cetaceans">Cetaceans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_dinosaurs" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of dinosaurs">Dinosaurs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_fish" title="Evolution of fish">Fishes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_fungi" title="Evolution of fungi">Fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">Humans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_insects" title="Evolution of insects">Insects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_mammals" title="Evolution of mammals">Mammals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_Mollusca" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of Mollusca">Molluscs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of plants">Plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_reptiles" title="Evolution of reptiles">Reptiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_sirenians" title="Evolution of sirenians">Sea cows</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_spiders" title="Evolution of spiders">Spiders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrapods#Evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetrapods">Tetrapods</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #e6d8ac; border:1px solid #b9ad8a; text-align: center; padding-left:0.0em;;color: var(--color-base)">Evolution</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_evolution" title="Introduction to evolution">Introduction to evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_descent" title="Common descent">Common descent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_tree" title="Phylogenetic tree">Phylogeny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cladistics" title="Cladistics">Cladistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_classification" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological classification">Biological classification</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #e6d8ac; border:1px solid #b9ad8a; text-align: center; padding-left:0.0em;;color: var(--color-base)">History of paleontology</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_paleontology" title="History of paleontology">History of paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_paleontology" title="Timeline of paleontology">Timeline of paleontology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #e6d8ac; border:1px solid #b9ad8a; text-align: center; padding-left:0.0em;;color: var(--color-base)">Branches of paleontology</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biostratigraphy" title="Biostratigraphy">Biostratigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ichnology" class="mw-redirect" title="Ichnology">Ichnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invertebrate_paleontology" title="Invertebrate paleontology">Invertebrate paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micropaleontology" title="Micropaleontology">Micropaleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_paleontology" title="Molecular paleontology">Molecular paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palaeoxylology" class="mw-redirect" title="Palaeoxylology">Palaeoxylology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleobiology" title="Paleobiology">Paleobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleobotany" title="Paleobotany">Paleobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoecology" title="Paleoecology">Paleoecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleogenetics" title="Paleogenetics">Paleogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleolimnology" title="Paleolimnology">Paleolimnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleomycology" title="Paleomycology">Paleomycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoneurobiology" title="Paleoneurobiology">Paleoneurobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleopathology" title="Paleopathology">Paleopathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleopedology" title="Paleopedology">Paleopedology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleotempestology" title="Paleotempestology">Paleotempestology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleozoology" title="Paleozoology">Paleozoology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palynology" title="Palynology">Palynology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sclerochronology" title="Sclerochronology">Sclerochronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taphonomy" title="Taphonomy">Taphonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertebrate_paleontology" title="Vertebrate paleontology">Vertebrate paleontology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Paleontology" title="Portal:Paleontology">Paleontology Portal</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Category:Paleontology" title="Category:Paleontology">Category</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Paleontology" title="Template:Paleontology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Paleontology" title="Template talk:Paleontology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Paleontology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Paleontology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Study of changes in ancient climate</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p><p><b>Paleoclimatology</b> (<a href="/wiki/American_and_British_English_spelling_differences" title="American and British English spelling differences">British spelling</a>, <b>palaeoclimatology</b>) is the scientific study of <a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">climates</a> predating the invention of <a href="/wiki/Meteorological_instrument" class="mw-redirect" title="Meteorological instrument">meteorological instruments</a>, when no direct measurement data were available.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As instrumental records only span a tiny part of <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth's history">Earth's history</a>, the reconstruction of ancient climate is important to understand natural variation and the evolution of the current climate. </p><p>Paleoclimatology uses a variety of <a href="/wiki/Proxy_(climate)" title="Proxy (climate)">proxy</a> methods from <a href="/wiki/Earth_science" title="Earth science">Earth</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_life_sciences" title="List of life sciences">life sciences</a> to obtain data previously preserved within <a href="/wiki/Rock_(geology)" title="Rock (geology)">rocks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sediment" title="Sediment">sediments</a>, <a href="/wiki/Borehole" title="Borehole">boreholes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ice_sheet" title="Ice sheet">ice sheets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tree_ring" class="mw-redirect" title="Tree ring">tree rings</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coral" title="Coral">corals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mollusc_shell" title="Mollusc shell">shells</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Micropaleontology#Microfossils" title="Micropaleontology">microfossils</a>. Combined with techniques to date the proxies, the paleoclimate records are used to determine the past states of <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_atmosphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth's atmosphere">Earth's atmosphere</a>. </p><p>The scientific field of paleoclimatology came to maturity in the 20th century. Notable periods studied by paleoclimatologists include the frequent <a href="/wiki/Glacial_period" title="Glacial period">glaciations</a> that Earth has undergone, rapid cooling events like the <a href="/wiki/Younger_Dryas" title="Younger Dryas">Younger Dryas</a>, and the rapid warming during the <a href="/wiki/Paleocene%E2%80%93Eocene_Thermal_Maximum" title="Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum">Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum</a>. Studies of past changes in the environment and biodiversity often reflect on the current situation, specifically the impact of climate on <a href="/wiki/Extinction_event" title="Extinction event">mass extinctions</a> and biotic recovery and current <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">global warming</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-SahneyBenton2008RecoveryFromProfoundExtinction_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SahneyBenton2008RecoveryFromProfoundExtinction-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleoclimatology&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History_of_climate_change_science" title="History of climate change science">History of climate change science</a> and <a href="/wiki/Historical_climatology" title="Historical climatology">Historical climatology</a></div> <p>Notions of a changing climate most likely evolved in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egypt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_civilisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus Valley civilisation">Indus Valley</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_China" title="History of China">China</a>, where prolonged periods of droughts and floods were experienced.<sup id="cite_ref-Fairbridge_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fairbridge-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the seventeenth century, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Robert Hooke</a> postulated that fossils of giant turtles found in <a href="/wiki/Dorset" title="Dorset">Dorset</a> could only be explained by a once warmer climate, which he thought could be explained by a shift in Earth's axis.<sup id="cite_ref-Fairbridge_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fairbridge-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fossils were, at that time, often explained as a consequence of a biblical flood.<sup id="cite_ref-Cronin_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cronin-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Systematic observations of sunspots started by amateur astronomer <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Schwabe" title="Heinrich Schwabe">Heinrich Schwabe</a> in the early 19th century, starting a discussion of the Sun's influence on Earth's climate.<sup id="cite_ref-Fairbridge_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fairbridge-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The scientific study of paleoclimatology began to take shape in the early 19th century, when discoveries about glaciations and natural changes in Earth's past climate helped to understand the <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_effect" title="Greenhouse effect">greenhouse effect</a>. It was only in the 20th century that paleoclimatology became a unified scientific field. Before, different aspects of Earth's climate history were studied by a variety of disciplines.<sup id="cite_ref-Cronin_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cronin-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the end of the 20th century, the empirical research into Earth's ancient climates started to be combined with computer models of increasing complexity. A new objective also developed in this period: finding ancient analog climates that could provide information about current <a href="/wiki/Global_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Global warming">climate change</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Cronin_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cronin-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reconstructing_ancient_climates">Reconstructing ancient climates</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleoclimatology&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Reconstructing ancient climates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Earth%27s_average_surface_temperature_over_the_past_500_million_years.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Earth%27s_average_surface_temperature_over_the_past_500_million_years.png/440px-Earth%27s_average_surface_temperature_over_the_past_500_million_years.png" decoding="async" width="440" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/Earth%27s_average_surface_temperature_over_the_past_500_million_years.png 1.5x" data-file-width="620" data-file-height="259" /></a><figcaption>Preliminary results from a <a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_Natural_History" title="National Museum of Natural History">Smithsonian Institution</a> project, showing Earth's average surface temperature over the past 500 million years<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:All_palaeotemps.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/All_palaeotemps.svg/660px-All_palaeotemps.svg.png" decoding="async" width="660" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/All_palaeotemps.svg/990px-All_palaeotemps.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/All_palaeotemps.svg/1320px-All_palaeotemps.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1760" data-file-height="513" /></a><figcaption>Palaeotemperature graphs placed together</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sauerstoffgehalt-1000mj2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Sauerstoffgehalt-1000mj2.png/440px-Sauerstoffgehalt-1000mj2.png" decoding="async" width="440" height="310" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Sauerstoffgehalt-1000mj2.png/660px-Sauerstoffgehalt-1000mj2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Sauerstoffgehalt-1000mj2.png/880px-Sauerstoffgehalt-1000mj2.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1409" /></a><figcaption>The oxygen content in the atmosphere over the last billion years</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Proxy_(climate)" title="Proxy (climate)">Proxy (climate)</a></div> <p>Paleoclimatologists employ a wide variety of techniques to deduce ancient climates. The techniques used depend on which variable has to be reconstructed (this could be <a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">temperature</a>, <a href="/wiki/Precipitation" title="Precipitation">precipitation</a>, or something else) and how long ago the climate of interest occurred. For instance, the deep marine record, the source of most isotopic data, exists only on oceanic plates, which are eventually <a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">subducted</a>; the oldest remaining material is <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=200">200</a> million years</span> old. Older sediments are also more prone to corruption by <a href="/wiki/Diagenesis" title="Diagenesis">diagenesis</a>. This is due to the millions of years of disruption experienced by the rock formations, such as pressure, tectonic activity, and fluid flowing. These factors often result in a lack of quality or quantity of data, which causes resolution and confidence in the data decrease over time. </p><p>Specific techniques used to make inferences on ancient climate conditions are the use of lake sediment cores and speleothems. These utilize an analysis of sediment layers and rock growth formations respectively, amongst element-dating methods utilizing oxygen, carbon and uranium. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Proxies_for_climate">Proxies for climate</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleoclimatology&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Proxies for climate"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Direct_Quantitative_Measurements">Direct Quantitative Measurements</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleoclimatology&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Direct Quantitative Measurements"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Direct Quantitative Measurements method is the most direct approach to understand the change in a climate. Comparisons between recent data to older data allows a researcher to gain a basic understanding of weather and climate changes within an area. There is a disadvantage to this method. Data of the climate only started being recorded in the mid-1800s. This means that researchers can only utilize 150 years of data. That is not helpful when trying to map the climate of an area 10,000 years ago. This is where more complex methods can be used. <sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ice">Ice</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleoclimatology&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Ice"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Mountain <a href="/wiki/Glacier" title="Glacier">glaciers</a> and the polar <a href="/wiki/Ice_caps" class="mw-redirect" title="Ice caps">ice caps</a>/<a href="/wiki/Ice_sheets" class="mw-redirect" title="Ice sheets">ice sheets</a> provide much data in paleoclimatology. Ice-coring projects in the ice caps of <a href="/wiki/Greenland" title="Greenland">Greenland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a> have yielded data going back several hundred thousand years, over 800,000 years in the case of the <a href="/wiki/European_Project_for_Ice_Coring_in_Antarctica" title="European Project for Ice Coring in Antarctica">EPICA</a> project. </p> <ul><li>Air trapped within fallen <a href="/wiki/Snow" title="Snow">snow</a> becomes encased in tiny bubbles as the snow is compressed into ice in the glacier under the weight of later years' snow. The trapped air has proven a tremendously valuable source for direct measurement of the composition of air from the time the ice was formed.</li> <li>Layering can be observed because of seasonal pauses in ice accumulation and can be used to establish chronology, associating specific depths of the core with ranges of time.</li> <li>Changes in the layering thickness can be used to determine changes in precipitation or temperature.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxygen-18" title="Oxygen-18">Oxygen-18</a> quantity changes (<a href="/wiki/%CE%9418O" title="Δ18O"><span class="texhtml">δ</span><sup>18</sup>O</a>) in ice layers represent changes in average ocean surface temperature. Water molecules containing the heavier O-18 evaporate at a higher temperature than water molecules containing the normal <a href="/wiki/Oxygen-16" title="Oxygen-16">Oxygen-16</a> isotope. The ratio of O-18 to O-16 will be higher as temperature increases but it also depends on factors such as water salinity and the volume of water locked up in ice sheets. Various cycles in isotope ratios have been detected.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollen#In_the_fossil_record" title="Pollen">Pollen</a> has been observed in the ice cores and can be used to understand which plants were present as the layer formed. Pollen is produced in abundance and its distribution is typically well understood. A pollen count for a specific layer can be produced by observing the total amount of pollen categorized by type (shape) in a controlled sample of that layer. Changes in plant frequency over time can be plotted through statistical analysis of pollen counts in the core. Knowing which plants were present leads to an understanding of precipitation and temperature, and types of fauna present. <a href="/wiki/Palynology" title="Palynology">Palynology</a> includes the study of pollen for these purposes.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_ash" title="Volcanic ash">Volcanic ash</a> is contained in some layers, and can be used to establish the time of the layer's formation. Volcanic events distribute ash with a unique set of properties (shape and color of particles, chemical signature). Establishing the ash's source will give a time period to associate with the layer of ice.</li></ul> <p>A multinational consortium, the <a href="/wiki/European_Project_for_Ice_Coring_in_Antarctica" title="European Project for Ice Coring in Antarctica">European Project for Ice Coring in Antarctica</a> (EPICA), has drilled an ice core in Dome C on the East Antarctic ice sheet and retrieved ice from roughly 800,000 years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The international ice core community has, under the auspices of International Partnerships in Ice Core Sciences (IPICS), defined a priority project to obtain the oldest possible ice core record from Antarctica, an ice core record reaching back to or towards 1.5 million years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-Page_1_1_International_Partnerships_in_Ice_Core_Sciences_(IPICS)_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Page_1_1_International_Partnerships_in_Ice_Core_Sciences_(IPICS)-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Dendroclimatology">Dendroclimatology</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleoclimatology&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Dendroclimatology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Dendroclimatology" title="Dendroclimatology">Dendroclimatology</a></div> <p>Climatic information can be obtained through an understanding of changes in tree growth. Generally, trees respond to changes in climatic variables by speeding up or slowing down growth, which in turn is generally reflected by a greater or lesser thickness in growth rings. Different species however, respond to changes in climatic variables in different ways. A tree-ring record is established by compiling information from many living trees in a specific area. This is done by comparing the number, thickness, ring boundaries, and pattern matching of tree growth rings. </p><p>The differences in thickness displayed in the growth rings in trees can often indicate the quality of conditions in the environment, and the fitness of the tree species evaluated. Different species of trees will display different growth responses to the changes in the climate. An evaluation of multiple trees within the same species, along with one of trees in different species, will allow for a more accurate analysis of the changing variables within the climate and how they affected the surrounding species.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Older intact wood that has escaped decay can extend the time covered by the record by matching the ring depth changes to contemporary specimens. By using that method, some areas have tree-ring records dating back a few thousand years. Older wood not connected to a contemporary record can be dated generally with radiocarbon techniques. A tree-ring record can be used to produce information regarding precipitation, temperature, hydrology, and fire corresponding to a particular area. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sedimentary_content">Sedimentary content</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleoclimatology&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Sedimentary content"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On a longer time scale, geologists must refer to the sedimentary record for data. </p> <ul><li>Sediments, sometimes lithified to form rock, may contain remnants of preserved vegetation, animals, plankton, or <a href="/wiki/Palynology" title="Palynology">pollen</a>, which may be characteristic of certain climatic zones.</li> <li>Biomarker molecules such as the <a href="/wiki/Alkenones" class="mw-redirect" title="Alkenones">alkenones</a> may yield information about their temperature of formation.</li> <li>Chemical signatures, particularly <a href="/wiki/Mg/Ca" class="mw-redirect" title="Mg/Ca">Mg/Ca</a> ratio of <a href="/wiki/Calcite" title="Calcite">calcite</a> in <a href="/wiki/Foraminifera" title="Foraminifera">Foraminifera</a> tests, can be used to reconstruct past temperature.</li> <li>Isotopic ratios can provide further information. Specifically, the <a href="/wiki/%CE%9418O" title="Δ18O"><span class="texhtml">δ</span><sup>18</sup>O</a> record responds to changes in temperature and ice volume, and the <a href="/wiki/%CE%9413C" title="Δ13C"><span class="texhtml">δ</span><sup>13</sup>C</a> record reflects a range of factors, which are often difficult to disentangle.</li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Core%2BRepository%2Bcore_samples2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Core%2BRepository%2Bcore_samples2.jpg/220px-Core%2BRepository%2Bcore_samples2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/Core%2BRepository%2Bcore_samples2.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption>Sea floor core sample labelled to identify the exact spot on the sea floor where the sample was taken. Sediments from nearby locations can show significant differences in chemical and biological composition.</figcaption></figure> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Sedimentary_facies" class="mw-redirect" title="Sedimentary facies">Sedimentary facies</a></dt></dl> <p>On a longer time scale, the rock record may show signs of <a href="/wiki/Sea_level" title="Sea level">sea level</a> rise and fall, and features such as <a href="/wiki/Dune#Lithified_dunes" title="Dune">"fossilised" sand dunes</a> can be identified. Scientists can get a grasp of long-term climate by studying <a href="/wiki/Sedimentary_rock" title="Sedimentary rock">sedimentary rock</a> going back billions of years. The division of Earth history into separate periods is largely based on visible changes in sedimentary rock layers that demarcate major changes in conditions. Often, they include major shifts in climate. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sclerochronology">Sclerochronology</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleoclimatology&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Sclerochronology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dt>Corals (see also <a href="/wiki/Sclerochronology" title="Sclerochronology">sclerochronology</a>)</dt></dl> <p>Coral “rings'' share similar evidence of growth to that of trees, and thus can be dated in similar ways. A primary difference is their environments and the conditions within those that they respond to. Examples of these conditions for coral include water temperature, freshwater influx, changes in pH, and wave disturbances. From there, specialized equipment, such as the Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) instrument, can be used to derive the <a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature" title="Sea surface temperature">sea surface temperature</a> and water salinity from the past few centuries. The <a href="/wiki/%CE%9418O" title="Δ18O">δ<sup>18</sup>O</a> of <a href="/wiki/Coralline_algae" title="Coralline algae">coralline</a> red algae provides a useful proxy of the combined sea surface temperature and sea surface salinity at high latitudes and the tropics, where many traditional techniques are limited.<sup id="cite_ref-Geology2008_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Geology2008-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cobb_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cobb-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Landscapes_and_landforms">Landscapes and landforms</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleoclimatology&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Landscapes and landforms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Within <a href="/wiki/Climatic_geomorphology" title="Climatic geomorphology">climatic geomorphology</a>, one approach is to study <a href="/wiki/Relict_(geology)" title="Relict (geology)">relict landforms</a> to infer ancient climates.<sup id="cite_ref-Gutix2_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gutix2-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Being often concerned about past climates climatic geomorphology is considered sometimes to be a theme of <a href="/wiki/Historical_geology" title="Historical geology">historical geology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Evidence of these past climates to be studied can be found in the landforms they leave behind. Examples of these landforms are those such as glacial landforms (moraines, striations), desert features (dunes, desert pavements), and coastal landforms (marine terraces, beach ridges).<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Climatic geomorphology is of limited use to study recent (<a href="/wiki/Quaternary" title="Quaternary">Quaternary</a>, <a href="/wiki/Holocene" title="Holocene">Holocene</a>) large climate changes since there are seldom discernible in the geomorphological record.<sup id="cite_ref-Goudie2004_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goudie2004-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Timing_of_proxies">Timing of proxies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleoclimatology&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Timing of proxies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The field of <a href="/wiki/Geochronology" title="Geochronology">geochronology</a> has scientists working on determining how old certain proxies are. For recent proxy archives of tree rings and corals the individual year rings can be counted, and an exact year can be determined. <a href="/wiki/Radiometric_dating" title="Radiometric dating">Radiometric dating</a> uses the properties of radioactive elements in proxies. In older material, more of the radioactive material will have decayed and the proportion of different elements will be different from newer proxies. One example of radiometric dating is <a href="/wiki/Radiocarbon_dating" title="Radiocarbon dating">radiocarbon dating</a>. In the air, <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray" title="Cosmic ray">cosmic rays</a> constantly convert nitrogen into a specific radioactive carbon isotope, <a href="/wiki/Carbon-14" title="Carbon-14"><sup>14</sup>C</a>. When plants then use this carbon to grow, this isotope is not replenished anymore and starts decaying. The proportion of 'normal' carbon and Carbon-14 gives information of how long the plant material has not been in contact with the atmosphere.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notable_climate_events_in_Earth_history">Notable climate events in Earth history</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleoclimatology&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Notable climate events in Earth history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_periods_and_events_in_climate_history" title="List of periods and events in climate history">List of periods and events in climate history</a>, <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_glaciation" title="Timeline of glaciation">Timeline of glaciation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Earth" title="History of Earth">History of Earth</a></div> <p>Knowledge of precise climatic events decreases as the record goes back in time, but some notable climate events are known: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Faint_young_Sun_paradox" title="Faint young Sun paradox">Faint young Sun paradox</a> (start)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huronian_glaciation" title="Huronian glaciation">Huronian glaciation</a> (~2400 Mya Earth completely covered in ice probably due to <a href="/wiki/Great_Oxygenation_Event" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Oxygenation Event">Great Oxygenation Event</a>)</li> <li>Later Neoproterozoic <a href="/wiki/Snowball_Earth" title="Snowball Earth">Snowball Earth</a> (~600 Mya, precursor to the <a href="/wiki/Cambrian_Explosion" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambrian Explosion">Cambrian Explosion</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andean-Saharan_glaciation" class="mw-redirect" title="Andean-Saharan glaciation">Andean-Saharan glaciation</a> (~450 Mya)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carboniferous_Rainforest_Collapse" class="mw-redirect" title="Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse">Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse</a> (~300 Mya)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permian%E2%80%93Triassic_extinction_event" title="Permian–Triassic extinction event">Permian–Triassic extinction event</a> (251.9 Mya)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anoxic_event" title="Anoxic event">Oceanic anoxic events</a> (~120 Mya, 93 Mya, and others)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene_extinction_event" title="Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event">Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event</a> (66 Mya)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleocene%E2%80%93Eocene_Thermal_Maximum" title="Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum">Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum</a> (<a href="/wiki/Paleocene" title="Paleocene">Paleocene</a>–<a href="/wiki/Eocene" title="Eocene">Eocene</a>, 55Mya)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Last_Glacial_Maximum" title="Last Glacial Maximum">Last Glacial Maximum</a> (~23,000 BCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Younger_Dryas" title="Younger Dryas">Younger Dryas</a>/Big Freeze (~11,000 BCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocene_climatic_optimum" title="Holocene climatic optimum">Holocene climatic optimum</a> (~7000–3000 BCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extreme_weather_events_of_535%E2%80%93536" class="mw-redirect" title="Extreme weather events of 535–536">Extreme weather events of 535–536</a> (535–536 CE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Warm_Period" title="Medieval Warm Period">Medieval Warm Period</a> (900–1300)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Ice_Age" title="Little Ice Age">Little Ice Age</a> (1300–1800)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Year_Without_a_Summer" title="Year Without a Summer">Year Without a Summer</a> (1816)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_of_the_atmosphere">History of the atmosphere</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleoclimatology&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: History of the atmosphere"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table id="Container" role="presentation" class="nomobile toccolours searchaux" style="text-align:left;padding:0 0.5em;border-style:solid;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.3em 0 0.8em 1.4em;overflow:hidden;min-width:29.95em"><tbody><tr><td colspan="3" id="Title" style="padding:1em 1em 0 1em"><div style="background-color:#77bb77;padding:0 0.2em 0 0.2em;font-weight:bold;text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_evolutionary_history_of_life" title="Timeline of the evolutionary history of life"><span style="color:#ffffff;">Life timeline</span></a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" id="Navbox" style="padding:0;margin:0 1em 0 0;text-align:right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist"><span>This box: </span><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Life_timeline" title="Template:Life timeline"><span title="View this template">view</span></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Life_timeline" title="Template talk:Life timeline"><span title="Discuss this template">talk</span></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Life_timeline" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Life timeline"><span title="Edit this template">edit</span></a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td id="Scale" style="padding:0;margin:0.7em 0 0.7em 0;width:4.2em;position:relative;float:left;font-size:100%;height:50em;border-right:1px solid #242020"><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:49.56em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−4500 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:48.18em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:46.81em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">—</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:45.43em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:44.05em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−4000 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:42.68em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:41.30em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">—</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:39.92em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:38.55em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−3500 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:37.17em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:35.79em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">—</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:34.42em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:33.04em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−3000 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:31.66em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:30.29em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">—</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:28.91em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:27.53em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−2500 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:26.16em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:24.78em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">—</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:23.40em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:22.03em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−2000 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:20.65em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:19.27em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">—</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:17.90em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:16.52em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−1500 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:15.14em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:13.77em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">—</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:12.39em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:11.01em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−1000 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:9.64em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:8.26em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">—</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:6.88em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:5.51em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−500 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:4.13em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:2.75em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">—</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:1.38em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:0.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">0 —</span></div></td><td id="Timeline" class="toccolours notheme" style="padding:0px;margin:0.7em 0 0.7em 0;position:relative;font-size:100%;width:13em;height:50em;float:left;border:none"><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#e5cc7f;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:50.000em;left:0.910em;width:12.090em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-25.000em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#aebfd1;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:44.053em;height:4.537em;left:1.040em;width:11.960em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.269em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_water_on_Earth" title="Origin of water on Earth">Water</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#aebfd1;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:44.053em;left:1.040em;width:0.130em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-22.026em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#b3d9ff;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:38.546em;height:5.507em;left:1.170em;width:11.830em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.753em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Unicellular_organism" title="Unicellular organism">Single-celled life</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#b3d9ff;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:38.546em;left:1.170em;width:0.260em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-19.273em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#99ffff;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:23.128em;height:15.419em;left:1.430em;width:11.570em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-7.709em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_photosynthesis" title="Evolution of photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#99ffff;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:23.128em;left:1.430em;width:0.260em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-11.564em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#b3ffea;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:17.621em;height:5.507em;left:1.690em;width:11.310em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.753em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryotes</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#b3ffea;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:17.621em;left:1.690em;width:0.260em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-8.811em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ccffe7;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:5.958em;height:11.663em;left:1.950em;width:11.050em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-5.831em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Multicellular_organism" title="Multicellular organism">Multicellular life</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ccffe7;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:5.958em;left:1.950em;width:0.260em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.979em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#77dd00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:1.982em;height:7.379em;left:2.210em;width:1.170em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-3.689em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant"><span style="display:block; text-align:center; line-height: 0.85em;">P<br />l<br />a<br />n<br />t<br />s</span></a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#77dd00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:1.982em;left:2.210em;width:0.260em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.991em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ccbbaa;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:2.203em;height:3.756em;left:3.380em;width:9.620em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.5em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.878em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">Arthropods</a> <a href="/wiki/Mollusca" title="Mollusca">Molluscs</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ffff00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:1.982em;left:2.470em;width:3.510em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:-0.53em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.991em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant#Evolutionary_history" title="Flowering plant">Flowers</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#e6b880;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.721em;height:2.583em;left:3.380em;width:5.070em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.5em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.291em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Dinosaur" title="Dinosaur">Dinosaurs</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ffcc00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:2.203em;left:8.580em;width:4.420em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.101em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ffcc00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.606em;height:1.597em;left:8.450em;width:4.290em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.15em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.798em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">Mammals</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#e6b880;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:1.333em;left:5.980em;width:2.600em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:-0.225em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.666em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Bird" title="Bird">Birds</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ffbbbb;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:0.606em;left:8.710em;width:4.030em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.1em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.303em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Primate" title="Primate">Primates</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#993c00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:44.053em;height:5.947em;left:0.000em;width:0.910em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:-0.05em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:100%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.974em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span style="display:block; text-align:center; line-height: 0.80em;"><a href="/wiki/Hadean" title="Hadean"><span style="color:#ffffff;">H<br />a<br />d<br />e<br />a<br />n</span></a></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#936a00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:27.533em;height:16.520em;left:0.000em;width:0.910em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:-1.2em;left:-0.05em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:100%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-8.260em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span style="display:block; text-align:center; line-height: 0.85em;"><a href="/wiki/Archean" title="Archean"><span style="color:#ffffff;"><br /><br /><br />A<br />r<br />c<br />h<br />e<br />a<br />n</span></a></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#f1c309;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:5.958em;height:21.575em;left:0.000em;width:0.910em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:100%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-10.787em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span style="display:block; text-align:center; line-height: 0.85em;"><a href="/wiki/Proterozoic" title="Proterozoic"><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />P<br />r<br />o<br />t<br />e<br />r<br />o<br />z<br />o<br />i<br />c</a></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#c1e0c1;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:5.958em;left:0.000em;width:0.910em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:2em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:100%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.979em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span style="display:block; text-align:center; line-height: 0.85em;"><a href="/wiki/Phanerozoic" title="Phanerozoic">P<br />h<br />a<br />n<br />e<br />r<br />o<br />z<br />o<br />i<br />c</a></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ccbbaa;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:8.260em;left:12.714em;width:0.286em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-4.130em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ccbbaa;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:2.203em;left:12.714em;width:0.286em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.101em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div></td><td id="Annotations" style="padding:0;margin:0.7em 0 0.7em 0;float:left;position:relative;width:11.05em;height:50em"><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:50.000em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Earth" title="Age of Earth">Earth formed</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:48.568em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.2em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_water_on_Earth" title="Origin of water on Earth">Earliest water</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:47.907em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Last_universal_common_ancestor" title="Last universal common ancestor">LUCA</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:44.053em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Earliest_known_life_forms" title="Earliest known life forms">Earliest fossils</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:42.952em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Late_Heavy_Bombardment" title="Late Heavy Bombardment">LHB meteorites</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:38.546em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_oxygen" title="Geological history of oxygen">Earliest oxygen</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:31.278em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Pongola_glaciation" title="Pongola glaciation">Pongola glaciation</a>*</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:25.330em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.2em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Great_Oxidation_Event" title="Great Oxidation Event">Atmospheric oxygen</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:24.780em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.2em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Huronian_glaciation" title="Huronian glaciation">Huronian glaciation</a>*</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:22.026em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_sexual_reproduction#Origin_of_sexual_reproduction" title="Evolution of sexual reproduction">Sexual reproduction</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:17.621em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Francevillian_biota" title="Francevillian biota">Earliest multicellular life</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:16.520em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_fungi" title="Evolution of fungi">Earliest fungi</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:9.361em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.25em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_plants" title="Evolutionary history of plants">Earliest plants</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:8.260em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.4em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Caveasphaera" title="Caveasphaera">Earliest animals</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:7.489em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.2em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Cryogenian" title="Cryogenian">Cryogenian ice age</a>*</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:6.993em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.2em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Ediacaran_biota" title="Ediacaran biota">Ediacaran biota</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:5.958em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.15em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Cambrian_explosion" title="Cambrian explosion">Cambrian explosion</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:4.956em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.1em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Hirnantian_glaciation" title="Hirnantian glaciation">Hirnantian glaciation</a>*</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:4.075em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.1em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Tetrapod" title="Tetrapod">Earliest tetrapods</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:3.304em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.2em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Late_Paleozoic_icehouse" title="Late Paleozoic icehouse">Karoo ice age</a>*</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:0.275em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.3em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Ape" title="Ape">Earliest apes</a> / <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">humans</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:0.018em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.4em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Quaternary_glaciation" title="Quaternary glaciation">Quaternary ice age</a>*</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td id="Caption" colspan="3" style="padding:0;margin:0 0.2em 0.7em 0.2em"><div id="Caption" class="toccolours" style="margin:0 0.5em;border-style:none;clear:both;text-align:center;width:26.8em"><div style="float:left;font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Myr" class="mw-redirect" title="Myr">million years ago</a>)</div><div style="float:right;font-size:95%;">*<i><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_glaciation" title="Timeline of glaciation">Ice Ages</a></i></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth" title="Atmosphere of Earth">Atmosphere of Earth</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Earth" title="History of Earth">History of Earth</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Earliest_atmosphere">Earliest atmosphere</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleoclimatology&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Earliest atmosphere"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Paleoatmosphere" title="Paleoatmosphere">first atmosphere</a> would have consisted of gases in the <a href="/wiki/Solar_nebula#Formation_of_planets" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar nebula">solar nebula</a>, primarily <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a>. In addition, there would probably have been simple <a href="/wiki/Hydride" title="Hydride">hydrides</a> such as those now found in gas giants like <a href="/wiki/Jupiter" title="Jupiter">Jupiter</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saturn" title="Saturn">Saturn</a>, notably <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a> vapor, <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a>. As the solar nebula dissipated, the gases would have escaped, partly driven off by the <a href="/wiki/Solar_wind" title="Solar wind">solar wind</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Zahnle_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zahnle-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Second_atmosphere">Second atmosphere</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleoclimatology&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Second atmosphere"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The next atmosphere, consisting largely of <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a>, and inert gases, was produced by outgassing from <a href="/wiki/Volcanism" title="Volcanism">volcanism</a>, supplemented by gases produced during the <a href="/wiki/Late_heavy_bombardment" class="mw-redirect" title="Late heavy bombardment">late heavy bombardment</a> of Earth by huge <a href="/wiki/Asteroids" class="mw-redirect" title="Asteroids">asteroids</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Zahnle_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zahnle-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A major part of carbon dioxide emissions were soon dissolved in water and built up carbonate sediments. </p><p>Water-related sediments have been found dating from as early as 3.8 billion years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> About 3.4 billion years ago, nitrogen was the major part of the then stable "second atmosphere". An influence of life has to be taken into account rather soon in the history of the atmosphere because hints of early life forms have been dated to as early as 3.5 to 4.3 billion years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The fact that it is not perfectly in line with the 30% lower solar radiance (compared to today) of the early Sun has been described as the "<a href="/wiki/Faint_young_Sun_paradox" title="Faint young Sun paradox">faint young Sun paradox</a>". </p><p>The geological record, however, shows a continually relatively warm surface during the complete early <a href="/wiki/Temperature_record" class="mw-redirect" title="Temperature record">temperature record</a> of Earth with the exception of one cold glacial phase about 2.4 billion years ago. In the late <a href="/wiki/Archean" title="Archean">Archaean</a> eon, an oxygen-containing atmosphere began to develop, apparently from photosynthesizing <a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">cyanobacteria</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Great_Oxygenation_Event" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Oxygenation Event">Great Oxygenation Event</a>) which have been found as <a href="/wiki/Stromatolite" title="Stromatolite">stromatolite</a> fossils from 2.7 billion years ago. The early basic carbon isotopy (<a href="/wiki/Isotope_ratio" class="mw-redirect" title="Isotope ratio">isotope ratio</a> proportions) was very much in line with what is found today, suggesting that the fundamental features of the <a href="/wiki/Carbon_cycle" title="Carbon cycle">carbon cycle</a> were established as early as 4 billion years ago. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Third_atmosphere">Third atmosphere</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleoclimatology&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Third atmosphere"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The constant rearrangement of continents by <a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">plate tectonics</a> influences the long-term evolution of the atmosphere by transferring carbon dioxide to and from large continental carbonate stores. Free oxygen did not exist in the atmosphere until about 2.4 billion years ago, during the <a href="/wiki/Great_Oxygenation_Event" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Oxygenation Event">Great Oxygenation Event</a>, and its appearance is indicated by the end of the <a href="/wiki/Banded_iron_formations" class="mw-redirect" title="Banded iron formations">banded iron formations</a>. Until then, any oxygen produced by photosynthesis was consumed by oxidation of reduced materials, notably iron. Molecules of free oxygen did not start to accumulate in the atmosphere until the rate of production of oxygen began to exceed the availability of reducing materials. That point was a shift from a <a href="/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">reducing</a> atmosphere to an <a href="/wiki/Oxidizing" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxidizing">oxidizing</a> atmosphere. O<sub>2</sub> showed major variations until reaching a steady state of more than 15% by the end of the Precambrian.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The following time span was the <a href="/wiki/Phanerozoic" title="Phanerozoic">Phanerozoic</a> eon, during which oxygen-breathing <a href="/wiki/Metazoan_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Metazoan life">metazoan life</a> forms began to appear. </p><p>The amount of oxygen in the atmosphere has fluctuated over the last 600 million years, reaching a peak of 35%<sup id="cite_ref-Beerling2007_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beerling2007-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> during the <a href="/wiki/Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous">Carboniferous</a> period, significantly higher than today's 21%. Two main processes govern changes in the atmosphere: plants <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">use carbon dioxide from the atmosphere</a>, releasing oxygen and the breakdown of <a href="/wiki/Pyrite" title="Pyrite">pyrite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_eruption" class="mw-redirect" title="Volcanic eruption">volcanic eruptions</a> release <a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a> into the atmosphere, which oxidizes and hence reduces the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere. However, volcanic eruptions also release carbon dioxide, which plants can convert to oxygen. The exact cause of the variation of the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere is not known. Periods with much oxygen in the atmosphere are associated with rapid development of animals. Today's atmosphere contains 21% oxygen, which is high enough for rapid development of animals.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Climate_during_geological_ages">Climate during geological ages</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleoclimatology&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Climate during geological ages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GlaciationsinEarthExistancelicenced_annotated.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/GlaciationsinEarthExistancelicenced_annotated.jpg/600px-GlaciationsinEarthExistancelicenced_annotated.jpg" decoding="async" width="600" height="46" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/GlaciationsinEarthExistancelicenced_annotated.jpg/900px-GlaciationsinEarthExistancelicenced_annotated.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/GlaciationsinEarthExistancelicenced_annotated.jpg/1200px-GlaciationsinEarthExistancelicenced_annotated.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3316" data-file-height="256" /></a><figcaption>Timeline of glaciations, shown in blue</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_glaciation" title="Timeline of glaciation">Timeline of glaciation</a></div> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Huronian_glaciation" title="Huronian glaciation">Huronian glaciation</a>, is the first known glaciation in Earth's history, and lasted from 2400 to 2100 million years ago.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Cryogenian_glaciation" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryogenian glaciation">Cryogenian glaciation</a> lasted from 720 to 635 million years ago.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Andean-Saharan_glaciation" class="mw-redirect" title="Andean-Saharan glaciation">Andean-Saharan glaciation</a> lasted from 450 to 420 million years ago.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Karoo_glaciation" class="mw-redirect" title="Karoo glaciation">Karoo glaciation</a> lasted from 360 to 260 million years ago.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Quaternary_glaciation" title="Quaternary glaciation">Quaternary glaciation</a> is the current glaciation period and began 2.58 million years ago.</li></ul> <p>In 2020 scientists published a continuous, high-fidelity <a href="/wiki/Global_temperature_record" class="mw-redirect" title="Global temperature record">record of variations in Earth's climate during the past 66 million years</a> and identified four <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_and_icehouse_Earth" title="Greenhouse and icehouse Earth">climate states</a>, separated by transitions that include changing greenhouse gas levels and polar ice sheets volumes. They integrated data of various sources. The warmest climate state since the time of the dinosaur extinction, "Hothouse", endured from 56 Mya to 47 Mya and was ~14 °C warmer than average modern temperatures.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Precambrian_climate">Precambrian climate</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleoclimatology&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Precambrian climate"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Precambrian" title="Precambrian">Precambrian</a></div> <p>The Precambrian took place between the time when Earth first formed 4.6 billion years (<a href="/wiki/Giga-annum" class="mw-redirect" title="Giga-annum">Ga</a>) ago, and 542 million years ago. The Precambrian can be split into two eons, the Archean and the Proterozoic, which can be further subdivided into eras.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The reconstruction of the Precambrian climate is difficult for various reasons including the low number of reliable indicators and a, generally, not well-preserved or extensive fossil record (especially when compared to the Phanerozoic eon). <sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite these issues, there is evidence for a number of major climate events throughout the history of the Precambrian: <a href="/wiki/Great_Oxidation_Event" title="Great Oxidation Event">The Great Oxygenation Event</a>, which started around 2.3 Ga ago (the beginning of the Proterozoic) is indicated by <a href="/wiki/Biomarker" title="Biomarker">biomarkers</a> which demonstrate the appearance of photosynthetic organisms. Due to the high levels of oxygen in the atmosphere from the GOE, <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">CH<big><sub>4</sub></big></a> levels fell rapidly cooling the atmosphere causing the Huronian glaciation. For about 1 Ga after the glaciation (2-0.8 Ga ago), the Earth likely experienced warmer temperatures indicated by microfossils of photosynthetic eukaryotes, and oxygen levels between 5 and 18% of the Earth's current oxygen level. At the end of the Proterozoic, there is evidence of global glaciation events of varying severity causing a '<a href="/wiki/Snowball_Earth" title="Snowball Earth">Snowball Earth</a>'.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Snowball Earth is supported by different indicators such as, glacial deposits, significant continental erosion called <a href="/wiki/Great_Unconformity" title="Great Unconformity">the Great Unconformity</a>, and sedimentary rocks called cap carbonates that form after a deglaciation episode. <sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Phanerozoic_climate">Phanerozoic climate</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleoclimatology&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Phanerozoic climate"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Phanerozoic_Climate_Change.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Phanerozoic_Climate_Change.png/450px-Phanerozoic_Climate_Change.png" decoding="async" width="450" height="322" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Phanerozoic_Climate_Change.png/675px-Phanerozoic_Climate_Change.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/Phanerozoic_Climate_Change.png 2x" data-file-width="726" data-file-height="520" /></a><figcaption>Changes in <a href="/wiki/Oxygen-18" title="Oxygen-18">oxygen-18</a> ratios over the last 500 million years, indicating environmental change</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Phanerozoic" title="Phanerozoic">Phanerozoic</a></div> <p>Major drivers for the preindustrial ages have been variations of the Sun, volcanic ashes and exhalations, relative movements of the Earth towards the Sun, and tectonically induced effects as for major sea currents, watersheds, and ocean oscillations. In the early Phanerozoic, increased atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations have been linked to driving or amplifying increased global temperatures.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Royer et al. 2004<sup id="cite_ref-Dana_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dana-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> found a climate sensitivity for the rest of the Phanerozoic which was calculated to be similar to today's modern range of values. </p><p>The difference in global mean temperatures between a fully glacial Earth and an ice free Earth is estimated at 10 °C, though far larger changes would be observed at high latitudes and smaller ones at low latitudes.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> One requirement for the development of large scale ice sheets seems to be the arrangement of continental land masses at or near the poles. The constant rearrangement of continents by <a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">plate tectonics</a> can also shape long-term climate evolution. However, the presence or absence of land masses at the poles is not sufficient to guarantee glaciations or exclude polar ice caps. Evidence exists of past warm periods in Earth's climate when polar land masses similar to <a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a> were home to <a href="/wiki/Deciduous" title="Deciduous">deciduous</a> forests rather than ice sheets. </p><p>The relatively warm local minimum between <a href="/wiki/Jurassic" title="Jurassic">Jurassic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a> goes along with an increase of subduction and mid-ocean ridge volcanism<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> due to the breakup of the <a href="/wiki/Pangea" class="mw-redirect" title="Pangea">Pangea</a> <a href="/wiki/Supercontinent" title="Supercontinent">supercontinent</a>. </p><p>Superimposed on the long-term evolution between hot and cold climates have been many short-term fluctuations in climate similar to, and sometimes more severe than, the varying glacial and interglacial states of the present <a href="/wiki/Ice_age" title="Ice age">ice age</a>. Some of the most severe fluctuations, such as the <a href="/wiki/Paleocene-Eocene_Thermal_Maximum" class="mw-redirect" title="Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum">Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum</a>, may be related to <a href="/wiki/Abrupt_climate_change" title="Abrupt climate change">rapid climate changes</a> due to sudden collapses of natural <a href="/wiki/Methane_clathrate" title="Methane clathrate">methane clathrate</a> reservoirs in the oceans.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A similar, single event of induced severe climate change after a <a href="/wiki/Meteorite_impact" class="mw-redirect" title="Meteorite impact">meteorite impact</a> has been proposed as reason for the <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene_extinction_event" title="Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event">Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event</a>. Other major thresholds are the <a href="/wiki/Permian-Triassic_extinction_event" class="mw-redirect" title="Permian-Triassic extinction event">Permian-Triassic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ordovician-Silurian_extinction_events" class="mw-redirect" title="Ordovician-Silurian extinction events">Ordovician-Silurian extinction events</a> with various reasons suggested. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Quaternary_climate">Quaternary climate</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleoclimatology&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Quaternary climate"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%22EDC_TempCO2Dust%22.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/%22EDC_TempCO2Dust%22.svg/220px-%22EDC_TempCO2Dust%22.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/%22EDC_TempCO2Dust%22.svg/330px-%22EDC_TempCO2Dust%22.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/%22EDC_TempCO2Dust%22.svg/440px-%22EDC_TempCO2Dust%22.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="886" data-file-height="709" /></a><figcaption>Ice core data for the past 800,000 years (x-axis values represent "age before 1950", so today's date is on the left side of the graph and older time on the right). Blue curve is temperature,<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> red curve is atmospheric CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub> concentrations,<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and brown curve is dust fluxes.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Note length of glacial-interglacial cycles averages ~100,000 years.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Holocene_Temperature_Variations.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Holocene_Temperature_Variations.png/220px-Holocene_Temperature_Variations.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Holocene_Temperature_Variations.png/330px-Holocene_Temperature_Variations.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Holocene_Temperature_Variations.png/440px-Holocene_Temperature_Variations.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption>Holocene temperature variations</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Quaternary" title="Quaternary">Quaternary</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_large-scale_temperature_reconstructions_of_the_last_2,000_years" title="List of large-scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years">List of large-scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years</a></div> <p>The Quaternary <a href="/wiki/Geological_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Geological period">geological period</a> includes the current climate. There has been a cycle of <a href="/wiki/Ice_age" title="Ice age">ice ages</a> for the past 2.2–2.1 million years (starting before the Quaternary in the late <a href="/wiki/Neogene" title="Neogene">Neogene</a> Period). </p><p>Note in the graphic on the right the strong 120,000-year periodicity of the cycles, and the striking asymmetry of the curves. This asymmetry is believed to result from complex interactions of feedback mechanisms. It has been observed that ice ages deepen by progressive steps, but the recovery to interglacial conditions occurs in one big step. </p><p>The graph on the left shows the temperature change over the past 12,000 years, from various sources; the thick black curve is an average. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Climate_forcings">Climate forcings</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleoclimatology&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Climate forcings"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Climate_forcing" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate forcing">Climate forcing</a></div> <p>Climate forcing is the difference between <a href="/wiki/Radiant_energy" title="Radiant energy">radiant energy</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sunlight" title="Sunlight">sunlight</a>) received by the Earth and the <a href="/wiki/Outgoing_longwave_radiation" title="Outgoing longwave radiation">outgoing longwave radiation</a> back to space. Such <a href="/wiki/Radiative_forcing" title="Radiative forcing">radiative forcing</a> is quantified based on the CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub> amount in the <a href="/wiki/Tropopause" title="Tropopause">tropopause</a>, in units of watts per square meter to the Earth's surface.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dependent on the <a href="/wiki/Radiative_balance" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiative balance">radiative balance</a> of incoming and outgoing energy, the Earth either warms up or cools down. Earth radiative balance originates from changes in solar <a href="/wiki/Insolation" class="mw-redirect" title="Insolation">insolation</a> and the concentrations of <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gases" class="mw-redirect" title="Greenhouse gases">greenhouse gases</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aerosols" class="mw-redirect" title="Aerosols">aerosols</a>. Climate change may be due to internal processes in Earth sphere's and/or following external forcings.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One example of a way this can be applied to study climatology is analyzing how the varying concentrations of CO2 affect the overall climate. This is done by using various proxies to estimate past greenhouse gas concentrations and compare those to that of the present day. Researchers are then able to assess their role in progression of climate change throughout Earth’s history.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Internal_processes_and_forcings">Internal processes and forcings</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleoclimatology&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Internal processes and forcings"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Earth's <a href="/wiki/Climate_system" title="Climate system">climate system</a> involves the <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere" title="Atmosphere">atmosphere</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">biosphere</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cryosphere" title="Cryosphere">cryosphere</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hydrosphere" title="Hydrosphere">hydrosphere</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lithosphere" title="Lithosphere">lithosphere</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the sum of these processes from Earth's spheres is what affects the climate. Greenhouse gasses act as the internal forcing of the climate system. Particular interests in climate science and paleoclimatology focus on the study of Earth <a href="/wiki/Climate_sensitivity" title="Climate sensitivity">climate sensitivity</a>, in response to the sum of forcings. Analyzing the sum of these forcings contributes to the ability of scientists to make broad conclusive estimates on the Earth’s climate system. These estimates include the evidence for systems such as long term climate variability (eccentricity, obliquity precession), feedback mechanisms (Ice-Albedo Effect), and anthropogenic influence.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Examples: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thermohaline_circulation" title="Thermohaline circulation">Thermohaline circulation</a> (Hydrosphere)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">Life</a> (Biosphere)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="External_forcings">External forcings</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleoclimatology&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: External forcings"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Milankovitch_cycles" title="Milankovitch cycles">Milankovitch cycles</a> determine Earth distance and position to the Sun. The solar insolation is the total amount of solar radiation received by Earth.</li> <li>Volcanic eruptions are considered an internal forcing.<sup id="cite_ref-IPCC_AR5_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IPCC_AR5-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Human changes of the composition of the atmosphere or land use.<sup id="cite_ref-IPCC_AR5_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IPCC_AR5-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Human activities causing anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions leading to global warming and associated climate changes.</li> <li>Large asteroids that have cataclysmic impacts on Earth’s climate are considered external forcings.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mechanisms">Mechanisms</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleoclimatology&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Mechanisms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On timescales of millions of years, the uplift of mountain ranges and subsequent <a href="/wiki/Weathering" title="Weathering">weathering</a> processes of rocks and soils and the <a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">subduction</a> of <a href="/wiki/Tectonic_plates" class="mw-redirect" title="Tectonic plates">tectonic plates</a>, are an important part of the <a href="/wiki/Carbon_cycle" title="Carbon cycle">carbon cycle</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The weathering <a href="/wiki/Co2_sequestration" class="mw-redirect" title="Co2 sequestration">sequesters CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub></a>, by the reaction of minerals with chemicals (especially <a href="/wiki/Silicate" title="Silicate">silicate</a> weathering with CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub>) and thereby removing CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub> from the atmosphere and reducing the radiative forcing. The opposite effect is <a href="/wiki/Volcanism" title="Volcanism">volcanism</a>, responsible for the natural <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_effect" title="Greenhouse effect">greenhouse effect</a>, by emitting CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub> into the atmosphere, thus affecting <a href="/wiki/Glaciation" class="mw-redirect" title="Glaciation">glaciation</a> (Ice Age) cycles. <a href="/wiki/James_Hansen" title="James Hansen">Jim Hansen</a> suggested that humans emit CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub> 10,000 times faster than natural processes have done in the past.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ice_sheet" title="Ice sheet">Ice sheet</a> dynamics and continental positions (and linked vegetation changes) have been important factors in the long term evolution of the Earth's climate.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is also a close correlation between CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub> and temperature, where CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub> has a strong control over global temperatures in Earth's history.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleoclimatology&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyclostratigraphy" title="Cyclostratigraphy">Cyclostratigraphy</a> – Study of astronomically forced climate cycles within sedimentary successions</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoatmosphere" title="Paleoatmosphere">Paleoatmosphere</a> – Ancient atmosphere, particularly of Earth, in the geological past</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoceanography" title="Paleoceanography">Paleoceanography</a> – Study of the oceans in the geologic past</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoecology" title="Paleoecology">Paleoecology</a> – Study of interactions between organisms and their environments across geologic timescales</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleothermometer" title="Paleothermometer">Paleothermometer</a> – Study of ancient temperatures</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleohydrology" title="Paleohydrology">Paleohydrology</a> – Study of hydrology over geological time</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleotempestology" title="Paleotempestology">Paleotempestology</a> – Study of past tropical cyclone activity</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleomap" title="Paleomap">Paleomap</a> – Map of continents and mountain ranges in the past based on plate reconstructions</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reducing_atmosphere" title="Reducing atmosphere">Reducing atmosphere</a> – Atmosphere containing reducing agents</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Table_of_historic_and_prehistoric_climate_indicators" title="Table of historic and prehistoric climate indicators">Table of historic and prehistoric climate indicators</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleoclimatology&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleoclimatology&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBradley2015" class="citation book cs1">Bradley, Raymond (2015). <i>Paleoclimatology: Reconstructing Climates of the Quaternary</i>. Oxford: Elsevier. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-386913-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-386913-5"><bdi>978-0-12-386913-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Paleoclimatology%3A+Reconstructing+Climates+of+the+Quaternary&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-12-386913-5&rft.aulast=Bradley&rft.aufirst=Raymond&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaleoclimatology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SahneyBenton2008RecoveryFromProfoundExtinction-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-SahneyBenton2008RecoveryFromProfoundExtinction_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSahneyBenton2008" class="citation journal cs1">Sahney, S. & Benton, M.J. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2596898">"Recovery from the most profound mass extinction of all time"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences</i>. <b>275</b> (1636): 759–65. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspb.2007.1370">10.1098/rspb.2007.1370</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2596898">2596898</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18198148">18198148</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Royal+Society+B%3A+Biological+Sciences&rft.atitle=Recovery+from+the+most+profound+mass+extinction+of+all+time&rft.volume=275&rft.issue=1636&rft.pages=759-65&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2596898%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18198148&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frspb.2007.1370&rft.aulast=Sahney&rft.aufirst=S.&rft.au=Benton%2C+M.J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2596898&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaleoclimatology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCronin2010">Cronin 2010</a>, p. 1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fairbridge-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fairbridge_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fairbridge_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fairbridge_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFairbridge2008" class="citation book cs1">Fairbridge, Rhodes (31 October 2008). 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Leeman; Arnaud Agranier (28 January 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2278177">"Regulating continent growth and composition by chemical weathering"</a>. <i>PNAS</i>. <b>105</b> (13): 4981–4986. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008PNAS..105.4981L">2008PNAS..105.4981L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0711143105">10.1073/pnas.0711143105</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2278177">2278177</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18362343">18362343</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PNAS&rft.atitle=Regulating+continent+growth+and+composition+by+chemical+weathering&rft.volume=105&rft.issue=13&rft.pages=4981-4986&rft.date=2008-01-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2278177%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18362343&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.0711143105&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008PNAS..105.4981L&rft.au=Cin-Ty+Aeolus+Lee&rft.au=Douglas+M.+Morton&rft.au=Mark+G.+Little&rft.au=Ronald+Kistler&rft.au=Ulyana+N.+Horodyskyj&rft.au=William+P.+Leeman&rft.au=Arnaud+Agranier&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2278177&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaleoclimatology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvan_der_Meer2014" class="citation journal cs1">van der Meer, Douwe (25 March 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3970481">"Plate tectonic controls on Atmospheric CO2 since the Triassic"</a>. <i>PNAS</i>. <b>111</b> (12): 4380–4385. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014PNAS..111.4380V">2014PNAS..111.4380V</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1315657111">10.1073/pnas.1315657111</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3970481">3970481</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24616495">24616495</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PNAS&rft.atitle=Plate+tectonic+controls+on+Atmospheric+CO2+since+the+Triassic&rft.volume=111&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=4380-4385&rft.date=2014-03-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3970481%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24616495&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.1315657111&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014PNAS..111.4380V&rft.aulast=van+der+Meer&rft.aufirst=Douwe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3970481&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaleoclimatology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames_Hansen2009" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_Hansen" title="James Hansen">James Hansen</a> (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pgC8yZT--0A">"The 8 Minute Epoch 65 million Years with James Hansen"</a>. University of Oregon. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/pgC8yZT--0A">Archived</a> from the original on 11 December 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+8+Minute+Epoch+65+million+Years+with+James+Hansen&rft.pub=University+of+Oregon&rft.date=2009&rft.au=James+Hansen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DpgC8yZT--0A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaleoclimatology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoyerPaganiBeerling2012" class="citation journal cs1">Royer, D. L.; Pagani, M.; <a href="/wiki/David_Beerling" title="David Beerling">Beerling, David J.</a> (1 July 2012). "Geobiological constraints on Earth system sensitivity to CO2 during the Cretaceous and Cenozoic". <i>Geobiology</i>. <b>10</b> (4): 298–310. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012Gbio...10..298R">2012Gbio...10..298R</a>. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.933.8880">10.1.1.933.8880</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1472-4669.2012.00320.x">10.1111/j.1472-4669.2012.00320.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22353368">22353368</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:32023645">32023645</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geobiology&rft.atitle=Geobiological+constraints+on+Earth+system+sensitivity+to+CO2+during+the+Cretaceous+and+Cenozoic&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=298-310&rft.date=2012-07-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A32023645%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2012Gbio...10..298R&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.933.8880%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22353368&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1472-4669.2012.00320.x&rft.aulast=Royer&rft.aufirst=D.+L.&rft.au=Pagani%2C+M.&rft.au=Beerling%2C+David+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaleoclimatology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoyer2006" class="citation journal cs1">Royer, Dana L. (1 December 2006). "CO2-forced climate thresholds during the Phanerozoic". <i>Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta</i>. <b>70</b> (23): 5665–5675. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006GeCoA..70.5665R">2006GeCoA..70.5665R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.gca.2005.11.031">10.1016/j.gca.2005.11.031</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geochimica+et+Cosmochimica+Acta&rft.atitle=CO2-forced+climate+thresholds+during+the+Phanerozoic&rft.volume=70&rft.issue=23&rft.pages=5665-5675&rft.date=2006-12-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.gca.2005.11.031&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006GeCoA..70.5665R&rft.aulast=Royer&rft.aufirst=Dana+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaleoclimatology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleoclimatology&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>Paleoclimatology</b> <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Paleoclimatology">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Paleoclimatology&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBradley1985" class="citation book cs1">Bradley, Raymond S. (1985). <i>Quaternary paleoclimatology: methods of paleoclimatic reconstruction</i>. Boston: Allen & Unwin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-04-551067-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-04-551067-2"><bdi>978-0-04-551067-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Quaternary+paleoclimatology%3A+methods+of+paleoclimatic+reconstruction&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=Allen+%26+Unwin&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-04-551067-2&rft.aulast=Bradley&rft.aufirst=Raymond+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaleoclimatology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCronin2010" class="citation book cs1">Cronin, Thomas N. (2010). <i>Paleoclimates: understanding climate change past and present</i>. New York: Columbia University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-14494-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-14494-0"><bdi>978-0-231-14494-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Paleoclimates%3A+understanding+climate+change+past+and+present&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-231-14494-0&rft.aulast=Cronin&rft.aufirst=Thomas+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaleoclimatology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFImbrie1979" class="citation book cs1">Imbrie, John (1979). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/iceagessolvingmy0000imbr_w0f3"><i>Ice ages: solving the mystery</i></a></span>. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-44075-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-44075-3"><bdi>978-0-674-44075-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ice+ages%3A+solving+the+mystery&rft.place=Cambridge+MA&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-674-44075-3&rft.aulast=Imbrie&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ficeagessolvingmy0000imbr_w0f3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaleoclimatology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMargulisSagan1986" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lynn_Margulis" title="Lynn Margulis">Margulis, Lynn</a>; <a href="/wiki/Dorion_Sagan" title="Dorion Sagan">Sagan, Dorion</a> (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/originsofsexthre00marg"><i>Origins of sex: three billion years of genetic recombination</i></a>. The Bio-origins series. New Haven: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-03340-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-03340-3"><bdi>978-0-300-03340-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Origins+of+sex%3A+three+billion+years+of+genetic+recombination&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.series=The+Bio-origins+series&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-300-03340-3&rft.aulast=Margulis&rft.aufirst=Lynn&rft.au=Sagan%2C+Dorion&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foriginsofsexthre00marg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaleoclimatology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGould1989" class="citation book cs1">Gould, Stephen Jay (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/wonderfullifebur00goul"><i>Wonderful life, the story of the Burgess Shale</i></a>. New York: W.W. Norton. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-02705-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-02705-1"><bdi>978-0-393-02705-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wonderful+life%2C+the+story+of+the+Burgess+Shale&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-393-02705-1&rft.aulast=Gould&rft.aufirst=Stephen+Jay&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwonderfullifebur00goul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaleoclimatology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrowleyNorth1996" class="citation book cs1">Crowley, Thomas J.; North, Gerald R. (1996). <i>Paleoclimatology</i>. Oxford monographs on geology and geophysics. Vol. 18. Oxford: Clarendon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-510533-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-510533-9"><bdi>978-0-19-510533-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Paleoclimatology&rft.place=Oxford&rft.series=Oxford+monographs+on+geology+and+geophysics&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-19-510533-9&rft.aulast=Crowley&rft.aufirst=Thomas+J.&rft.au=North%2C+Gerald+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaleoclimatology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><i>The Climates of the Geological Past.</i> (Die Klimate der geologischen Vorzeit). 1924, Wladimir Köppen, Alfred Wegener <ul><li>Facsimile of German original and English translation: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.borntraeger-cramer.de/9783443010881"><i>The climates of the geological past – Klimate der geologischen Vorzeit</i></a>. Borntraeger, Berlin / Stuttgart 2015, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-443-01088-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-443-01088-1">978-3-443-01088-1</a>.</li></ul></li> <li>Karl-Heinz Ludwig (2006). <i>Eine kurze Geschichte des Klimas. Von der Entstehung der Erde bis heute, (A short history of climate, From the evolution of earth till today)</i> Herbst, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-406-54746-X" title="Special:BookSources/3-406-54746-X">3-406-54746-X</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliam_F._Ruddimann2001" class="citation book cs1">William F. Ruddimann (2001). <i>Earth's Climate — Past and Future</i>. Palgrave Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-3741-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-3741-4"><bdi>978-0-7167-3741-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Earth%27s+Climate+%E2%80%94+Past+and+Future&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-7167-3741-4&rft.au=William+F.+Ruddimann&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaleoclimatology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFB._Windley1984" class="citation book cs1">B. Windley (1984). <i>The Evolving Continents</i>. New York: Wiley Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Evolving+Continents&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Wiley+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.au=B.+Windley&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaleoclimatology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrummondWilkinson2006" class="citation journal cs1">Drummond, Carl N. & Wilkinson, Bruce H. (2006). "Interannual Variability in Climate Data". <i>Journal of Geology</i>. <b>114</b> (3): 325–339. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006JG....114..325D">2006JG....114..325D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F500992">10.1086/500992</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:128885809">128885809</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Geology&rft.atitle=Interannual+Variability+in+Climate+Data&rft.volume=114&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=325-339&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A128885809%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F500992&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006JG....114..325D&rft.aulast=Drummond&rft.aufirst=Carl+N.&rft.au=Wilkinson%2C+Bruce+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APaleoclimatology" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paleoclimatology&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style 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data-file-height="328" /></a></span><br /></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_geology" title="History of geology">History of geology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geochronology" title="Geochronology">Geochronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_Earth" title="Geological history of Earth">Geological history of Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_geology" title="Timeline of geology">Timeline of geology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Composition and structure</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cosmochemistry" title="Cosmochemistry">Cosmochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystallography" title="Crystallography">Crystallography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochemistry" title="Geochemistry">Geochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineralogy" title="Mineralogy">Mineralogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrology" title="Petrology">Petrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sedimentology" title="Sedimentology">Sedimentology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historical_geology" title="Historical geology">Historical geology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stratigraphy" title="Stratigraphy">Stratigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">Paleontology</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Paleoclimatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palaeogeography" title="Palaeogeography">Palaeogeography</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dynamic Earth</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Structural_geology" title="Structural geology">Structural geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geodynamics" title="Geodynamics">Geodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">Plate tectonics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomorphology" title="Geomorphology">Geomorphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanology" title="Volcanology">Volcanology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Water</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glaciology" title="Glaciology">Glaciology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogeology" title="Hydrogeology">Hydrogeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_geology" title="Marine geology">Marine geology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geodesy" title="Geodesy">Geodesy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">Cartography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_orbit" title="Earth's orbit">Earth's orbit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geodetic_astronomy" title="Geodetic astronomy">Geodetic astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomatics" title="Geomatics">Geomatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravity_of_Earth" title="Gravity of Earth">Gravity of Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_science#Planetary_geodesy" title="Planetary science">Planetary geodesy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remote_sensing" title="Remote sensing">Remote sensing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geopositioning" title="Geopositioning">Geopositioning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geophysics" title="Geophysics">Geophysics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geomagnetism" class="mw-redirect" title="Geomagnetism">Geomagnetism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geophysical_survey" title="Geophysical survey">Geophysical survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_science#Planetary_Geophysics_and_Space_Physics" title="Planetary science">Planetary geophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seismology" title="Seismology">Seismology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tectonophysics" title="Tectonophysics">Tectonophysics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeology" title="Biogeology">Biogeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_geology" title="Economic geology">Economic geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_geology" title="Engineering geology">Engineering geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_geology" title="Environmental geology">Environmental geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_geology" title="Planetary geology">Planetary geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geobiology" title="Geobiology">Geobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geologic_modelling" title="Geologic modelling">Geologic modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_geology" title="Forensic geology">Forensic geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_geophysics" title="Forensic geophysics">Forensic geophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meteoritics" title="Meteoritics">Meteoritics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_geology" title="Mining geology">Mining geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral_physics" title="Mineral physics">Mineral physics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Occupations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geologist" title="Geologist">Geologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_geologist" title="Petroleum geologist">Petroleum geologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanologist" title="Volcanologist">Volcanologist</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:WikiProject_Geology.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/WikiProject_Geology.svg/16px-WikiProject_Geology.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/WikiProject_Geology.svg/24px-WikiProject_Geology.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/WikiProject_Geology.svg/32px-WikiProject_Geology.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="327" data-file-height="328" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Geology" title="Portal:Geology">Geology portal</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Geology" title="Category:Geology">Geology</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Geology" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Geology">Geology</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Climate_change" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Climate_change" title="Template:Climate change"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Climate_change" title="Template talk:Climate change"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Climate_change" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Climate change"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Climate_change" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Overview" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Overview</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_climate_change" title="Causes of climate change">Causes of climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">Effects of climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">Climate change mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">Climate change adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Climate_change_regions" title="Template:Climate change regions">By country and region</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Causes" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_climate_change" title="Causes of climate change">Causes</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_system" title="Climate system">Climate system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_effect" title="Greenhouse effect">Greenhouse effect</a> (<a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth%27s_atmosphere" title="Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere">Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change" title="Scientific consensus on climate change">Scientific consensus on climate change</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Sources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_and_climate_change" title="Deforestation and climate change">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">Fossil fuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">Greenhouse gases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">Greenhouse gas emissions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_accounting" title="Carbon accounting">Carbon accounting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_footprint" title="Carbon footprint">Carbon footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_leakage" title="Carbon leakage">Carbon leakage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_agriculture" title="Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture">from agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_wetlands" title="Greenhouse gas emissions from wetlands">from wetlands</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_energy_supply_and_consumption" title="World energy supply and consumption">World energy supply and consumption</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="History" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">History</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_climate_change_policy_and_politics" title="History of climate change policy and politics">History of climate change policy and politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_climate_change_science" title="History of climate change science">History of climate change science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svante_Arrhenius" title="Svante Arrhenius">Svante Arrhenius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Hansen" title="James Hansen">James Hansen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_David_Keeling" title="Charles David Keeling">Charles David Keeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Climate_Change_conference" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Climate Change conference">United Nations Climate Change conferences</a></li> <li>Years in climate change <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2019_in_climate_change" title="2019 in climate change">2019</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_in_climate_change" title="2020 in climate change">2020</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_in_climate_change" title="2021 in climate change">2021</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_in_climate_change" title="2022 in climate change">2022</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023_in_climate_change" title="2023 in climate change">2023</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2024_in_climate_change" title="2024 in climate change">2024</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Effects_and_issues" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">Effects and issues</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Physical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abrupt_climate_change" title="Abrupt climate change">Abrupt climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anoxic_event" title="Anoxic event">Anoxic event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_methane_emissions" title="Arctic methane emissions">Arctic methane emissions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_sea_ice_decline" title="Arctic sea ice decline">Arctic sea ice decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_meridional_overturning_circulation" title="Atlantic meridional overturning circulation">Atlantic meridional overturning circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drought" title="Drought">Drought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extreme_weather" title="Extreme weather">Extreme weather</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood" title="Flood">Flood</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_flooding" title="Coastal flooding">Coastal flooding</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_wave" title="Heat wave">Heat wave</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_heatwave" title="Marine heatwave">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_heat_island" title="Urban heat island">Urban heat island</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_oceans" title="Effects of climate change on oceans">Oceans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_deoxygenation" title="Ocean deoxygenation">deoxygenation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_heat_content" title="Ocean heat content">heat content</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature" title="Sea surface temperature">sea surface temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_stratification" title="Ocean stratification">stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_temperature" title="Ocean temperature">temperature</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permafrost#Impacts_of_climate_change" title="Permafrost">Permafrost thaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retreat_of_glaciers_since_1850" title="Retreat of glaciers since 1850">Retreat of glaciers since 1850</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">Sea level rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Season_creep" title="Season creep">Season creep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system" title="Tipping points in the climate system">Tipping points in the climate system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclones_and_climate_change" title="Tropical cyclones and climate change">Tropical cyclones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_the_water_cycle" title="Effects of climate change on the water cycle">Water cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_wildfires" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change and wildfires">Wildfires</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Flora and fauna</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_biomes" title="Effects of climate change on biomes">Biomes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mass_mortality_event" title="Mass mortality event">Mass mortality event</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_birds" title="Climate change and birds">Birds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change" title="Extinction risk from climate change">Extinction risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_dieback" title="Forest dieback">Forest dieback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_invasive_species" title="Climate change and invasive species">Invasive species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_marine_life#Climate_change" title="Human impact on marine life">Marine life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_plant_biodiversity" title="Effects of climate change on plant biodiversity">Plant biodiversity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Social and economic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_agriculture" title="Effects of climate change on agriculture">Agriculture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock" title="Effects of climate change on livestock">Livestock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change and agriculture in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_children" title="Climate change and children">Children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_cities" title="Climate change and cities">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_civilizational_collapse" title="Climate change and civilizational collapse">Civilizational collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_crime" title="Climate change and crime">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_areas_depopulated_due_to_climate_change" title="List of areas depopulated due to climate change">Depopulation of settlements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_landmarks_destroyed_or_damaged_by_climate_change" title="List of landmarks destroyed or damaged by climate change">Destruction of cultural heritage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_and_climate_change" title="Disability and climate change">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_analysis_of_climate_change" title="Economic analysis of climate change">Economic impacts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_insurance_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change and insurance in the United States">U.S. insurance industry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_fisheries" title="Climate change and fisheries">Fisheries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_gender" title="Climate change and gender">Gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_human_health" title="Effects of climate change on human health">Health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_mental_health" title="Effects of climate change on mental health">Mental health</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_and_climate_change" title="Human rights and climate change">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_Indigenous_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change and Indigenous peoples">Indigenous peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases" title="Climate change and infectious diseases">Infectious diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_migration" title="Climate migration">Migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_poverty" title="Climate change and poverty">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_impact_of_climate_change" title="Psychological impact of climate change">Psychological impacts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_security" title="Climate security">Security and conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_flooding" title="Urban flooding">Urban flooding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">Water scarcity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_security" title="Water security">Water security</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Template:Climate_change_regions" title="Template:Climate change regions">By country and region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Africa" title="Climate change in Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Americas" title="Climate change in the Americas">Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Antarctica" title="Climate change in Antarctica">Antarctica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Arctic" title="Climate change in the Arctic">Arctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Asia" title="Climate change in Asia">Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Australia" title="Climate change in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Caribbean" title="Climate change in the Caribbean">Caribbean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Europe" title="Climate change in Europe">Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Middle_East_and_North_Africa" title="Climate change in the Middle East and North Africa">Middle East and North Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_small_island_countries" title="Effects of climate change on small island countries">Small island countries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Climate_change_by_country" title="Category:Climate change by country">by individual country</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Mitigation" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">Mitigation</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Economic_analysis_of_climate_change" title="Economic analysis of climate change">Economics and finance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_budget" title="Carbon budget">Carbon budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_emission_trading" title="Carbon emission trading">Carbon emission trading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_offsets_and_credits" title="Carbon offsets and credits">Carbon offsets and credits</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gold_Standard_(carbon_offset_standard)" title="Gold Standard (carbon offset standard)">Gold Standard (carbon offset standard)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_price" title="Carbon price">Carbon price</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_tax" title="Carbon tax">Carbon tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_debt" title="Climate debt">Climate debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_finance" title="Climate finance">Climate finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_risk_insurance" title="Climate risk insurance">Climate risk insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Co-benefits_of_climate_change_mitigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Co-benefits of climate change mitigation">Co-benefits of climate change mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_of_climate_change_mitigation" title="Economics of climate change mitigation">Economics of climate change mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_divestment" title="Fossil fuel divestment">Fossil fuel divestment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Climate_Fund" title="Green Climate Fund">Green Climate Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-carbon_economy" title="Low-carbon economy">Low-carbon economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_zero_emissions" class="mw-redirect" title="Net zero emissions">Net zero emissions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Energy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Carbon capture and storage">Carbon capture and storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_transition" title="Energy transition">Energy transition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_phase-out" title="Fossil fuel phase-out">Fossil fuel phase-out</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">Nuclear power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">Renewable energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_energy" title="Sustainable energy">Sustainable energy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Preserving and enhancing<br /> <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">carbon sinks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue_carbon" title="Blue carbon">Blue carbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_removal" title="Carbon dioxide removal">Carbon dioxide removal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">Carbon sequestration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_air_capture" title="Direct air capture">Direct air capture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_farming" title="Carbon farming">Carbon farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate-smart_agriculture" title="Climate-smart agriculture">Climate-smart agriculture</a></li> <li>Forest management <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afforestation" title="Afforestation">afforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration#Forestry" title="Carbon sequestration">forestry for carbon sequestration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/REDD_and_REDD%2B" title="REDD and REDD+">REDD and REDD+</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">reforestation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_use,_land-use_change,_and_forestry" title="Land use, land-use change, and forestry">Land use, land-use change, and forestry</a> (LULUCF and AFOLU)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature-based_solutions" title="Nature-based solutions">Nature-based solutions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Personal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Individual_action_on_climate_change" title="Individual action on climate change">Individual action on climate change</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant-based_diet" title="Plant-based diet">Plant-based diet</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Society_and_adaptation" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Society and <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">adaptation</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Business_action_on_climate_change" title="Business action on climate change">Business action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_action" title="Climate action">Climate action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_emergency_declaration" title="Climate emergency declaration">Climate emergency declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_movement" title="Climate movement">Climate movement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/School_Strike_for_Climate" class="mw-redirect" title="School Strike for Climate">School Strike for Climate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_denial" title="Climate change denial">Denial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_grief" title="Ecological grief">Ecological grief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_governance" title="Climate governance">Governance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_justice" title="Climate justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_litigation" title="Climate change litigation">Litigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change" title="Politics of climate change">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_opinion_on_climate_change" title="Public opinion on climate change">Public opinion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_climate_change" title="Women in climate change">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">Adaptation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation_strategies_on_the_German_coast" title="Climate change adaptation strategies on the German coast">Adaptation strategies on the German coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_capacity" title="Adaptive capacity">Adaptive capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disaster_risk_reduction" title="Disaster risk reduction">Disaster risk reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem-based_adaptation" title="Ecosystem-based adaptation">Ecosystem-based adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Flood control">Flood control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loss_and_damage_(climate_change)" title="Loss and damage (climate change)">Loss and damage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Managed_retreat" title="Managed retreat">Managed retreat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature-based_solutions" title="Nature-based solutions">Nature-based solutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_resilience" title="Climate resilience">Resilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_risk" title="Climate risk">Risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_vulnerability" title="Climate change vulnerability">Vulnerability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Adaptation_Fund" title="The Adaptation Fund">The Adaptation Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Adaptation_Programme_of_Action" title="National Adaptation Programme of Action">National Adaptation Programme of Action</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Climate_communication" title="Climate communication">Communication</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_Change_Performance_Index" title="Climate Change Performance Index">Climate Change Performance Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_crisis" title="Climate crisis">Climate crisis (term)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_spiral" title="Climate spiral">Climate spiral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_education" title="Climate change education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_coverage_of_climate_change" title="Media coverage of climate change">Media coverage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_popular_culture" title="Climate change in popular culture">Popular culture depictions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_art" title="Climate change art">art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_fiction" title="Climate fiction">fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_climate_change_video_games" class="mw-redirect" title="List of climate change video games">video games</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warming_stripes" title="Warming stripes">Warming stripes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">International agreements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glasgow_Climate_Pact" title="Glasgow Climate Pact">Glasgow Climate Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_Protocol" title="Kyoto Protocol">Kyoto Protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Agreement" title="Paris Agreement">Paris Agreement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cooperative_Mechanisms_under_Article_6_of_the_Paris_Agreement" title="Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement">Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationally_determined_contribution" title="Nationally determined contribution">Nationally determined contributions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goal_13" title="Sustainable Development Goal 13">Sustainable Development Goal 13</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change" title="United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change">United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Background_and_theory" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Background and theory</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Measurements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Global_surface_temperature" title="Global surface temperature">Global surface temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumental_temperature_record" class="mw-redirect" title="Instrumental temperature record">Instrumental temperature record</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proxy_(climate)" title="Proxy (climate)">Proxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_temperature_measurement" title="Satellite temperature measurement">Satellite temperature measurement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Theory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo">Albedo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_cycle" title="Carbon cycle">Carbon cycle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_carbon_cycle" title="Atmospheric carbon cycle">atmospheric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_pump" title="Biological pump">biologic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_carbon_cycle" title="Oceanic carbon cycle">oceanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permafrost_carbon_cycle" title="Permafrost carbon cycle">permafrost</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">Carbon sink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_sensitivity" title="Climate sensitivity">Climate sensitivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_variability_and_change" title="Climate variability and change">Climate variability and change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloud_feedback" title="Cloud feedback">Cloud feedback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloud_forcing" class="mw-redirect" title="Cloud forcing">Cloud forcing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fixed_anvil_temperature_hypothesis" title="Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis">Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryosphere" title="Cryosphere">Cryosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_energy_budget" title="Earth's energy budget">Earth's energy budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extreme_event_attribution" title="Extreme event attribution">Extreme event attribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_feedbacks" title="Climate change feedbacks">Feedbacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_warming_potential" title="Global warming potential">Global warming potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illustrative_model_of_greenhouse_effect_on_climate_change" title="Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change">Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_forcing" title="Orbital forcing">Orbital forcing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiative_forcing" title="Radiative forcing">Radiative forcing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Research and modelling</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_scenario" title="Climate change scenario">Climate change scenario</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_model" title="Climate model">Climate model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coupled_Model_Intercomparison_Project" title="Coupled Model Intercomparison Project">Coupled Model Intercomparison Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change" title="Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/IPCC_Sixth_Assessment_Report" title="IPCC Sixth Assessment Report">IPCC Sixth Assessment Report</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Paleoclimatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Representative_Concentration_Pathway" title="Representative Concentration Pathway">Representative Concentration Pathway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shared_Socioeconomic_Pathways" title="Shared Socioeconomic Pathways">Shared Socioeconomic Pathways</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Climate_change_icon.png/16px-Climate_change_icon.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Climate_change_icon.png/24px-Climate_change_icon.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Climate_change_icon.png/32px-Climate_change_icon.png 2x" data-file-width="1112" data-file-height="1056" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Climate_change" title="Portal:Climate change">Climate change portal</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Climate_change" title="Category:Climate change">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="List-Class article"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change" title="Glossary of climate change">Glossary</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="List-Class article"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Index_of_climate_change_articles" title="Index of climate change articles">Index</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 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