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<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decay_heat_and_fission_properties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5 Decay heat and fission properties </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decay_heat_and_fission_properties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Compounds_and_chemistry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Compounds_and_chemistry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.6 Compounds and chemistry </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Compounds_and_chemistry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Electronic_structure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electronic_structure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.6.1 Electronic structure </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electronic_structure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alloys" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alloys"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.7 Alloys </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alloys-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Occurrence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Occurrence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Occurrence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Occurrence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 History </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle History subsection </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Discovery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Discovery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Discovery </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Discovery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Early research </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Production_during_the_Manhattan_Project" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Production_during_the_Manhattan_Project"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Production during the Manhattan Project </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Production_during_the_Manhattan_Project-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trinity_and_Fat_Man_atomic_bombs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trinity_and_Fat_Man_atomic_bombs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Trinity and Fat Man atomic bombs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trinity_and_Fat_Man_atomic_bombs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cold_War_use_and_waste" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cold_War_use_and_waste"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Cold War use and waste </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cold_War_use_and_waste-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medical_experimentation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medical_experimentation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 Medical experimentation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medical_experimentation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Applications </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Applications-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Applications subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Explosives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Explosives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Explosives </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Explosives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mixed_oxide_fuel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mixed_oxide_fuel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Mixed oxide fuel </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mixed_oxide_fuel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Power_and_heat_source" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Power_and_heat_source"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Power and heat source </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Power_and_heat_source-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Precautions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Precautions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Precautions </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Precautions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Precautions subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Precautions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Toxicity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Toxicity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Toxicity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Toxicity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marine_toxicity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marine_toxicity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Marine toxicity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marine_toxicity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticality_potential" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticality_potential"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Criticality potential </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criticality_potential-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Flammability" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Flammability"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Flammability </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Flammability-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transportation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transportation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Transportation </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Transportation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Transportation subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Transportation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Land_and_sea" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Land_and_sea"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Land and sea </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Land_and_sea-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Air" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Air"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Air </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Air-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Notes </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Notes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Notes subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Footnotes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Footnotes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Footnotes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Footnotes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Plutonium</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 144 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-144" aria-hidden="true" > 144 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Plutonium" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Plutonium" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8D%95%E1%88%89%E1%89%B6%E1%8A%92%E1%8B%A8%E1%88%9D" title="ፕሉቶኒየም – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ፕሉቶኒየም" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE" title="प्लोटोनियम – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="प्लोटोनियम" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target">अंगिका</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%85" title="بلوتونيوم – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="بلوتونيوم" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutonio" title="Plutonio – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Plutonio" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-roa-rup mw-list-item"><a href="https://roa-rup.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutoniu" title="Plutoniu – Aromanian" lang="rup" hreflang="rup" data-title="Plutoniu" data-language-autonym="Armãneashti" data-language-local-name="Aromanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Armãneashti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutoniu" title="Plutoniu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Plutoniu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Plutonium" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%85" title="پلوتونیوم – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="پلوتونیوم" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Plutonium" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Bali</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE" title="প্লুটোনিয়াম – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="প্লুটোনিয়াম" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Plutonium" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Плутоний – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Плутоний" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%B9" title="Плутоній – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Плутоній" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD_(%D1%8D%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BC%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%82)" title="Плютон (элемэнт) – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Плютон (элемэнт)" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE" title="प्लुटोनियम – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="प्लुटोनियम" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Плутоний – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Плутоний" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%95%E0%BD%B4%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A3%E0%BD%B4%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%8A%E0%BD%BC%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%93%E0%BD%B2%E0%BD%98%E0%BC%8D" title="ཕུ་ལུ་ཊོ་ནིམ། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="ཕུ་ལུ་ཊོ་ནིམ།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target">བོད་ཡིག</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutonij" title="Plutonij – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Plutonij" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutoniom" title="Plutoniom – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Plutoniom" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutoni" title="Plutoni – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Plutoni" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Плутоний – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Плутоний" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutonyo" title="Plutonyo – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Plutonyo" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Plutonium" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutoniu" title="Plutoniu – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Plutoniu" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="Corsican" class="interlanguage-link-target">Corsu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plwtoniwm" title="Plwtoniwm – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Plwtoniwm" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Plutonium" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B7%D9%88%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%85" title="پلوطونيوم – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="پلوطونيوم" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Plutonium" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutoonium" title="Plutoonium – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Plutoonium" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%85%CF%84%CF%8E%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BF" title="Πλουτώνιο – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Πλουτώνιο" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutonio" title="Plutonio – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Plutonio" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutonio" title="Plutonio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Plutonio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutonio" title="Plutonio – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Plutonio" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%85" title="پلوتونیم – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پلوتونیم" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Plutonium" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Plutonium" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Plutonium" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutoanium" title="Plutoanium – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Plutoanium" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pl%C3%BAt%C3%B3iniam" title="Plútóiniam – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Plútóiniam" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Plutonium" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaelg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Plutonium" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutonio" title="Plutonio – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Plutonio" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%AA%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%B2%E0%AB%81%E0%AA%9F%E0%AB%8B%E0%AA%A8%E0%AB%80%E0%AA%AF%E0%AA%AE" title="પ્લુટોનીયમ – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="પ્લુટોનીયમ" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Plutonium" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xal mw-list-item"><a href="https://xal.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%83%D0%BC" title="Плутониум – Kalmyk" lang="xal" hreflang="xal" data-title="Плутониум" data-language-autonym="Хальмг" data-language-local-name="Kalmyk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Хальмг</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%94%8C%EB%A3%A8%ED%86%A0%EB%8A%84" title="플루토늄 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="플루토늄" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8A%D5%AC%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%BF%D5%B8%D5%B6%D5%AB%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4" title="Պլուտոնիում – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Պլուտոնիում" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE" title="प्लूटोनियम – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="प्लूटोनियम" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutonij" title="Plutonij – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Plutonij" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutonio" title="Plutonio – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Plutonio" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Plutonium" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Plutonium" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Плутоний – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Плутоний" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ирон</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/ImPulu" title="ImPulu – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="ImPulu" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiZulu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pl%C3%BAt%C3%B3n%C3%ADum" title="Plútóníum – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Plútóníum" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutonio" title="Plutonio – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Plutonio" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%98%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%95%D7%9D" title="פלוטוניום – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פלוטוניום" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Plutonium" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pl%CA%8At%C9%94n%C9%A9y%C9%94m" title="Plʊtɔnɩyɔm – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Plʊtɔnɩyɔm" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AA%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B2%E0%B3%81%E0%B2%9F%E0%B3%8B%E0%B2%A8%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%AE%E0%B3%8D" title="ಪ್ಲುಟೋನಿಯಮ್ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಪ್ಲುಟೋನಿಯಮ್" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9E%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="პლუტონიუმი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="პლუტონიუმი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Плутоний – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Плутоний" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutoniom" title="Plutoniom – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Plutoniom" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutoni" title="Plutoni – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Plutoni" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kv mw-list-item"><a href="https://kv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Плутоний – Komi" lang="kv" hreflang="kv" data-title="Плутоний" data-language-autonym="Коми" data-language-local-name="Komi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Коми</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plitony%C3%B2m" title="Plitonyòm – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Plitonyòm" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Плутоний – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Плутоний" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mrj mw-list-item"><a href="https://mrj.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Плутоний – Western Mari" lang="mrj" hreflang="mrj" data-title="Плутоний" data-language-autonym="Кырык мары" data-language-local-name="Western Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кырык мары</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Plutonium" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutonijs" title="Plutonijs – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Plutonijs" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Plutonium" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutonis" title="Plutonis – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Plutonis" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutonnio" title="Plutonnio – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Plutonnio" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ligure</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Plutonium" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-olo mw-list-item"><a href="https://olo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutonii" title="Plutonii – Livvi-Karelian" lang="olo" hreflang="olo" data-title="Plutonii" data-language-autonym="Livvinkarjala" data-language-local-name="Livvi-Karelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Livvinkarjala</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/jinmrplutoni" title="jinmrplutoni – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="jinmrplutoni" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="Lojban" class="interlanguage-link-target">La .lojban.</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutonio" title="Plutonio – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Plutonio" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plut%C3%B3nium" title="Plutónium – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Plutónium" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%83%D0%BC" title="Плутониум – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Плутониум" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%A3%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%82" title="പ്ലൂട്ടോണിയം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="പ്ലൂട്ടോണിയം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE" title="प्लुटोनियम – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="प्लुटोनियम" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%85" title="بلوتونيوم – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="بلوتونيوم" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Plutonium" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Plutonium" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8" title="Плутони – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Плутони" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%95%E1%80%9C%E1%80%B0%E1%80%90%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%94%E1%80%AE%E1%80%9A%E1%80%99%E1%80%BA" title="ပလူတိုနီယမ် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ပလူတိုနီယမ်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nah mw-list-item"><a href="https://nah.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mictl%C4%81nt%C4%93uctepoztli" title="Mictlāntēuctepoztli – Nahuatl" lang="nah" hreflang="nah" data-title="Mictlāntēuctepoztli" data-language-autonym="Nāhuatl" data-language-local-name="Nahuatl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nāhuatl</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Plutonium" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE" title="प्लुटोनियम – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="प्लुटोनियम" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%97%E3%83%AB%E3%83%88%E3%83%8B%E3%82%A6%E3%83%A0" title="プルトニウム – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="プルトニウム" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutoonium" title="Plutoonium – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Plutoonium" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Plutonium" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Plutonium" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plut%C3%B2ni" title="Plutòni – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Plutòni" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%AA%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%B2%E0%AD%81%E0%AC%9F%E0%AD%8B%E0%AC%A8%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%85%E0%AC%AE" title="ପ୍ଲୁଟୋନିଅମ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ପ୍ଲୁଟୋନିଅମ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target">ଓଡ଼ିଆ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutoniy" title="Plutoniy – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Plutoniy" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AA%E0%A8%B2%E0%A9%82%E0%A8%9F%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%A8%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%85%E0%A8%AE" title="ਪਲੂਟੋਨੀਅਮ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਪਲੂਟੋਨੀਅਮ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pi mw-list-item"><a href="https://pi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE" title="प्लुटोनियम – Pali" lang="pi" hreflang="pi" data-title="प्लुटोनियम" data-language-autonym="पालि" data-language-local-name="Pali" class="interlanguage-link-target">पालि</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%84%D9%88%D9%B9%D9%88%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%85" title="پلوٹونیم – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="پلوٹونیم" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%85" title="پلوتونيم – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="پلوتونيم" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plut%C3%B2ni" title="Plutòni – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Plutòni" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Plutonium" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluton_(pierwiastek)" title="Pluton (pierwiastek) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Pluton (pierwiastek)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plut%C3%B3nio" title="Plutónio – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Plutónio" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutoniu" title="Plutoniu – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Plutoniu" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulutunyu" title="Pulutunyu – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Pulutunyu" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Плутоний – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Плутоний" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%83%D0%BC" title="Плутониум – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Плутониум" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE" title="प्लुटोनियम – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="प्लुटोनियम" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plut%C3%B2niu" title="Plutòniu – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Plutòniu" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Plutonium" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Seeltersk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutoni_(element_kimik)" title="Plutoni (element kimik) – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Plutoni (element kimik)" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutoniu" title="Plutoniu – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Plutoniu" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Plutonium" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%84%D9%88%D9%BD%D9%88%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%85" title="پلوٽونيم – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="پلوٽونيم" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plut%C3%B3nium" title="Plutónium – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Plutónium" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutonij" title="Plutonij – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Plutonij" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%84%D9%88%D9%88%D8%AA%DB%86%D9%86%DB%8C%DB%86%D9%85" title="پلووتۆنیۆم – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="پلووتۆنیۆم" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%98%D1%83%D0%BC" title="Плутонијум – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Плутонијум" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutonijum" title="Plutonijum – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Plutonijum" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Plutonium" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Plutonium" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutonyo" title="Plutonyo – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Plutonyo" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="புளுட்டோனியம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="புளுட்டோனியம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Плутоний – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Плутоний" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AA%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B2%E0%B1%82%E0%B0%9F%E0%B1%8B%E0%B0%A8%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%82" title="ప్లూటోనియం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="ప్లూటోనియం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B9%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%97%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%A1" title="พลูโทเนียม – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="พลูโทเนียม" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Плутоний – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Плутоний" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chr mw-list-item"><a href="https://chr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8F%A1%E1%8F%99%E1%8F%82%E1%8E%A5%E1%8E%BB" title="ᏡᏙᏂᎥᎻ – Cherokee" lang="chr" hreflang="chr" data-title="ᏡᏙᏂᎥᎻ" data-language-autonym="ᏣᎳᎩ" data-language-local-name="Cherokee" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᏣᎳᎩ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pl%C3%BCtonyum" title="Plütonyum – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Plütonyum" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a 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For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Plutonium_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Plutonium (disambiguation)">Plutonium (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Polonium" title="Polonium">Polonium</a>.</div> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Chemical element with atomic number 94 (Pu)</div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1158442001">body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data>.wikitable,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox .periodictable{display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data{width:calc(100% - 20px)}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data>div{max-width:100%;overflow:auto}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox caption{display:table-caption}</style><table class="infobox"><caption class="infobox-title">Plutonium, 94Pu</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Plutonium_ring.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Two shiny pellets of plutonium of about 3 cm in diameter" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Plutonium_ring.jpg/220px-Plutonium_ring.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Plutonium_ring.jpg/330px-Plutonium_ring.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Plutonium_ring.jpg/440px-Plutonium_ring.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1295" data-file-height="1231" /></a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color:inherit; background:#9bff99">Plutonium</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Pronunciation</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/pluːˈtoʊniəm/</a> (<a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key">ploo-TOH-nee-əm</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Allotropy" title="Allotropy">Allotropes</a></th><td class="infobox-data">see <a href="/wiki/Allotropes_of_plutonium" title="Allotropes of plutonium">Allotropes of plutonium</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Appearance</th><td class="infobox-data">silvery white, tarnishing to dark gray in air</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Mass_number" title="Mass number">Mass number</a></th><td class="infobox-data">[244]</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color:inherit; background:#9bff99">Plutonium in the <a href="/wiki/Periodic_table" title="Periodic table">periodic table</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; margin:0; background:#f8f8f8; color:black;"> <tbody><tr> <td> <table class="periodictable" style="margin:0 auto"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:none; width:5px"><div style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit; margin:0; padding:0; text-align:center; border:none;"> <table style="empty-cells:hidden; border:none; padding:0; border-spacing:1px; border-collapse:separate; margin:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">Hydrogen</a> </td> <td colspan="30" style="border:none;padding:0;"> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">Helium</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Lithium" title="Lithium">Lithium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Beryllium" title="Beryllium">Beryllium</a> </td> <td colspan="24" style="border:none;padding:0;"> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Boron" title="Boron">Boron</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">Carbon</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">Nitrogen</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">Oxygen</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Fluorine" title="Fluorine">Fluorine</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Neon" title="Neon">Neon</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium">Sodium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">Magnesium</a> </td> <td colspan="24" style="border:none;padding:0;"> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium">Aluminium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">Silicon</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus">Phosphorus</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">Sulfur</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine">Chlorine</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Argon" title="Argon">Argon</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Potassium" title="Potassium">Potassium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">Calcium</a> </td> <td colspan="14" style="border:none;padding:0;"> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Scandium" title="Scandium">Scandium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Titanium" title="Titanium">Titanium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Vanadium" title="Vanadium">Vanadium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Chromium" title="Chromium">Chromium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Manganese" title="Manganese">Manganese</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">Iron</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Cobalt" title="Cobalt">Cobalt</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">Nickel</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">Copper</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">Zinc</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Gallium" title="Gallium">Gallium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium">Germanium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Arsenic" title="Arsenic">Arsenic</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Selenium" title="Selenium">Selenium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Bromine" title="Bromine">Bromine</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Krypton" title="Krypton">Krypton</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Rubidium" title="Rubidium">Rubidium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Strontium" title="Strontium">Strontium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;; width:0;"> </td> <td colspan="13" style="border:none;padding:0;"> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Yttrium" title="Yttrium">Yttrium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Zirconium" title="Zirconium">Zirconium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Niobium" title="Niobium">Niobium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Molybdenum" title="Molybdenum">Molybdenum</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Technetium" title="Technetium">Technetium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Ruthenium" title="Ruthenium">Ruthenium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Rhodium" title="Rhodium">Rhodium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Palladium" title="Palladium">Palladium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">Silver</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Cadmium" title="Cadmium">Cadmium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Indium" title="Indium">Indium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">Tin</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Antimony" title="Antimony">Antimony</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Tellurium" title="Tellurium">Tellurium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Iodine" title="Iodine">Iodine</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Xenon" title="Xenon">Xenon</a> </td></tr> <tr style="border:none;padding:0;"> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Caesium" title="Caesium">Caesium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Barium" title="Barium">Barium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Lanthanum" title="Lanthanum">Lanthanum</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Cerium" title="Cerium">Cerium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Praseodymium" title="Praseodymium">Praseodymium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Neodymium" title="Neodymium">Neodymium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Promethium" title="Promethium">Promethium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Samarium" title="Samarium">Samarium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Europium" title="Europium">Europium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Gadolinium" title="Gadolinium">Gadolinium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Terbium" title="Terbium">Terbium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Dysprosium" title="Dysprosium">Dysprosium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Holmium" title="Holmium">Holmium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Erbium" title="Erbium">Erbium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Thulium" title="Thulium">Thulium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Ytterbium" title="Ytterbium">Ytterbium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Lutetium" title="Lutetium">Lutetium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Hafnium" title="Hafnium">Hafnium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Tantalum" title="Tantalum">Tantalum</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Tungsten" title="Tungsten">Tungsten</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Rhenium" title="Rhenium">Rhenium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Osmium" title="Osmium">Osmium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Iridium" title="Iridium">Iridium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Platinum" title="Platinum">Platinum</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">Gold</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">Mercury (element)</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Thallium" title="Thallium">Thallium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">Lead</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Bismuth" title="Bismuth">Bismuth</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Polonium" title="Polonium">Polonium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Astatine" title="Astatine">Astatine</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Radon" title="Radon">Radon</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Francium" title="Francium">Francium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Radium" title="Radium">Radium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Actinium" title="Actinium">Actinium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium">Thorium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Protactinium" title="Protactinium">Protactinium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">Uranium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Neptunium" title="Neptunium">Neptunium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Plutonium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Americium" title="Americium">Americium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Curium" title="Curium">Curium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Berkelium" title="Berkelium">Berkelium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Californium" title="Californium">Californium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Einsteinium" title="Einsteinium">Einsteinium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Fermium" title="Fermium">Fermium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Mendelevium" title="Mendelevium">Mendelevium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Nobelium" title="Nobelium">Nobelium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Lawrencium" title="Lawrencium">Lawrencium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Rutherfordium" title="Rutherfordium">Rutherfordium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Dubnium" title="Dubnium">Dubnium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Seaborgium" title="Seaborgium">Seaborgium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Bohrium" title="Bohrium">Bohrium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Hassium" title="Hassium">Hassium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Meitnerium" title="Meitnerium">Meitnerium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Darmstadtium" title="Darmstadtium">Darmstadtium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Roentgenium" title="Roentgenium">Roentgenium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Copernicium" title="Copernicium">Copernicium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Nihonium" title="Nihonium">Nihonium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Flerovium" title="Flerovium">Flerovium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Moscovium" title="Moscovium">Moscovium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Livermorium" title="Livermorium">Livermorium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Tennessine" title="Tennessine">Tennessine</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Oganesson" title="Oganesson">Oganesson</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> </div> </td> <td style="vertical-align:middle; text-align:center; font-size:90%; line-height:100%; width:10px; border:none;"><a href="/wiki/Samarium" title="Samarium">Sm</a> ↑ Pu ↓ — </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="nowrap" style="text-align:center; font-size:90%; line-height:100%; padding-top:0; padding-bottom:1px; border:none;"><a href="/wiki/Neptunium" title="Neptunium">neptunium</a> ← plutonium → <a href="/wiki/Americium" title="Americium">americium</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Atomic_number" title="Atomic number">Atomic number</a> (Z)</th><td class="infobox-data">94</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Group_(periodic_table)" title="Group (periodic table)">Group</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/F-block_groups" class="mw-redirect" title="F-block groups">f-block groups</a> (no number)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Period_(periodic_table)" title="Period (periodic table)">Period</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Period_7_element" title="Period 7 element">period 7</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Block_(periodic_table)" title="Block (periodic table)">Block</a></th><td class="infobox-data">  <a href="/wiki/Block_(periodic_table)#f-block" title="Block (periodic table)">f-block</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Electron_configuration" title="Electron configuration">Electron configuration</a></th><td class="infobox-data">[<a href="/wiki/Radon" title="Radon">Rn</a>] 5f6 7s2</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Electrons per shell</th><td class="infobox-data">2, 8, 18, 32, 24, 8, 2</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color:inherit; background:#9bff99">Physical properties</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Phase_(matter)" title="Phase (matter)">Phase</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style>at <a href="/wiki/Standard_temperature_and_pressure" title="Standard temperature and pressure">STP</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Solid" title="Solid">solid</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Melting_point" title="Melting point">Melting point</a></th><td class="infobox-data">912.5 <a href="/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin">K</a> (639.4 °C, 1182.9 °F) </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Boiling_point" title="Boiling point">Boiling point</a></th><td class="infobox-data">3505 K (3228 °C, 5842 °F) </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Density" title="Density">Density</a> (at 20° C)</th><td class="infobox-data">19.85 g/cm3 (239Pu)<a href="#cite_note-Arblaster_2018-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">when liquid (at <a href="/wiki/Melting_point" title="Melting point">m.p.</a>)</th><td class="infobox-data">16.63 g/cm3 </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Enthalpy_of_fusion" title="Enthalpy of fusion">Heat of fusion</a></th><td class="infobox-data">2.82 <a href="/wiki/Kilojoule_per_mole" class="mw-redirect" title="Kilojoule per mole">kJ/mol</a> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Enthalpy_of_vaporization" title="Enthalpy of vaporization">Heat of vaporization</a></th><td class="infobox-data">333.5 kJ/mol </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Molar_heat_capacity" title="Molar heat capacity">Molar heat capacity</a></th><td class="infobox-data">35.5 J/(mol·K) </td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/Vapor_pressure" title="Vapor pressure">Vapor pressure</a><div style="position:relative; margin:0 auto; padding:0; text-align:initial; width:-moz-fit-content;width:-webkit-fit-content;width:fit-content;"> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; font-size:90%; border-collapse:collapse; margin:0"> <tbody><tr> <th><abbr title="Pressure">P</abbr> (Pa) </th> <th>1 </th> <th>10 </th> <th>100 </th> <th>1 k </th> <th>10 k </th> <th>100 k </th></tr> <tr> <th>at <abbr title="Temperature">T</abbr> (K) </th> <td>1756 </td> <td>1953 </td> <td>2198 </td> <td>2511 </td> <td>2926 </td> <td>3499 </td></tr></tbody></table> </div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color:inherit; background:#9bff99">Atomic properties</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Oxidation_state" title="Oxidation state">Oxidation states</a></th><td class="infobox-data">common: +4 +2,<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">?</a> +3,<a href="#cite_note-GE28-2">[2]</a>, +5,<a href="#cite_note-GE28-2">[2]</a> +6,<a href="#cite_note-GE28-2">[2]</a> +7,<a href="#cite_note-GE28-2">[2]</a> +8</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Electronegativity" title="Electronegativity">Electronegativity</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Pauling scale: 1.28 </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Ionization_energy" title="Ionization energy">Ionization energies</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>1st: 584.7 kJ/mol </li><li> </li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Atomic_radius" title="Atomic radius">Atomic radius</a></th><td class="infobox-data">empirical: 159 <a href="/wiki/Picometre" title="Picometre">pm</a> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Covalent_radius" title="Covalent radius">Covalent radius</a></th><td class="infobox-data">187±1 pm </td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Plutonium_spectrum_visible.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Color lines in a spectral range" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Plutonium_spectrum_visible.png/240px-Plutonium_spectrum_visible.png" decoding="async" width="240" height="41" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Plutonium_spectrum_visible.png/360px-Plutonium_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Plutonium_spectrum_visible.png/480px-Plutonium_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure><a href="/wiki/Spectral_line" title="Spectral line">Spectral lines</a> of plutonium</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color:inherit; background:#9bff99">Other properties</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Natural occurrence</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Trace_radioisotope" title="Trace radioisotope">from decay</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Crystal_structure" title="Crystal structure">Crystal structure</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> <a href="/wiki/Monoclinic_crystal_system" title="Monoclinic crystal system">monoclinic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Pearson_symbol" title="Pearson symbol">mP16</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Lattice_constant" title="Lattice constant">Lattice constants</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="float:right;"><a href="/wiki/File:Monoclinic.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Monoclinic crystal structure for plutonium" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Monoclinic.svg/50px-Monoclinic.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="63" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Monoclinic.svg/75px-Monoclinic.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Monoclinic.svg/100px-Monoclinic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="114" data-file-height="143" /></a></div>a = 0.6183 nm b = 0.4822 nm c = 1.0964 nm β = 101.79° (at 20 °C)<a href="#cite_note-Arblaster_2018-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Coefficient_of_thermal_expansion" class="mw-redirect" title="Coefficient of thermal expansion">Thermal expansion</a></th><td class="infobox-data">49.6×10−6/K (at 20 °C)<a href="#cite_note-Arblaster_2018-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Thermal_conductivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal conductivity">Thermal conductivity</a></th><td class="infobox-data">6.74 W/(m⋅K) </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Electrical_resistivity_and_conductivity" title="Electrical resistivity and conductivity">Electrical resistivity</a></th><td class="infobox-data">1.460 µΩ⋅m (at 0 °C) </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Magnetism" title="Magnetism">Magnetic ordering</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Paramagnetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Paramagnetic">paramagnetic</a> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Young%27s_modulus" title="Young's modulus">Young's modulus</a></th><td class="infobox-data">96 GPa </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Shear_modulus" title="Shear modulus">Shear modulus</a></th><td class="infobox-data">43 GPa </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Speed_of_sound" title="Speed of sound">Speed of sound</a></th><td class="infobox-data">2260 <a href="/wiki/Metre_per_second" title="Metre per second">m/s</a> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Poisson%27s_ratio" title="Poisson's ratio">Poisson ratio</a></th><td class="infobox-data">0.21 </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/CAS_Registry_Number" title="CAS Registry Number">CAS Number</a></th><td class="infobox-data">7440-07-5 </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color:inherit; background:#9bff99">History</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Naming</th><td class="infobox-data">after <a href="/wiki/Dwarf_planet" title="Dwarf planet">dwarf planet</a> <a href="/wiki/Pluto" title="Pluto">Pluto</a>, itself named after <a href="/wiki/Classical_mythology" title="Classical mythology">classical</a> god of the underworld <a href="/wiki/Pluto_(mythology)" title="Pluto (mythology)">Pluto</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_chemical_element_discoveries" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of chemical element discoveries">Discovery</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Glenn_T._Seaborg" title="Glenn T. Seaborg">Glenn T. Seaborg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Wahl" title="Arthur Wahl">Arthur Wahl</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_W._Kennedy" title="Joseph W. Kennedy">Joseph W. Kennedy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edwin_McMillan" title="Edwin McMillan">Edwin McMillan</a> (1940–1941)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color:inherit; background:#9bff99"><a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_plutonium" title="Isotopes of plutonium">Isotopes of plutonium</a><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Infobox_plutonium_isotopes" title="Template:Infobox plutonium isotopes"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Infobox_plutonium_isotopes" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Infobox plutonium isotopes"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; border-collapse: collapse; margin: 0; padding: 0;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="3">Main isotopes<a href="#cite_note-NUBASE2020-3">[3]</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">Decay</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th> </th> <th style="padding: 0.1em;"><a href="/wiki/Natural_abundance" title="Natural abundance">abundance</a> </th> <th style="padding: 0.1em;"><a href="/wiki/Half-life" title="Half-life">half-life</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488">(t1/2) </th> <th style="padding: 0.1em;"><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay#Types_of_decay" title="Radioactive decay">mode</a> </th> <th style="padding: 0.1em;"><a href="/wiki/Decay_product" title="Decay product">product</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2" style="vertical-align: top;"><a href="/wiki/Plutonium-238" title="Plutonium-238">238Pu</a> </th> <td rowspan="2" colspan="1" style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Trace_radioisotope" title="Trace radioisotope">trace</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" colspan="1" style="vertical-align: top; text-align: right;">87.7 y<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagurnoPearlstein1981835_ff-4">[4]</a> </td> <td style="text-align: left; vertical-align: top;"><a href="/wiki/Alpha_decay" title="Alpha decay">α</a> </td> <td style="text-align: right; vertical-align: middle;"><a href="/wiki/Uranium-234" title="Uranium-234">234U</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left; vertical-align: top;"><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_fission" title="Spontaneous fission">SF</a> </td> <td style="text-align: right; vertical-align: middle;">– </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2" style="vertical-align: top;"><a href="/wiki/Plutonium-239" title="Plutonium-239">239Pu</a> </th> <td rowspan="2" colspan="1" style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center;">trace </td> <td rowspan="2" colspan="1" style="vertical-align: top; text-align: right;">2.411×104 y </td> <td style="text-align: left; vertical-align: top;">α </td> <td style="text-align: right; vertical-align: middle;"><a href="/wiki/Uranium-235" title="Uranium-235">235U</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left; vertical-align: top;">SF </td> <td style="text-align: right; vertical-align: middle;">– </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2" style="vertical-align: top;"><a href="/wiki/Plutonium-240" title="Plutonium-240">240Pu</a> </th> <td rowspan="2" colspan="1" style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center;">trace </td> <td rowspan="2" colspan="1" style="vertical-align: top; text-align: right;">6.561×103 y </td> <td style="text-align: left; vertical-align: top;">α </td> <td style="text-align: right; vertical-align: middle;"><a href="/wiki/Uranium-236" title="Uranium-236">236U</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left; vertical-align: top;">SF </td> <td style="text-align: right; vertical-align: middle;">– </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3" style="vertical-align: top;"><a href="/wiki/Plutonium-241" title="Plutonium-241">241Pu</a> </th> <td rowspan="3" colspan="1" style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_radioisotope" title="Synthetic radioisotope">synth</a> </td> <td rowspan="3" colspan="1" style="vertical-align: top; text-align: right;">14.329 y </td> <td style="text-align: left; vertical-align: top;"><a href="/wiki/Beta_minus_decay" class="mw-redirect" title="Beta minus decay">β−</a> </td> <td style="text-align: right; vertical-align: middle;"><a href="/wiki/Americium-241" title="Americium-241">241Am</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left; vertical-align: top;">α </td> <td style="text-align: right; vertical-align: middle;"><a href="/wiki/Uranium-237" class="mw-redirect" title="Uranium-237">237U</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left; vertical-align: top;">SF </td> <td style="text-align: right; vertical-align: middle;">– </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2" style="vertical-align: top;"><a href="/wiki/Plutonium-242" title="Plutonium-242">242Pu</a> </th> <td rowspan="2" colspan="1" style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center;">synth </td> <td rowspan="2" colspan="1" style="vertical-align: top; text-align: right;">3.75×105 y </td> <td style="text-align: left; vertical-align: top;">α </td> <td style="text-align: right; vertical-align: middle;"><a href="/wiki/Uranium-238" title="Uranium-238">238U</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left; vertical-align: top;">SF </td> <td style="text-align: right; vertical-align: middle;">– </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2" style="vertical-align: top;"><a href="/wiki/Plutonium-244" title="Plutonium-244">244Pu</a> </th> <td rowspan="2" colspan="1" style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center;">trace </td> <td rowspan="2" colspan="1" style="vertical-align: top; text-align: right;">8.00×107 y </td> <td style="text-align: left; vertical-align: top;">α </td> <td style="text-align: right; vertical-align: middle;"><a href="/wiki/Uranium-240" class="mw-redirect" title="Uranium-240">240U</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left; vertical-align: top;">SF </td> <td style="text-align: right; vertical-align: middle;">– </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below noprint" style="color:inherit; background:#9bff99"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Plutonium" title="Category:Plutonium">Category: Plutonium</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Infobox_plutonium" title="Template:Infobox plutonium">view</a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Infobox_plutonium" title="Template talk:Infobox plutonium">talk</a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Infobox_plutonium" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Infobox plutonium">edit</a></li></ul></div> | <a href="/wiki/List_of_data_references_for_chemical_elements" title="List of data references for chemical elements">references</a></td></tr></tbody></table> Plutonium is a <a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">chemical element</a>; it has <a href="/wiki/Chemical_symbol" title="Chemical symbol">symbol</a> Pu and <a href="/wiki/Atomic_number" title="Atomic number">atomic number</a> 94. It is a silvery-gray <a href="/wiki/Actinide" title="Actinide">actinide</a> <a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">metal</a> that <a href="/wiki/Tarnish" title="Tarnish">tarnishes</a> when exposed to air, and forms a dull coating <a href="/wiki/Plutonium(IV)_oxide" title="Plutonium(IV) oxide">when oxidized</a>. The element normally exhibits six <a href="/wiki/Allotrope" class="mw-redirect" title="Allotrope">allotropes</a> and four <a href="/wiki/Oxidation_state" title="Oxidation state">oxidation states</a>. It reacts with <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Halogen" title="Halogen">halogens</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a>. When exposed to moist air, it forms <a href="/wiki/Oxide" title="Oxide">oxides</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hydride" title="Hydride">hydrides</a> that can expand the sample up to 70% in volume, which in turn flake off as a powder that is <a href="/wiki/Pyrophoricity" title="Pyrophoricity">pyrophoric</a>. It is <a href="/wiki/Radioactive" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactive">radioactive</a> and can accumulate in <a href="/wiki/Bone" title="Bone">bones</a>, which makes the handling of plutonium dangerous. Plutonium was first synthesized and isolated in late 1940 and early 1941, by <a href="/wiki/Deuteron" class="mw-redirect" title="Deuteron">deuteron</a> bombardment of <a href="/wiki/Uranium-238" title="Uranium-238">uranium-238</a> in the 1.5-metre (60 in) <a href="/wiki/Cyclotron" title="Cyclotron">cyclotron</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley" title="University of California, Berkeley">University of California, Berkeley</a>. First, <a href="/wiki/Neptunium-238" class="mw-redirect" title="Neptunium-238">neptunium-238</a> (<a href="/wiki/Half-life" title="Half-life">half-life</a> 2.1 days) was synthesized, which then <a href="/wiki/Beta-decay" class="mw-redirect" title="Beta-decay">beta-decayed</a> to form the new element with atomic number 94 and atomic weight 238 (half-life 88 years). Since <a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">uranium</a> had been named after the planet <a href="/wiki/Uranus" title="Uranus">Uranus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neptunium" title="Neptunium">neptunium</a> after the planet <a href="/wiki/Neptune" title="Neptune">Neptune</a>, element 94 was named after <a href="/wiki/Pluto" title="Pluto">Pluto</a>, which at the time was also considered a planet. Wartime secrecy prevented the University of California team from publishing its discovery until 1948. Plutonium is the element with the highest atomic number known to occur in nature. Trace quantities arise in natural uranium deposits when uranium-238 captures neutrons emitted by decay of other uranium-238 atoms. The heavy isotope <a href="/wiki/Plutonium-244" title="Plutonium-244">plutonium-244</a> has a half-life long enough that extreme <a href="/wiki/Trace_element" title="Trace element">trace quantities</a> should have survived <a href="/wiki/Primordial_nuclide" title="Primordial nuclide">primordially</a> (from the Earth's formation) to the present, but so far experiments have not yet been sensitive enough to detect it. Both <a href="/wiki/Plutonium-239" title="Plutonium-239">plutonium-239</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plutonium-241" title="Plutonium-241">plutonium-241</a> are <a href="/wiki/Fissile" class="mw-redirect" title="Fissile">fissile</a>, meaning they can sustain a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_chain_reaction" title="Nuclear chain reaction">nuclear chain reaction</a>, leading to applications in <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">nuclear weapons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">nuclear reactors</a>. <a href="/wiki/Plutonium-240" title="Plutonium-240">Plutonium-240</a> has a high rate of <a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_fission" title="Spontaneous fission">spontaneous fission</a>, raising the <a href="/wiki/Neutron_flux" title="Neutron flux">neutron flux</a> of any sample containing it. The presence of plutonium-240 limits a plutonium sample's usability for weapons or its quality as reactor fuel, and the percentage of plutonium-240 determines its <a href="/wiki/Reactor-grade_plutonium" title="Reactor-grade plutonium">grade</a> (<a href="/wiki/Weapons-grade" class="mw-redirect" title="Weapons-grade">weapons-grade</a>, fuel-grade, or reactor-grade). <a href="/wiki/Plutonium-238" title="Plutonium-238">Plutonium-238</a> has a half-life of 87.7 years and emits <a href="/wiki/Alpha_particle" title="Alpha particle">alpha particles</a>. It is a heat source in <a href="/wiki/Radioisotope_thermoelectric_generator" title="Radioisotope thermoelectric generator">radioisotope thermoelectric generators</a>, which are used to power some <a href="/wiki/Spacecraft" title="Spacecraft">spacecraft</a>. Plutonium isotopes are expensive and inconvenient to separate, so particular isotopes are usually manufactured in specialized reactors. Producing plutonium in useful quantities for the first time was a major part of the <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a> during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> that developed the first atomic bombs. The <a href="/wiki/Fat_Man" title="Fat Man">Fat Man</a> bombs used in the <a href="/wiki/Trinity_(nuclear_test)" title="Trinity (nuclear test)">Trinity</a> <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear test">nuclear test</a> in July 1945, and in the <a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Nagasaki" class="mw-redirect" title="Bombing of Nagasaki">bombing of Nagasaki</a> in August 1945, had plutonium <a href="/wiki/Pit_(nuclear_weapon)" title="Pit (nuclear weapon)">cores</a>. <a href="/wiki/Human_radiation_experiments" title="Human radiation experiments">Human radiation experiments</a> studying plutonium were conducted without <a href="/wiki/Informed_consent" title="Informed consent">informed consent</a>, and several <a href="/wiki/Criticality_accident" title="Criticality accident">criticality accidents</a>, some lethal, occurred after the war. Disposal of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_waste" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear waste">plutonium waste</a> from <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_plant" title="Nuclear power plant">nuclear power plants</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_disarmament" title="Nuclear disarmament">dismantled nuclear weapons</a> built during the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_proliferation" title="Nuclear proliferation">nuclear-proliferation</a> and environmental concern. Other sources of <a href="/wiki/Plutonium_in_the_environment" title="Plutonium in the environment">plutonium in the environment</a> are <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fallout" title="Nuclear fallout">fallout</a> from many above-ground nuclear tests, which are now <a href="/wiki/Partial_Test_Ban_Treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="Partial Test Ban Treaty">banned</a>. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Characteristics">Characteristics</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Physical_properties">Physical properties</h3></div> Plutonium, like most metals, has a bright silvery appearance at first, much like <a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">nickel</a>, but it <a href="/wiki/Plutonium(IV)_oxide" title="Plutonium(IV) oxide">oxidizes</a> very quickly to a dull gray, though yellow and olive green are also reported.<a href="#cite_note-WISER-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> At <a href="/wiki/Room_temperature" title="Room temperature">room temperature</a> plutonium is in its <a href="/wiki/Allotropes_of_plutonium" title="Allotropes of plutonium">α (alpha) form</a>.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> This <a href="/wiki/Allotrope" class="mw-redirect" title="Allotrope">allotrope</a> is about as hard and brittle as <a href="/wiki/Cast_iron#Grey_cast_iron" title="Cast iron">gray cast iron</a>. When plutonium is <a href="/wiki/Alloy" title="Alloy">alloyed</a> with other metals, the high-temperature δ <a href="/wiki/Allotrope" class="mw-redirect" title="Allotrope">allotrope</a> is stabilized at room temperature,<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> making it soft and ductile. Unlike most metals, it is not a good conductor of <a href="/wiki/Thermal_conductivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal conductivity">heat</a> or <a href="/wiki/Electrical_conductivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical conductivity">electricity</a>. It has a low <a href="/wiki/Melting_point" title="Melting point">melting point</a> (640 °C, 1,184 °F) and an unusually high <a href="/wiki/Boiling_point" title="Boiling point">boiling point</a> (3,228 °C, 5,842 °F).<a href="#cite_note-WISER-5">[5]</a> This gives a large range of temperatures (over 2,500 kelvin wide) at which plutonium is liquid, but this range is neither the greatest among all actinides nor among all metals,<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> with neptunium theorized to have the greatest range in both instances. The low melting point as well as the reactivity of the native metal compared to the oxide leads to <a href="/wiki/Plutonium_oxide" class="mw-redirect" title="Plutonium oxide">plutonium oxides</a> being a preferred form for applications such as nuclear fission reactor fuel (<a href="/wiki/MOX-fuel" class="mw-redirect" title="MOX-fuel">MOX-fuel</a>). <a href="/wiki/Alpha_decay" title="Alpha decay">Alpha decay</a>, the release of a high-energy <a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">helium</a> nucleus, is the most common form of <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">radioactive decay</a> for plutonium.<a href="#cite_note-NNDC-11">[11]</a> A 5 kg mass of 239Pu contains about 12.5×1024 atoms. With a half-life of 24,100 years, about 11.5×1012 of its atoms decay each second by emitting a 5.157 <a href="/wiki/MeV" class="mw-redirect" title="MeV">MeV</a> alpha particle. This amounts to 9.68 watts of power. Heat produced by the deceleration of these alpha particles makes it warm to the touch.<a href="#cite_note-Heiserman1992-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> 238 Pu due to its much shorter <a href="/wiki/Half_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Half life">half life</a> heats up to much higher temperatures and glows red hot with <a href="/wiki/Blackbody_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Blackbody radiation">blackbody radiation</a> if left without external heating or cooling. This heat has been used in <a href="/wiki/Radioisotope_thermoelectric_generator" title="Radioisotope thermoelectric generator">radioisotope thermoelectric generators</a> (see below). The <a href="/wiki/Electrical_resistivity_and_conductivity" title="Electrical resistivity and conductivity">resistivity</a> of plutonium at room temperature is very high for a metal, and it gets even higher with lower temperatures, which is unusual for metals.<a href="#cite_note-Miner1968p544-14">[14]</a> This trend continues down to 100 <a href="/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin">K</a>, below which resistivity rapidly decreases for fresh samples.<a href="#cite_note-Miner1968p544-14">[14]</a> Resistivity then begins to increase with time at around 20 K due to radiation damage, with the rate dictated by the isotopic composition of the sample.<a href="#cite_note-Miner1968p544-14">[14]</a> Because of self-irradiation, a sample of plutonium <a href="/wiki/Fatigue_(material)" title="Fatigue (material)">fatigues</a> throughout its crystal structure, meaning the ordered arrangement of its atoms becomes disrupted by radiation with time.<a href="#cite_note-HeckerPlutonium-15">[15]</a> Self-irradiation can also lead to <a href="/wiki/Annealing_(metallurgy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Annealing (metallurgy)">annealing</a> which counteracts some of the fatigue effects as temperature increases above 100 K.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> Unlike most materials, plutonium increases in density when it melts, by 2.5%, but the liquid metal exhibits a linear decrease in density with temperature.<a href="#cite_note-Miner1968p544-14">[14]</a> Near the melting point, the liquid plutonium has very high <a href="/wiki/Viscosity" title="Viscosity">viscosity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Surface_tension" title="Surface tension">surface tension</a> compared to other metals.<a href="#cite_note-HeckerPlutonium-15">[15]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Allotropes">Allotropes</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Allotropes_of_plutonium" title="Allotropes of plutonium">Allotropes of plutonium</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plutonium_density-eng.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A graph showing change in density with increasing temperature upon sequential phase transitions between alpha, beta, gamma, delta, delta' and epsilon phases" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Plutonium_density-eng.svg/260px-Plutonium_density-eng.svg.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Plutonium_density-eng.svg/390px-Plutonium_density-eng.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Plutonium_density-eng.svg/520px-Plutonium_density-eng.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1611" data-file-height="1153" /></a><figcaption>Plutonium has six allotropes at ambient pressure: alpha (α), beta (β), gamma (γ), delta (δ), delta prime (δ'), and epsilon (ε).<a href="#cite_note-Baker1983-17">[17]</a></figcaption></figure> Plutonium normally has six <a href="/wiki/Allotrope" class="mw-redirect" title="Allotrope">allotropes</a> and forms a seventh (zeta, ζ) at high temperature within a limited pressure range.<a href="#cite_note-Baker1983-17">[17]</a> These allotropes, which are different structural modifications or forms of an element, have very similar <a href="/wiki/Internal_energy" title="Internal energy">internal energies</a> but significantly varying <a href="/wiki/Density" title="Density">densities</a> and <a href="/wiki/Crystal_structure" title="Crystal structure">crystal structures</a>. This makes plutonium very sensitive to changes in temperature, pressure, or chemistry, and allows for dramatic volume changes following <a href="/wiki/Phase_transition" title="Phase transition">phase transitions</a> from one allotropic form to another.<a href="#cite_note-HeckerPlutonium-15">[15]</a> The densities of the different allotropes vary from 16.00 g/cm3 to 19.86 g/cm3.<a href="#cite_note-CRC2006p4-27-18">[18]</a> The presence of these many allotropes makes machining plutonium very difficult, as it changes state very readily. For example, the α form exists at room temperature in unalloyed plutonium. It has machining characteristics similar to <a href="/wiki/Cast_iron" title="Cast iron">cast iron</a> but changes to the plastic and malleable β (beta) form at slightly higher temperatures.<a href="#cite_note-Miner1968p542-19">[19]</a> The reasons for the complicated phase diagram are not entirely understood. The α form has a low-symmetry <a href="/wiki/Monoclinic_crystal_system" title="Monoclinic crystal system">monoclinic</a> structure, hence its brittleness, strength, compressibility, and poor thermal conductivity.<a href="#cite_note-Baker1983-17">[17]</a> Plutonium in the δ (delta) form normally exists in the 310 °C to 452 °C range but is stable at room temperature when alloyed with a small percentage of <a href="/wiki/Gallium" title="Gallium">gallium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium">aluminium</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Cerium" title="Cerium">cerium</a>, enhancing workability and allowing it to be <a href="/wiki/Welding" title="Welding">welded</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Miner1968p542-19">[19]</a> The δ form has more typical metallic character, and is roughly as strong and malleable as aluminium.<a href="#cite_note-Baker1983-17">[17]</a> In fission weapons, the explosive <a href="/wiki/Shock_wave" title="Shock wave">shock waves</a> used to compress a plutonium core will also cause a transition from the usual δ phase plutonium to the denser α form, significantly helping to achieve <a href="/wiki/Supercriticality" class="mw-redirect" title="Supercriticality">supercriticality</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The ε phase, the highest temperature solid allotrope, exhibits anomalously high atomic <a href="/wiki/Self-diffusion" title="Self-diffusion">self-diffusion</a> compared to other elements.<a href="#cite_note-HeckerPlutonium-15">[15]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nuclear_fission">Nuclear fission</h3></div> Plutonium is a radioactive <a href="/wiki/Actinide" title="Actinide">actinide</a> metal whose <a href="/wiki/Isotope" title="Isotope">isotope</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plutonium-239" title="Plutonium-239">plutonium-239</a>, is one of the three primary <a href="/wiki/Fissile" class="mw-redirect" title="Fissile">fissile</a> isotopes (<a href="/wiki/Uranium-233" title="Uranium-233">uranium-233</a> and <a href="/wiki/Uranium-235" title="Uranium-235">uranium-235</a> are the other two); <a href="/wiki/Plutonium-241" title="Plutonium-241">plutonium-241</a> is also highly fissile. To be considered fissile, an isotope's <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">atomic nucleus</a> must be able to break apart or <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">fission</a> when struck by a <a href="/wiki/Neutron_temperature" title="Neutron temperature">slow moving neutron</a> and to release enough additional neutrons to sustain the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_chain_reaction" title="Nuclear chain reaction">nuclear chain reaction</a> by splitting further nuclei.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> Pure plutonium-239 may have a <a href="/wiki/Four_factor_formula" title="Four factor formula">multiplication factor</a> (keff) larger than one, which means that if the metal is present in sufficient quantity and with an appropriate geometry (e.g., a sphere of sufficient size), it can form a <a href="/wiki/Critical_mass" title="Critical mass">critical mass</a>.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> During fission, a fraction of the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_binding_energy" title="Nuclear binding energy">nuclear binding energy</a>, which holds a nucleus together, is released as a large amount of <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">electromagnetic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kinetic_energy" title="Kinetic energy">kinetic energy</a> (much of the latter being quickly converted to thermal energy). Fission of a kilogram of plutonium-239 can produce an explosion equivalent to 21,000 <a href="/wiki/TNT_equivalent" title="TNT equivalent">tons of TNT</a> (88,000 <a href="/wiki/Gigajoule" class="mw-redirect" title="Gigajoule">GJ</a>). It is this energy that makes plutonium-239 useful in <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">nuclear weapons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">reactors</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Heiserman1992-12">[12]</a> The presence of the isotope <a href="/wiki/Plutonium-240" title="Plutonium-240">plutonium-240</a> in a sample limits its nuclear bomb potential, as 240Pu has a relatively high <a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_fission" title="Spontaneous fission">spontaneous fission</a> rate (~440 fissions per second per gram; over 1,000 neutrons per second per gram),<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> raising the background neutron levels and thus increasing the risk of <a href="/wiki/Fizzle_(nuclear_test)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fizzle (nuclear test)">predetonation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> Plutonium is identified as either <a href="/wiki/Weapons-grade" class="mw-redirect" title="Weapons-grade">weapons-grade</a>, fuel-grade, or reactor-grade based on the percentage of 240Pu that it contains. Weapons-grade plutonium contains less than 7% 240Pu. <a href="/wiki/Reactor-grade_plutonium" title="Reactor-grade plutonium">Fuel-grade plutonium</a> contains 7%–19%, and power reactor-grade contains 19% or more 240Pu. <a href="/wiki/Plutonium-239#Supergrade_plutonium" title="Plutonium-239">Supergrade plutonium</a>, with less than 4% of 240Pu, is used in <a href="/wiki/U.S._Navy" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Navy">U.S. Navy</a> weapons stored near ship and submarine crews, due to its lower radioactivity.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> <a href="/wiki/Plutonium-238" title="Plutonium-238">Plutonium-238</a> is not <a href="/wiki/Fissile#Fissile_vs_fissionable" class="mw-redirect" title="Fissile">fissile but can undergo nuclear fission</a> easily with <a href="/wiki/Fast_neutrons" class="mw-redirect" title="Fast neutrons">fast neutrons</a> as well as alpha decay.<a href="#cite_note-Heiserman1992-12">[12]</a> All plutonium isotopes can be "bred" into fissile material with one or more <a href="/wiki/Neutron_absorption" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutron absorption">neutron absorptions</a>, whether followed by <a href="/wiki/Beta_decay" title="Beta decay">beta decay</a> or not. This makes non-fissile isotopes of plutonium a <a href="/wiki/Fertile_material" title="Fertile material">fertile material</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Isotopes_and_nucleosynthesis">Isotopes and nucleosynthesis</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PuIsotopes.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A diagram illustrating the interconversions between various isotopes of uranium, thorium, protactinium and plutonium" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/PuIsotopes.svg/330px-PuIsotopes.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="257" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/PuIsotopes.svg/495px-PuIsotopes.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/PuIsotopes.svg/660px-PuIsotopes.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1341" data-file-height="1043" /></a><figcaption>Uranium-plutonium and thorium-uranium chains</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_plutonium" title="Isotopes of plutonium">Isotopes of plutonium</a></div> Twenty-two <a href="/wiki/Radioisotope" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioisotope">radioisotopes</a> of plutonium have been characterized, from 226Pu to 247Pu. The longest-lived are 244Pu, with a half-life of 80.8 million years; 242Pu, with a half-life of 373,300 years; and 239Pu, with a half-life of 24,110 years. All other isotopes have half-lives of less than 7,000 years. This element also has eight <a href="/wiki/Meta_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Meta state">metastable states</a>, though all have half-lives less than a second.<a href="#cite_note-NNDC-11">[11]</a> 244Pu has been found in interstellar space<a href="#cite_note-WallnerFaestermann2015-25">[25]</a> and it has the longest half-life of any non-primordial radioisotope. The main decay modes of isotopes with mass numbers lower than the most stable isotope, 244Pu, are spontaneous fission and <a href="/wiki/Alpha_emission" class="mw-redirect" title="Alpha emission">alpha emission</a>, mostly forming uranium (92 <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">protons</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Neptunium" title="Neptunium">neptunium</a> (93 protons) isotopes as <a href="/wiki/Decay_product" title="Decay product">decay products</a> (neglecting the wide range of daughter nuclei created by fission processes). The main decay mode for isotopes heavier than 244Pu, along with 241Pu and 243Pu, is <a href="/wiki/Beta_emission" class="mw-redirect" title="Beta emission">beta emission</a>, forming <a href="/wiki/Americium" title="Americium">americium</a> isotopes (95 protons). Plutonium-241 is the <a href="/wiki/Parent_isotope" class="mw-redirect" title="Parent isotope">parent isotope</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Neptunium_series" class="mw-redirect" title="Neptunium series">neptunium series</a>, decaying to americium-241 via beta emission.<a href="#cite_note-NNDC-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-p340-26">[26]</a> Plutonium-238 and 239 are the most widely synthesized isotopes.<a href="#cite_note-Heiserman1992-12">[12]</a> 239Pu is synthesized via the following reaction using uranium (U) and neutrons (n) via beta decay (β−) with neptunium (Np) as an intermediate:<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\ce {{^{238}_{92}U}+{^{1}_{0}n}->{^{239}_{92}U}->[\beta ^{-}][23.5\ {\ce {min}}]{^{239}_{93}Np}->[\beta ^{-}][2.3565\ {\ce {d}}]{^{239}_{94}Pu}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mmultiscripts> <mtext>U</mtext> <none /> <none /> <mprescripts /> <mn>92</mn> <mn>238</mn> </mmultiscripts> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mmultiscripts> <mtext>n</mtext> <none /> <none /> <mprescripts /> <mn>0</mn> <mn>1</mn> </mmultiscripts> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">⟶</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mmultiscripts> <mtext>U</mtext> <none /> <none /> <mprescripts /> <mn>92</mn> <mn>239</mn> </mmultiscripts> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-REL"> <munderover> <mo>→</mo> <mpadded width="+0.611em" lspace="0.278em" voffset="-.24em"> <mn>23.5</mn> <mtext> </mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>min</mtext> </mrow> </mpadded> <mpadded width="+0.611em" lspace="0.278em" voffset=".15em"> <msup> <mi>β</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> </mrow> </msup> </mpadded> </munderover> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mmultiscripts> <mtext>Np</mtext> <none /> <none /> <mprescripts /> <mn>93</mn> <mn>239</mn> </mmultiscripts> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-REL"> <munderover> <mo>→</mo> <mpadded width="+0.611em" lspace="0.278em" voffset="-.24em"> <mn>2.3565</mn> <mtext> </mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>d</mtext> </mrow> </mpadded> <mpadded width="+0.611em" lspace="0.278em" voffset=".15em"> <msup> <mi>β</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> </mrow> </msup> </mpadded> </munderover> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mmultiscripts> <mtext>Pu</mtext> <none /> <none /> <mprescripts /> <mn>94</mn> <mn>239</mn> </mmultiscripts> </mrow> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\ce {{^{238}_{92}U}+{^{1}_{0}n}->{^{239}_{92}U}->[\beta ^{-}][23.5\ {\ce {min}}]{^{239}_{93}Np}->[\beta ^{-}][2.3565\ {\ce {d}}]{^{239}_{94}Pu}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f9ba9e4744226a97ce8a41fd5b5e50b18cc259a9" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.828ex; margin-top: -0.415ex; margin-bottom: -0.51ex; width:47.717ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\ce {{^{238}_{92}U}+{^{1}_{0}n}->{^{239}_{92}U}->[\beta ^{-}][23.5\ {\ce {min}}]{^{239}_{93}Np}->[\beta ^{-}][2.3565\ {\ce {d}}]{^{239}_{94}Pu}}}}"></dd></dl> Neutrons from the fission of uranium-235 are <a href="/wiki/Neutron_capture" title="Neutron capture">captured</a> by uranium-238 nuclei to form uranium-239; a <a href="/wiki/Beta_decay" title="Beta decay">beta decay</a> converts a neutron into a proton to form neptunium-239 (half-life 2.36 days) and another beta decay forms plutonium-239.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood1997p1259-28">[28]</a> <a href="/wiki/Egon_Bretscher" title="Egon Bretscher">Egon Bretscher</a> working on the British <a href="/wiki/Tube_Alloys" title="Tube Alloys">Tube Alloys</a> project predicted this reaction theoretically in 1940.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClark1961124–125-29">[29]</a> Plutonium-238 is synthesized by bombarding uranium-238 with <a href="/wiki/Deuteron" class="mw-redirect" title="Deuteron">deuterons</a> (D or 2H, the nuclei of heavy <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a>) in the following reaction:<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\ce {{^{238}_{92}U}+{^{2}_{1}H}->}}&{\ce {{^{238}_{93}Np}+2_{0}^{1}n}}\\&{\ce {^{238}_{93}Np->[\beta ^{-}][2.117\ {\ce {d}}]{^{238}_{94}Pu}}}\end{aligned}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtable columnalign="right left right left right left right left right left right left" rowspacing="3pt" columnspacing="0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em" displaystyle="true"> <mtr> <mtd> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mmultiscripts> <mtext>U</mtext> <none /> <none /> <mprescripts /> <mn>92</mn> <mn>238</mn> </mmultiscripts> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mmultiscripts> <mtext>H</mtext> <none /> <none /> <mprescripts /> <mn>1</mn> <mn>2</mn> </mmultiscripts> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">⟶</mo> </mrow> </mtd> <mtd> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mmultiscripts> <mtext>Np</mtext> <none /> <none /> <mprescripts /> <mn>93</mn> <mn>238</mn> </mmultiscripts> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mn>2</mn> <msubsup> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> <mtext>n</mtext> </mrow> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd /> <mtd> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mmultiscripts> <mtext>Np</mtext> <none /> <none /> <mprescripts /> <mn>93</mn> <mn>238</mn> </mmultiscripts> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-REL"> <munderover> <mo>→</mo> <mpadded width="+0.611em" lspace="0.278em" voffset="-.24em"> <mn>2.117</mn> <mtext> </mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>d</mtext> </mrow> </mpadded> <mpadded width="+0.611em" lspace="0.278em" voffset=".15em"> <msup> <mi>β</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> </mrow> </msup> </mpadded> </munderover> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mmultiscripts> <mtext>Pu</mtext> <none /> <none /> <mprescripts /> <mn>94</mn> <mn>238</mn> </mmultiscripts> </mrow> </mrow> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\ce {{^{238}_{92}U}+{^{2}_{1}H}->}}&{\ce {{^{238}_{93}Np}+2_{0}^{1}n}}\\&{\ce {^{238}_{93}Np->[\beta ^{-}][2.117\ {\ce {d}}]{^{238}_{94}Pu}}}\end{aligned}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/01aef6133d1d81ba9a87860f7409d5d694dc0fa9" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.794ex; margin-bottom: -0.544ex; width:34.21ex; height:9.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\ce {{^{238}_{92}U}+{^{2}_{1}H}->}}&{\ce {{^{238}_{93}Np}+2_{0}^{1}n}}\\&{\ce {^{238}_{93}Np->[\beta ^{-}][2.117\ {\ce {d}}]{^{238}_{94}Pu}}}\end{aligned}}}"></dd></dl> where a deuteron hitting uranium-238 produces two neutrons and neptunium-238, which decays by emitting negative beta particles to form plutonium-238.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBernstein200776–77-31">[31]</a> Plutonium-238 can also be produced by <a href="/wiki/Neutron_irradiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutron irradiation">neutron irradiation</a> of <a href="/wiki/Neptunium-237" class="mw-redirect" title="Neptunium-237">neptunium-237</a>.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Decay_heat_and_fission_properties">Decay heat and fission properties</h3></div> Plutonium isotopes undergo radioactive decay, which produces <a href="/wiki/Decay_heat" title="Decay heat">decay heat</a>. Different isotopes produce different amounts of heat per mass. The decay heat is usually listed as watt/kilogram, or milliwatt/gram. In larger pieces of plutonium (e.g. a weapon pit) and inadequate heat removal the resulting self-heating may be significant. <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Decay heat of plutonium isotopes<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Isotope</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Decay_mode" class="mw-redirect" title="Decay mode">Decay mode</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Half-life" title="Half-life">Half-life</a> (years)</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Decay_heat" title="Decay heat">Decay heat</a> (W/kg)</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_fission" title="Spontaneous fission">Spontaneous fission</a> (SF) neutrons (1/(g·s))</th> <th>Comment </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Plutonium-238" title="Plutonium-238">238Pu</a> </th> <td>alpha (α) to <a href="/wiki/Uranium-234" title="Uranium-234">234U</a> </td> <td>87.74 </td> <td>560 </td> <td>2600 </td> <td>Very high decay heat. Even small amounts can cause significant self-heating. Used on its own in <a href="/wiki/Radioisotope_thermoelectric_generator" title="Radioisotope thermoelectric generator">radioisotope thermoelectric generators</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Plutonium-239" title="Plutonium-239">239Pu</a> </th> <td>α to <a href="/wiki/Uranium-235" title="Uranium-235">235U</a> </td> <td>24100 </td> <td>1.9 </td> <td>0.022 </td> <td>The main fissile isotope in use. </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Plutonium-240" title="Plutonium-240">240Pu</a> </th> <td>α to <a href="/wiki/Uranium-236" title="Uranium-236">236U</a>, SF </td> <td>6560 </td> <td>6.8 </td> <td>910 </td> <td>The main impurity in samples of 239Pu. The plutonium grade is usually listed as percentage of 240Pu. High rate of SF hinders use in nuclear weapons. </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Plutonium-241" title="Plutonium-241">241Pu</a> </th> <td>beta-minus, to <a href="/wiki/Americium-241" title="Americium-241">241Am</a> </td> <td>14.4 </td> <td>4.2 </td> <td>0.049 </td> <td>Decays to americium-241; its buildup presents a radiation hazard in older samples. </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Plutonium-242" title="Plutonium-242">242Pu</a> </th> <td>α to <a href="/wiki/Uranium-238" title="Uranium-238">238U</a> </td> <td>376000 </td> <td>0.1 </td> <td>1700 </td> <td>242Pu α-decays to 238U; also decays by SF. </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Compounds_and_chemistry">Compounds and chemistry</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Plutonium_compounds" title="Plutonium compounds">Plutonium compounds</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plutonium_in_solution.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Five fluids in glass test tubes: violet, Pu(III); dark brown, Pu(IV)HClO4; light purple, Pu(V); light brown, Pu(VI); dark green, Pu(VII)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Plutonium_in_solution.jpg/220px-Plutonium_in_solution.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Plutonium_in_solution.jpg/330px-Plutonium_in_solution.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Plutonium_in_solution.jpg/440px-Plutonium_in_solution.jpg 2x" data-file-width="602" data-file-height="470" /></a><figcaption>Various oxidation states of plutonium in solution</figcaption></figure> At room temperature, pure plutonium is silvery in color but gains a tarnish when oxidized.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> The element displays four common ionic <a href="/wiki/Oxidation_state" title="Oxidation state">oxidation states</a> in <a href="/wiki/Aqueous_solution" title="Aqueous solution">aqueous solution</a> and one rare one:<a href="#cite_note-CRC2006p4-27-18">[18]</a> <ul><li>Pu(III), as Pu3+ (blue lavender)</li> <li>Pu(IV), as Pu4+ (yellow brown)</li> <li>Pu(V), as PuO+ 2 (light pink)<a href="#cite_note-36">[note 1]</a></li> <li>Pu(VI), as PuO2+ 2 (pink orange)</li> <li>Pu(VII), as PuO3− 5 (green)—the heptavalent ion is rare.</li></ul> The color shown by plutonium solutions depends on both the oxidation state and the nature of the acid <a href="/wiki/Anion" class="mw-redirect" title="Anion">anion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-37">[36]</a> It is the acid anion that influences the degree of <a href="/wiki/Complex_(chemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Complex (chemistry)">complexing</a>—how atoms connect to a central atom—of the plutonium species. Additionally, the formal +2 oxidation state of plutonium is known in the complex [K(2.2.2-cryptand)] [PuIICp″3], Cp″ = C5H3(SiMe3)2.<a href="#cite_note-38">[37]</a> A +8 oxidation state is possible as well in the volatile tetroxide PuO 4.<a href="#cite_note-zaitsevskii-39">[38]</a> Though it readily decomposes via a reduction mechanism similar to FeO 4, PuO 4 can be stabilized in alkaline solutions and <a href="/wiki/Chloroform" title="Chloroform">chloroform</a>.<a href="#cite_note-40">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-zaitsevskii-39">[38]</a> Metallic plutonium is produced by reacting <a href="/wiki/Plutonium_tetrafluoride" title="Plutonium tetrafluoride">plutonium tetrafluoride</a> with <a href="/wiki/Barium" title="Barium">barium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">calcium</a> or <a href="/wiki/Lithium" title="Lithium">lithium</a> at 1200 °C.<a href="#cite_note-41">[40]</a> Metallic plutonium is attacked by <a href="/wiki/Acid" title="Acid">acids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a>, and steam but not by <a href="/wiki/Alkalis" class="mw-redirect" title="Alkalis">alkalis</a> and dissolves easily in concentrated <a href="/wiki/Hydrochloric_acid" title="Hydrochloric acid">hydrochloric</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hydroiodic_acid" title="Hydroiodic acid">hydroiodic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Perchloric_acid" title="Perchloric acid">perchloric acids</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Miner1968p545-42">[41]</a> Molten metal must be kept in a <a href="/wiki/Vacuum" title="Vacuum">vacuum</a> or an <a href="/wiki/Inert_atmosphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Inert atmosphere">inert atmosphere</a> to avoid reaction with air.<a href="#cite_note-Miner1968p542-19">[19]</a> At 135 °C the metal will ignite in air and will explode if placed in <a href="/wiki/Carbon_tetrachloride" title="Carbon tetrachloride">carbon tetrachloride</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Emsley2001-43">[42]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plutonium_pyrophoricity.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Black block of Pu with red spots on top and yellow powder around it" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Plutonium_pyrophoricity.jpg/220px-Plutonium_pyrophoricity.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Plutonium_pyrophoricity.jpg/330px-Plutonium_pyrophoricity.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Plutonium_pyrophoricity.jpg/440px-Plutonium_pyrophoricity.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2811" data-file-height="1883" /></a><figcaption>Plutonium <a href="/wiki/Pyrophoricity" title="Pyrophoricity">pyrophoricity</a> can cause it to look like a glowing ember under certain conditions.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:96602765.lowres.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Glass vial of brownish-white snow-like precipitation of plutonium hydroxide" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/96602765.lowres.jpeg/170px-96602765.lowres.jpeg" decoding="async" width="170" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/96602765.lowres.jpeg/255px-96602765.lowres.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/96602765.lowres.jpeg/340px-96602765.lowres.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="594" data-file-height="732" /></a><figcaption>Twenty micrograms of pure plutonium hydroxide</figcaption></figure> Plutonium is a reactive metal. In moist air or moist <a href="/wiki/Argon" title="Argon">argon</a>, the metal oxidizes rapidly, producing a mixture of <a href="/wiki/Oxide" title="Oxide">oxides</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hydride" title="Hydride">hydrides</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WISER-5">[5]</a> If the metal is exposed long enough to a limited amount of water vapor, a powdery surface coating of <a href="/wiki/Plutonium(IV)_oxide" title="Plutonium(IV) oxide">PuO2</a> is formed.<a href="#cite_note-WISER-5">[5]</a> Also formed is <a href="/wiki/Plutonium_hydride" title="Plutonium hydride">plutonium hydride</a> but an excess of water vapor forms only PuO2.<a href="#cite_note-Miner1968p545-42">[41]</a> Plutonium shows enormous, and reversible, reaction rates with pure hydrogen, forming <a href="/wiki/Plutonium_hydride" title="Plutonium hydride">plutonium hydride</a>.<a href="#cite_note-HeckerPlutonium-15">[15]</a> It also reacts readily with oxygen, forming PuO and PuO2 as well as intermediate oxides; plutonium oxide fills 40% more volume than plutonium metal. The metal reacts with the <a href="/wiki/Halogen" title="Halogen">halogens</a>, giving rise to <a href="/wiki/Chemical_compound" title="Chemical compound">compounds</a> with the general formula PuX3 where X can be <a href="/wiki/Plutonium(III)_fluoride" title="Plutonium(III) fluoride">F</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plutonium(III)_chloride" title="Plutonium(III) chloride">Cl</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plutonium(III)_bromide" title="Plutonium(III) bromide">Br</a> or I and <a href="/wiki/Plutonium_tetrafluoride" title="Plutonium tetrafluoride">PuF4</a> is also seen. The following oxyhalides are observed: PuOCl, PuOBr and PuOI. It will react with carbon to form <a href="/wiki/Plutonium_carbide" title="Plutonium carbide">PuC</a>, nitrogen to form <a href="/wiki/Plutonium_nitride" title="Plutonium nitride">PuN</a> and <a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</a> to form PuSi2.<a href="#cite_note-CRC2006p4-27-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-Emsley2001-43">[42]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Organometallic_chemistry" title="Organometallic chemistry">organometallic</a> chemistry of plutonium complexes is typical for <a href="/wiki/Organoactinide_chemistry" title="Organoactinide chemistry">organoactinide</a> species; a characteristic example of an organoplutonium compound is <a href="/wiki/Plutonocene" title="Plutonocene">plutonocene</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood1997p1259-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-Apostolidis-2017-44">[43]</a> Computational chemistry methods indicate an enhanced <a href="/wiki/Covalent_bond" title="Covalent bond">covalent</a> character in the plutonium-ligand bonding.<a href="#cite_note-HeckerPlutonium-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-Apostolidis-2017-44">[43]</a> Powders of plutonium, its hydrides and certain oxides like Pu2O3 are <a href="/wiki/Pyrophoricity" title="Pyrophoricity">pyrophoric</a>, meaning they can ignite spontaneously at ambient temperature and are therefore handled in an inert, dry atmosphere of nitrogen or argon. Bulk plutonium ignites only when heated above 400 °C. Pu2O3 spontaneously heats up and transforms into PuO2, which is stable in dry air, but reacts with water vapor when heated.<a href="#cite_note-NucSafety-45">[44]</a> <a href="/wiki/Crucible" title="Crucible">Crucibles</a> used to contain plutonium need to be able to withstand its strongly <a href="/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">reducing</a> properties. <a href="/wiki/Refractory_metals" title="Refractory metals">Refractory metals</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Tantalum" title="Tantalum">tantalum</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tungsten" title="Tungsten">tungsten</a> along with the more stable oxides, <a href="/wiki/Boride" title="Boride">borides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carbide" title="Carbide">carbides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nitride" title="Nitride">nitrides</a> and <a href="/wiki/Silicide" title="Silicide">silicides</a> can tolerate this. Melting in an <a href="/wiki/Electric_arc_furnace" title="Electric arc furnace">electric arc furnace</a> can be used to produce small ingots of the metal without the need for a crucible.<a href="#cite_note-Miner1968p542-19">[19]</a> <a href="/wiki/Cerium" title="Cerium">Cerium</a> is used as a chemical simulant of plutonium for development of containment, extraction, and other technologies.<a href="#cite_note-46">[45]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Electronic_structure">Electronic structure</h4></div> Plutonium is an element in which the <a href="/wiki/F_shell" class="mw-redirect" title="F shell">5f electrons</a> are the transition border between delocalized and localized; it is therefore considered one of the most complex elements.<a href="#cite_note-physicsworld.com-47">[46]</a> The anomalous behavior of plutonium is caused by its electronic structure. The energy difference between the 6d and 5f subshells is very low. The size of the 5f shell is just enough to allow the electrons to form bonds within the lattice, on the very boundary between localized and bonding behavior. The proximity of energy levels leads to multiple low-energy electron configurations with near equal energy levels. This leads to competing 5fn7s2 and 5fn−16d17s2 configurations, which causes the complexity of its chemical behavior. The highly directional nature of 5f orbitals is responsible for directional covalent bonds in molecules and complexes of plutonium.<a href="#cite_note-HeckerPlutonium-15">[15]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alloys">Alloys</h3></div> Plutonium can form alloys and intermediate compounds with most other metals. Exceptions include lithium, <a href="/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium">sodium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Potassium" title="Potassium">potassium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rubidium" title="Rubidium">rubidium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Caesium" title="Caesium">caesium</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Alkali_metal" title="Alkali metal">alkali metals</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">magnesium</a>, calcium, <a href="/wiki/Strontium" title="Strontium">strontium</a>, and barium of the <a href="/wiki/Alkaline_earth_metal" title="Alkaline earth metal">alkaline earth metals</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Europium" title="Europium">europium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ytterbium" title="Ytterbium">ytterbium</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Rare_earth_metal" class="mw-redirect" title="Rare earth metal">rare earth metals</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Miner1968p545-42">[41]</a> Partial exceptions include the refractory metals <a href="/wiki/Chromium" title="Chromium">chromium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Molybdenum" title="Molybdenum">molybdenum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Niobium" title="Niobium">niobium</a>, tantalum, and tungsten, which are soluble in liquid plutonium, but insoluble or only slightly soluble in solid plutonium.<a href="#cite_note-Miner1968p545-42">[41]</a> Gallium, aluminium, americium, <a href="/wiki/Scandium" title="Scandium">scandium</a> and cerium can stabilize δ-phase plutonium for room temperature. <a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">Silicon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indium" title="Indium">indium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">zinc</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zirconium" title="Zirconium">zirconium</a> allow formation of metastable δ state when rapidly cooled. High amounts of <a href="/wiki/Hafnium" title="Hafnium">hafnium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Holmium" title="Holmium">holmium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thallium" title="Thallium">thallium</a> also allows some retention of the δ phase at room temperature. Neptunium is the only element that can stabilize the α phase at higher temperatures.<a href="#cite_note-HeckerPlutonium-15">[15]</a> Plutonium alloys can be produced by adding a metal to molten plutonium. If the alloying metal is reductive enough, plutonium can be added in the form of oxides or halides. The δ phase <a href="/wiki/Plutonium%E2%80%93gallium_alloy" title="Plutonium–gallium alloy">plutonium–gallium alloy</a> (PGA) and plutonium–aluminium alloy are produced by adding Pu(III) fluoride to molten gallium or aluminium, which has the advantage of avoiding dealing directly with the highly reactive plutonium metal.<a href="#cite_note-48">[47]</a> <ul><li>PGA is used for stabilizing the δ phase of plutonium, avoiding the α-phase and α–δ related issues. Its main use is in <a href="/wiki/Pit_(nuclear_weapon)" title="Pit (nuclear weapon)">pits</a> of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_design" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear weapons design">implosion bombs</a>.<a href="#cite_note-49">[48]</a></li> <li>Plutonium–aluminium is an alternative to PGA. It was the original element considered for δ phase stabilization, but its tendency to react with the alpha particles and release neutrons reduces its usability for nuclear weapons. Plutonium–aluminium alloy can be also used as a component of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fuel" title="Nuclear fuel">nuclear fuel</a>.<a href="#cite_note-50">[49]</a></li> <li>Plutonium–gallium–cobalt alloy (PuCoGa5) is an <a href="/wiki/Unconventional_superconductor" title="Unconventional superconductor">unconventional superconductor</a>, showing superconductivity below 18.5 K, an order of magnitude higher than the highest between <a href="/wiki/Heavy_fermion" class="mw-redirect" title="Heavy fermion">heavy fermion</a> systems, and has large critical current.<a href="#cite_note-physicsworld.com-47">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-51">[50]</a></li> <li>Plutonium–zirconium alloy can be used as <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fuel" title="Nuclear fuel">nuclear fuel</a>.<a href="#cite_note-52">[51]</a></li> <li>Plutonium–cerium and plutonium–cerium–cobalt alloys are used as nuclear fuels.<a href="#cite_note-53">[52]</a></li> <li>Plutonium–uranium, with about 15–30 mol.% plutonium, can be used as a nuclear fuel for fast breeder reactors. Its <a href="/wiki/Pyrophoric" class="mw-redirect" title="Pyrophoric">pyrophoric</a> nature and high susceptibility to corrosion to the point of self-igniting or disintegrating after exposure to air require alloying with other components. Addition of aluminium, carbon or copper does not improve disintegration rates markedly, zirconium and iron alloys have better corrosion resistance but they disintegrate in several months in air as well. Addition of titanium and/or zirconium significantly increases the melting point of the alloy.<a href="#cite_note-Pu1965-54">[53]</a></li> <li>Plutonium–uranium–titanium and plutonium–uranium–zirconium were investigated for use as nuclear fuels. The addition of the third element increases corrosion resistance, reduces flammability, and improves ductility, fabricability, strength, and thermal expansion. Plutonium–uranium–molybdenum has the best corrosion resistance, forming a protective film of oxides, but titanium and zirconium are preferred for physics reasons.<a href="#cite_note-Pu1965-54">[53]</a></li> <li>Thorium–uranium–plutonium was investigated as a nuclear fuel for fast breeder reactors.<a href="#cite_note-Pu1965-54">[53]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Occurrence">Occurrence</h2></div> Trace amounts of plutonium-238, plutonium-239, plutonium-240, and plutonium-244 can be found in nature. Small traces of plutonium-239, a few <a href="/wiki/Parts_per_notation" class="mw-redirect" title="Parts per notation">parts per trillion</a>, and its decay products are naturally found in some concentrated ores of uranium,<a href="#cite_note-Miner1968p541-55">[54]</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Natural_nuclear_fission_reactor" title="Natural nuclear fission reactor">natural nuclear fission reactor</a> in <a href="/wiki/Oklo" title="Oklo">Oklo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gabon" title="Gabon">Gabon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-56">[55]</a> The ratio of plutonium-239 to uranium at the <a href="/wiki/Cigar_Lake_Mine" class="mw-redirect" title="Cigar Lake Mine">Cigar Lake Mine</a> uranium deposit ranges from 2.4×10−12 to 44×10−12.<a href="#cite_note-Cigar-57">[56]</a> These trace amounts of 239Pu originate in the following fashion: on rare occasions, 238U undergoes spontaneous fission, and in the process, the nucleus emits one or two free neutrons with some kinetic energy. When one of these neutrons strikes the nucleus of another 238U atom, it is absorbed by the atom, which becomes 239U. With a relatively short half-life, 239U decays to 239Np, which decays into 239Pu.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBernstein200775–77-58">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-59">[58]</a> Finally, exceedingly small amounts of plutonium-238, attributed to the extremely rare <a href="/wiki/Double_beta_decay" title="Double beta decay">double beta decay</a> of uranium-238, have been found in natural uranium samples.<a href="#cite_note-60">[59]</a> Due to its relatively long half-life of about 80 million years, it was suggested that <a href="/wiki/Plutonium-244" title="Plutonium-244">plutonium-244</a> occurs naturally as a <a href="/wiki/Primordial_nuclide" title="Primordial nuclide">primordial nuclide</a>, but early reports of its detection could not be confirmed.<a href="#cite_note-61">[60]</a> Based on its likely initial abundance in the Solar System, present experiments as of 2022 are likely about an order of magnitude away from detecting live primordial 244Pu.<a href="#cite_note-62">[61]</a> However, its long half-life ensured its circulation across the solar system before its <a href="/wiki/Extinct_radionuclide" title="Extinct radionuclide">extinction</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Turner-2004-63">[62]</a> and indeed, evidence of the spontaneous fission of extinct 244Pu has been found in meteorites.<a href="#cite_note-Hutcheon-1972-64">[63]</a> The former presence of 244Pu in the early Solar System has been confirmed, since it manifests itself today as an excess of its daughters, either 232<a href="/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium">Th</a> (from the alpha decay pathway) or <a href="/wiki/Xenon" title="Xenon">xenon</a> isotopes (from its <a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_fission" title="Spontaneous fission">spontaneous fission</a>). The latter are generally more useful, because the chemistries of thorium and plutonium are rather similar (both are predominantly tetravalent) and hence an excess of thorium would not be strong evidence that some of it was formed as a plutonium daughter.<a href="#cite_note-65">[64]</a> 244Pu has the longest half-life of all transuranic nuclides and is produced only in the <a href="/wiki/R-process" title="R-process">r-process</a> in <a href="/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova">supernovae</a> and colliding <a href="/wiki/Neutron_star" title="Neutron star">neutron stars</a>; when nuclei are ejected from these events at high speed to reach Earth, 244Pu alone among transuranic nuclides has a long enough half-life to survive the journey, and hence tiny traces of live interstellar 244Pu have been found in the deep sea floor. Because 240Pu also occurs in the <a href="/wiki/Decay_chain" title="Decay chain">decay chain</a> of 244Pu, it must thus also be present in <a href="/wiki/Secular_equilibrium" title="Secular equilibrium">secular equilibrium</a>, albeit in even tinier quantities.<a href="#cite_note-66">[65]</a> Minute traces of plutonium are usually found in the human body due to the 550 atmospheric and underwater <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_testing" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear testing">nuclear tests</a> that have been carried out, and to a small number of major <a href="/wiki/List_of_civilian_nuclear_accidents" title="List of civilian nuclear accidents">nuclear accidents</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Emsley2001-43">[42]</a> Most atmospheric and underwater nuclear testing was stopped by the <a href="/wiki/Limited_Test_Ban_Treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="Limited Test Ban Treaty">Limited Test Ban Treaty</a> in 1963, which of the nuclear powers was signed and ratified by the United States, United Kingdom and <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>. France would continue atmospheric nuclear testing until 1974 and China would continue atmospheric nuclear testing until 1980. All subsequent nuclear testing was conducted underground.<a href="#cite_note-ctbto-67">[66]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Discovery">Discovery</h3></div> <a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Enrico Fermi</a> and a team of scientists at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Rome_La_Sapienza" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Rome La Sapienza">University of Rome</a> reported that they had discovered element 94 in 1934.<a href="#cite_note-68">[67]</a> Fermi called the element <a href="/wiki/Hesperium" class="mw-redirect" title="Hesperium">hesperium</a> and mentioned it in his Nobel Lecture in 1938.<a href="#cite_note-69">[68]</a> The sample actually contained products of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">nuclear fission</a>, primarily <a href="/wiki/Barium" title="Barium">barium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Krypton" title="Krypton">krypton</a>.<a href="#cite_note-70">[69]</a> Nuclear fission, discovered in Germany in 1938 by <a href="/wiki/Otto_Hahn" title="Otto Hahn">Otto Hahn</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Strassmann" title="Fritz Strassmann">Fritz Strassmann</a>, was unknown at the time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBernstein200744–52-71">[70]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Glenn_Seaborg_-_1964.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Elderly Seaborg in a suit" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Glenn_Seaborg_-_1964.jpg/170px-Glenn_Seaborg_-_1964.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="211" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Glenn_Seaborg_-_1964.jpg/255px-Glenn_Seaborg_-_1964.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Glenn_Seaborg_-_1964.jpg/340px-Glenn_Seaborg_-_1964.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2378" data-file-height="2949" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Glenn_T._Seaborg" title="Glenn T. Seaborg">Glenn T. Seaborg</a> and his team at Berkeley were the first to produce plutonium.</figcaption></figure> Plutonium (specifically, plutonium-238) was first produced, isolated and then chemically identified between December 1940 and February 1941 by <a href="/wiki/Glenn_T._Seaborg" title="Glenn T. Seaborg">Glenn T. Seaborg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edwin_McMillan" title="Edwin McMillan">Edwin McMillan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Emilio_Segr%C3%A8" title="Emilio Segrè">Emilio Segrè</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_W._Kennedy" title="Joseph W. Kennedy">Joseph W. Kennedy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Wahl" title="Arthur Wahl">Arthur Wahl</a> by deuteron bombardment of uranium in the 60-inch (150 cm) <a href="/wiki/Cyclotron" title="Cyclotron">cyclotron</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Berkeley_Radiation_Laboratory" class="mw-redirect" title="Berkeley Radiation Laboratory">Berkeley Radiation Laboratory</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley" title="University of California, Berkeley">University of California, Berkeley</a>.<a href="#cite_note-72">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-SeaborgStory-73">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-74">[73]</a> Neptunium-238 was created directly by the bombardment but decayed by beta emission with a half-life of a little over two days, which indicated the formation of element 94.<a href="#cite_note-Emsley2001-43">[42]</a> The first bombardment took place on December 14, 1940, and the new element was first identified through oxidation on the night of February 23–24, 1941.<a href="#cite_note-SeaborgStory-73">[72]</a> A paper documenting the discovery was prepared by the team and sent to the journal <a href="/wiki/Physical_Review" title="Physical Review">Physical Review</a> in March 1941,<a href="#cite_note-Emsley2001-43">[42]</a> but publication was delayed until a year after the end of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> due to security concerns.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeaborgSeaborg200171–72-75">[74]</a> At the <a href="/wiki/Cavendish_Laboratory" title="Cavendish Laboratory">Cavendish Laboratory</a> in <a href="/wiki/Cambridge" title="Cambridge">Cambridge</a>, Egon Bretscher and <a href="/wiki/Norman_Feather" title="Norman Feather">Norman Feather</a> realized that a slow neutron reactor fuelled with uranium would theoretically produce substantial amounts of plutonium-239 as a by-product. They calculated that element 94 would be fissile, and had the added advantage of being chemically different from uranium, and could easily be separated from it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClark1961124–125-29">[29]</a> McMillan had recently named the first transuranic element neptunium after the planet <a href="/wiki/Neptune" title="Neptune">Neptune</a>, and suggested that element 94, being the next element in the series, be named for what was then considered the next planet, <a href="/wiki/Pluto" title="Pluto">Pluto</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Heiserman1992-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-77">[note 2]</a> <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Kemmer" title="Nicholas Kemmer">Nicholas Kemmer</a> of the Cambridge team independently proposed the same name, based on the same reasoning as the Berkeley team.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClark1961124–125-29">[29]</a> Seaborg originally considered the name "plutium", but later thought that it did not sound as good as "plutonium".<a href="#cite_note-Clark57-78">[76]</a> He chose the letters "Pu" as a joke, in reference to the interjection "P U" to indicate an especially disgusting smell, which passed without notice into the periodic table.<a href="#cite_note-80">[note 3]</a> Alternative names considered by Seaborg and others were "ultimium" or "extremium" because of the erroneous belief that they had found the last possible <a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">element</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Periodic_table" title="Periodic table">periodic table</a>.<a href="#cite_note-81">[78]</a> Hahn and Strassmann, and independently <a href="/wiki/Kurt_Starke" title="Kurt Starke">Kurt Starke</a>, were at this point also working on transuranic elements in Berlin. It is likely that Hahn and Strassmann were aware that plutonium-239 should be fissile. However, they did not have a strong neutron source. Element 93 was reported by Hahn and Strassmann, as well as Starke, in 1942. Hahn's group did not pursue element 94, likely because they were discouraged by McMillan and Abelson's lack of success in isolating it when they had first found element 93. However, since Hahn's group had access to the stronger cyclotron at Paris at this point, they would likely have been able to detect plutonium had they tried, albeit in tiny quantities (a few <a href="/wiki/Becquerel" title="Becquerel">becquerels</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Germans-82">[79]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_research">Early research</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nh-pluto-in-true-color_2x_JPEG-edit-frame.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Nh-pluto-in-true-color_2x_JPEG-edit-frame.jpg/220px-Nh-pluto-in-true-color_2x_JPEG-edit-frame.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Nh-pluto-in-true-color_2x_JPEG-edit-frame.jpg/330px-Nh-pluto-in-true-color_2x_JPEG-edit-frame.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Nh-pluto-in-true-color_2x_JPEG-edit-frame.jpg/440px-Nh-pluto-in-true-color_2x_JPEG-edit-frame.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1800" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Dwarf_planet" title="Dwarf planet">dwarf planet</a> <a href="/wiki/Pluto" title="Pluto">Pluto</a>, after which plutonium is named</figcaption></figure> The chemistry of plutonium was found to resemble uranium after a few months of initial study.<a href="#cite_note-Emsley2001-43">[42]</a> Early research was continued at the secret <a href="/wiki/Metallurgical_Laboratory" title="Metallurgical Laboratory">Metallurgical Laboratory</a> of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a>. On August 20, 1942, a trace quantity of this element was isolated and measured for the first time. About 50 micrograms of plutonium-239 combined with uranium and fission products was produced and only about 1 microgram was isolated.<a href="#cite_note-Miner1968p541-55">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-seaborg-83">[80]</a> This procedure enabled chemists to determine the new element's atomic weight.<a href="#cite_note-uchicago-84">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-85">[note 4]</a> On December 2, 1942, on a racket court under the west grandstand at the University of Chicago's Stagg Field, researchers headed by <a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Enrico Fermi</a> achieved the first self-sustaining chain reaction in a graphite and uranium pile known as <a href="/wiki/Chicago_Pile-1" title="Chicago Pile-1">CP-1</a>. Using theoretical information garnered from the operation of CP-1, DuPont constructed an air-cooled experimental production reactor, known as <a href="/wiki/X-10_Graphite_Reactor" title="X-10 Graphite Reactor">X-10</a>, and a pilot chemical separation facility at Oak Ridge. The separation facility, using methods developed by Glenn T. Seaborg and a team of researchers at the Met Lab, removed plutonium from uranium irradiated in the X-10 reactor. Information from CP-1 was also useful to Met Lab scientists designing the water-cooled plutonium production reactors for Hanford. Construction at the site began in mid-1943.<a href="#cite_note-FAP-86">[82]</a> In November 1943 some <a href="/wiki/Plutonium_trifluoride" class="mw-redirect" title="Plutonium trifluoride">plutonium trifluoride</a> was reduced to create the first sample of plutonium metal: a few micrograms of metallic beads.<a href="#cite_note-Miner1968p541-55">[54]</a> Enough plutonium was produced to make it the first synthetically made element to be visible with the unaided eye.<a href="#cite_note-Miner1968p540-87">[83]</a> The nuclear properties of plutonium-239 were also studied; researchers found that when it is hit by a neutron it breaks apart (fissions) by releasing more neutrons and energy. These neutrons can hit other atoms of plutonium-239 and so on in an exponentially fast chain reaction. This can result in an explosion large enough to destroy a city if enough of the isotope is concentrated to form a <a href="/wiki/Critical_mass" title="Critical mass">critical mass</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Emsley2001-43">[42]</a> During the early stages of research, animals were used to study the effects of radioactive substances on health. These studies began in 1944 at the University of California at Berkeley's Radiation Laboratory and were conducted by Joseph G. Hamilton. Hamilton was looking to answer questions about how plutonium would vary in the body depending on exposure mode (oral ingestion, inhalation, absorption through skin), retention rates, and how plutonium would be fixed in tissues and distributed among the various organs. Hamilton started administering soluble microgram portions of plutonium-239 compounds to rats using different valence states and different methods of introducing the plutonium (oral, intravenous, etc.). Eventually, the lab at Chicago also conducted its own plutonium injection experiments using different animals such as mice, rabbits, fish, and even dogs. The results of the studies at Berkeley and Chicago showed that plutonium's physiological behavior differed significantly from that of radium. The most alarming result was that there was significant deposition of plutonium in the liver and in the "actively metabolizing" portion of bone. Furthermore, the rate of plutonium elimination in the excreta differed between species of animals by as much as a factor of five. Such variation made it extremely difficult to estimate what the rate would be for human beings.<a href="#cite_note-FAY-88">[84]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Production_during_the_Manhattan_Project">Production during the Manhattan Project</h3></div> During World War II the U.S. government established the <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a>, for developing an atomic bomb. The three primary research and production sites of the project were the plutonium production facility at what is now the <a href="/wiki/Hanford_Site" title="Hanford Site">Hanford Site</a>; the <a href="/wiki/Uranium_enrichment" class="mw-redirect" title="Uranium enrichment">uranium enrichment</a> facilities at <a href="/wiki/Oak_Ridge,_Tennessee" title="Oak Ridge, Tennessee">Oak Ridge, Tennessee</a>; and the weapons research and design lab, now known as <a href="/wiki/Los_Alamos_National_Laboratory" title="Los Alamos National Laboratory">Los Alamos National Laboratory</a>, LANL.<a href="#cite_note-89">[85]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hanford_B_Reactor.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Tall square industrial room seen from above. Its cement walls have metal ladders and meshes, and a dozen people work on the floor." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Hanford_B_Reactor.jpg/220px-Hanford_B_Reactor.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Hanford_B_Reactor.jpg/330px-Hanford_B_Reactor.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Hanford_B_Reactor.jpg/440px-Hanford_B_Reactor.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1411" data-file-height="1106" /></a><figcaption>The Hanford <a href="/wiki/B_Reactor" title="B Reactor">B Reactor</a> face under construction—the first plutonium-production reactor</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hanford_N_Reactor_adjusted.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Aerial shot of Hanford" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Hanford_N_Reactor_adjusted.jpg/220px-Hanford_N_Reactor_adjusted.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Hanford_N_Reactor_adjusted.jpg/330px-Hanford_N_Reactor_adjusted.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Hanford_N_Reactor_adjusted.jpg/440px-Hanford_N_Reactor_adjusted.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2812" data-file-height="2092" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Hanford_site" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanford site">Hanford site</a> represents two-thirds of U.S. high-level <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_waste" title="Radioactive waste">radioactive waste</a> by volume. Nuclear reactors line the riverbank at the Hanford Site along the <a href="/wiki/Columbia_River" title="Columbia River">Columbia River</a> in January 1960.</figcaption></figure> The first production reactor that made 239Pu was the <a href="/wiki/X-10_Graphite_Reactor" title="X-10 Graphite Reactor">X-10 Graphite Reactor</a>. It went online in 1943 and was built at a facility in Oak Ridge that later became the <a href="/wiki/Oak_Ridge_National_Laboratory" title="Oak Ridge National Laboratory">Oak Ridge National Laboratory</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Emsley2001-43">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-91">[note 5]</a> In January 1944, workers laid the foundations for the first chemical separation building, T Plant located in 200-West. Both the T Plant and its sister facility in 200-West, the U Plant, were completed by October. (U Plant was used only for training during the Manhattan Project.) The separation building in 200-East, B Plant, was completed in February 1945. The second facility planned for 200-East was canceled. Nicknamed Queen Marys by the workers who built them, the separation buildings were awesome canyon-like structures 800 feet long, 65 feet wide, and 80 feet high containing forty process pools. The interior had an eerie quality as operators behind seven feet of concrete shielding manipulated remote control equipment by looking through television monitors and periscopes from an upper gallery. Even with massive concrete lids on the process pools, precautions against radiation exposure were necessary and influenced all aspects of plant design.<a href="#cite_note-FAP-86">[82]</a> On April 5, 1944, <a href="/wiki/Emilio_Segr%C3%A8" title="Emilio Segrè">Emilio Segrè</a> at Los Alamos received the first sample of reactor-produced plutonium from Oak Ridge.<a href="#cite_note-AtomicTimeline-92">[87]</a> Within ten days, he discovered that reactor-bred plutonium had a higher concentration of 240Pu than cyclotron-produced plutonium. 240Pu has a high spontaneous fission rate, raising the overall background neutron level of the plutonium sample.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoddesonHenriksenMeadeWestfall1993235–239-93">[88]</a> The original <a href="/wiki/Gun-type_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Gun-type bomb">gun-type</a> plutonium weapon, code-named "<a href="/wiki/Thin_Man_nuclear_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Thin Man nuclear bomb">Thin Man</a>", had to be abandoned as a result—the increased number of spontaneous neutrons meant that nuclear pre-detonation (<a href="/wiki/Fizzle_(nuclear_test)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fizzle (nuclear test)">fizzle</a>) was likely.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoddesonHenriksenMeadeWestfall1993240–242-94">[89]</a> The entire plutonium weapon design effort at Los Alamos was soon changed to the more complicated implosion device, code-named "<a href="/wiki/Fat_Man" title="Fat Man">Fat Man</a>". In an implosion bomb, plutonium is compressed to high density with <a href="/wiki/Explosive_lens" title="Explosive lens">explosive lenses</a>—a technically more daunting task than the simple gun-type bomb, but necessary for a plutonium bomb. Uranium, by contrast, can be used with either method.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoddesonHenriksenMeadeWestfall1993240–242-94">[89]</a> Construction of the Hanford <a href="/wiki/B_Reactor" title="B Reactor">B Reactor</a>, the first industrial-sized nuclear reactor for the purposes of material production, was completed in March 1945. B Reactor produced the fissile material for the plutonium weapons used during World War II.<a href="#cite_note-97">[note 6]</a> B, D and F were the initial reactors built at Hanford, and six additional plutonium-producing reactors were built later at the site.<a href="#cite_note-100B-98">[92]</a> By the end of January 1945, the highly purified plutonium underwent further concentration in the completed chemical isolation building, where remaining impurities were removed successfully. Los Alamos received its first plutonium from Hanford on February 2. While it was still by no means clear that enough plutonium could be produced for use in bombs by the war's end, Hanford was by early 1945 in operation. Only two years had passed since Col. <a href="/wiki/Franklin_Matthias" title="Franklin Matthias">Franklin Matthias</a> first set up his temporary headquarters on the banks of the Columbia River.<a href="#cite_note-FAP-86">[82]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Kate_Brown_(professor)" title="Kate Brown (professor)">Kate Brown</a>, the plutonium production plants at Hanford and <a href="/wiki/Mayak" title="Mayak">Mayak</a> in Russia, over a period of four decades, "both released more than 200 million curies of radioactive isotopes into the surrounding environment—twice the amount expelled in the <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster" title="Chernobyl disaster">Chernobyl disaster</a> in each instance".<a href="#cite_note-katebr-99">[93]</a> Most of this <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">radioactive contamination</a> over the years were part of normal operations, but unforeseen accidents did occur and plant management kept this secret, as the pollution continued unabated.<a href="#cite_note-katebr-99">[93]</a> In 2004, a safe was discovered during excavations of a burial trench at the <a href="/wiki/Hanford_nuclear_site" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanford nuclear site">Hanford nuclear site</a>. Inside the safe were various items, including a large glass bottle containing a whitish slurry which was subsequently identified as the oldest sample of weapons-grade plutonium known to exist. Isotope analysis by <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Northwest_National_Laboratory" title="Pacific Northwest National Laboratory">Pacific Northwest National Laboratory</a> indicated that the plutonium in the bottle was manufactured in the X-10 Graphite Reactor at Oak Ridge during 1944.<a href="#cite_note-100">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-101">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-102">[96]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trinity_and_Fat_Man_atomic_bombs">Trinity and Fat Man atomic bombs</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fission_bomb_assembly_methods.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Two diagrams of weapon assembly. Top: "gun-type assembly method": an elliptical shell encloses conventional explosives on the left, whose detonation pushes sub-critical pieces of uranium-235 together on the right. Bottom: "implosion assembly method": a spherical shell encloses eight high-explosive charges which upon detonation compress a plutonium charge in the core." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Fission_bomb_assembly_methods.svg/280px-Fission_bomb_assembly_methods.svg.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="305" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Fission_bomb_assembly_methods.svg/420px-Fission_bomb_assembly_methods.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Fission_bomb_assembly_methods.svg/560px-Fission_bomb_assembly_methods.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Due to the presence of 240Pu in reactor-bred plutonium, the implosion design was developed for "<a href="/wiki/Fat_Man" title="Fat Man">Fat Man</a>" and "<a href="/wiki/Trinity_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Trinity test">Trinity</a>".</figcaption></figure> The first atomic bomb test, codenamed "<a href="/wiki/Trinity_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Trinity test">Trinity</a> "and detonated on July 16, 1945, near <a href="/wiki/Alamogordo,_New_Mexico" title="Alamogordo, New Mexico">Alamogordo, New Mexico</a>, used plutonium as its fissile material.<a href="#cite_note-Miner1968p541-55">[54]</a> The implosion design of "<a href="/wiki/Trinity_(nuclear_test)#"The_Gadget"" title="Trinity (nuclear test)">Gadget</a>", as the Trinity device was codenamed, used conventional explosive lenses to compress a sphere of plutonium into a supercritical mass, which was simultaneously showered with neutrons from <a href="/wiki/Urchin_(detonator)" class="mw-redirect" title="Urchin (detonator)">"Urchin"</a>, an initiator made of <a href="/wiki/Polonium" title="Polonium">polonium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Beryllium" title="Beryllium">beryllium</a> (<a href="/wiki/Neutron_source" title="Neutron source">neutron source</a>: <a href="/wiki/Neutron_source#Small_sized_devices" title="Neutron source">(α, n) reaction</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Emsley2001-43">[42]</a> Together, these ensured a runaway chain reaction and explosion. The weapon weighed over 4 <a href="/wiki/Tonne" title="Tonne">tonnes</a>, though it had just 6 kg of plutonium.<a href="#cite_note-103">[97]</a> About 20% of the plutonium in the Trinity weapon, fissioned; releasing an energy equivalent to about 20,000 tons of TNT.<a href="#cite_note-yield-104">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-106">[note 7]</a> An identical design was used in "Fat Man", dropped on <a href="/wiki/Nagasaki" title="Nagasaki">Nagasaki</a>, <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>, on August 9, 1945, killing 35,000–40,000 people and destroying 68%–80% of war production at Nagasaki.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESklar198422–29-107">[100]</a> Only after the announcement of the first atomic bombs was the existence and name of plutonium made known to the public by the Manhattan Project's <a href="/wiki/Smyth_Report" title="Smyth Report">Smyth Report</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBernstein200770-108">[101]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cold_War_use_and_waste">Cold War use and waste</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Reactor-grade_plutonium" title="Reactor-grade plutonium">Reactor-grade plutonium</a></div> Large stockpiles of <a href="/wiki/Weapons-grade_plutonium" class="mw-redirect" title="Weapons-grade plutonium">weapons-grade plutonium</a> were built up by both the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> and the United States during the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>. The U.S. reactors at Hanford and the <a href="/wiki/Savannah_River_Site" title="Savannah River Site">Savannah River Site</a> in South Carolina produced 103 tonnes,<a href="#cite_note-109">[102]</a> and an estimated 170 tonnes of military-grade plutonium was produced in the USSR.<a href="#cite_note-110">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-112">[note 8]</a> Each year about 20 tonnes of the element is still produced as a by-product of the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">nuclear power</a> industry.<a href="#cite_note-CRC2006p4-27-18">[18]</a> As much as 1000 tonnes of plutonium may be in storage with more than 200 tonnes of that either inside or extracted from nuclear weapons.<a href="#cite_note-Emsley2001-43">[42]</a> <a href="/wiki/SIPRI" class="mw-redirect" title="SIPRI">SIPRI</a> estimated the world plutonium <a href="/wiki/Stockpile" title="Stockpile">stockpile</a> in 2007 as about 500 tonnes, divided equally between weapon and civilian stocks.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStockholm_International_Peace_Research_Institute2007567-113">[105]</a> Radioactive contamination at the <a href="/wiki/Rocky_Flats_Plant" title="Rocky Flats Plant">Rocky Flats Plant</a> primarily resulted from two major plutonium fires in 1957 and 1969. Much lower concentrations of radioactive isotopes were released throughout the operational life of the plant from 1952 to 1992. Prevailing winds from the plant carried airborne contamination south and east, into populated areas northwest of Denver. The contamination of the Denver area by plutonium from the fires and other sources was not publicly reported until the 1970s. According to a 1972 study coauthored by <a href="/wiki/Edward_Martell" title="Edward Martell">Edward Martell</a>, "In the more densely populated areas of Denver, the Pu contamination level in surface soils is several times fallout", and the plutonium contamination "just east of the Rocky Flats plant ranges up to hundreds of times that from nuclear tests".<a href="#cite_note-Poet1972-114">[106]</a> As noted by <a href="/wiki/Carl_J._Johnson" title="Carl J. Johnson">Carl Johnson</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ambio" title="Ambio">Ambio</a>, "Exposures of a large population in the Denver area to plutonium and other radionuclides in the exhaust plumes from the plant date back to 1953."<a href="#cite_note-Johnson1981-115">[107]</a> Weapons production at the Rocky Flats plant was halted after a combined <a href="/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation" title="Federal Bureau of Investigation">FBI</a> and <a href="/wiki/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency" title="United States Environmental Protection Agency">EPA</a> raid in 1989 and years of protests. The plant has since been shut down, with its buildings demolished and completely removed from the site.<a href="#cite_note-FWSmainpage-116">[108]</a> In the U.S., some plutonium extracted from dismantled nuclear weapons is melted to form glass logs of <a href="/wiki/Plutonium_oxide" class="mw-redirect" title="Plutonium oxide">plutonium oxide</a> that weigh two tonnes.<a href="#cite_note-Emsley2001-43">[42]</a> The glass is made of <a href="/wiki/Borosilicate" class="mw-redirect" title="Borosilicate">borosilicates</a> mixed with <a href="/wiki/Cadmium" title="Cadmium">cadmium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gadolinium" title="Gadolinium">gadolinium</a>.<a href="#cite_note-117">[note 9]</a> These logs are planned to be encased in <a href="/wiki/Stainless_steel" title="Stainless steel">stainless steel</a> and stored as much as 4 km (2 mi) underground in bore holes that will be back-filled with <a href="/wiki/Concrete" title="Concrete">concrete</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Emsley2001-43">[42]</a> The U.S. planned to store plutonium in this way at the <a href="/wiki/Yucca_Mountain_nuclear_waste_repository" title="Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository">Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository</a>, which is about 100 miles (160 km) north-east of <a href="/wiki/Las_Vegas,_Nevada" class="mw-redirect" title="Las Vegas, Nevada">Las Vegas, Nevada</a>.<a href="#cite_note-118">[109]</a> On March 5, 2009, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Energy" title="United States Secretary of Energy">Energy Secretary</a> <a href="/wiki/Steven_Chu" title="Steven Chu">Steven Chu</a> told a Senate hearing "the Yucca Mountain site no longer was viewed as an option for storing reactor waste".<a href="#cite_note-119">[110]</a> Starting in 1999, military-generated nuclear waste is being entombed at the <a href="/wiki/Waste_Isolation_Pilot_Plant" title="Waste Isolation Pilot Plant">Waste Isolation Pilot Plant</a> in New Mexico. In a Presidential Memorandum dated January 29, 2010, President Obama established the <a href="/wiki/Blue_Ribbon_Commission_on_America%27s_Nuclear_Future" title="Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future">Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future</a>.<a href="#cite_note-About_the_Commission-120">[111]</a> In their final report the Commission put forth recommendations for developing a comprehensive strategy to pursue, including:<a href="#cite_note-Blue_Ribbon_Commission_on_America's_Nuclear_Future-121">[112]</a> <dl><dd>"Recommendation #1: The United States should undertake an integrated nuclear waste management program that leads to the timely development of one or more permanent deep geological facilities for the safe disposal of spent fuel and high-level nuclear waste".<a href="#cite_note-Blue_Ribbon_Commission_on_America's_Nuclear_Future-121">[112]</a></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medical_experimentation">Medical experimentation</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Human_radiation_experiments" title="Human radiation experiments">Human radiation experiments</a> and <a href="/wiki/Albert_Stevens" title="Albert Stevens">Albert Stevens</a></div> During and after the end of World War II, scientists working on the Manhattan Project and other nuclear weapons research projects conducted studies of the effects of plutonium on laboratory animals and human subjects.<a href="#cite_note-Injection-122">[113]</a> Animal studies found that a few milligrams of plutonium per kg of tissue is a lethal dose.<a href="#cite_note-PuHealth-123">[114]</a> For human subjects, this involved injecting solutions typically containing 5 micrograms (μg) of plutonium into hospital patients thought to be either terminally ill, or to have a life expectancy of less than ten years either due to age or chronic disease.<a href="#cite_note-Injection-122">[113]</a> This was reduced to 1 μg in July 1945 after animal studies found that the way plutonium distributes itself in bones is more dangerous than <a href="/wiki/Radium" title="Radium">radium</a>.<a href="#cite_note-PuHealth-123">[114]</a> Most of the subjects, <a href="/wiki/Eileen_Welsome" title="Eileen Welsome">Eileen Welsome</a> says, were poor, powerless, and sick.<a href="#cite_note-rc-124">[115]</a> In 1945–47, eighteen human test subjects were injected with plutonium without <a href="/wiki/Informed_consent" title="Informed consent">informed consent</a>. The tests were used to create diagnostic tools to determine the uptake of plutonium in the body in order to develop safety standards for working with plutonium.<a href="#cite_note-Injection-122">[113]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ebb_Cade" title="Ebb Cade">Ebb Cade</a> was an unwilling participant in medical experiments that involved injection of 4.7 μg of plutonium on 10 April 1945 at <a href="/wiki/Oak_Ridge,_Tennessee" title="Oak Ridge, Tennessee">Oak Ridge, Tennessee</a>.<a href="#cite_note-125">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-126">[117]</a> This experiment was under the supervision of <a href="/wiki/Harold_Hodge" title="Harold Hodge">Harold Hodge</a>.<a href="#cite_note-127">[118]</a> Other experiments directed by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission" title="United States Atomic Energy Commission">United States Atomic Energy Commission</a> and the Manhattan Project continued into the 1970s. <a href="/wiki/The_Plutonium_Files" title="The Plutonium Files">The Plutonium Files</a> chronicles the lives of the subjects of the secret program by naming each person involved and discussing the ethical and medical research conducted in secret by the scientists and doctors. The episode is now considered to be a serious breach of <a href="/wiki/Medical_ethics" title="Medical ethics">medical ethics</a> and of the <a href="/wiki/Hippocratic_Oath" title="Hippocratic Oath">Hippocratic Oath</a>.<a href="#cite_note-128">[119]</a> The government covered up most of these actions until 1993, when President <a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a> ordered a change of policy and federal agencies then made available relevant records. The resulting investigation was undertaken by the president's <a href="/wiki/Advisory_Committee_on_Human_Radiation_Experiments" title="Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments">Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments</a>, and it uncovered much of the material about plutonium research on humans. The committee issued a controversial 1995 report which said that "wrongs were committed" but it did not condemn those who perpetrated them.<a href="#cite_note-rc-124">[115]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Explosives">Explosives</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nagasakibomb.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Photo of a nuclear mushroom cloud with a gray stem and white cap" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Nagasakibomb.jpg/170px-Nagasakibomb.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Nagasakibomb.jpg/255px-Nagasakibomb.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Nagasakibomb.jpg/340px-Nagasakibomb.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3245" data-file-height="3877" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">atomic bomb dropped on Nagasaki, Japan</a>, in 1945 had a plutonium core.</figcaption></figure> 239Pu is a key fissile component in nuclear weapons, due to its ease of fission and availability. Encasing the bomb's <a href="/wiki/Plutonium_pit" class="mw-redirect" title="Plutonium pit">plutonium pit</a> in a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon_design" title="Nuclear weapon design">tamper</a> (a layer of dense material) decreases the <a href="/wiki/Critical_mass" title="Critical mass">critical mass</a> by <a href="/wiki/Neutron_reflector" title="Neutron reflector">reflecting escaping neutrons</a> back into the plutonium core. This reduces the critical mass from 16 kg to 10 kg, which is a sphere with a diameter of about 10 centimeters (4 in).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartin2000532-129">[120]</a> This critical mass is about a third of that for uranium-235.<a href="#cite_note-Heiserman1992-12">[12]</a> The Fat Man plutonium bombs used explosive compression of plutonium to obtain significantly higher density than normal, combined with a central neutron source to begin the reaction and increase efficiency. Thus only 6 kg of plutonium was needed for an <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon_yield" title="Nuclear weapon yield">explosive yield</a> equivalent to 20 kilotons of TNT.<a href="#cite_note-yield-104">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-FASdesign-130">[121]</a> Hypothetically, as little as 4 kg of plutonium—and maybe even less—could be used to make a single atomic bomb using very sophisticated assembly designs.<a href="#cite_note-FASdesign-130">[121]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mixed_oxide_fuel">Mixed oxide fuel</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reprocessing" title="Nuclear reprocessing">Nuclear reprocessing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Weapons-grade_nuclear_material" title="Weapons-grade nuclear material">Weapons-grade nuclear material</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Spent_nuclear_fuel" title="Spent nuclear fuel">Spent nuclear fuel</a> from normal <a href="/wiki/Light_water_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Light water reactor">light water reactors</a> contains plutonium, but it is a mixture of <a href="/wiki/Plutonium-242" title="Plutonium-242">plutonium-242</a>, 240, 239 and 238. The mixture is not sufficiently enriched for efficient nuclear weapons, but can be used once as <a href="/wiki/MOX_fuel" title="MOX fuel">MOX fuel</a>.<a href="#cite_note-MOX-131">[122]</a> Accidental neutron capture causes the amount of plutonium-242 and 240 to grow each time the plutonium is irradiated in a reactor with low-speed "thermal" neutrons, so that after the second cycle, the plutonium can only be consumed by <a href="/wiki/Fast_neutron_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Fast neutron reactor">fast neutron reactors</a>. If fast neutron reactors are not available (the normal case), excess plutonium is usually discarded, and forms one of the longest-lived components of nuclear waste. The desire to consume this plutonium and other <a href="/wiki/Transuranic" class="mw-redirect" title="Transuranic">transuranic</a> fuels and reduce the radiotoxicity of the waste is the usual reason nuclear engineers give to make fast neutron reactors.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETillChang2011254–256-132">[123]</a> The most common chemical process, <a href="/wiki/PUREX" title="PUREX">PUREX</a> (Plutonium–URanium EXtraction), <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reprocessing" title="Nuclear reprocessing">reprocesses</a> spent nuclear fuel to extract plutonium and uranium which can be used to form a mixed oxide (MOX) fuel for reuse in nuclear reactors. Weapons-grade plutonium can be added to the fuel mix. MOX fuel is used in <a href="/wiki/Light_water_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Light water reactor">light water reactors</a> and consists of 60 kg of plutonium per tonne of fuel; after four years, three-quarters of the plutonium is burned (turned into other elements).<a href="#cite_note-Emsley2001-43">[42]</a> MOX fuel has been in use since the 1980s, and is widely used in Europe.<a href="#cite_note-MOX-131">[122]</a> <a href="/wiki/Breeder_reactor" title="Breeder reactor">Breeder reactors</a> are specifically designed to create more fissionable material than they consume.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETillChang201115-133">[124]</a> MOX fuel improves total burnup. A fuel rod is reprocessed after three years of use to remove waste products, which by then account for 3% of the total weight of the rods.<a href="#cite_note-Emsley2001-43">[42]</a> Any uranium or plutonium isotopes produced during those three years are left and the rod goes back into production.<a href="#cite_note-134">[note 10]</a> The presence of up to 1% gallium per mass in weapons-grade <a href="/wiki/Plutonium-gallium_alloy" class="mw-redirect" title="Plutonium-gallium alloy">plutonium alloy</a> has the potential to interfere with long-term operation of a light water reactor.<a href="#cite_note-135">[125]</a> Plutonium recovered from spent reactor fuel poses little proliferation hazard, because of excessive contamination with non-fissile plutonium-240 and plutonium-242. Separation of the isotopes is not feasible. A dedicated reactor operating on very low <a href="/wiki/Burnup" title="Burnup">burnup</a> (hence minimal exposure of newly formed plutonium-239 to additional neutrons which causes it to be transformed to heavier isotopes of plutonium) is generally required to produce material suitable for use in efficient <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear weapons">nuclear weapons</a>. While "weapons-grade" plutonium is defined to contain at least 92% plutonium-239 (of the total plutonium), the United States have managed to detonate an <a href="/wiki/Reactor-grade_plutonium_nuclear_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Reactor-grade plutonium nuclear test">under-20Kt device</a> using plutonium believed to contain only about 85% plutonium-239, so called '"fuel-grade" plutonium.<a href="#cite_note-inf15-136">[126]</a> The "reactor-grade" plutonium produced by a regular LWR burnup cycle typically contains less than 60% Pu-239, with up to 30% parasitic Pu-240/Pu-242, and 10–15% fissile Pu-241.<a href="#cite_note-inf15-136">[126]</a> It is unknown if a device using plutonium obtained from reprocessed civil nuclear waste can be detonated, however such a device could hypothetically fizzle and spread radioactive materials over a large urban area. The <a href="/wiki/IAEA" class="mw-redirect" title="IAEA">IAEA</a> conservatively classifies plutonium of all isotopic vectors as "direct-use" material, that is, "nuclear material that can be used for the manufacture of nuclear explosives components without transmutation or further enrichment".<a href="#cite_note-inf15-136">[126]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Power_and_heat_source">Power and heat source</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plutonium_pellet.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Glowing cylinder of plutonium oxide standing in a circular pit" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Plutonium_pellet.jpg/220px-Plutonium_pellet.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Plutonium_pellet.jpg/330px-Plutonium_pellet.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Plutonium_pellet.jpg/440px-Plutonium_pellet.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3200" data-file-height="2560" /></a><figcaption>A glowing cylinder of 238PuO2</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fueling_of_the_MSL_MMRTG_001.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Glowing graphite cube containing plutonium-238 oxide" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Fueling_of_the_MSL_MMRTG_001.jpg/220px-Fueling_of_the_MSL_MMRTG_001.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Fueling_of_the_MSL_MMRTG_001.jpg/330px-Fueling_of_the_MSL_MMRTG_001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Fueling_of_the_MSL_MMRTG_001.jpg/440px-Fueling_of_the_MSL_MMRTG_001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3872" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>The 238PuO2 radioisotope thermoelectric generator of the <a href="/wiki/Curiosity_(rover)" title="Curiosity (rover)">Curiosity rover</a></figcaption></figure> Plutonium-238 has a half-life of 87.74 years.<a href="#cite_note-137">[127]</a> It emits a large amount of <a href="/wiki/Thermal_energy" title="Thermal energy">thermal energy</a> with low levels of both <a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="Gamma ray">gamma rays</a>/<a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">photons</a> and neutrons.<a href="#cite_note-pumper-138">[128]</a> Being an alpha emitter, it combines high energy radiation with low penetration and thereby requires minimal shielding. A sheet of paper can be used to shield against the alpha particles from 238Pu. One <a href="/wiki/Kilogram" title="Kilogram">kilogram</a> of the isotope generates about 570 watts of heat.<a href="#cite_note-Heiserman1992-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-pumper-138">[128]</a> These characteristics make it well-suited for electrical power generation for devices that must function without direct maintenance for timescales approximating a human lifetime. It is therefore used in <a href="/wiki/Radioisotope_thermoelectric_generator" title="Radioisotope thermoelectric generator">radioisotope thermoelectric generators</a> and <a href="/wiki/Radioisotope_heater_unit" title="Radioisotope heater unit">radioisotope heater units</a> such as those in the <a href="/wiki/Cassini%E2%80%93Huygens" title="Cassini–Huygens">Cassini</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Solar-139">[129]</a> <a href="/wiki/Voyager_program" title="Voyager program">Voyager</a>, <a href="/wiki/Galileo_(spacecraft)" title="Galileo (spacecraft)">Galileo</a> and <a href="/wiki/New_Horizons" title="New Horizons">New Horizons</a><a href="#cite_note-140">[130]</a> space probes, and the <a href="/wiki/Curiosity_(rover)" title="Curiosity (rover)">Curiosity</a><a href="#cite_note-141">[131]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Perseverance_(rover)" title="Perseverance (rover)">Perseverance</a> (<a href="/wiki/Mars_2020" title="Mars 2020">Mars 2020</a>) <a href="/wiki/Mars_rover" title="Mars rover">Mars rovers</a>. The twin Voyager spacecraft were launched in 1977, each containing a 500 watt plutonium power source. Over 30 years later, each source still produces about 300 watts which allows limited operation of each spacecraft.<a href="#cite_note-142">[132]</a> An earlier version of the same technology powered five <a href="/wiki/ALSEP" class="mw-redirect" title="ALSEP">Apollo Lunar Surface Experiment Packages</a>, starting with <a href="/wiki/Apollo_12" title="Apollo 12">Apollo 12</a> in 1969.<a href="#cite_note-Emsley2001-43">[42]</a> 238Pu has also been used successfully to power artificial heart <a href="/wiki/Pacemaker" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacemaker">pacemakers</a>, to reduce the risk of repeated surgery.<a href="#cite_note-143">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-144">[134]</a> It has been largely replaced by lithium-based <a href="/wiki/Primary_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Primary cell">primary cells</a>, but as of 2003<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plutonium&action=edit">[update]</a> there were somewhere between 50 and 100 plutonium-powered pacemakers still implanted and functioning in living patients in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-145">[135]</a> By the end of 2007, the number of plutonium-powered pacemakers was reported to be down to just nine.<a href="#cite_note-146">[136]</a> 238Pu was studied as a way to provide supplemental heat to <a href="/wiki/Scuba_diving" title="Scuba diving">scuba diving</a>.<a href="#cite_note-147">[137]</a> 238Pu mixed with beryllium is used to generate neutrons for research purposes.<a href="#cite_note-Emsley2001-43">[42]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Precautions">Precautions</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Plutonium_in_the_environment" title="Plutonium in the environment">Plutonium in the environment</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Toxicity">Toxicity</h3></div> There are two aspects to the harmful effects of plutonium: radioactivity and <a href="/wiki/Heavy_metal_poisoning" class="mw-redirect" title="Heavy metal poisoning">heavy metal poisoning</a>. Plutonium compounds are radioactive and accumulate in <a href="/wiki/Bone_marrow" title="Bone marrow">bone marrow</a>. Contamination by plutonium oxide has resulted from <a href="/wiki/Lists_of_nuclear_disasters_and_radioactive_incidents" title="Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents">nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents</a>, including military nuclear accidents where nuclear weapons have burned.<a href="#cite_note-148">[138]</a> Studies of the effects of these smaller releases, as well as of the widespread radiation poisoning sickness and death following the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a>, have provided considerable information regarding the dangers, symptoms and prognosis of <a href="/wiki/Radiation_poisoning" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation poisoning">radiation poisoning</a>, which in the case of the <a href="/wiki/Hibakusha" title="Hibakusha">Japanese survivors</a> was largely unrelated to direct plutonium exposure.<a href="#cite_note-149">[139]</a> The decay of plutonium, releases three types of <a href="/wiki/Ionizing_radiation" title="Ionizing radiation">ionizing radiation</a>: <a href="/wiki/Alpha_decay" title="Alpha decay">alpha</a> (α), <a href="/wiki/Beta_particle" title="Beta particle">beta</a> (β), and <a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="Gamma ray">gamma</a> (γ). Either acute or longer-term exposure carries a danger of <a href="/wiki/Ionizing_radiation#Biological_effects" title="Ionizing radiation">serious health outcomes</a> including <a href="/wiki/Radiation_sickness" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation sickness">radiation sickness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genetic_damage" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic damage">genetic damage</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">cancer</a>, and death. The danger increases with the amount of exposure.<a href="#cite_note-Emsley2001-43">[42]</a> α-radiation can travel only a short distance and cannot travel through the outer, dead layer of human skin. β-radiation can penetrate human skin, but cannot go all the way through the body. γ-radiation can go all the way through the body.<a href="#cite_note-150">[140]</a> Even though α radiation cannot penetrate the skin, ingested or inhaled plutonium does irradiate internal organs.<a href="#cite_note-Emsley2001-43">[42]</a> α-particles generated by inhaled plutonium have been found to cause lung cancer in a cohort of European nuclear workers.<a href="#cite_note-151">[141]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Skeleton" title="Skeleton">skeleton</a>, where plutonium accumulates, and the <a href="/wiki/Liver" title="Liver">liver</a>, where it collects and becomes concentrated, are at risk.<a href="#cite_note-Miner1968p545-42">[41]</a> Plutonium is not absorbed into the body efficiently when ingested; only 0.04% of plutonium oxide is absorbed after ingestion.<a href="#cite_note-Emsley2001-43">[42]</a> Plutonium absorbed by the body is excreted very slowly, with a <a href="/wiki/Biological_half-life" title="Biological half-life">biological half-life</a> of 200 years.<a href="#cite_note-152">[142]</a> Plutonium passes only slowly through cell membranes and intestinal boundaries, so absorption by ingestion and incorporation into bone structure proceeds very slowly.<a href="#cite_note-CohenMyth-153">[143]</a><a href="#cite_note-154">[144]</a> <a href="/wiki/Donald_Mastick" title="Donald Mastick">Donald Mastick</a> accidentally swallowed a small amount of <a href="/wiki/Plutonium(III)_chloride" title="Plutonium(III) chloride">plutonium(III) chloride</a>, which was detectable for the next thirty years of his life, but appeared to suffer no ill effects.<a href="#cite_note-155">[145]</a> Plutonium is more dangerous if inhaled than if ingested. The risk of <a href="/wiki/Lung_cancer" title="Lung cancer">lung cancer</a> increases once the total radiation <a href="/wiki/Equivalent_dose" title="Equivalent dose">dose equivalent</a> of inhaled plutonium exceeds 400 <a href="/wiki/Sievert" title="Sievert">mSv</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Brown-156">[146]</a> The U.S. Department of Energy estimates that the lifetime cancer risk from inhaling 5,000 plutonium particles, each about 3 μm wide, is 1% over the background U.S. average.<a href="#cite_note-world-nuclear-157">[147]</a> Ingestion or inhalation of large amounts may cause acute radiation poisoning and possibly death. However, no human being is known to have died because of inhaling or ingesting plutonium, and many people have measurable amounts of plutonium in their bodies.<a href="#cite_note-inf15-136">[126]</a> The "<a href="/wiki/Hot_particle" title="Hot particle">hot particle</a>" theory in which a particle of plutonium dust irradiates a localized spot of lung tissue is not supported by mainstream research—such particles are more mobile than originally thought and toxicity is not measurably increased due to particulate form.<a href="#cite_note-CohenMyth-153">[143]</a> When inhaled, plutonium can pass into the bloodstream. Once in the bloodstream, plutonium moves throughout the body and into the bones, liver, or other body organs. Plutonium that reaches body organs generally stays in the body for decades and continues to expose the surrounding tissue to radiation and thus may cause cancer.<a href="#cite_note-EPA-158">[148]</a> A commonly cited quote by <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Nader" title="Ralph Nader">Ralph Nader</a> states that a pound of plutonium dust spread into the atmosphere would be enough to kill 8 billion people.<a href="#cite_note-159">[149]</a> This was disputed by <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Cohen_(physicist)" title="Bernard Cohen (physicist)">Bernard Cohen</a>, an opponent of the generally accepted <a href="/wiki/Linear_no-threshold_model" title="Linear no-threshold model">linear no-threshold model</a> of radiation toxicity. Cohen estimated that one pound of plutonium could kill no more than 2 million people by inhalation, so that the toxicity of plutonium is roughly equivalent with that of <a href="/wiki/Nerve_gas" class="mw-redirect" title="Nerve gas">nerve gas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Cohen-13-160">[150]</a> Several populations of people who have been exposed to plutonium dust (e.g. people living down-wind of Nevada test sites, Nagasaki survivors, nuclear facility workers, and "terminally ill" patients injected with Pu in 1945–46 to study Pu metabolism) have been carefully followed and analyzed. Cohen found these studies inconsistent with high estimates of plutonium toxicity, citing cases such as <a href="/wiki/Albert_Stevens" title="Albert Stevens">Albert Stevens</a> who survived into old age after being injected with plutonium.<a href="#cite_note-CohenMyth-153">[143]</a> "There were about 25 workers from Los Alamos National Laboratory who inhaled a considerable amount of plutonium dust during 1940s; according to the hot-particle theory, each of them has a 99.5% chance of being dead from lung cancer by now, but there has not been a single lung cancer among them."<a href="#cite_note-Cohen-13-160">[150]</a><a href="#cite_note-161">[151]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Marine_toxicity">Marine toxicity</h3></div> Plutonium is known to enter the marine environment by dumping of waste or accidental leakage from nuclear plants. Though the highest concentrations of plutonium in marine environments are found in sediments, the complex biogeochemical cycle of plutonium means it is also found in all other compartments.<a href="#cite_note-Bioaccumulation_and_distribution_of-162">[152]</a> For example, various zooplankton species that aid in the <a href="/wiki/Nutrient_cycle" title="Nutrient cycle">nutrient cycle</a> will consume the element on a daily basis. The complete excretion of ingested plutonium by zooplankton makes their defecation an extremely important mechanism in the scavenging of plutonium from surface waters.<a href="#cite_note-163">[153]</a> However, those zooplankton that succumb to predation by larger organisms may become a transmission vehicle of plutonium to fish. In addition to consumption, fish can also be exposed to plutonium by their distribution around the globe. One study investigated the effects of transuranium elements (<a href="/wiki/Plutonium-238" title="Plutonium-238">plutonium-238</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plutonium-239" title="Plutonium-239">plutonium-239</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plutonium-240" title="Plutonium-240">plutonium-240</a>) on various fish living in the <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_exclusion_zone" title="Chernobyl exclusion zone">Chernobyl Exclusion Zone</a> (CEZ). Results showed that a proportion of female perch in the CEZ displayed either a failure or delay in maturation of the gonads.<a href="#cite_note-164">[154]</a> Similar studies found large accumulations of plutonium in the respiratory and digestive organs of cod, flounder and herring.<a href="#cite_note-Bioaccumulation_and_distribution_of-162">[152]</a> Plutonium toxicity is just as detrimental to larvae of fish in nuclear waste areas. Undeveloped eggs have a higher risk than developed adult fish exposed to the element in these waste areas. Oak Ridge National Laboratory displayed that carp and minnow embryos raised in solutions containing plutonium did not hatch; eggs that hatched displayed significant abnormalities when compared to control developed embryos.<a href="#cite_note-165">[155]</a> It revealed that higher concentrations of plutonium have been found to cause issues in marine fauna exposed to the element. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Criticality_potential">Criticality potential</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Partially-reflected-plutonium-sphere.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A stack of square metal plates with a side about 10 inches. In the 3-inch hole in the top plate there is a gray metal ball simulating Pu." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Partially-reflected-plutonium-sphere.jpeg/220px-Partially-reflected-plutonium-sphere.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Partially-reflected-plutonium-sphere.jpeg/330px-Partially-reflected-plutonium-sphere.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Partially-reflected-plutonium-sphere.jpeg/440px-Partially-reflected-plutonium-sphere.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="640" /></a><figcaption>A sphere of plutonium surrounded by neutron-reflecting <a href="/wiki/Tungsten_carbide" title="Tungsten carbide">tungsten carbide</a> blocks in a re-enactment of Harry Daghlian's 1945 experiment</figcaption></figure> Care must be taken to avoid the accumulation of amounts of plutonium which approach critical mass, particularly because plutonium's critical mass is only a third of that of uranium-235.<a href="#cite_note-Heiserman1992-12">[12]</a> A critical mass of plutonium emits lethal amounts of neutrons and <a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="Gamma ray">gamma rays</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Miner1968p546-166">[156]</a> Plutonium in solution is more likely to form a critical mass than the solid form due to <a href="/wiki/Neutron_moderator" title="Neutron moderator">moderation</a> by the hydrogen in water.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute">dubious</a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Plutonium#Dubious" title="Talk:Plutonium">discuss</a>]<a href="#cite_note-CRC2006p4-27-18">[18]</a> <a href="/wiki/Criticality_accident" title="Criticality accident">Criticality accidents</a> have occurred, sometimes killing people. Careless handling of <a href="/wiki/Tungsten_carbide" title="Tungsten carbide">tungsten carbide</a> bricks around a 6.2 kg plutonium sphere resulted in a fatal dose of radiation at Los Alamos on August 21, 1945, when scientist <a href="/wiki/Harry_Daghlian" title="Harry Daghlian">Harry Daghlian</a> received a dose estimated at 5.1 sievert (510 <a href="/wiki/Roentgen_equivalent_man" title="Roentgen equivalent man">rem</a>) and died 25 days later.<a href="#cite_note-167">[157]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHunner200485-168">[158]</a> Nine months later, another Los Alamos scientist, <a href="/wiki/Louis_Slotin" title="Louis Slotin">Louis Slotin</a>, died from a similar accident involving a beryllium reflector and the same plutonium core (the "<a href="/wiki/Demon_core" title="Demon core">demon core</a>") that had previously killed Daghlian.<a href="#cite_note-169">[159]</a> In December 1958, during a process of purifying plutonium at Los Alamos, a critical mass formed in a mixing vessel, which killed chemical operator <a href="/wiki/Cecil_Kelley" class="mw-redirect" title="Cecil Kelley">Cecil Kelley</a>. Other <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_and_radiation_accidents" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear and radiation accidents">nuclear accidents</a> have occurred in the Soviet Union, Japan, the United States, and many other countries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLaughlinMonahanPruvost200017-170">[160]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Flammability">Flammability</h3></div> Metallic plutonium is a fire hazard, especially if finely divided. In a moist environment, plutonium forms <a href="/wiki/Hydrides" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrides">hydrides</a> on its surface, which are pyrophoric and may ignite in air at room temperature. Plutonium expands up to 70% in volume as it oxidizes and thus may break its container.<a href="#cite_note-NucSafety-45">[44]</a> The radioactivity of the burning material is another hazard. <a href="/wiki/Magnesium_oxide" title="Magnesium oxide">Magnesium oxide</a> sand is probably the most effective material for extinguishing a plutonium fire. It cools the burning material, acting as a <a href="/wiki/Heat_sink" title="Heat sink">heat sink</a>, and also blocks off oxygen. Special precautions are necessary to store or handle plutonium in any form; generally a dry <a href="/wiki/Inert_gas" title="Inert gas">inert gas</a> atmosphere is required.<a href="#cite_note-NucSafety-45">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-172">[note 11]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Transportation">Transportation</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Land_and_sea">Land and sea</h3></div> The usual transport of plutonium is through the more stable plutonium oxide in a sealed package. A typical transport consists of one truck carrying one protected shipping container, holding a number of packages with a total weight varying from 80 to 200 kg of plutonium oxide. A sea shipment may consist of several containers, each holding a sealed package.<a href="#cite_note-173">[162]</a> The U.S. <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_Regulatory_Commission" title="Nuclear Regulatory Commission">Nuclear Regulatory Commission</a> dictates that it must be solid instead of powder if the contents surpass 0.74 <a href="/wiki/Becquerel" title="Becquerel">TBq</a> (20 <a href="/wiki/Curie_(unit)" title="Curie (unit)">curies</a>) of radioactivity.<a href="#cite_note-174">[163]</a> In 2016, the ships <a href="/wiki/MV_Pacific_Egret" title="MV Pacific Egret">Pacific Egret</a><a href="#cite_note-175">[164]</a> and Pacific Heron of Pacific Nuclear Transport Ltd. transported 331 kg (730 lbs) of plutonium to a United States government facility in <a href="/wiki/Savannah_River_Site" title="Savannah River Site">Savannah River</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_Carolina" title="South Carolina">South Carolina</a>.<a href="#cite_note-176">[165]</a><a href="#cite_note-177">[166]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Air">Air</h3></div> U.S. Government air transport regulations permit the transport of plutonium by air, subject to restrictions on other dangerous materials carried on the same flight, packaging requirements, and stowage in the rearmost part of the aircraft.<a href="#cite_note-178">[167]</a> In 2012, media revealed that plutonium has been flown out of Norway on commercial <a href="/wiki/Passenger_airline" class="mw-redirect" title="Passenger airline">passenger airlines</a>—around every other year—including one time in 2011.<a href="#cite_note-klassekampen1-179">[168]</a> Regulations permit a plane to transport 15 grams of fissionable material.<a href="#cite_note-klassekampen1-179">[168]</a> Such plutonium transportation is without problems, according to a senior advisor (seniorrådgiver) at <a href="/wiki/Statens_str%C3%A5levern" class="mw-redirect" title="Statens strålevern">Statens strålevern</a>.<a href="#cite_note-klassekampen1-179">[168]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Footnotes">Footnotes</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> The PuO+ 2 ion is unstable in solution and will disproportionate into Pu4+ and PuO2+ 2; the Pu4+ will then oxidize the remaining PuO+ 2 to PuO2+ 2, being reduced in turn to Pu3+. Thus, aqueous solutions of PuO+ 2 tend over time towards a mixture of Pu3+ and PuO2+ 2. <a href="/wiki/Uranium#Aqueous_chemistry" title="Uranium">UO+ 2</a> is unstable for the same reason.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> This was not the first time somebody suggested that an element be named "plutonium". A decade after <a href="/wiki/Barium" title="Barium">barium</a> was discovered, a Cambridge University professor suggested it be renamed to "plutonium" because the element was not (as suggested by the <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> root, barys, it was named for) heavy. He reasoned that, since it was produced by the relatively new technique of <a href="/wiki/Electrolysis" title="Electrolysis">electrolysis</a>, its name should refer to <a href="/wiki/Fire" title="Fire">fire</a>. Thus he suggested it be named for the Roman god of the underworld, <a href="/wiki/Pluto_(god)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pluto (god)">Pluto</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeiserman1992338-76">[75]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> As one article puts it, referring to information Seaborg gave in a talk: "The obvious choice for the symbol would have been Pl, but facetiously, Seaborg suggested Pu, like the words a child would exclaim, 'Pee-yoo!' when smelling something bad. Seaborg thought that he would receive a great deal of flak over that suggestion, but the naming committee accepted the symbol without a word."<a href="#cite_note-79">[77]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> Room 405 of the <a href="/wiki/George_Herbert_Jones_Laboratory" title="George Herbert Jones Laboratory">George Herbert Jones Laboratory</a>, where the first isolation of plutonium took place, was named a <a href="/wiki/National_Historic_Landmark" title="National Historic Landmark">National Historic Landmark</a> in May 1967. </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> During the Manhattan Project, plutonium was also often referred to as simply "49": the number 4 was for the last digit in 94 (atomic number of plutonium), and 9 was for the last digit in plutonium-239, the weapons-grade fissile isotope used in nuclear bombs.<a href="#cite_note-90">[86]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) established B Reactor as a National Historic Mechanical Engineering Landmark in September 1976.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWahlen19891-95">[90]</a> In August 2008, B Reactor was designated a U.S. <a href="/wiki/National_Historic_Landmark" title="National Historic Landmark">National Historic Landmark</a>.<a href="#cite_note-96">[91]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> The efficiency calculation is based on the fact that 1 kg of plutonium-239 (or uranium-235) fissioning results in an energy release of approximately 17 <a href="/wiki/Kiloton" class="mw-redirect" title="Kiloton">kt</a>, leading to a rounded estimate of 1.2 kg plutonium actually fissioned to produce the 20 kt yield.<a href="#cite_note-105">[99]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> Much of this plutonium was used to make the fissionable cores of a type of thermonuclear weapon employing the <a href="/wiki/Teller%E2%80%93Ulam_design" class="mw-redirect" title="Teller–Ulam design">Teller–Ulam design</a>. These so-called 'hydrogen bombs' are a variety of nuclear weapon that use a fission bomb to trigger the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">nuclear fusion</a> of heavy <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> isotopes. Their destructive yield is commonly in the millions of tons of TNT equivalent compared with the thousands of tons of TNT equivalent of fission-only devices.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmsley2001-111">[104]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Gadolinium_zirconium_oxide&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gadolinium zirconium oxide (page does not exist)">Gadolinium zirconium oxide</a> (Gd 2Zr 2O 7) has been studied because it could hold plutonium for up to 30 million years.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmsley2001-111">[104]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> Breakdown of plutonium in a spent nuclear fuel rod: plutonium-239 (~58%), 240 (24%), 241 (11%), 242 (5%), and 238 (2%).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmsley2001-111">[104]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a> There was a major plutonium-initiated fire at the <a href="/wiki/Rocky_Flats_Plant" title="Rocky Flats Plant">Rocky Flats Plant</a> near <a href="/wiki/Boulder,_Colorado" title="Boulder, Colorado">Boulder, Colorado</a> in 1969.<a href="#cite_note-171">[161]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Arblaster_2018-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Arblaster_2018_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Arblaster_2018_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Arblaster_2018_1-2">c</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFArblaster2018" class="citation book cs1">Arblaster, John W. 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Retrieved November 23, 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Wireless+Information+System+for+Emergency+Responders+%28WISER%29&rft.atitle=Plutonium%2C+Radioactive&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwebwiser.nlm.nih.gov%2FgetSubstanceData.do%3Bjsessionid%3D89B673C34252C77B4C276F2B2D0E4260%3FsubstanceID%3D419%26displaySubstanceName%3DPlutonium%2C%2520Radioactive%26UNNAID%3D%26STCCID%3D%26selectedDataMenuItemID%3D44&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlutonium" class="Z3988"> (public domain text) </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lanl.gov/discover/publications/actinide-research-quarterly/">"Nitric acid processing"</a>. Actinide Research Quarterly (3rd quarter). Los Alamos (NM): Los Alamos National Laboratory. 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160918212329/http://www.lanl.gov/discover/publications/actinide-research-quarterly/">Archived</a> from the original on September 18, 2016. Retrieved February 9, 2010. <q>While plutonium dioxide is normally olive green, samples can be various colors. It is generally believed that the color is a function of chemical purity, stoichiometry, particle size, and method of preparation, although the color resulting from a given preparation method is not always reproducible.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Actinide+Research+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Nitric+acid+processing&rft.issue=3rd+quarter&rft.date=2008&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lanl.gov%2Fdiscover%2Fpublications%2Factinide-research-quarterly%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlutonium" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> visualisation of the crystal structure at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://log-web.de/chemie/Start.htm?name=Pu_alpha&lang=en">log-web.de</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> Babak Sadigh, Per Söderlind, and Wilhelm G. Wolfer (2003): Geometry and electronic structure of δ-Pu: A theoretical study. 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Institute for Energy and Environmental Research. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120214121455/http://www.ieer.org/ensec/no-3/puchange.html">Archived</a> from the original on February 14, 2012. 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The "craft's 125-pound generator [is] called the General Purpose Heat Source-Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator. [It] was stocked with 24 pounds of plutonium that produced about 240 watts of electricity when it left Earth in 2006, according to Ryan Bechtel, an engineer from the Department of Energy who works on space nuclear power. During the Pluto flyby the battery produced 202 watts, Mr. Bechtel said. The power will continue to decrease as the metal decays, but there is enough of it to command the probe for another 20 years, according to Curt Niebur, a NASA program scientist on the New Horizons mission." 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Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-011451-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-011451-5"><bdi>978-3-11-011451-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Concise+Encyclopedia+Chemistry&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-3-11-011451-5&rft.aulast=Eagleson&rft.aufirst=Mary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fconciseencyclope00eagl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlutonium" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEmsley2001" class="citation book cs1">Emsley, John (2001). "Plutonium". Nature's Building Blocks: An A–Z Guide to the Elements. Oxford (UK): Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-850340-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-850340-7"><bdi>0-19-850340-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Plutonium&rft.btitle=Nature%27s+Building+Blocks%3A+An+A%E2%80%93Z+Guide+to+the+Elements&rft.place=Oxford+%28UK%29&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-19-850340-7&rft.aulast=Emsley&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlutonium" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGosling1999" class="citation book cs1">Gosling, F. G. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090224204033/http://www.cfo.doe.gov/me70/manhattan/publications/DE99001330.pdf">The Manhattan Project: Making the Atomic Bomb</a> (PDF). Oak Ridge: United States Department of Energy. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7881-7880-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7881-7880-6"><bdi>0-7881-7880-6</bdi></a>. DOE/MA-0001-01/99. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cfo.doe.gov/me70/manhattan/publications/DE99001330.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on February 24, 2009. 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New York (NY): TAB Books. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/exploringchemica01heis/page/337">337–340</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8306-3018-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-8306-3018-X"><bdi>0-8306-3018-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Element+94%3A+Plutonium&rft.btitle=Exploring+Chemical+Elements+and+their+Compounds&rft.place=New+York+%28NY%29&rft.pages=337-340&rft.pub=TAB+Books&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-8306-3018-X&rft.aulast=Heiserman&rft.aufirst=David+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fexploringchemica01heis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlutonium" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoddesonHenriksenMeadeWestfall1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lillian_Hoddeson" title="Lillian Hoddeson">Hoddeson, Lillian</a>; Henriksen, Paul W.; Meade, Roger A.; <a href="/wiki/Catherine_Westfall" title="Catherine Westfall">Westfall, Catherine L.</a> (1993). 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New York: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-44132-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-44132-3"><bdi>0-521-44132-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/26764320">26764320</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Critical+Assembly%3A+A+Technical+History+of+Los+Alamos+During+the+Oppenheimer+Years%2C+1943%E2%80%931945&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F26764320&rft.isbn=0-521-44132-3&rft.aulast=Hoddeson&rft.aufirst=Lillian&rft.au=Henriksen%2C+Paul+W.&rft.au=Meade%2C+Roger+A.&rft.au=Westfall%2C+Catherine+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlutonium" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHunner2004" class="citation book cs1">Hunner, Jon (2004). Inventing Los Alamos. University of Oklahoma Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-3891-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-3891-6"><bdi>978-0-8061-3891-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Inventing+Los+Alamos&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-8061-3891-6&rft.aulast=Hunner&rft.aufirst=Jon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlutonium" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHurstWard1956" class="citation book cs1">Hurst, D. G.; Ward, A. G. (1956). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scintillators.ru/booc/criticality/reports/ref_066.pdf">Canadian Research Reactors</a> (PDF). 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Boca Raton: CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8493-0487-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-8493-0487-3"><bdi>0-8493-0487-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Chemistry+and+Physics&rft.place=Boca+Raton&rft.edition=87th&rft.pub=CRC+Press%2C+Taylor+%26+Francis+Group&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-8493-0487-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlutonium" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMagurnoPearlstein1981" class="citation book cs1">Magurno, B. A.; Pearlstein, S., eds. (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www-nds.iaea.org/publications/indc/indc_usa_0085_II.pdf">Proceedings of the conference on nuclear data evaluation methods and procedures. BNL-NCS 51363</a> (PDF). Vol. II. Upton: <a href="/wiki/Brookhaven_National_Laboratory" title="Brookhaven National Laboratory">Brookhaven National Laboratory</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210308125416/https://www-nds.iaea.org/publications/indc/indc_usa_0085_II.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on March 8, 2021. Retrieved August 6, 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Proceedings+of+the+conference+on+nuclear+data+evaluation+methods+and+procedures.+BNL-NCS+51363.&rft.place=Upton&rft.pub=Brookhaven+National+Laboratory&rft.date=1981&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww-nds.iaea.org%2Fpublications%2Findc%2Findc_usa_0085_II.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlutonium" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartin2000" class="citation book cs1">Martin, James E. (2000). Physics for Radiation Protection. Wiley-Interscience. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-35373-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-471-35373-6"><bdi>0-471-35373-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Physics+for+Radiation+Protection&rft.pub=Wiley-Interscience&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-471-35373-6&rft.aulast=Martin&rft.aufirst=James+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlutonium" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcLaughlinMonahanPruvost2000" class="citation book cs1">McLaughlin, Thomas P.; Monahan, Shean P.; Pruvost, Norman L. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://library.lanl.gov/cgi-bin/getfile?00314607.pdf">A Review of Criticality Accidents</a> (PDF). Los Alamos: Los Alamos National Laboratory. LA-13638. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170118111722/http://library.lanl.gov/cgi-bin/getfile?00314607.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on January 18, 2017. Retrieved February 6, 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Review+of+Criticality+Accidents&rft.place=Los+Alamos&rft.pub=Los+Alamos+National+Laboratory&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=McLaughlin&rft.aufirst=Thomas+P.&rft.au=Monahan%2C+Shean+P.&rft.au=Pruvost%2C+Norman+L.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flibrary.lanl.gov%2Fcgi-bin%2Fgetfile%3F00314607.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlutonium" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiner1968" class="citation book cs1">Miner, William N.; Schonfeld, Fred W. (1968). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofch00hamp">"Plutonium"</a>. In Clifford A. Hampel (ed.). The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements. New York (NY): Reinhold Book Corporation. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofch00hamp/page/540">540–546</a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/68029938">68029938</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Plutonium&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+the+Chemical+Elements&rft.place=New+York+%28NY%29&rft.pages=540-546&rft.pub=Reinhold+Book+Corporation&rft.date=1968&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F68029938&rft.aulast=Miner&rft.aufirst=William+N.&rft.au=Schonfeld%2C+Fred+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fencyclopediaofch00hamp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlutonium" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoodyHutcheonGrant2005" class="citation book cs1">Moody, Kenton James; Hutcheon, Ian D.; Grant, Patrick M. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=W3FnEOg8tS4C&pg=PA169">Nuclear forensic analysis</a>. CRC Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8493-1513-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-8493-1513-1"><bdi>0-8493-1513-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220106154123/https://books.google.com/books?id=W3FnEOg8tS4C&pg=PA169">Archived</a> from the original on January 6, 2022. Retrieved January 6, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nuclear+forensic+analysis&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-8493-1513-1&rft.aulast=Moody&rft.aufirst=Kenton+James&rft.au=Hutcheon%2C+Ian+D.&rft.au=Grant%2C+Patrick+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DW3FnEOg8tS4C%26pg%3DPA169&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlutonium" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRhodes1986" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Rhodes" title="Richard Rhodes">Rhodes, Richard</a> (1986). <a href="/wiki/The_Making_of_the_Atomic_Bomb" title="The Making of the Atomic Bomb">The Making of the Atomic Bomb</a>. New York: Simon & Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-671-65719-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-671-65719-4"><bdi>0-671-65719-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Making+of+the+Atomic+Bomb&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=0-671-65719-4&rft.aulast=Rhodes&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlutonium" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeaborgSeaborg2001" class="citation book cs1">Seaborg, G. T.; Seaborg, E. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/adventuresinatom00seab">Adventures in the Atomic Age: From Watts to Washington</a>. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-374-29991-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-374-29991-9"><bdi>0-374-29991-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Adventures+in+the+Atomic+Age%3A+From+Watts+to+Washington&rft.pub=Farrar%2C+Straus+and+Giroux&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-374-29991-9&rft.aulast=Seaborg&rft.aufirst=G.+T.&rft.au=Seaborg%2C+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fadventuresinatom00seab&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlutonium" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSklar1984" class="citation book cs1">Sklar, Morty (1984). Nuke-Rebuke: Writers & Artists Against Nuclear Energy & Weapons. The Contemporary anthology series. The Spirit That Moves Us Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nuke-Rebuke%3A+Writers+%26+Artists+Against+Nuclear+Energy+%26+Weapons&rft.series=The+Contemporary+anthology+series&rft.pub=The+Spirit+That+Moves+Us+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.aulast=Sklar&rft.aufirst=Morty&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlutonium" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStockholm_International_Peace_Research_Institute2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stockholm_International_Peace_Research_Institute" title="Stockholm International Peace Research Institute">Stockholm International Peace Research Institute</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2M0C6SERFG0C&pg=PA567">SIPRI Yearbook 2007: Armaments, Disarmament, and International Security</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-923021-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-923021-1"><bdi>978-0-19-923021-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220106154122/https://books.google.com/books?id=2M0C6SERFG0C&pg=PA567">Archived</a> from the original on January 6, 2022. Retrieved January 6, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=SIPRI+Yearbook+2007%3A+Armaments%2C+Disarmament%2C+and+International+Security&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-19-923021-1&rft.au=Stockholm+International+Peace+Research+Institute&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2M0C6SERFG0C%26pg%3DPA567&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlutonium" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTillChang2011" class="citation book cs1">Till, C. E.; Chang, Y. I. (2011). Plentiful Energy: The Story of the Integral Fast Reactor, the Complex History of a Simple Reactor Technology, with Emphasis on Its Scientific Basis for Non-specialists. Charles E. Till and Yoon Il Chang. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4663-8460-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4663-8460-6"><bdi>978-1-4663-8460-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Plentiful+Energy%3A+The+Story+of+the+Integral+Fast+Reactor%2C+the+Complex+History+of+a+Simple+Reactor+Technology%2C+with+Emphasis+on+Its+Scientific+Basis+for+Non-specialists&rft.pub=Charles+E.+Till+and+Yoon+Il+Chang&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-4663-8460-6&rft.aulast=Till&rft.aufirst=C.+E.&rft.au=Chang%2C+Y.+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlutonium" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWahlen1989" class="citation book cs1">Wahlen, R. K. (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090327001116/http://www.hanford.gov/doe/history/files/HistoryofBArea.pdf">History of 100-B Area</a> (PDF). Richland, Washington: Westinghouse Hanford Company. WHC-EP-0273. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hanford.gov/doe/history/files/HistoryofBArea.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on March 27, 2009. Retrieved February 15, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+100-B+Area&rft.place=Richland%2C+Washington&rft.pub=Westinghouse+Hanford+Company&rft.date=1989&rft.aulast=Wahlen&rft.aufirst=R.+K.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hanford.gov%2Fdoe%2Fhistory%2Ffiles%2FHistoryofBArea.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlutonium" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWelsome2000" class="citation book cs1">Welsome, Eileen (2000). The Plutonium Files: America's Secret Medical Experiments in the Cold War. New York: Random House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-385-31954-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-385-31954-1"><bdi>0-385-31954-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Plutonium+Files%3A+America%27s+Secret+Medical+Experiments+in+the+Cold+War&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-385-31954-1&rft.aulast=Welsome&rft.aufirst=Eileen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlutonium" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235611614">.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);margin:0.5em 0;padding:0.2em;line-height:1.5em;font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-header{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-listen-to{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-files{text-align:center;margin-top:10px;margin-bottom:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-icon{float:left;margin-left:5px;margin-top:10px}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-disclaimer{margin-left:60px;margin-top:10px;font-size:95%;line-height:1.4em}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-footer{margin-top:10px;text-align:center}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia{width:20em;float:right;clear:right;margin-left:1em}}</style><div class="spoken-wikipedia noprint haudio"><div class="spoken-wikipedia-header">Listen to this article (45 minutes)</div><div class="spoken-wikipedia-files"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="200" style="width:200px;" data-durationhint="2722" data-mwtitle="Plutonium.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c0/Plutonium.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/c0/Plutonium.ogg/Plutonium.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio><figcaption></figcaption></figure> </div><div class="spoken-wikipedia-icon"><img alt="Spoken Wikipedia icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sound-icon.svg/45px-Sound-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="45" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sound-icon.svg/68px-Sound-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sound-icon.svg/90px-Sound-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="96" /></div><div class="spoken-wikipedia-disclaimer"><a href="/wiki/File:Plutonium.ogg" title="File:Plutonium.ogg">This audio file</a> was created from a revision of this article dated 18 July 2009 (2009-07-18), and does not reflect subsequent edits.</div><div class="spoken-wikipedia-footer">(<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Media_help" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Media help">Audio help</a> · <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Spoken_articles" title="Wikipedia:Spoken articles">More spoken articles</a>)</div></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090203184521/http://alsos.wlu.edu/qsearch.aspx?browse=science%2FPlutonium">"Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues – Plutonium"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Washington_and_Lee_University" title="Washington and Lee University">Washington and Lee University</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://alsos.wlu.edu/qsearch.aspx?browse=science/Plutonium">the original</a> on February 3, 2009. Retrieved February 15, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Alsos+Digital+Library+for+Nuclear+Issues+%E2%80%93+Plutonium&rft.pub=Washington+and+Lee+University&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Falsos.wlu.edu%2Fqsearch.aspx%3Fbrowse%3Dscience%2FPlutonium&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlutonium" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSutcliffe1995" class="citation web cs1">Sutcliffe, W. G.; et al. (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060929015050/http://www.llnl.gov/csts/publications/sutcliffe/">"A Perspective on the Dangers of Plutonium"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Livermore_National_Laboratory" title="Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory">Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.llnl.gov/csts/publications/sutcliffe/">the original</a> on September 29, 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+Perspective+on+the+Dangers+of+Plutonium&rft.pub=Lawrence+Livermore+National+Laboratory&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Sutcliffe&rft.aufirst=W.+G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.llnl.gov%2Fcsts%2Fpublications%2Fsutcliffe%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlutonium" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ieer.org/fctsheet/pu-props.html">"Physical, Nuclear, and Chemical, Properties of Plutonium"</a>. <a href="/wiki/IEER" class="mw-redirect" title="IEER">IEER</a>. 2005. Retrieved February 15, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Physical%2C+Nuclear%2C+and+Chemical%2C+Properties+of+Plutonium&rft.pub=IEER&rft.date=2005&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ieer.org%2Ffctsheet%2Fpu-props.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlutonium" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://discover.lanl.gov/publications/actinide-research-quarterly/first-quarter-2022/shining-light-on-a-dark-element/">"A History of Plutonium"</a>. Los Alamos National Laboratory. Retrieved July 8, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Plutonium&rft.pub=Los+Alamos+National+Laboratory&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdiscover.lanl.gov%2Fpublications%2Factinide-research-quarterly%2Ffirst-quarter-2022%2Fshining-light-on-a-dark-element%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlutonium" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBhadeshia" class="citation web cs1">Bhadeshia, H. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.msm.cam.ac.uk/phase-trans/2006/Plutonium/Plutonium.html">"Plutonium crystallography"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Plutonium+crystallography&rft.aulast=Bhadeshia&rft.aufirst=H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.msm.cam.ac.uk%2Fphase-trans%2F2006%2FPlutonium%2FPlutonium.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlutonium" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSamuels2005" class="citation journal cs1">Samuels, D. 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(1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140805165417/http://www.nuclearfiles.org/menu/key-issues/nuclear-energy/issues/world-plutonium-inventories-ong.htm">"World Plutonium Inventories"</a>. Nuclear Files.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nuclearfiles.org/menu/key-issues/nuclear-energy/issues/world-plutonium-inventories-ong.htm">the original</a> on August 5, 2014. Retrieved February 15, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=World+Plutonium+Inventories&rft.pub=Nuclear+Files.org&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Ong&rft.aufirst=C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nuclearfiles.org%2Fmenu%2Fkey-issues%2Fnuclear-energy%2Fissues%2Fworld-plutonium-inventories-ong.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlutonium" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fas.org/sgp/othergov/doe/lanl/pubs/number26.htm">"Challenges in Plutonium Science"</a>. Los Alamos Science. I & II (26). 2000. Retrieved February 15, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Los+Alamos+Science&rft.atitle=Challenges+in+Plutonium+Science&rft.volume=I+%26+II&rft.issue=26&rft.date=2000&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffas.org%2Fsgp%2Fothergov%2Fdoe%2Flanl%2Fpubs%2Fnumber26.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlutonium" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rsc.org/images/CIIE_plutonium_48kbps_tcm18-121120.MP3">"Plutonium"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society_of_Chemistry" title="Royal Society of Chemistry">Royal Society of Chemistry</a>. Retrieved February 6, 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Plutonium&rft.pub=Royal+Society+of+Chemistry&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rsc.org%2Fimages%2FCIIE_plutonium_48kbps_tcm18-121120.MP3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlutonium" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.periodicvideos.com/videos/094.htm">"Plutonium"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Periodic_Table_of_Videos" class="mw-redirect" title="The Periodic Table of Videos">The Periodic Table of Videos</a>. University of Nottingham. Retrieved February 6, 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Plutonium&rft.series=The+Periodic+Table+of+Videos&rft.pub=University+of+Nottingham&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.periodicvideos.com%2Fvideos%2F094.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlutonium" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aI8VyCZlkwA">Plutonium Fuel Fabrication by Argonne National Laboratory</a> on <a href="/wiki/YouTube_video_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="YouTube video (identifier)">YouTube</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output 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href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/Plutonium" class="extiw" title="wikt:Special:Search/Plutonium">Definitions</a> from Wiktionary</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/14px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/21px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/28px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Plutonium" class="extiw" title="c:Plutonium">Media</a> from Commons</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/19px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" 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style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <table style="table-layout:fixed; width:100%;" aria-describedby="periodic-table-legend"> <tbody><tr> <td style="line-height:100%;"> </td> <th scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Alkali_metal" title="Alkali metal">1</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Alkaline_earth_metal" title="Alkaline earth metal">2</a> </th> <td colspan="14"> </td> <th scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Group_3_element" title="Group 3 element">3</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Group_4_element" title="Group 4 element">4</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Group_5_element" title="Group 5 element">5</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Group_6_element" title="Group 6 element">6</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Group_7_element" title="Group 7 element">7</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Group_8_element" title="Group 8 element">8</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Group_9_element" title="Group 9 element">9</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Group_10_element" title="Group 10 element">10</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Group_11_element" title="Group 11 element">11</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Group_12_element" title="Group 12 element">12</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Boron_group" title="Boron group">13</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Carbon_group" title="Carbon group">14</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Pnictogen" title="Pnictogen">15</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chalcogen" title="Chalcogen">16</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Halogen" title="Halogen">17</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Noble_gas" title="Noble gas">18</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Period_1_element" title="Period 1 element">1</a> </th> <td title="H, Hydrogen" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">H</a> </td> <td colspan="30"> </td> <td title="He, Helium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">He</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Period_2_element" title="Period 2 element">2</a> </th> <td title="Li, Lithium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Lithium" title="Lithium">Li</a> </td> <td title="Be, Beryllium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Beryllium" title="Beryllium">Be</a> </td> <td colspan="24"> </td> <td title="B, Boron" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Boron" title="Boron">B</a> </td> <td title="C, Carbon" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">C</a> </td> <td title="N, Nitrogen" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">N</a> </td> <td title="O, Oxygen" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">O</a> </td> <td title="F, Fluorine" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Fluorine" title="Fluorine">F</a> </td> <td title="Ne, Neon" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Neon" title="Neon">Ne</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Period_3_element" title="Period 3 element">3</a> </th> <td title="Na, Sodium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium">Na</a> </td> <td title="Mg, Magnesium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">Mg</a> </td> <td colspan="24"> </td> <td title="Al, Aluminium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium">Al</a> </td> <td title="Si, Silicon" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">Si</a> </td> <td title="P, Phosphorus" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus">P</a> </td> <td title="S, Sulfur" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">S</a> </td> <td title="Cl, Chlorine" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine">Cl</a> </td> <td title="Ar, Argon" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Argon" title="Argon">Ar</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Period_4_element" title="Period 4 element">4</a> </th> <td title="K, Potassium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Potassium" title="Potassium">K</a> </td> <td title="Ca, Calcium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">Ca</a> </td> <td colspan="14"> </td> <td title="Sc, Scandium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Scandium" title="Scandium">Sc</a> </td> <td title="Ti, Titanium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Titanium" title="Titanium">Ti</a> </td> <td title="V, Vanadium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Vanadium" title="Vanadium">V</a> </td> <td title="Cr, Chromium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Chromium" title="Chromium">Cr</a> </td> <td title="Mn, Manganese" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Manganese" title="Manganese">Mn</a> </td> <td title="Fe, Iron" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">Fe</a> </td> <td title="Co, Cobalt" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Cobalt" title="Cobalt">Co</a> </td> <td title="Ni, Nickel" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">Ni</a> </td> <td title="Cu, Copper" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">Cu</a> </td> <td title="Zn, Zinc" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">Zn</a> </td> <td title="Ga, Gallium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Gallium" title="Gallium">Ga</a> </td> <td title="Ge, Germanium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium">Ge</a> </td> <td title="As, Arsenic" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Arsenic" title="Arsenic">As</a> </td> <td title="Se, Selenium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Selenium" title="Selenium">Se</a> </td> <td title="Br, Bromine" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Bromine" title="Bromine">Br</a> </td> <td title="Kr, Krypton" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Krypton" title="Krypton">Kr</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Period_5_element" title="Period 5 element">5</a> </th> <td title="Rb, Rubidium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Rubidium" title="Rubidium">Rb</a> </td> <td title="Sr, Strontium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Strontium" title="Strontium">Sr</a> </td> <td colspan="14"> </td> <td title="Y, Yttrium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Yttrium" title="Yttrium">Y</a> </td> <td title="Zr, Zirconium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Zirconium" title="Zirconium">Zr</a> </td> <td title="Nb, Niobium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Niobium" title="Niobium">Nb</a> </td> <td title="Mo, Molybdenum" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Molybdenum" title="Molybdenum">Mo</a> </td> <td title="Tc, Technetium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Technetium" title="Technetium">Tc</a> </td> <td title="Ru, Ruthenium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Ruthenium" title="Ruthenium">Ru</a> </td> <td title="Rh, Rhodium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Rhodium" title="Rhodium">Rh</a> </td> <td title="Pd, Palladium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Palladium" title="Palladium">Pd</a> </td> <td title="Ag, Silver" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">Ag</a> </td> <td title="Cd, Cadmium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Cadmium" title="Cadmium">Cd</a> </td> <td title="In, Indium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Indium" title="Indium">In</a> </td> <td title="Sn, Tin" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">Sn</a> </td> <td title="Sb, Antimony" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Antimony" title="Antimony">Sb</a> </td> <td title="Te, Tellurium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Tellurium" title="Tellurium">Te</a> </td> <td title="I, Iodine" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Iodine" title="Iodine">I</a> </td> <td title="Xe, Xenon" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Xenon" title="Xenon">Xe</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Period_6_element" title="Period 6 element">6</a> </th> <td title="Cs, Caesium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Caesium" title="Caesium">Cs</a> </td> <td title="Ba, Barium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Barium" title="Barium">Ba</a> </td> <td title="La, Lanthanum" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Lanthanum" title="Lanthanum">La</a> </td> <td title="Ce, Cerium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Cerium" title="Cerium">Ce</a> </td> <td title="Pr, Praseodymium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Praseodymium" title="Praseodymium">Pr</a> </td> <td title="Nd, Neodymium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Neodymium" title="Neodymium">Nd</a> </td> <td title="Pm, Promethium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Promethium" title="Promethium">Pm</a> </td> <td title="Sm, Samarium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Samarium" title="Samarium">Sm</a> </td> <td title="Eu, Europium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Europium" title="Europium">Eu</a> </td> <td title="Gd, Gadolinium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Gadolinium" title="Gadolinium">Gd</a> </td> <td title="Tb, Terbium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Terbium" title="Terbium">Tb</a> </td> <td title="Dy, Dysprosium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Dysprosium" title="Dysprosium">Dy</a> </td> <td title="Ho, Holmium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Holmium" title="Holmium">Ho</a> </td> <td title="Er, Erbium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Erbium" title="Erbium">Er</a> </td> <td title="Tm, Thulium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Thulium" title="Thulium">Tm</a> </td> <td title="Yb, Ytterbium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Ytterbium" title="Ytterbium">Yb</a> </td> <td title="Lu, Lutetium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Lutetium" title="Lutetium">Lu</a> </td> <td title="Hf, Hafnium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Hafnium" title="Hafnium">Hf</a> </td> <td title="Ta, Tantalum" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Tantalum" title="Tantalum">Ta</a> </td> <td title="W, Tungsten" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Tungsten" title="Tungsten">W</a> </td> <td title="Re, Rhenium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Rhenium" title="Rhenium">Re</a> </td> <td title="Os, Osmium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Osmium" title="Osmium">Os</a> </td> <td title="Ir, Iridium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Iridium" title="Iridium">Ir</a> </td> <td title="Pt, Platinum" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Platinum" title="Platinum">Pt</a> </td> <td title="Au, Gold" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">Au</a> </td> <td title="Hg, Mercury" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">Hg</a> </td> <td title="Tl, Thallium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Thallium" title="Thallium">Tl</a> </td> <td title="Pb, Lead" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">Pb</a> </td> <td title="Bi, Bismuth" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Bismuth" title="Bismuth">Bi</a> </td> <td title="Po, Polonium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Polonium" title="Polonium">Po</a> </td> <td title="At, Astatine" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Astatine" title="Astatine">At</a> </td> <td title="Rn, Radon" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Radon" title="Radon">Rn</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Period_7_element" title="Period 7 element">7</a> </th> <td title="Fr, Francium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Francium" title="Francium">Fr</a> </td> <td title="Ra, Radium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Radium" title="Radium">Ra</a> </td> <td title="Ac, Actinium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Actinium" title="Actinium">Ac</a> </td> <td title="Th, Thorium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium">Th</a> </td> <td title="Pa, Protactinium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Protactinium" title="Protactinium">Pa</a> </td> <td title="U, Uranium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">U</a> </td> <td title="Np, Neptunium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Neptunium" title="Neptunium">Np</a> </td> <td title="Pu, Plutonium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:3px solid black; ;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Pu</a> </td> <td title="Am, Americium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Americium" title="Americium">Am</a> </td> <td title="Cm, Curium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Curium" title="Curium">Cm</a> </td> <td title="Bk, Berkelium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Berkelium" title="Berkelium">Bk</a> </td> <td title="Cf, Californium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Californium" title="Californium">Cf</a> </td> <td title="Es, Einsteinium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Einsteinium" title="Einsteinium">Es</a> </td> <td title="Fm, Fermium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Fermium" title="Fermium">Fm</a> </td> <td title="Md, Mendelevium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Mendelevium" title="Mendelevium">Md</a> </td> <td title="No, Nobelium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Nobelium" title="Nobelium">No</a> </td> <td title="Lr, Lawrencium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Lawrencium" title="Lawrencium">Lr</a> </td> <td title="Rf, Rutherfordium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Rutherfordium" title="Rutherfordium">Rf</a> </td> <td title="Db, Dubnium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Dubnium" title="Dubnium">Db</a> </td> <td title="Sg, Seaborgium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Seaborgium" title="Seaborgium">Sg</a> </td> <td title="Bh, Bohrium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Bohrium" title="Bohrium">Bh</a> </td> <td title="Hs, Hassium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Hassium" title="Hassium">Hs</a> </td> <td title="Mt, Meitnerium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Meitnerium" title="Meitnerium">Mt</a> </td> <td title="Ds, Darmstadtium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Darmstadtium" title="Darmstadtium">Ds</a> </td> <td title="Rg, Roentgenium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Roentgenium" title="Roentgenium">Rg</a> </td> <td title="Cn, Copernicium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Copernicium" title="Copernicium">Cn</a> </td> <td title="Nh, Nihonium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Nihonium" title="Nihonium">Nh</a> </td> <td title="Fl, Flerovium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Flerovium" title="Flerovium">Fl</a> </td> <td title="Mc, Moscovium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Moscovium" title="Moscovium">Mc</a> </td> <td title="Lv, Livermorium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Livermorium" title="Livermorium">Lv</a> </td> <td title="Ts, Tennessine" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Tennessine" title="Tennessine">Ts</a> </td> <td title="Og, Oganesson" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Oganesson" title="Oganesson">Og</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div role="presentation" id="periodic-table-legend" style="border: 1px solid #a2a9b1; width:100%; line-height:120%; text-align:center; vertical-align:top; background:#f8f8f8; margin:0; margin:0;"><div style="padding:0.3em;"> <table style="width:100%; line-height:1.2em; table-layout:fixed; overflow:hidden; text-align:center;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="padding:0 1px; background:#ff9999;"><a href="/wiki/S-block" class="mw-redirect" title="S-block">s-block</a> </td> <td style="padding:0 1px; background:#9bff99;"><a href="/wiki/F-block" class="mw-redirect" title="F-block">f-block</a> </td> <td style="padding:0 1px; background:#99ccff;"><a href="/wiki/D-block" class="mw-redirect" title="D-block">d-block</a> </td> <td style="padding:0 1px; background:#fdff8c;"><a href="/wiki/P-block" class="mw-redirect" title="P-block">p-block</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> </div> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Main_isotopes_of_plutonium" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Isotopes_of_plutonium" title="Template:Isotopes of plutonium"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Isotopes_of_plutonium" title="Template talk:Isotopes of plutonium"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Isotopes_of_plutonium" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Isotopes of plutonium"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Main_isotopes_of_plutonium" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Main <a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_plutonium" title="Isotopes of plutonium">isotopes of plutonium</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plutonium-238" title="Plutonium-238">238Pu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutonium-239" title="Plutonium-239">239Pu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutonium-240" title="Plutonium-240">240Pu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutonium-241" title="Plutonium-241">241Pu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutonium-242" title="Plutonium-242">242Pu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutonium-244" title="Plutonium-244">244Pu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Plutonium_compounds" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Plutonium_compounds" title="Template:Plutonium compounds"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Plutonium_compounds" title="Template talk:Plutonium compounds"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Plutonium_compounds" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Plutonium compounds"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Plutonium_compounds" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Plutonium_compounds" title="Plutonium compounds">Plutonium compounds</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Plutonium(II)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plutonium_hydride" title="Plutonium hydride">PuH2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutonium_borides" title="Plutonium borides">PuB2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutonium_selenide" title="Plutonium selenide">PuSe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutonium_silicide" title="Plutonium silicide">PuSi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Plutonium(III)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plutonium(III)_arsenide" title="Plutonium(III) arsenide">PuAs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutonium_hydride" title="Plutonium hydride">PuH3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutonium(III)_phosphide" title="Plutonium(III) phosphide">PuP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutonium_borides" title="Plutonium borides">PuB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutonium(III)_fluoride" title="Plutonium(III) fluoride">PuF3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutonium(III)_chloride" title="Plutonium(III) chloride">PuCl3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutonium(III)_bromide" title="Plutonium(III) bromide">PuBr3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutonium(III)_iodide" title="Plutonium(III) iodide">PuI3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutonium_nitride" title="Plutonium nitride">PuN</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Plutonium(IV)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plutonium_carbide" title="Plutonium carbide">PuC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutonium(IV)_nitrate" title="Plutonium(IV) nitrate">Pu(NO3)4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutonium_tetrafluoride" title="Plutonium tetrafluoride">PuF4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutonium(IV)_oxide" title="Plutonium(IV) oxide">PuO2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutonium(IV)_iodate" title="Plutonium(IV) iodate">Pu(IO3)4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutonocene" title="Plutonocene">Pu(C8H8)2</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Plutonium(V)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plutonium_pentafluoride" title="Plutonium pentafluoride">PuF5</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Xenon_hexafluoroplutonate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Xenon hexafluoroplutonate (page does not exist)">XePuF6</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Plutonium(VI)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plutonium_hexafluoride" title="Plutonium hexafluoride">PuF6</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Plutonium(VIII)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plutonium_tetraoxide&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Plutonium tetraoxide (page does not exist)">PuO4</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Nuclear_technology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist ｜ above = * [[Outline of nuclear technology|Outline]] mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nuclear_technology" title="Template:Nuclear technology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nuclear_technology" title="Template talk:Nuclear technology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nuclear_technology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nuclear technology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Nuclear_technology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_technology" title="Nuclear technology">Nuclear technology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Science</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_chemistry" title="Nuclear chemistry">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_engineering" title="Nuclear engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">Physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">Atomic nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">Fission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">Fusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation" title="Radiation">Radiation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ionizing_radiation" title="Ionizing radiation">ionizing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bremsstrahlung" title="Bremsstrahlung">braking</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fuel" title="Nuclear fuel">Fuel</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium">Tritium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">Deuterium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helium-3" title="Helium-3">Helium-3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fertile_material" title="Fertile material">Fertile material</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fissile_material" title="Fissile material">Fissile material</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isotope_separation" title="Isotope separation">Isotope separation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_material" title="Nuclear material">Nuclear material</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">Uranium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enriched_uranium" title="Enriched uranium">enriched</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depleted_uranium" title="Depleted uranium">depleted</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Plutonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium">Thorium</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">Neutron</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_activation" title="Neutron activation">Activation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_capture" title="Neutron capture">Capture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_poison" title="Neutron poison">Poison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_cross_section" title="Neutron cross section">Cross section</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_generator" title="Neutron generator">Generator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_radiation" title="Neutron radiation">Radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_reflector" title="Neutron reflector">Reflector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_temperature" title="Neutron temperature">Temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_neutron" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal neutron">Thermal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fast_neutron" class="mw-redirect" title="Fast neutron">Fast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron#Fusion_neutrons" title="Neutron">Fusion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">Power</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_by_country" title="Nuclear power by country">by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_plant" title="Nuclear power plant">Power plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_of_nuclear_power_plants" title="Economics of nuclear power plants">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_and_radiation_accidents_and_incidents" title="Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents">Accidents and incidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_policy" title="Nuclear energy policy">Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fusion_power" title="Fusion power">Fusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioisotope_thermoelectric_generator" title="Radioisotope thermoelectric generator">Radioisotope thermoelectric (RTG)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Multi-mission_radioisotope_thermoelectric_generator" title="Multi-mission radioisotope thermoelectric generator">MMRTG</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_propulsion" title="Nuclear propulsion">Propulsion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_thermal_rocket" title="Nuclear thermal rocket">rocket</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_safety_and_security" title="Nuclear safety and security">Safety and security</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_meltdown" title="Nuclear meltdown">Nuclear meltdown</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_medicine" title="Nuclear medicine">Medicine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.0em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Medical_imaging" title="Medical imaging">Imaging</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autoradiograph" title="Autoradiograph">Autoradiograph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RadBall" title="RadBall">RadBall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scintigraphy" title="Scintigraphy">Scintigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single-photon_emission_computed_tomography" title="Single-photon emission computed tomography">Single-photon emission (SPECT)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positron_emission_tomography" title="Positron emission tomography">Positron-emission tomography (PET)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.0em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Radiation_therapy" title="Radiation therapy">Therapy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fast_neutron_therapy" title="Fast neutron therapy">Fast-neutron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_capture_therapy_of_cancer" title="Neutron capture therapy of cancer">Neutron capture therapy of cancer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Targeted_alpha-particle_therapy" title="Targeted alpha-particle therapy">Targeted alpha-particle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proton_therapy" title="Proton therapy">Proton-beam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tomotherapy" title="Tomotherapy">Tomotherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brachytherapy" title="Brachytherapy">Brachytherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiosurgery" title="Radiosurgery">Radiosurgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiopharmacology" title="Radiopharmacology">Radiopharmacology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Irradiation" title="Irradiation">Processing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_gardening" title="Atomic gardening">Atomic gardening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electron-beam_processing" title="Electron-beam processing">Electron-beam processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_irradiation" title="Food irradiation">Food irradiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemstone_irradiation" title="Gemstone irradiation">Gemstone irradiation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">Weapons</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.0em;font-weight:normal;">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_arms_race" title="Nuclear arms race">Arms race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_delivery" title="Nuclear weapons delivery">Delivery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon_design" title="Nuclear weapon design">Design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_disarmament" title="Nuclear disarmament">Disarmament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_ethics" title="Nuclear ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_explosion" title="Nuclear explosion">Explosion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_nuclear_explosions" title="Effects of nuclear explosions">effects</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_nuclear_weapons" title="History of nuclear weapons">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_proliferation" title="Nuclear proliferation">Proliferation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_testing" title="Nuclear weapons testing">Testing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/High-altitude_nuclear_explosion" title="High-altitude nuclear explosion">high-altitude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_nuclear_weapons_testing" title="Underground nuclear weapons testing">underground</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_warfare" title="Nuclear warfare">Warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon_yield" title="Nuclear weapon yield">Yield</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/TNT_equivalent" title="TNT equivalent">TNTe</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.0em;font-weight:normal;">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_states_with_nuclear_weapons" title="List of states with nuclear weapons">States with nuclear weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_nuclear_weapons_stockpiles_and_nuclear_tests_by_country" title="Historical nuclear weapons stockpiles and nuclear tests by country">Historical stockpiles and tests</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_weapons_tests" title="List of nuclear weapons tests">Tests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_weapons_tests_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="List of nuclear weapons tests of the United States">Tests in the United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_weapons_of_mass_destruction_treaties" title="List of weapons of mass destruction treaties">WMD treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear-weapon-free_zone" title="Nuclear-weapon-free zone">Weapon-free zones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_weapons" title="List of nuclear weapons">Weapons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_waste" title="Radioactive waste">Waste</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.0em;font-weight:normal;">Products</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actinide" title="Actinide">Actinide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reprocessed_uranium" title="Reprocessed uranium">Reprocessed uranium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reactor-grade_plutonium" title="Reactor-grade plutonium">Reactor-grade plutonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minor_actinide" title="Minor actinide">Minor actinide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Activation_product" title="Activation product">Activation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission_product" title="Nuclear fission product">Fission</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Long-lived_fission_product" title="Long-lived fission product">LLFP</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Actinide_chemistry" title="Actinide chemistry">Actinide chemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.0em;font-weight:normal;">Disposal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fuel_cycle" title="Nuclear fuel cycle">Fuel cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-level_waste" title="High-level waste">High-level (HLW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-level_waste" title="Low-level waste">Low-level (LLW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_decommissioning" title="Nuclear decommissioning">Nuclear decommissioning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_geological_repository" title="Deep geological repository">Repository</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reprocessing" title="Nuclear reprocessing">Reprocessing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spent_nuclear_fuel" title="Spent nuclear fuel">Spent fuel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spent_fuel_pool" title="Spent fuel pool">pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dry_cask_storage" title="Dry cask storage">cask</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_transmutation" title="Nuclear transmutation">Transmutation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Debate</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_debate" title="Nuclear power debate">Nuclear power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_debate" title="Nuclear weapons debate">Nuclear weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue_Ribbon_Commission_on_America%27s_Nuclear_Future" title="Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future">Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement" title="Anti-nuclear movement">Anti-nuclear movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranium_mining_debate" title="Uranium mining debate">Uranium mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_phase-out" title="Nuclear power phase-out">Nuclear power phase-out</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Nuclear_reactors" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">Nuclear reactors</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Fission" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor#Fission" title="Nuclear reactor">Fission</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div style="float: left;"><a href="/wiki/Neutron_moderator" title="Neutron moderator">Moderator</a></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Light-water_reactor" title="Light-water reactor">Light water</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aqueous_homogeneous_reactor" title="Aqueous homogeneous reactor">Aqueous homogeneous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boiling_water_reactor" title="Boiling water reactor">Boiling</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/GE_BWR" title="GE BWR">BWR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_boiling_water_reactor" title="Advanced boiling water reactor">ABWR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_Simplified_Boiling_Water_Reactor" title="Economic Simplified Boiling Water Reactor">ESBWR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerena_boiling_water_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Kerena boiling water reactor">Kerena</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_nuclear_fission_reactor" title="Natural nuclear fission reactor">Natural fission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pressurized_water_reactor" title="Pressurized water reactor">Pressurized</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AP1000" title="AP1000">AP1000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/APR-1400" title="APR-1400">APR-1400</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/APR%2B" class="mw-redirect" title="APR+">APR+</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/APWR" class="mw-redirect" title="APWR">APWR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ATMEA1" class="mw-redirect" title="ATMEA1">ATMEA1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CAP1400" title="CAP1400">CAP1400</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CPR-1000" title="CPR-1000">CPR-1000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EPR_(nuclear_reactor)" title="EPR (nuclear reactor)">EPR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hualong_One" title="Hualong One">HPR-1000</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ACPR1000" class="mw-redirect" title="ACPR1000">ACPR1000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ACP1000" class="mw-redirect" title="ACP1000">ACP1000</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VVER" title="VVER">VVER</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IPWR-900" title="IPWR-900">IPWR-900</a></li> <li>many others</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supercritical_water_reactor" title="Supercritical water reactor">Supercritical (SCWR)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Heavy-water_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Heavy-water reactor">Heavy water</a> by <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor_coolant" title="Nuclear reactor coolant">coolant</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;;background:whitesmoke;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Deuterium_oxide" class="mw-redirect" title="Deuterium oxide">D2O</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pressurized_heavy-water_reactor" title="Pressurized heavy-water reactor">Pressurized</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/CANDU_reactor" title="CANDU reactor">CANDU</a> <ul><li>CANDU 6</li> <li>CANDU 9</li> <li>EC6</li> <li>AFCR</li> <li><a href="/wiki/ACR-1000" class="mw-redirect" title="ACR-1000">ACR-1000</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carolinas%E2%80%93Virginia_Tube_Reactor" title="Carolinas–Virginia Tube Reactor">CVTR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IPHWR" title="IPHWR">IPHWR</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/IPHWR-220" title="IPHWR-220">IPHWR-220</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IPHWR#IPHWR-540" title="IPHWR">IPHWR-540</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IPHWR-700" title="IPHWR-700">IPHWR-700</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_in_Argentina" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear energy in Argentina">PHWR KWU</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=MZFR&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MZFR (page does not exist)">MZFR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%85gestaverket" class="mw-redirect" title="Ågestaverket">R3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R4_nuclear_reactor" title="R4 nuclear reactor">R4 Marviken</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/H2O" class="mw-redirect" title="H2O">H2O</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=HWLWR&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="HWLWR (page does not exist)">HWLWR</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fugen_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Fugen Nuclear Power Plant">ATR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gentilly_Nuclear_Generating_Station#Gentilly-1" title="Gentilly Nuclear Generating Station">HW BLWR 250</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steam-generating_heavy_water_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Steam-generating heavy water reactor">Steam-generating (SGHWR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_heavy-water_reactor" title="Advanced heavy-water reactor">AHWR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Organic_matter" title="Organic matter">Organic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/WR-1" title="WR-1">WR-1</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">CO2</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=HWGCR&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="HWGCR (page does not exist)">HWGCR</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brennilis_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Brennilis Nuclear Power Plant">EL-4</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kernkraftwerk_Niederaichbach&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kernkraftwerk Niederaichbach (page does not exist)">KKN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KS_150" title="KS 150">KS 150</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucens_reactor" title="Lucens reactor">Lucens</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Graphite-moderated_reactor" title="Graphite-moderated reactor">Graphite</a> by <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor_coolant" title="Nuclear reactor coolant">coolant</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Water</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="H2O" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:2.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/H2O" class="mw-redirect" title="H2O">H2O</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Obninsk_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Obninsk Nuclear Power Plant">AM-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beloyarsk_Nuclear_Power_Station#Early_reactors" title="Beloyarsk Nuclear Power Station">AMB-X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EGP-6" title="EGP-6">EGP-6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RBMK" title="RBMK">RBMK</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Gas-cooled_reactor" title="Gas-cooled reactor">Gas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:2.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">CO2</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/UNGG_reactor" title="UNGG reactor">Uranium Naturel Graphite Gaz (UNGG)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnox" title="Magnox">Magnox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_Gas-cooled_Reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Advanced Gas-cooled Reactor">Advanced gas-cooled (AGR)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:2.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">He</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gas_turbine_modular_helium_reactor" title="Gas turbine modular helium reactor">GTMHR</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=MHR-T&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MHR-T (page does not exist)">MHR-T</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UHTREX" title="UHTREX">UHTREX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Very-high-temperature_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Very-high-temperature reactor">VHTR (HTGR)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pebble-bed_reactor" title="Pebble-bed reactor">PBR (PBMR)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AVR_reactor" title="AVR reactor">AVR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HTR-10" title="HTR-10">HTR-10</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HTR-PM" title="HTR-PM">HTR-PM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/THTR-300" title="THTR-300">THTR-300</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prismatic_block_reactor&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Prismatic block reactor (page does not exist)">PMR</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Molten_salt_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Molten salt reactor">Molten-salt</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Fluorides" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:2.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/FLiBe" title="FLiBe">Fluorides</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fuji_Molten_Salt_Reactor" title="Fuji Molten Salt Reactor">Fuji MSR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquid_fluoride_thorium_reactor" title="Liquid fluoride thorium reactor">Liquid-fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molten-Salt_Reactor_Experiment" title="Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment">Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integral_Molten_Salt_Reactor" title="Integral Molten Salt Reactor">Integral Molten Salt Reactor (IMSR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TMSR-500" class="mw-redirect" title="TMSR-500">TMSR-500</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TMSR-LF1" title="TMSR-LF1">TMSR-LF1</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">None (<a href="/wiki/Fast-neutron_reactor" title="Fast-neutron reactor">fast-neutron</a>)</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fast_breeder_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Fast breeder reactor">Breeder (FBR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integral_fast_reactor" title="Integral fast reactor">Integral (IFR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquid_metal_cooled_reactor" title="Liquid metal cooled reactor">Liquid-metal-cooled (LMFR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small,_sealed,_transportable,_autonomous_reactor" title="Small, sealed, transportable, autonomous reactor">Small sealed transportable autonomous (SSTAR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traveling_wave_reactor" title="Traveling wave reactor">Traveling-wave (TWR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_Multiplier_Module" title="Energy Multiplier Module">Energy Multiplier Module (EM2)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reduced_moderation_water_reactor" title="Reduced moderation water reactor">Reduced-moderation (RMWR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fast_Breeder_Test_Reactor" title="Fast Breeder Test Reactor">Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_fluid_reactor" title="Dual fluid reactor">Dual fluid reactor (DFR)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Generation_IV_reactor" title="Generation IV reactor">Generation IV</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sodium-cooled_fast_reactor" title="Sodium-cooled fast reactor">Sodium (SFR)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/BN-350_reactor" title="BN-350 reactor">BN-350</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BN-600_reactor" title="BN-600 reactor">BN-600</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BN-800_reactor" title="BN-800 reactor">BN-800</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BN-1200_reactor" title="BN-1200 reactor">BN-1200</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CFR-600" title="CFR-600">CFR-600</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ph%C3%A9nix" title="Phénix">Phénix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superph%C3%A9nix" title="Superphénix">Superphénix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prototype_Fast_Breeder_Reactor" title="Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor">PFBR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FBR-600" title="FBR-600">FBR-600</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_Experimental_Fast_Reactor" title="China Experimental Fast Reactor">CEFR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dounreay#Prototype_Fast_Reactor_(PFR)" title="Dounreay">PFR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PRISM_(reactor)" title="PRISM (reactor)">PRISM</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead-cooled_fast_reactor" title="Lead-cooled fast reactor">Lead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas-cooled_fast_reactor" title="Gas-cooled fast reactor">Helium gas (GFR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stable_salt_reactor" title="Stable salt reactor">Stable Salt Reactor (SSR)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Organic_nuclear_reactor" title="Organic nuclear reactor">Organic nuclear reactor</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arbus-reactor&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arbus-reactor (page does not exist)">Arbus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piqua_Nuclear_Generating_Station" title="Piqua Nuclear Generating Station">Piqua</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_Nuclear_Propulsion" title="Aircraft Nuclear Propulsion">Aircraft Reactor Experiment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Fusion" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor#Fusion_reactors" title="Nuclear reactor">Fusion</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>by <a href="/wiki/Thermonuclear_fusion#Confinement" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermonuclear fusion">confinement</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_confinement_fusion" title="Magnetic confinement fusion">Magnetic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Field-reversed_configuration" title="Field-reversed configuration">Field-reversed configuration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levitated_dipole" title="Levitated dipole">Levitated dipole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reversed_field_pinch" title="Reversed field pinch">Reversed field pinch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spheromak" title="Spheromak">Spheromak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellarator" title="Stellarator">Stellarator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tokamak" title="Tokamak">Tokamak</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Inertial_confinement_fusion" title="Inertial confinement fusion">Inertial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bubble_fusion" title="Bubble fusion">Bubble (acoustic)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fusor" title="Fusor">Fusor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inertial_electrostatic_confinement" title="Inertial electrostatic confinement">electrostatic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inertial_confinement_fusion" title="Inertial confinement fusion">Laser-driven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetized_target_fusion" title="Magnetized target fusion">Magnetized-target</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Z-pinch" title="Z-pinch">Z-pinch</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dense_plasma_focus" title="Dense plasma focus">Dense plasma focus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migma" title="Migma">Migma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muon-catalyzed_fusion" title="Muon-catalyzed fusion">Muon-catalyzed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polywell" title="Polywell">Polywell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyroelectric_fusion" title="Pyroelectric fusion">Pyroelectric</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Radioactive.svg/32px-Radioactive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Radioactive.svg/48px-Radioactive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Radioactive.svg/64px-Radioactive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="446" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Nuclear_technology" title="Portal:Nuclear technology">Nuclear technology portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Nuclear_technology" title="Category:Nuclear technology">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Nuclear_technology" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Nuclear technology">Commons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Manhattan_Project" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Manhattan_Project" title="Template:Manhattan Project"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Manhattan_Project" title="Template talk:Manhattan Project"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Manhattan_Project" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Manhattan Project"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Manhattan_Project" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Manhattan_Project" title="Timeline of the Manhattan Project">Timeline</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ames_Project" title="Ames Project">Ames</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calutron" title="Calutron">Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metallurgical_Laboratory" title="Metallurgical Laboratory">Chicago</a> (<a href="/wiki/Site_A" title="Site A">Site A</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dayton_Project" title="Dayton Project">Dayton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanford_Engineer_Works" title="Hanford Engineer Works">Hanford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Camel" title="Project Camel">Inyokern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Y" title="Project Y">Los Alamos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montreal_Laboratory" title="Montreal Laboratory">Montreal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K-25" title="K-25">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinton_Engineer_Works" title="Clinton Engineer Works">Oak Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_Wells_Pilot_Plant" title="Salt Wells Pilot Plant">Salt Wells Pilot Plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinity_(nuclear_test)" title="Trinity (nuclear test)">Trinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wendover_Air_Force_Base" title="Wendover Air Force Base">Wendover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P-9_Project" title="P-9 Project">Heavy water sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Administrators</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vannevar_Bush" title="Vannevar Bush">Vannevar Bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Compton" title="Arthur Compton">Arthur Compton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_B._Conant" title="James B. Conant">James B. Conant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscilla_Duffield" title="Priscilla Duffield">Priscilla Duffield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Farrell_(United_States_Army_officer)" title="Thomas Farrell (United States Army officer)">Thomas Farrell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leslie_Groves" title="Leslie Groves">Leslie Groves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lansdale_Jr." title="John Lansdale Jr.">John Lansdale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence">Ernest Lawrence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_C._Marshall" title="James C. Marshall">James Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_Matthias" title="Franklin Matthias">Franklin Matthias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_McKibbin" title="Dorothy McKibbin">Dorothy McKibbin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Nichols" title="Kenneth Nichols">Kenneth Nichols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer" title="J. Robert Oppenheimer">Robert Oppenheimer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Sterling_Parsons" title="William Sterling Parsons">Deak Parsons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boris_Pash" title="Boris Pash">Boris Pash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_R._Purnell" title="William R. Purnell">William Purnell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Spedding" title="Frank Spedding">Frank Spedding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Allen_Thomas" title="Charles Allen Thomas">Charles Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tibbets" title="Paul Tibbets">Paul Tibbets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_L._Uanna" title="William L. Uanna">Bud Uanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Urey" title="Harold Urey">Harold Urey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stafford_L._Warren" title="Stafford L. Warren">Stafford Warren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ed_Westcott" title="Ed Westcott">Ed Westcott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roscoe_Charles_Wilson" title="Roscoe Charles Wilson">Roscoe Wilson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scientists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Luis_Walter_Alvarez" title="Luis Walter Alvarez">Luis Alvarez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bacher" title="Robert Bacher">Robert Bacher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe">Hans Bethe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aage_Bohr" title="Aage Bohr">Aage Bohr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norris_Bradbury" title="Norris Bradbury">Norris Bradbury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Chadwick" title="James Chadwick">James Chadwick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Cockcroft" title="John Cockcroft">John Cockcroft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Critchfield" title="Charles Critchfield">Charles Critchfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Daghlian" title="Harry Daghlian">Harry Daghlian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_R._Dunning" title="John R. Dunning">John R. Dunning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Enrico Fermi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman">Richard Feynman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Val_Logsdon_Fitch" title="Val Logsdon Fitch">Val Fitch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck">James Franck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klaus_Fuchs" title="Klaus Fuchs">Klaus Fuchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Goeppert_Mayer" title="Maria Goeppert Mayer">Maria Goeppert Mayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Kistiakowsky" title="George Kistiakowsky">George Kistiakowsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Koval" title="George Koval">George Koval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Libby" title="Willard Libby">Willard Libby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_McMillan" title="Edwin McMillan">Edwin McMillan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Oliphant" title="Mark Oliphant">Mark Oliphant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_B._Pegram" title="George B. Pegram">George B. Pegram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Ramsey_Jr." title="Norman Ramsey Jr.">Norman Ramsey Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi">Isidor Isaac Rabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Rainwater" title="James Rainwater">James Rainwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruno_Rossi" title="Bruno Rossi">Bruno Rossi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glenn_T._Seaborg" title="Glenn T. Seaborg">Glenn Seaborg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emilio_Segr%C3%A8" title="Emilio Segrè">Emilio Segrè</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Slotin" title="Louis Slotin">Louis Slotin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_DeWolf_Smyth" title="Henry DeWolf Smyth">Henry DeWolf Smyth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Szilard" title="Leo Szilard">Leo Szilard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Teller" title="Edward Teller">Edward Teller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Ulam" title="Stanisław Ulam">Stanisław Ulam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_von_Neumann" title="John von Neumann">John von Neumann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Archibald_Wheeler" title="John Archibald Wheeler">John Wheeler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Wigner" title="Eugene Wigner">Eugene Wigner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_R._Wilson" title="Robert R. Wilson">Robert Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leona_Woods" title="Leona Woods">Leona Woods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chien-Shiung_Wu" title="Chien-Shiung Wu">Chien-Shiung Wu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Operations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alsos_Mission" title="Alsos Mission">Alsos Mission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Crossroads" title="Operation Crossroads">Operation Crossroads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Peppermint" title="Operation Peppermint">Operation Peppermint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Alberta" title="Project Alberta">Project Alberta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silverplate" title="Silverplate">Silverplate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/509th_Composite_Group" title="509th Composite Group">509th Composite Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enola_Gay" title="Enola Gay">Enola Gay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bockscar" title="Bockscar">Bockscar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Great_Artiste" title="The Great Artiste">The Great Artiste</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Weapons</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fat_Man" title="Fat Man">Fat Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Boy" title="Little Boy">Little Boy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pumpkin_bomb" title="Pumpkin bomb">Pumpkin bomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thin_Man_(nuclear_bomb)" title="Thin Man (nuclear bomb)">Thin Man</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_scientists_and_technicians_on_the_Manhattan_Project" title="African-American scientists and technicians on the Manhattan Project">African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_Energy_Act_of_1946" title="Atomic Energy Act of 1946">Atomic Energy Act of 1946</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bismuth_phosphate_process" title="Bismuth phosphate process">Bismuth phosphate process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_contribution_to_the_Manhattan_Project" title="British contribution to the Manhattan Project">British contribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calutron_Girls" title="Calutron Girls">Calutron Girls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Pile-1" title="Chicago Pile-1">Chicago Pile-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demon_core" title="Demon core">Demon core</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Einstein%E2%80%93Szilard_letter" title="Einstein–Szilard letter">Einstein–Szilard letter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franck_Report" title="Franck Report">Franck Report</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interim_Committee" title="Interim Committee">Interim Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K-25" title="K-25">K-25 Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Los_Alamos_Primer" title="Los Alamos Primer">Los Alamos Primer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates_who_worked_on_the_Manhattan_Project" title="List of Nobel laureates who worked on the Manhattan Project">Nobel Prize laureates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oppenheimer_security_hearing" class="mw-redirect" title="Oppenheimer security hearing">Oppenheimer security hearing</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Plutonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quebec_Agreement" title="Quebec Agreement">Quebec Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RaLa_Experiment" title="RaLa Experiment">RaLa Experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S-1_Executive_Committee" title="S-1 Executive Committee">S-1 Executive Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S-50_(Manhattan_Project)" title="S-50 (Manhattan Project)">S-50 Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smyth_Report" title="Smyth Report">Smyth Report</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">Uranium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-10_Graphite_Reactor" title="X-10 Graphite Reactor">X-10 Graphite Reactor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calutron" title="Calutron">Y-12 Project</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Manhattan_Project" title="Category:Manhattan Project">Category</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1102#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" 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