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<!DOCTYPE html> <html lang="en" class="no-js"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <meta http-equiv="X-UA-Compatible" content="IE=edge"> <meta name="applicable-device" content="pc,mobile"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1"> <title>Phylogenetic classification of bony fishes | BMC Ecology and Evolution | Full Text</title> <meta name="citation_abstract" content="Fish classifications, as those of most other taxonomic groups, are being transformed drastically as new molecular phylogenies provide support for natural groups that were unanticipated by previous studies. A brief review of the main criteria used by ichthyologists to define their classifications during the last 50 years, however, reveals slow progress towards using an explicit phylogenetic framework. Instead, the trend has been to rely, in varying degrees, on deep-rooted anatomical concepts and authority, often mixing taxa with explicit phylogenetic support with arbitrary groupings. Two leading sources in ichthyology frequently used for fish classifications (JS Nelson’s volumes of Fishes of the World and W. Eschmeyer’s Catalog of Fishes) fail to adopt a global phylogenetic framework despite much recent progress made towards the resolution of the fish Tree of Life. The first explicit phylogenetic classification of bony fishes was published in 2013, based on a comprehensive molecular phylogeny ( www.deepfin.org ). We here update the first version of that classification by incorporating the most recent phylogenetic results. The updated classification presented here is based on phylogenies inferred using molecular and genomic data for nearly 2000 fishes. A total of 72 orders (and 79 suborders) are recognized in this version, compared with 66 orders in version 1. The phylogeny resolves placement of 410 families, or ~80% of the total of 514 families of bony fishes currently recognized. The ordinal status of 30 percomorph families included in this study, however, remains uncertain (incertae sedis in the series Carangaria, Ovalentaria, or Eupercaria). Comments to support taxonomic decisions and comparisons with conflicting taxonomic groups proposed by others are presented. We also highlight cases were morphological support exist for the groups being classified. This version of the phylogenetic classification of bony fishes is substantially improved, providing resolution for more taxa than previous versions, based on more densely sampled phylogenetic trees. The classification presented in this study represents, unlike any other, the most up-to-date hypothesis of the Tree of Life of fishes."/> <meta name="journal_id" content="12862"/> <meta name="dc.title" content="Phylogenetic classification of bony fishes"/> <meta name="dc.source" content="BMC Evolutionary Biology 2017 17:1"/> <meta name="dc.format" content="text/html"/> <meta name="dc.publisher" content="BioMed Central"/> <meta name="dc.date" content="2017-07-06"/> <meta name="dc.type" content="OriginalPaper"/> <meta name="dc.language" content="En"/> <meta name="dc.copyright" content="2017 The Author(s)."/> <meta name="dc.rights" content="2017 The Author(s)."/> <meta name="dc.rightsAgent" content="reprints@biomedcentral.com"/> <meta name="dc.description" content="Fish classifications, as those of most other taxonomic groups, are being transformed drastically as new molecular phylogenies provide support for natural groups that were unanticipated by previous studies. A brief review of the main criteria used by ichthyologists to define their classifications during the last 50&nbsp;years, however, reveals slow progress towards using an explicit phylogenetic framework. Instead, the trend has been to rely, in varying degrees, on deep-rooted anatomical concepts and authority, often mixing taxa with explicit phylogenetic support with arbitrary groupings. Two leading sources in ichthyology frequently used for fish classifications (JS Nelson’s volumes of Fishes of the World and W. Eschmeyer’s Catalog of Fishes) fail to adopt a global phylogenetic framework despite much recent progress made towards the resolution of the fish Tree of Life. The first explicit phylogenetic classification of bony fishes was published in 2013, based on a comprehensive molecular phylogeny ( www.deepfin.org ). We here update the first version of that classification by incorporating the most recent phylogenetic results. The updated classification presented here is based on phylogenies inferred using molecular and genomic data for nearly 2000 fishes. A total of 72 orders (and 79 suborders) are recognized in this version, compared with 66 orders in version 1. The phylogeny resolves placement of 410 families, or ~80% of the total of 514 families of bony fishes currently recognized. The ordinal status of 30 percomorph families included in this study, however, remains uncertain (incertae sedis in the series Carangaria, Ovalentaria, or Eupercaria). Comments to support taxonomic decisions and comparisons with conflicting taxonomic groups proposed by others are presented. We also highlight cases were morphological support exist for the groups being classified. This version of the phylogenetic classification of bony fishes is substantially improved, providing resolution for more taxa than previous versions, based on more densely sampled phylogenetic trees. The classification presented in this study represents, unlike any other, the most up-to-date hypothesis of the Tree of Life of fishes."/> <meta name="prism.issn" content="1471-2148"/> <meta name="prism.publicationName" content="BMC Evolutionary Biology"/> <meta name="prism.publicationDate" content="2017-07-06"/> <meta name="prism.volume" content="17"/> <meta name="prism.number" content="1"/> <meta name="prism.section" content="OriginalPaper"/> <meta name="prism.startingPage" content="1"/> <meta name="prism.endingPage" content="40"/> <meta name="prism.copyright" content="2017 The Author(s)."/> <meta name="prism.rightsAgent" content="reprints@biomedcentral.com"/> <meta name="prism.url" content="https://bmcecolevol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3"/> <meta name="prism.doi" content="doi:10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3"/> <meta name="citation_pdf_url" content="https://bmcecolevol.biomedcentral.com/counter/pdf/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3"/> <meta name="citation_fulltext_html_url" content="https://bmcecolevol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3"/> <meta name="citation_journal_title" content="BMC Evolutionary Biology"/> <meta name="citation_journal_abbrev" content="BMC Evol Biol"/> <meta name="citation_publisher" content="BioMed Central"/> <meta name="citation_issn" content="1471-2148"/> <meta name="citation_title" content="Phylogenetic classification of bony fishes"/> <meta name="citation_volume" content="17"/> <meta name="citation_issue" content="1"/> <meta name="citation_publication_date" content="2017/12"/> <meta name="citation_online_date" content="2017/07/06"/> <meta name="citation_firstpage" content="1"/> <meta name="citation_lastpage" content="40"/> <meta name="citation_article_type" content="Research article"/> <meta name="citation_fulltext_world_readable" content=""/> <meta name="citation_language" content="en"/> <meta name="dc.identifier" content="doi:10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3"/> <meta name="DOI" content="10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3"/> <meta name="size" content="793413"/> <meta name="citation_doi" content="10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3"/> <meta name="citation_springer_api_url" content="http://api.springer.com/xmldata/jats?q=doi:10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3&api_key="/> <meta name="description" content="Fish classifications, as those of most other taxonomic groups, are being transformed drastically as new molecular phylogenies provide support for natural groups that were unanticipated by previous studies. A brief review of the main criteria used by ichthyologists to define their classifications during the last 50&nbsp;years, however, reveals slow progress towards using an explicit phylogenetic framework. Instead, the trend has been to rely, in varying degrees, on deep-rooted anatomical concepts and authority, often mixing taxa with explicit phylogenetic support with arbitrary groupings. Two leading sources in ichthyology frequently used for fish classifications (JS Nelson’s volumes of Fishes of the World and W. Eschmeyer’s Catalog of Fishes) fail to adopt a global phylogenetic framework despite much recent progress made towards the resolution of the fish Tree of Life. The first explicit phylogenetic classification of bony fishes was published in 2013, based on a comprehensive molecular phylogeny ( www.deepfin.org ). We here update the first version of that classification by incorporating the most recent phylogenetic results. The updated classification presented here is based on phylogenies inferred using molecular and genomic data for nearly 2000 fishes. A total of 72 orders (and 79 suborders) are recognized in this version, compared with 66 orders in version 1. The phylogeny resolves placement of 410 families, or ~80% of the total of 514 families of bony fishes currently recognized. The ordinal status of 30 percomorph families included in this study, however, remains uncertain (incertae sedis in the series Carangaria, Ovalentaria, or Eupercaria). Comments to support taxonomic decisions and comparisons with conflicting taxonomic groups proposed by others are presented. We also highlight cases were morphological support exist for the groups being classified. This version of the phylogenetic classification of bony fishes is substantially improved, providing resolution for more taxa than previous versions, based on more densely sampled phylogenetic trees. 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A brief review of the main criteria used by ichthyologists to define their classifications during the last 50 years, however, reveals slow progress towards using an explicit phylogenetic framework. Instead, the trend has been to rely, in varying degrees, on deep-rooted anatomical concepts and authority, often mixing taxa with explicit phylogenetic support with arbitrary groupings. Two leading sources in ichthyology frequently used for fish classifications (JS Nelson’s volumes of Fishes of the World and W. Eschmeyer’s Catalog of Fishes) fail to adopt a global phylogenetic framework despite much recent progress made towards the resolution of the fish Tree of Life. The first explicit phylogenetic classification of bony fishes was published in 2013, based on a comprehensive molecular phylogeny ( www.deepfin.org ). We here update the first version of that classification by incorporating the most recent phylogenetic results. Results The updated classification presented here is based on phylogenies inferred using molecular and genomic data for nearly 2000 fishes. A total of 72 orders (and 79 suborders) are recognized in this version, compared with 66 orders in version 1. The phylogeny resolves placement of 410 families, or ~80% of the total of 514 families of bony fishes currently recognized. The ordinal status of 30 percomorph families included in this study, however, remains uncertain (incertae sedis in the series Carangaria, Ovalentaria, or Eupercaria). Comments to support taxonomic decisions and comparisons with conflicting taxonomic groups proposed by others are presented. We also highlight cases were morphological support exist for the groups being classified. Conclusions This version of the phylogenetic classification of bony fishes is substantially improved, providing resolution for more taxa than previous versions, based on more densely sampled phylogenetic trees. The classification presented in this study represents, unlike any other, the most up-to-date hypothesis of the Tree of Life of fishes."/> <meta property="og:image" content="https://static-content.springer.com/image/art%3A10.1186%2Fs12862-017-0958-3/MediaObjects/12862_2017_958_Fig1_HTML.gif"/> <script type="application/ld+json">{"mainEntity":{"headline":"Phylogenetic classification of bony fishes","description":"Fish classifications, as those of most other taxonomic groups, are being transformed drastically as new molecular phylogenies provide support for natural groups that were unanticipated by previous studies. A brief review of the main criteria used by ichthyologists to define their classifications during the last 50 years, however, reveals slow progress towards using an explicit phylogenetic framework. Instead, the trend has been to rely, in varying degrees, on deep-rooted anatomical concepts and authority, often mixing taxa with explicit phylogenetic support with arbitrary groupings. Two leading sources in ichthyology frequently used for fish classifications (JS Nelson’s volumes of Fishes of the World and W. Eschmeyer’s Catalog of Fishes) fail to adopt a global phylogenetic framework despite much recent progress made towards the resolution of the fish Tree of Life. The first explicit phylogenetic classification of bony fishes was published in 2013, based on a comprehensive molecular phylogeny (\n www.deepfin.org\n \n ). We here update the first version of that classification by incorporating the most recent phylogenetic results. The updated classification presented here is based on phylogenies inferred using molecular and genomic data for nearly 2000 fishes. A total of 72 orders (and 79 suborders) are recognized in this version, compared with 66 orders in version 1. The phylogeny resolves placement of 410 families, or ~80% of the total of 514 families of bony fishes currently recognized. The ordinal status of 30 percomorph families included in this study, however, remains uncertain (incertae sedis in the series Carangaria, Ovalentaria, or Eupercaria). Comments to support taxonomic decisions and comparisons with conflicting taxonomic groups proposed by others are presented. We also highlight cases were morphological support exist for the groups being classified. This version of the phylogenetic classification of bony fishes is substantially improved, providing resolution for more taxa than previous versions, based on more densely sampled phylogenetic trees. The classification presented in this study represents, unlike any other, the most up-to-date hypothesis of the Tree of Life of fishes.","datePublished":"2017-07-06T00:00:00Z","dateModified":"2017-07-06T00:00:00Z","pageStart":"1","pageEnd":"40","license":"http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/","sameAs":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3","keywords":["Percomorpha","Subordi","Morphological Synapomorphies","International Code Of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN)","Dettai","Evolutionary Biology","Animal Systematics/Taxonomy/Biogeography","Entomology","Genetics and Population Dynamics","Life Sciences","general"],"image":["https://media.springernature.com/lw1200/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1186%2Fs12862-017-0958-3/MediaObjects/12862_2017_958_Fig1_HTML.gif","https://media.springernature.com/lw1200/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1186%2Fs12862-017-0958-3/MediaObjects/12862_2017_958_Fig2_HTML.gif"],"isPartOf":{"name":"BMC Evolutionary Biology","issn":["1471-2148"],"volumeNumber":"17","@type":["Periodical","PublicationVolume"]},"publisher":{"name":"BioMed Central","logo":{"url":"https://www.springernature.com/app-sn/public/images/logo-springernature.png","@type":"ImageObject"},"@type":"Organization"},"author":[{"name":"Ricardo Betancur-R","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Puerto Rico","address":{"name":"Department of Biology, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, USA","@type":"PostalAddress"},"@type":"Organization"},{"name":"Smithsonian Institution","address":{"name":"Department of Vertebrate Zoology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, USA","@type":"PostalAddress"},"@type":"Organization"}],"email":"betanri@fishphylogeny.org","@type":"Person"},{"name":"Edward O. Wiley","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Kansas","address":{"name":"Biodiversity Institute and Department of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology, University of Kansas, Lawrence, USA","@type":"PostalAddress"},"@type":"Organization"},{"name":"Sam Houston State University","address":{"name":"Sam Houston State Natural History Collections, Sam Houston State University, Huntsville, USA","@type":"PostalAddress"},"@type":"Organization"}],"@type":"Person"},{"name":"Gloria Arratia","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Kansas","address":{"name":"Biodiversity Institute and Department of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology, University of Kansas, Lawrence, USA","@type":"PostalAddress"},"@type":"Organization"}],"@type":"Person"},{"name":"Arturo Acero","affiliation":[{"name":"Universidad Nacional de Colombia sede Caribe","address":{"name":"Universidad Nacional de Colombia sede Caribe, Santa Marta, Colombia","@type":"PostalAddress"},"@type":"Organization"}],"@type":"Person"},{"name":"Nicolas Bailly","affiliation":[{"name":"FishBase Information and Research Group","address":{"name":"FishBase Information and Research Group, Los Baños, Philippines","@type":"PostalAddress"},"@type":"Organization"}],"@type":"Person"},{"name":"Masaki Miya","affiliation":[{"name":"Natural History Museum and Institute","address":{"name":"Department Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Natural History Museum and Institute, Chiba, Japan","@type":"PostalAddress"},"@type":"Organization"}],"@type":"Person"},{"name":"Guillaume Lecointre","affiliation":[{"name":"Institut de Systématique, Evolution, Biodiversité (ISYEB), Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle","address":{"name":"Institut de Systématique, Evolution, Biodiversité (ISYEB), Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France","@type":"PostalAddress"},"@type":"Organization"}],"@type":"Person"},{"name":"Guillermo Ortí","affiliation":[{"name":"Smithsonian Institution","address":{"name":"Department of Vertebrate Zoology, National Museum of Natural 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data-track-context="sticky banner"> <div class="c-context-bar__title"> Phylogenetic classification of bony fishes </div> <div class="c-pdf-container"> <div class="c-pdf-download u-clear-both"> <a href="//bmcecolevol.biomedcentral.com/counter/pdf/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3.pdf" class="u-button u-button--full-width u-button--primary u-justify-content-space-between c-pdf-download__link" data-article-pdf="true" data-readcube-pdf-url="true" data-test="pdf-link" data-draft-ignore="true" data-track="content_download" data-track-type="article pdf download" data-track-action="download pdf" data-track-label="link" data-track-external download> Download PDF <svg aria-hidden="true" focusable="false" width="16" height="16" class="u-icon"><use xlink:href="#icon-download"/></svg> </a> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="c-pdf-button__container u-hide-at-lg js-context-bar-sticky-point-mobile"> <div class="c-pdf-container" data-track-context="article body"> <div class="c-pdf-download u-clear-both"> <a href="//bmcecolevol.biomedcentral.com/counter/pdf/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3.pdf" class="u-button u-button--full-width u-button--primary u-justify-content-space-between c-pdf-download__link" data-article-pdf="true" data-readcube-pdf-url="true" data-test="pdf-link" data-draft-ignore="true" data-track="content_download" data-track-type="article pdf download" data-track-action="download pdf" data-track-label="link" data-track-external download> Download PDF <svg aria-hidden="true" focusable="false" width="16" height="16" class="u-icon"><use xlink:href="#icon-download"/></svg> </a> </div> </div> </div> <article lang="en"> <div class="c-article-header"> <ul class="c-article-identifiers" data-test="article-identifier"> <li class="c-article-identifiers__item" data-test="article-category">Research article</li> <li class="c-article-identifiers__item"> <a href="https://www.springernature.com/gp/open-research/about/the-fundamentals-of-open-access-and-open-research" data-track="click" data-track-action="open access" data-track-label="link" class="u-color-open-access" data-test="open-access">Open access</a> </li> <li class="c-article-identifiers__item">Published: <time datetime="2017-07-06">06 July 2017</time></li> </ul> <h1 class="c-article-title" data-test="article-title" data-article-title="">Phylogenetic classification of bony fishes</h1> <ul class="c-article-author-list c-article-author-list--short" data-test="authors-list" data-component-authors-activator="authors-list"><li class="c-article-author-list__item"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Ricardo-Betancur_R-Aff1-Aff2" data-author-popup="auth-Ricardo-Betancur_R-Aff1-Aff2" data-author-search="Betancur-R, Ricardo" data-corresp-id="c1">Ricardo Betancur-R<svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-mail-medium"></use></svg></a><a href="#Aff1">1</a>,<a href="#Aff2">2</a>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Edward_O_-Wiley-Aff3-Aff4" data-author-popup="auth-Edward_O_-Wiley-Aff3-Aff4" data-author-search="Wiley, Edward O.">Edward O. Wiley</a><a href="#Aff3">3</a>,<a href="#Aff4">4</a>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Gloria-Arratia-Aff3" data-author-popup="auth-Gloria-Arratia-Aff3" data-author-search="Arratia, Gloria">Gloria Arratia</a><a href="#Aff3">3</a>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Arturo-Acero-Aff5" data-author-popup="auth-Arturo-Acero-Aff5" data-author-search="Acero, Arturo">Arturo Acero</a><a href="#Aff5">5</a>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Nicolas-Bailly-Aff6" data-author-popup="auth-Nicolas-Bailly-Aff6" data-author-search="Bailly, Nicolas">Nicolas Bailly</a><a href="#Aff6">6</a>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Masaki-Miya-Aff7" data-author-popup="auth-Masaki-Miya-Aff7" data-author-search="Miya, Masaki">Masaki Miya</a><a href="#Aff7">7</a>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Guillaume-Lecointre-Aff8" data-author-popup="auth-Guillaume-Lecointre-Aff8" data-author-search="Lecointre, Guillaume">Guillaume Lecointre</a><a href="#Aff8">8</a> & </li><li class="c-article-author-list__show-more" aria-label="Show all 8 authors for this article" title="Show all 8 authors for this article">…</li><li class="c-article-author-list__item"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Guillermo-Ort_-Aff2-Aff9" data-author-popup="auth-Guillermo-Ort_-Aff2-Aff9" data-author-search="Ortí, Guillermo">Guillermo Ortí</a><a href="#Aff2">2</a>,<a href="#Aff9">9</a> </li></ul><button aria-expanded="false" class="c-article-author-list__button"><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-down-medium"></use></svg>Show authors</button> <a data-test="journal-link" href="/" data-track="click" data-track-action="journal homepage" data-track-category="article body" data-track-label="link">BMC Evolutionary Biology</a> volume 17, Article number: 162 (2017) <a href="#citeas" class="c-article-info-details__cite-as u-hide-print" data-track="click" data-track-action="cite this article" data-track-label="link">Cite this article</a> <div class="c-article-metrics-bar__wrapper u-clear-both"> <ul class="c-article-metrics-bar u-list-reset"> <li class=" c-article-metrics-bar__item" data-test="access-count"> 98k Accesses </li> <li class="c-article-metrics-bar__item" data-test="citation-count"> 665 Citations </li> <li class="c-article-metrics-bar__item" data-test="altmetric-score"> 88 Altmetric </li> <li class="c-article-metrics-bar__item"> <a href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3/metrics" data-track="click" data-track-action="view metrics" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">Metrics details</a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> <section aria-labelledby="Abs1" data-title="Abstract" lang="en"><div class="c-article-section" id="Abs1-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Abs1">Abstract</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Abs1-content"><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" data-test="abstract-sub-heading">Background</h3>Fish classifications, as those of most other taxonomic groups, are being transformed drastically as new molecular phylogenies provide support for natural groups that were unanticipated by previous studies. A brief review of the main criteria used by ichthyologists to define their classifications during the last 50 years, however, reveals slow progress towards using an explicit phylogenetic framework. Instead, the trend has been to rely, in varying degrees, on deep-rooted anatomical concepts and authority, often mixing taxa with explicit phylogenetic support with arbitrary groupings. Two leading sources in ichthyology frequently used for fish classifications (JS Nelson’s volumes of Fishes of the World and W. Eschmeyer’s Catalog of Fishes) fail to adopt a global phylogenetic framework despite much recent progress made towards the resolution of the fish Tree of Life. The first explicit phylogenetic classification of bony fishes was published in 2013, based on a comprehensive molecular phylogeny (<a href="http://www.deepfin.org">www.deepfin.org</a>). We here update the first version of that classification by incorporating the most recent phylogenetic results.<h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" data-test="abstract-sub-heading">Results</h3>The updated classification presented here is based on phylogenies inferred using molecular and genomic data for nearly 2000 fishes. A total of 72 orders (and 79 suborders) are recognized in this version, compared with 66 orders in version 1. The phylogeny resolves placement of 410 families, or ~80% of the total of 514 families of bony fishes currently recognized. The ordinal status of 30 percomorph families included in this study, however, remains uncertain (incertae sedis in the series Carangaria, Ovalentaria, or Eupercaria). Comments to support taxonomic decisions and comparisons with conflicting taxonomic groups proposed by others are presented. We also highlight cases were morphological support exist for the groups being classified.<h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" data-test="abstract-sub-heading">Conclusions</h3>This version of the phylogenetic classification of bony fishes is substantially improved, providing resolution for more taxa than previous versions, based on more densely sampled phylogenetic trees. The classification presented in this study represents, unlike any other, the most up-to-date hypothesis of the Tree of Life of fishes.</div></div></section> <div class="c-article-section__content c-article-section__content--separator">“Characterem non constituero Genus, sed Genus Characterem” – C Linnaeus [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1" title="Linnaeus C: Philosophia Botanica. Stockholm & Amsterdam; 1751." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR1" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e671">1</a>].</div><div class="c-article-section__content">“Such expressions as that famous one of Linnaeus [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1" title="Linnaeus C: Philosophia Botanica. Stockholm & Amsterdam; 1751." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR1" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e680">1</a>] ... that the characters do not make the genus, but that the genus gives the characters, seem to imply that something more is included in our classifications, than mere resemblance. I believe that something more is included; and that propinquity of descent – the only known cause of the similarity of organic beings – is the bond, hidden as it is by various degrees of modification, which is partially revealed to us by our classifications.”</div><div class="c-article-section__content">− CR Darwin [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2" title="Darwin CR. On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, Or, the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life. London: John Murray, Albemarle Street; 1859." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR2" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e689">2</a>].</div><div class="c-article-section__content">“These guys knew what they were talking about! It is kind of amazing that Linnaeus [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1" title="Linnaeus C: Philosophia Botanica. Stockholm & Amsterdam; 1751." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR1" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e698">1</a>] made the first statement, even though he did not yet fully understand evolutionary relationships (propinquity of descent in Darwin’s words [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2" title="Darwin CR. On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, Or, the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life. London: John Murray, Albemarle Street; 1859." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR2" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e704">2</a>]) as the underlying basis of those higher taxa. It is a shame that this basic and important principle of life is still not understood by the majority of people... even many practicing biologists! Characters do not “define” taxa; taxa are “defined” by their common ancestry (just like other historical groups, like human families). Because taxa share a common ancestry, they often share many characters, which we may use to recognize them. But if one of the species in a taxon lacks one of those characters (but is still clearly part of the group), it is still part of the taxon. It is one of the simplest and most fundamental ideas in biology, and yet so many people (even biologists) seem not to understand this simple concept.”</div><div class="c-article-section__content">– D Hillis [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 3" title="Hillis D: Personal communication. 2015. In: 
 http://www.facebook.com/
 
 . Accessed on 30 Apr 2015." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR3" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e713">3</a>].</div><div class="c-article-section__content"> “Since taxonomy tends, ideally, not toward just any type of convenient classification of living forms… but toward a phyletic classification, and since the comparison of the structure of homologous informational macro-molecules allows the establishment of phylogenetic relationships, studies of chemical paleogenetics have a bearing on taxonomy.” </div><div class="c-article-section__content">– E Zuckerkandl and L Pauling [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 4" title="Zuckerkandl E, Pauling L. Molecules as documents of evolutionary history. J Theor Biol. 1965;8:357–66." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR4" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e726">4</a>].</div><div class="c-article-section__content">“The conflict between these two approaches, the former which could be called phenetic (or typological), and the latter which could be called phyletic (or evolutionary), is not a new conflict, but to the uninitiated it gives the ichthyological literature something of a chaotic aspect. The situation is not improved by authors who are neither strictly phenetic nor phyletic in approach… In the writer’s opinion, we ultimately will have a purely phyletic classification, and this will be achieved in relation to our progress in unraveling the phyletic interrelationships of the Recent fishes… There is little doubt that the methods of comparative biology are adequate for revealing ancestral conditions, even without knowledge of ancestor-descendant relationships among organisms of the past. Such knowledge will never be available to us, for only in the genetics laboratory, and for organisms of the present, is such knowledge possible.”</div><div class="c-article-section__content">– G Nelson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 5" title="Nelson G. Origin and diversification of teleostean fishes. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1969;167:18–30." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR5" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e741">5</a>].</div><section data-title="Background"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec1-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec1">Background</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec1-content">Classification is an integral part of all sciences. The basis for classifications differs between disciplines but the basic principles are the same— in all cases we seek to understand something fundamental about the things classified. For astronomers, it is understanding the mass-luminosity relationships that lead to unraveling stellar evolution. For chemists, it is understanding how the atomic structure of elements leads to knowing how reactions occur. For systematists, it is understanding the relationships of organisms in the Tree of Life. The meaning of “relationship” in systematics has changed over time, but today it unquestionably means the genealogical affinities produced by the history of evolutionary descent. Notions of grades or levels of organization (shades of Lamarck or the Scala Naturae) are displaced by understanding that if a classification is organized strictly according to our best estimate of the Tree of Life, the organization of organisms becomes more predictive and straightforward, just as knowing the mass-luminosity relationships of a star will predict its future evolution or knowing that since the orbitals of a helium atom are full it is likely to not react with an atom of oxygen. Beyond doubt, the principles of phylogenetic systematics are now accepted as a rule; the most useful classification of organisms is that advocated, though never achieved, by Darwin.The “modern era” classification of fishes is considered by many to begin in 1966 with the publication of a provisional classification of teleosts based on “phyletic thinking” [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 6" title="Greenwood PH, Rosen DE, Weitzman SH, Myers GS. Phyletic studies of teleostean fishes, with a provisional classification of living forms. Bull Am Mus Nat Hist. 1966;131(4):339–456." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR6" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e757">6</a>]. Prior to this work, the most general classification in use had been proposed by LS Berg [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 7" title="Berg LS: Classification of fishes, both recent and fossil, vol. 5 (part 2): Trudy Zoologiceskogo Instituta, Akademii Nauk SSSR, Moskva, Leningrad; 1940." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR7" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e760">7</a>], from which the endings of modern orders (“-formes”) were retained. PH Greenwood, DE Rosen, SH Weitzman and GS Myers [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 6" title="Greenwood PH, Rosen DE, Weitzman SH, Myers GS. Phyletic studies of teleostean fishes, with a provisional classification of living forms. Bull Am Mus Nat Hist. 1966;131(4):339–456." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR6" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e763">6</a>] turned the attention of systematic ichthyologists of the day toward classifications that reflected the perceived evolutionary histories of fishes. Many modern clades were not only recognized, they were coupled with explicit characterizations. Many of these characterizations turned out to be synapomorphies supporting many of the clades still recognized today. The work stands as the last pre-cladistic general classification of fishes, revolutionary in that there was explicit phyletic thinking, and yet arranged more along the lines of Simpson’s classification of mammals with its reliance on grades of organization and ancestral groups than on the concepts of strict monophyly and sister-group relationships we recognize today. But, importantly to subsequent developments, PH Greenwood, DE Rosen, SH Weitzman and GS Myers [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 6" title="Greenwood PH, Rosen DE, Weitzman SH, Myers GS. Phyletic studies of teleostean fishes, with a provisional classification of living forms. Bull Am Mus Nat Hist. 1966;131(4):339–456." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR6" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e766">6</a>] rejected two things, phenetics (group taxa based solely on apparent similarity) and the central role of fossils to classification of recent fishes. Today, fossils are important, of course, not only because they allow estimating divergence times via molecular clock calibrations [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Betancur-R R, Broughton RE, Wiley EO, Carpenter K, Lopez JA, Li C, et al. The tree of life and a new classification of bony fishes. PLoS Currents Tree of Life. 2013; Edition 1" href="#ref-CR8" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e769">8</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Broughton RE, Betancur-R R, Li C, Arratia G, Orti G. Multi-locus phylogenetic analysis reveals the pattern and tempo of bony fish evolution. PLOS Currents Tree of Life. 2013; Edition 1" href="#ref-CR9" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e769_1">9</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Near TJ, Eytan RI, Dornburg A, Kuhn KL, Moore JA, Davis MP, et al. Resolution of ray-finned fish phylogeny and timing of diversification. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2012;109(34):13698–703." href="#ref-CR10" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e769_2">10</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Near TJ, Dornburg A, Eytan RI, Keck BP, Smith WL, Kuhn KL, et al. Phylogeny and tempo of diversification in the superradiation of spiny-rayed fishes. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2013;110(31):12738–43." href="#ref-CR11" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e769_3">11</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Parham JF, Donoghue PC, Bell CJ, Calway TD, Head JJ, Holroyd PA, et al. Best practices for justifying fossil calibrations. Syst Biol. 2012;61(2):346–59." href="#ref-CR12" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e769_4">12</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Inoue JG, Miya M, Venkatesh B, Nishida M. The mitochondrial genome of Indonesian coelacanth Latimeria menadoensis (Sarcopterygii : Coelacanthiformes) and divergence time estimation between the two coelacanths. Gene. 2005;349:227–35." href="#ref-CR13" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e769_5">13</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 14" title="Matsuura K, Nishida M. The mitochondrial genome spotted green pufferfish Tetraodon nigroviris (Teleostei: Tetraodontiformes) and divergence time estimation among model organisms in fishes. Gene Genet Syst. 2006;81:29–39." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR14" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e773">14</a>], but also because it is becoming increasingly clear that integrating paleontological and neontological data improves our understanding of the Tree of Life of fishes [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Gauthier J, Kluge AG, Rowe T. Amniote phylogeny and the importance of fossils. Cladistics. 1988;4:105–209." href="#ref-CR15" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e776">15</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Grande L, Bemis WE. A comprehensive phylogenetic study of amiid fishes (Amiidae) based on comparative skeletal anatomy. An empirical search for interconnected patterns of natural history. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology (Memoir 4, supplement). 1998;18(1):690." href="#ref-CR16" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e776_1">16</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Arratia G. The monophyly of Teleostei and stem-group teleosts. Consensus and disagreements. In: Arratia G, Schultze HP, editors. Mesozoic Fishes 2 – Systematics and Fossil Record. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 1999. p. 265–334." href="#ref-CR17" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e776_2">17</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Otero O. Anatomy, systematics and phylogeny of both Recent and fossil latid fishes (Teleostei, Perciformes, Latidae). Zool J Linnean Soc. 2004;141(1):81–133." href="#ref-CR18" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e776_3">18</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Tyler JC, Santini F. A phylogeny of the fossil and extant zeiform-like fishes, Upper Cretaceous to recent, with comments on the putative zeomorph clade (Acanthomorpha). Zool Scr. 2005;34(2):157–75." href="#ref-CR19" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e776_4">19</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Friedman M. The evolutionary origin of flatfish asymmetry. Nature. 2008;454(7201):209–12." href="#ref-CR20" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e776_5">20</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Davis MP, Arratia G, Kaiser TM. The first fossil shellear and its implications for the evolution and divergence of the Kneriidae (Teleostei: Gonorynchiformes). In: Arratia G, Schultze H-P, MVH W, editors. Mesozoic Fishes 5 - Global Diversity and Evolution. Muenchen: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 2013. p. 325–62." href="#ref-CR21" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e776_6">21</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Grande T, Poyato-Ariza FJ, Diogo R: Gonorynchiformes and ostariophysan relationships: Science Publishers; 2010." href="#ref-CR22" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e776_7">22</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Arcila D, Pyron R, Tyler C, Ortí G, Betancur-R R. An evaluation of fossil tip-dating versus node-age calibrations in tetraodontiform fishes (Teleostei: Percomorphaceae). Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2015;82:131–45." href="#ref-CR23" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e776_8">23</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Davesne D, Gallut C, Barriel V, Janvier P, Lecointre G, Otero O. The phylogenetic intrarelationships of spiny-rayed fishes (Acanthomorpha, Teleostei, Actinopterygii): fossil taxa increase the congruence of morphology with molecular data. Front Ecol Evol. 2016;4:129." href="#ref-CR24" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e776_9">24</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 25" title="Arratia G. Phylogenetic relationships of Teleostei: past and present. Estud Oceanol. 2000;19:19–51." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR25" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e779">25</a>] and their macroevolutionary history [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Albert JS, Johnson DM, Knouft JH. Fossils provide better estimates of ancestral body size than do extant taxa in fishes. Acta Zool. 2009;90:357–84." href="#ref-CR26" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e782">26</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Betancur-R R, Orti G, Pyron AR. Fossil-based comparative analyses reveal ancient marine ancestry erased by extinction in ray-finned fishes. Ecol Lett. 2015;18:441–50." href="#ref-CR27" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e782_1">27</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Hunt G, Slater G. Integrating paleontological and phylogenetic approaches to macroevolution. Annu Rev Ecol Evol Syst. 2016;47(1):null." href="#ref-CR28" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e782_2">28</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Clarke JT, Lloyd GT, Friedman M. Little evidence for enhanced phenotypic evolution in early teleosts relative to their living fossil sister group. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2016;113(41):11531–6." href="#ref-CR29" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e782_3">29</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 30" title="Dornburg A, Friedman M, Near TJ. Phylogenetic analysis of molecular and morphological data highlights uncertainty in the relationships of fossil and living species of Elopomorpha (Actinopterygii: Teleostei). Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2015;89:205–18." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR30" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e785">30</a>].The first explicitly phylogenetic classification of fishes was published by G Nelson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 5" title="Nelson G. Origin and diversification of teleostean fishes. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1969;167:18–30." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR5" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e791">5</a>] together with a clear discussion of the principles of phylogenetic systematics. Although at the time “phyletic interrelationships” among the included species and higher taxa were quite controversial, G Nelson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 5" title="Nelson G. Origin and diversification of teleostean fishes. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1969;167:18–30." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR5" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e794">5</a>] presented simple cladograms based on earlier views of vertebrate evolution (e.g., [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 31" title="Säve-Söderbergh G. Some points of view concerning the evolution of the vertebrates and the classification of this group. Ark Zool. 1934;26:1–20." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR31" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e797">31</a>]) to justify his classification. His proposal discarded the use of grades and ancestral groups and rejected the idea that “gaps,” rates of change, or any other criterion previously accepted by evolutionary systematists [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 32" title="Mayr E. Methods and Principles of Systematic Zoology. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1953." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR32" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e800">32</a>], could be used to justify elevating the rank of a particular group higher than that of its closest relative. Thus, birds are classified with crocodiles in Archosauria and the entire clade of tetrapods is found within Sarcopterygii. The revolution had begun, spurred on by publication of the multi-authored Interrelationship of Fishes [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 33" title="Greenwood P, Miles R, Patterson C. Interrelationships of fishes. London: Academic Press; 1973." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR33" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e807">33</a>]. It is not our place to detail this revolution, it happened slowly as investigators learned how to infer phylogenies and translate their findings into explicit phylogenetic classifications [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 34" title="Smith WL. Promoting resolution of the percomorph bush: a reply to Mooi and Gill. Copeia. 2010;3:520–4." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR34" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e810">34</a>]. Many of these changes to fish classifications in general and phylogenetic classification in particular are summarized in DE Rosen [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 35" title="Rosen DE. An essay on euteleostean classification. Am Mus Novit. 1985;2827:1–57." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR35" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e813">35</a>], GV Lauder and KF Liem [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 36" title="Lauder GV, Liem KF. The evolution and interrelationships of the actinopterygian fishes. Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology. 1983;150(95–197):103." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR36" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e816">36</a>], and M Stiassny, L Parenti and G Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 37" title="Stiassny M, Parenti L, Johnson G. Interrelationships of fishes. San Diego: Academic Press; 1996." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR37" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e819">37</a>]. They are reflected to a greater or lesser degree in various editions of JS Nelson’s Fishes of the World [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Nelson JS. Fishes of the world, First edition edn. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons; 1976." href="#ref-CR38" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e826">38</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Nelson JS. Fishes of the world, Second edition edn. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons; 1984." href="#ref-CR39" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e826_1">39</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Nelson JS. Fishes of the world. 3rd ed. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons; 1994." href="#ref-CR40" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e826_2">40</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Nelson JS. Fishes of the world. 4th ed. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons; 2006." href="#ref-CR41" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e826_3">41</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 42" title="Nelson JS, Grande T, Wilson MVH. 5th ed. Fishes of the World. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons; 2016." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR42" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e829">42</a>]. Of particular interest is the observation that much of the work on teleosts began at the base and worked upward rather than from the crown and downward (but see [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 43" title="Rosen DE. Interrelationships of higher euteleostean fishes. In: Greenwood PH, Miles RS, Patterson C, editors. Interrelationships of fishes. London: Academic Press; 1973. p. 397–513." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR43" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e832">43</a>]). One of the initial concerns was establishing the monophyly of teleosts (see [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 17" title="Arratia G. The monophyly of Teleostei and stem-group teleosts. Consensus and disagreements. In: Arratia G, Schultze HP, editors. Mesozoic Fishes 2 – Systematics and Fossil Record. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 1999. p. 265–334." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR17" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e835">17</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Patterson C. The contribution of paleontology to teleostean phylogeny. In: Hecht MK, Goody PC, Hecht BM, editors. Major patterns in vertebrate evolution. New York; 1977. p. 579–643." href="#ref-CR44" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e838">44</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Arratia G. Basal teleosts and teleostean phylogeny. Palaeo Ichthyologica. 1997;7:1–168." href="#ref-CR45" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e838_1">45</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 46" title="Arratia G. Complexities of early Teleostei and the evolution of particular morphological structures through time. Copeia. 2015;103(4):999–1025." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR46" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e841">46</a>]), and another was sorting out the relationships among early-branching teleost groups (i.e., osteoglossomorphs, elopomorphs, and clupeocephalans [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 17" title="Arratia G. The monophyly of Teleostei and stem-group teleosts. Consensus and disagreements. In: Arratia G, Schultze HP, editors. Mesozoic Fishes 2 – Systematics and Fossil Record. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 1999. p. 265–334." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR17" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e845">17</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 25" title="Arratia G. Phylogenetic relationships of Teleostei: past and present. Estud Oceanol. 2000;19:19–51." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR25" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e848">25</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 45" title="Arratia G. Basal teleosts and teleostean phylogeny. Palaeo Ichthyologica. 1997;7:1–168." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR45" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e851">45</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 47" title="Patterson C, Rosen DE. Review of ichthyodectiform and other Mesozoic teleost fishes and the theory and practice of classifying fossils. Bull Am Mus Nat Hist. 1977;158:83–172." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR47" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e854">47</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 48" title="Arratia G. The Clupeocephala re-visited: Analysis of characters and homologies. Revista de Biologia Marina & Oceanografia. 2010;45(Special issue):635–57." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR48" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e857">48</a>]), working upward through the euteleosts [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 49" title="Johnson GD, Patterson C. Relationships of lower euteleostean fishes. In: MLJ S, Parenti LR, Johnson GD, editors. Interrelationships of fishes. San Diego: Academic Press; 1996. p. 251–332." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR49" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e860">49</a>] and establishing the sequential relationships of lineages leading to the percomorphs [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Johnson GD. Percomorph phylogeny: progress and problems. Bull Mar Sci. 1993;52(1):3–28." href="#ref-CR50" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e864">50</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Johnson GD, Patterson C. Percomorph phylogeny: a survey of acanthomorphs and a new proposal. Bull Mar Sci. 1993;52(1):554–626." href="#ref-CR51" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e864_1">51</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Stiassny MLJ, Moore JA. A review of the pelvic girdle of atherinomorph fishes. Zool J Linnean Soc. 1992;104:209–42." href="#ref-CR52" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e864_2">52</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 53" title="Moore JA. Phylogeny of the Trachichthyiformes (Teleostei: Percomorpha). Bull Mar Sci. 1993;52(1):114–36." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR53" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e867">53</a>]. By 1989, G Nelson famously summarized these efforts with the observation that although much progress to resolve the early branching patterns of the Tree of Life of fishes had been achieved, the major challenge was to resolve the problematic relationships among percomorphs: “the bush at the top” problem [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 54" title="Nelson G. Phylogeny of major fish groups. In: Fernholm B, Bremer K, Brundin L, Jörnvall H, Rutberg L, Wanntorp HE, editors. The Hierarchy of Life. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science; 1989. p. 325–36." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR54" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e870">54</a>].GD Johnson and C Patterson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 51" title="Johnson GD, Patterson C. Percomorph phylogeny: a survey of acanthomorphs and a new proposal. Bull Mar Sci. 1993;52(1):554–626." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR51" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e876">51</a>] presented an influential study with new evidence to address the percomorph problem using a then customary “exemplar” approach to survey variation and propose putative synapomorphies, rather than the standard matrix-based analyses with dense taxon sampling to optimize character states required nowadays. It is important to note that many studies addressing high-order relationships and delineation of major lineages of percomorphs based on morphological data were not based on explicit phylogenetic analyses, and hence relied mostly on authoritative summaries and synthesis of patterns of variation [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 55" title="Chakrabarty P. The Transitioning state of systematic ichthyology. Copeia. 2010;2010(3):513–5." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR55" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e879">55</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 56" title="Wiley EO, Chakrabarty P, Craig MT, Davis MP, Holcroft NI, Mayden RL, et al. Will the real phylogeneticists please stand up? Zootaxa. 2011;2946:7–16." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR56" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e882">56</a>]. The empirical evidence underpinning these advances was eventually compiled by EO Wiley and GD Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 57" title="Wiley EO, Johnson GD. A teleost classification based on monophyletic groups. In: Nelson JS, Schultze HP, MVH W, editors. Origin and Phylogenetic Interrelationships of Teleosts. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 2010. p. 123–82." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR57" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e885">57</a>] through a detailed survey of the literature, producing a list of putative morphological synapomorphies for groups down to the subordinal level. They presented a classification for Actinopterygii justifying groups by evidence presented by others to support their monophyly. In doing so, EO Wiley and GD Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 57" title="Wiley EO, Johnson GD. A teleost classification based on monophyletic groups. In: Nelson JS, Schultze HP, MVH W, editors. Origin and Phylogenetic Interrelationships of Teleosts. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 2010. p. 123–82." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR57" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e888">57</a>] “flattened” the higher teleost classification into a series of orders principally because there was no morphological evidence supporting hypotheses of relationships among those orders (the exception was the “Smegmamorpharia”, a group no longer considered monophyletic). That it is “flat” for percomorphs with a polytomy of orders is a naked acknowledgement that they lacked evidence for the relationships among these groups. The Perciformes – the largest vertebrate order, long regarded as a polyphyletic taxonomic wastebasket (e.g., [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 41" title="Nelson JS. Fishes of the world. 4th ed. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons; 2006." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR41" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e892">41</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 42" title="Nelson JS, Grande T, Wilson MVH. 5th ed. Fishes of the World. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons; 2016." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR42" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e895">42</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 50" title="Johnson GD. Percomorph phylogeny: progress and problems. Bull Mar Sci. 1993;52(1):3–28." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR50" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e898">50</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 51" title="Johnson GD, Patterson C. Percomorph phylogeny: a survey of acanthomorphs and a new proposal. Bull Mar Sci. 1993;52(1):554–626." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR51" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e901">51</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Wiley EO, Johnson GD. A teleost classification based on monophyletic groups. In: Nelson JS, Schultze HP, MVH W, editors. Origin and Phylogenetic Interrelationships of Teleosts. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 2010. p. 123–82." href="#ref-CR57" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e904">57</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Smith WL, Craig MT. Casting the percomorph net widely: The importance of broad taxonomic sampling in the search for the placement of serranid and percid fishes. Copeia. 2007;2007(1):35–55." href="#ref-CR58" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e904_1">58</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 59" title="Johnson GD. Percoidei: development and relationships. In: Moser H, Richards W, Cohen D, Fahay M, Kendell Jr A, Richardson S, editors. Ontogeny and Systematics of Fishes. Lawrence: American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists Special Publication; 1984. p. 438–47." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR59" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e907">59</a>]) – was circumscribed to include families not placed in other orders and tagged as a group without synapomorphies. EO Wiley and GD Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 57" title="Wiley EO, Johnson GD. A teleost classification based on monophyletic groups. In: Nelson JS, Schultze HP, MVH W, editors. Origin and Phylogenetic Interrelationships of Teleosts. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 2010. p. 123–82." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR57" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e911">57</a>] could not create structure where no anatomical evidence for structure existed.Starting around the mid-1970s (and before the era of internet), the most influential source for fish classification has been JS Nelson’s Fishes of the World [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Nelson JS. Fishes of the world, First edition edn. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons; 1976." href="#ref-CR38" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e921">38</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Nelson JS. Fishes of the world, Second edition edn. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons; 1984." href="#ref-CR39" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e921_1">39</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Nelson JS. Fishes of the world. 3rd ed. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons; 1994." href="#ref-CR40" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e921_2">40</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Nelson JS. Fishes of the world. 4th ed. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons; 2006." href="#ref-CR41" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e921_3">41</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 42" title="Nelson JS, Grande T, Wilson MVH. 5th ed. Fishes of the World. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons; 2016." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR42" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e924">42</a>], receiving more than 9300 citations (Google Scholar, as of March 2017). Another monumental effort that synthesizes knowledge on systematic ichthyology is Eschmeyer’s Catalog of Fishes [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 60" title="Catalog of Fishes. 
 http://research.calacademy.org/redirect?url=http://researcharchive.calacademy.org/research/Ichthyology/catalog/fishcatmain.asp
 
 . Accessed on 30 June 2016." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR60" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e930">60</a>], an authoritative reference for taxonomic fish names, featuring a searchable on-line database (<a href="http://www.calacademy.org/scientists/projects/catalog-of-fishes">http://www.calacademy.org/scientists/projects/catalog-of-fishes</a>), with a print version published in 1998 [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 61" title="Eschmeyer WN. Catalog of Fishes, vol. 1-3: California Academy of Sciences; 1998." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR61" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e941">61</a>] and a recent list of family-level names [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 62" title="Van Der Laan R, Eschmeyer WN, Fricke R. Family-group names of Recent fishes. Zootaxa. 2014;3882(1):230." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR62" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e944">62</a>]. This database also indicates carefully curated valid names and their synonyms under the classification of JS Nelson’s Fishes of the World with modifications. It has been constantly updated since the 1980s and gradually became another obligatory reference facilitated by the pervasive influence of the internet. Only JS Nelson’s Fishes of the World uses explicit criteria to justify the taxonomic arrangements, while Eschmeyer’s Catalog of Fishes is mostly intended for nomenclatural purposes. The phylogenetic criteria used by JS Nelson to update his classifications, however, have been based mostly on his personal views of the value of morphological evidence to define phylogenetic hypotheses [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 63" title="Parenti L. Book review: Fishes of the World, third edition. Copeia. 1995;1:262–4." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR63" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e957">63</a>], resulting in often poorly justified combinations of previous hypotheses in order to achieve a perceived “community consensus” view of phylogeny. This tendency, to “use restraint in revising classifications and incorporate a judicious mix of the old and the new” (see foreword by L. Parent in [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 42" title="Nelson JS, Grande T, Wilson MVH. 5th ed. Fishes of the World. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons; 2016." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR42" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e960">42</a>]), continues in the current edition [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 42" title="Nelson JS, Grande T, Wilson MVH. 5th ed. Fishes of the World. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons; 2016." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR42" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e963">42</a>], featuring an eclectic mix of new molecular hypotheses and traditionally accepted yet unsupported clades (e.g., Perciformes) without explicit criteria. As noted by G Nelson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 5" title="Nelson G. Origin and diversification of teleostean fishes. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1969;167:18–30." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR5" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e966">5</a>] almost half a century ago (quoted above), ambiguous approaches in systematics are not likely to improve clarity in the ichthyological literature.The contribution of molecular characters to establish high-order phylogenetic relationships among fishes started in the 1990s – although the importance of molecular characters was anticipated much earlier; see above quote by E Zuckerkandl and L Pauling [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 4" title="Zuckerkandl E, Pauling L. Molecules as documents of evolutionary history. J Theor Biol. 1965;8:357–66." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR4" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e972">4</a>] – with analyses of 28S rRNA sequences obtained via reverse transcription [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 64" title="Lé HLV, Lecointre G, Perasso R. A 28S rRNA-based phylogeny of the gnathostomes: first steps in the analysis of conflict and congruence with morphologically based cladograms. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 1993;2:31–51." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR64" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e975">64</a>]. A significant result of these early molecular studies, summarized by G Lecointre and G Nelson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 65" title="Lecointre G, Nelson G. Clupeomorpha, sister-group of Ostariophysi. In: Stiassny M, Parenti L, Johnson G, editors. Interrelationships of fishes. San Diego: Academic Press; 1996. p. 193–207." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR65" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e978">65</a>], suggested affinities between clupeomorphs and ostariophysans (see also G Arratia [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 66" title="Arratia G. Reassessment of the phylogenetic relationships of Jurassic teleosts and their implications in teleostean phylogeny. In: Arratia G, Viohl G, editors. Mesozoic Fishes —Systematics and Paleoecology. Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil: München; 1996." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR66" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e981">66</a>] and GD Johnson and C Patterson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 49" title="Johnson GD, Patterson C. Relationships of lower euteleostean fishes. In: MLJ S, Parenti LR, Johnson GD, editors. Interrelationships of fishes. San Diego: Academic Press; 1996. p. 251–332." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR49" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e984">49</a>] for morphological support). Analyses of complete mitochondrial genome sequences, starting in 1999, contributed extensively to reveal additional unanticipated affinities among lineages of fishes [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 67" title="Miya M, Nishida M. Organization of the mitochondrial genome of a deep-sea fish, Gonostoma gracile (Teleostei: Stomiiformes): first example of transfer RNA gene rearrangements in bony fishes. Marine biotechnology (New York, NY). 1999;1(5):416–0426." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR67" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e988">67</a>], resulting in more than 83 papers (e.g., [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Miya M, Takeshima H, Endo H, Ishiguro N, Inoue J, Mukai T, et al. Major patterns of higher teleostean phylogenies: a new perspective based on 100 complete mitochondrial DNA sequences. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2003;26(1):121–38." href="#ref-CR68" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e991">68</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Miya M, Satoh T, Nishida M. The phylogenetic position of toadfishes (order Batrachoidiformes) in the higher ray-finned fish as inferred from partitioned Bayesian analysis of 102 whole mitochondrial genome sequences. Biol J Linn Soc. 2005;85:289–306." href="#ref-CR69" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e991_1">69</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Miya M, Holcroft NI, Satoh TP, Yamaguchi M, Nishida M, Wiley EO. Mitochondrial genome and a nuclear gene indicate a novel phylogenetic position of deep-sea tube-eye fish (Stylephoridae). Ichthyol Res. 2007;54(4):323–32." href="#ref-CR70" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e991_2">70</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Yamanoue Y, Miya M, Matsuura K, Katoh M, Sakai H, Nishida M. A new perspective on phylogeny and evolution of tetraodontiform fishes (Pisces: Acanthopterygii) based on whole mitochondrial genome sequences: basal ecological diversification? BMC Evol Biol. 2008;8(1):212." href="#ref-CR71" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e991_3">71</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 72" title="Nakatani M, Miya M, Mabuchi K, Saitoh K, Nishida M. Evolutionary history of Otophysi (Teleostei), a major clade of the modern freshwater fishes: Pangaean origin and Mesozoic radiation. BMC Evol Biol. 2011;11:177." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR72" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e994">72</a>]) reporting phylogenetic analyses of more than 1340 mitogenomic sequences between 1999 and 2014 (see also [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 73" title="Miya M, Nishida M. The mitogenomic contributions to molecular phylogenetics and evolution of fishes: a 15-year retrospect. Ichthyol Res. 2015:29–71." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR73" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e997">73</a>]). Prompted by the advent of genomics, larger sets of nuclear gene markers became available at the beginning of this century [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 74" title="Li C, Orti G, Zhang G, Lu G. A practical approach to phylogenomics: the phylogeny of ray-finned fish (Actinopterygii) as a case study. BMC Evol Biol. 2007;7(1):44." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR74" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e1000">74</a>], opening a new window for inference of multilocus phylogenetic trees (e.g., [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Chen W, Bonillo C, Lecointre G. Repeatability of clades as a criterion of reliability: a case study for molecular phylogeny of Acanthomorpha (Teleostei) with larger number of taxa. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2003;26:262–88." href="#ref-CR75" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e1003">75</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="López JA, Chen WJ, Orti G. Esociform phylogeny. Copeia. 2004;2004(3):449–64." href="#ref-CR76" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e1003_1">76</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Lundberg JG, Sullivan JP, Rodiles-Hernández R, Hendrickson DA. Discovery of African roots for the Mesoamerican Chiapas catfish, Lacantunia enigmatica, requires an ancient intercontinental passage. Proc Acad Natl Sci Phila. 2007;156:39–53." href="#ref-CR77" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e1003_2">77</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Li C, Lu G, Orti G. Optimal data partitioning and a test case for ray-finned fishes (actinopterygii) based on ten nuclear Loci. Syst Biol. 2008;57(4):519–39." href="#ref-CR78" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e1003_3">78</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Dettai A, Lecointre G. New insights into the organization and evolution of vertebrate IRBP genes and utility of IRBP gene sequences for the phylogenetic study of the Acanthomorpha (Actinopterygii: Teleostei). Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2008;48(1):258–69." href="#ref-CR79" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e1003_4">79</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Li B, Dettai A, Cruaud C, Couloux A, Desoutter-Meniger M, Lecointre G. RNF213, a new nuclear marker for acanthomorph phylogeny. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2009;50(2):345–63." href="#ref-CR80" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e1003_5">80</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Mayden RL, Chen WJ. The world's smallest vertebrate species of the genus Paedocypris: a new family of freshwater fishes and the sister group to the world's most diverse clade of freshwater fishes (Teleostei: Cypriniformes). Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2010;57(1):152–75." href="#ref-CR81" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e1003_6">81</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Li C, Betancur-R R, Smith WL, Orti G. Monophyly and interrelationships of snook and barramundi (Centropomidae sensu Greenwood) and five new markers for fish phylogenetics. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2011;60(3):463–71." href="#ref-CR82" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e1003_7">82</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Oliveira C, Avelino GS, Abe KT, Mariguela TC, Benine RC, Orti G, et al. Phylogenetic relationships within the speciose family Characidae (Teleostei: Ostariophysi: Characiformes) based on multilocus analysis and extensive ingroup sampling. BMC Evol Biol. 2011;11:275." href="#ref-CR83" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e1003_8">83</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Near TJ, Bossu CM, Bradburd GS, Carlson RL, Harrington RC, Hollingsworth PR Jr, et al. Phylogeny and temporal diversification of darters (Percidae: Etheostomatinae). Syst Biol. 2011;60(5):565–95." href="#ref-CR84" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e1003_9">84</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Ishiguro NB, Miya M, Nishida M. Basal euteleostean relationships: a mitogenomic perspective on the phylogenetic reality of the "Protacanthopterygii". Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2003;27(3):476–88." href="#ref-CR85" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e1003_10">85</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Saitoh K, Miya M, Inoue JG, Ishiguro NB, Nishida M. Mitochondrial genomics of ostariophysan fishes: perspectives on phylogeny and biogeography. J Mol Evol. 2003;56(4):464–72." href="#ref-CR86" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e1003_11">86</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 87" title="Saitoh K, Sado T, Mayden RL, Hanzawa N, Nakamura K, Nishida M, et al. Mitogenomic evolution and interrelationships of the cypriniformes (Actinopterygii : Ostariophysi): The first evidence toward resolution of higher-level relationships of the world's largest freshwater fish clade based on 59 whole mitogenome sequences. J Mol Evol. 2006;63(6):826–41." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR87" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e1007">87</a>]). Steady progress towards acquisition of larger molecular datasets via PCR and Sanger-sequencing technology in subsequent years rapidly produced multigene phylogenies (up to 20 gene fragments) that significantly improved our knowledge of fish relationships. The most recent large-scale analyses included hundreds to thousands of species across the Tree of Life of fishes [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 8" title="Betancur-R R, Broughton RE, Wiley EO, Carpenter K, Lopez JA, Li C, et al. The tree of life and a new classification of bony fishes. PLoS Currents Tree of Life. 2013; Edition 1" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR8" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e1010">8</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 10" title="Near TJ, Eytan RI, Dornburg A, Kuhn KL, Moore JA, Davis MP, et al. Resolution of ray-finned fish phylogeny and timing of diversification. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2012;109(34):13698–703." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR10" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e1013">10</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 11" title="Near TJ, Dornburg A, Eytan RI, Keck BP, Smith WL, Kuhn KL, et al. Phylogeny and tempo of diversification in the superradiation of spiny-rayed fishes. 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Most recently, massively parallel (“next generation”) sequencing technologies, in combination with efficient methods to capture thousands of markers in a single reaction (e.g., target enrichment [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 93" title="Faircloth BC, McCormack JE, Crawford NG, Harvey MG, Brumfield RT, Glenn TC. Ultraconserved elements anchor thousands of genetic markers spanning multiple evolutionary timescales. Syst Biol. 2012;61(5):717–26." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR93" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e1041">93</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 94" title="Lemmon AR, Emme SA, Lemmon EM. 2012. Anchored hybrid enrichment for massively high-throughput phylogenomics. Syst Biol. 2012,61:727-744." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR94" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e1045">94</a>]), has ushered in a promising future to tackle difficult phylogenetic questions by analyzing hundreds or thousands of gene fragments [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 95" title="Li C, Hofreiter M, Straube N, Corrigan S, Naylor GJ. Capturing protein-coding genes across highly divergent species. BioTechniques. 2013;54(6):321–6." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR95" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e1048">95</a>]. However, genome-scale comparisons among fishes based on hundreds of loci have been limited so far to studies including a few dozen [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Faircloth BC, Sorenson L, Santini F, Alfaro ME. A phylogenomic perspective on the radiation of ray-finned fishes based upon targeted sequencing of ultraconserved elements (UCEs). PLoS One. 2013;8(6):e65923." href="#ref-CR96" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e1051">96</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Gilbert PS, Chang J, Pan C, Sobel EM, Sinsheimer JS, Faircloth BC, et al. Genome-wide ultraconserved elements exhibit higher phylogenetic informativeness than traditional gene markers in percomorph fishes. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2015;92:140–6." href="#ref-CR97" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e1051_1">97</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Eytan RI, Evans BR, Dornburg A, Lemmon AR, Lemmon EM, Wainwright PC, et al. Are 100 enough? Inferring acanthomorph teleost phylogeny using Anchored Hybrid Enrichment. BMC Evol Biol. 2015;15:113." href="#ref-CR98" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e1051_2">98</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="McGee MD, Faircloth BC, Borstein SR, Zheng J, Darrin Hulsey C, Wainwright PC, et al. Replicated divergence in cichlid radiations mirrors a major vertebrate innovation. Proc Biol Sci. 2016;283:1822." href="#ref-CR99" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e1051_3">99</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 100" title="Harrington RC, Faircloth BC, Eytan RI, Smith WL, Near TJ, Alfaro ME, et al. Phylogenomic analysis of carangimorph fishes reveals flatfish asymmetry arose in a blink of the evolutionary eye. BMC Evol Biol. 2016;16(1):224." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR100" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e1054">100</a>] or a couple hundred fish taxa [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Arcila D, Ortí G, Vari RP, Armbruster JW, Stiassny MLJ, Ko K, et al. Genome wide interrogation advances resolution of recalcitrant groups in the Tree of Life. Nature Eco Evo. 2017:1." href="#ref-CR101" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e1057">101</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Stout CC, Tan M, Lemmon AR, Lemmon EM, Armbruster JW. Resolving Cypriniformes relationships using an anchored enrichment approach. BMC Evol Biol. 2016;16(1):244." href="#ref-CR102" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e1057_1">102</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 103" title="Longo SJ, Faircloth BC, Meyer A, Westneat MW, Alfaro ME, Wainwright PC: Phylogenomic analysis of a rapid radiation of misfit fishes (Syngnathiformes) using ultraconserved elements Mol Phylogenet Evol; 113:33–48." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR103" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e1060">103</a>], largely supporting previous studies based on smaller number of genes (but see [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 101" title="Arcila D, Ortí G, Vari RP, Armbruster JW, Stiassny MLJ, Ko K, et al. Genome wide interrogation advances resolution of recalcitrant groups in the Tree of Life. Nature Eco Evo. 2017:1." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR101" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e1064">101</a>]). Compilation of genome-scale databases to enable large-scale phylogenomic studies of fishes is actively underway [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Bernardi G, Wiley EO, Mansour H, Miller MR, Orti G, Haussler D, et al. The fishes of Genome 10K. Mar Genomics. 2012;7:3–6." href="#ref-CR104" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e1067">104</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Braasch I, Peterson SM, Desvignes T, McCluskey BM, Batzel P, Postlethwait JH. A new model army: emerging fish models to study the genomics of vertebrate Evo-Devo. J Exp Zool B Mol Dev Evol. 2015;324(4):316–41." href="#ref-CR105" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e1067_1">105</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Malmstrøm M, Matschiner M, Tørresen OK, Star B, Snipen LG, Hansen TF, et al. Evolution of the immune system influences speciation rates in teleost fishes. Nat Genet. 2016;48:1204–10." href="#ref-CR106" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e1067_2">106</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Sun Y, Huang Y, Li X, Baldwin CC, Zhou Z, Yan Z, et al. Fish-T1K (Transcriptomes of 1,000 Fishes) Project: large-scale transcriptome data for fish evolution studies. Gigascience. 2016;5:18." href="#ref-CR107" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e1067_3">107</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 108" title="Pasquier J, Cabau C, Nguyen T, Jouanno E, Severac D, Braasch I, et al. Gene evolution and gene expression after whole genome duplication in fish: the PhyloFish database. BMC Genomics. 2016;17:368." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR108" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e1070">108</a>].Here, we present a revised phylogenetic classification for bony fishes based on multi-locus trees inferred for nearly 2000 species. The classification is an update of the three previous versions (including two online updates posted on <a href="http://www.deepfin.org">www.deepfin.org</a>), originally published by R Betancur-R., RE Broughton, EO Wiley, K Carpenter, JA Lopez, C Li, NI Holcroft, D Arcila, M Sanciangco, J Cureton, et al. [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 8" title="Betancur-R R, Broughton RE, Wiley EO, Carpenter K, Lopez JA, Li C, et al. The tree of life and a new classification of bony fishes. PLoS Currents Tree of Life. 2013; Edition 1" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR8" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e1083">8</a>] and built on the Linnean scheme proposed by EO Wiley and GD Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 57" title="Wiley EO, Johnson GD. A teleost classification based on monophyletic groups. In: Nelson JS, Schultze HP, MVH W, editors. Origin and Phylogenetic Interrelationships of Teleosts. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 2010. p. 123–82." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR57" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e1086">57</a>]. Our phylogenetic classification has been adopted by several public databases and documentation resources, including NCBI (<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy">www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy</a>), the Paleobiology Database (<a href="http://www.paleobiodb.org">www.paleobiodb.org</a>), FishBase (<a href="http://www.fishbase.org">www.fishbase.org</a>), Catalogue of Life (<a href="http://www.catalogueoflife.org">www.catalogueoflife.org</a> [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 109" title="Ruggiero MA, Gordon DP, Orrell TM, Bailly N, Bourgoin T, Brusca RC, et al. A Higher Level Classification of All Living Organisms. PLoS One. 2015;10(4):e0119248." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR109" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e1118">109</a>]), and OneZoom (<a href="http://www.onezoom.org">www.onezoom.org</a>). The new version presented here incorporates phylogenetic results from recent studies and fixes involuntary errors and omissions. We also highlight and comment all cases where taxonomic decisions made by JS Nelson, T Grande and MVH Wilson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 42" title="Nelson JS, Grande T, Wilson MVH. 5th ed. Fishes of the World. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons; 2016." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR42" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e1128">42</a>] are in conflict with current phylogenetic hypotheses supporting this classification, as well as the differences with WN Eschmeyer [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 60" title="Catalog of Fishes. 
 http://research.calacademy.org/redirect?url=http://researcharchive.calacademy.org/research/Ichthyology/catalog/fishcatmain.asp
 
 . Accessed on 30 June 2016." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR60" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e1131">60</a>] and R Van Der Laan, WN Eschmeyer and R Fricke [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 62" title="Van Der Laan R, Eschmeyer WN, Fricke R. Family-group names of Recent fishes. Zootaxa. 2014;3882(1):230." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR62" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e1135">62</a>].</div></div></section><section data-title="Construction and content"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec2-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec2">Construction and content</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec2-content">The phylogenetic framework for this version of the classification (version 4) is based on a recent update of the fish Tree of Life [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 27" title="Betancur-R R, Orti G, Pyron AR. Fossil-based comparative analyses reveal ancient marine ancestry erased by extinction in ray-finned fishes. Ecol Lett. 2015;18:441–50." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR27" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e1146">27</a>] with the addition of four clades obtained by large-scale phylogenetic studies: cypriniforms [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 102" title="Stout CC, Tan M, Lemmon AR, Lemmon EM, Armbruster JW. Resolving Cypriniformes relationships using an anchored enrichment approach. BMC Evol Biol. 2016;16(1):244." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR102" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e1149">102</a>], non-cypriniform otophysans (i.e., Characiformes, Siluriformes and Gymnotiformes; [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 101" title="Arcila D, Ortí G, Vari RP, Armbruster JW, Stiassny MLJ, Ko K, et al. Genome wide interrogation advances resolution of recalcitrant groups in the Tree of Life. Nature Eco Evo. 2017:1." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR101" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e1152">101</a>]), percomorphs [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 92" title="Sanciangco MD, Carpenter KE, Betancur-R. R: Phylogenetic placement of enigmatic percomorph families (Teleostei: Percomorphaceae). Mol Phylogenet Evol 2015, 94:565–576." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR92" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e1155">92</a>], and syngnatharians [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 103" title="Longo SJ, Faircloth BC, Meyer A, Westneat MW, Alfaro ME, Wainwright PC: Phylogenomic analysis of a rapid radiation of misfit fishes (Syngnathiformes) using ultraconserved elements Mol Phylogenet Evol; 113:33–48." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR103" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e1158">103</a>]. Input subtrees were time-scaled using the R [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 110" title="R: a Language and environment for statistical computing [
 http://www.r-project.org
 
 /.]" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR110" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e1162">110</a>] package Ape (“chronos” function [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 111" title="Paradis E, Claude J, Strimmer K. APE: analyses of phylogenetics and evolution in R language. Bioinformatics. 2004;20:289–90." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR111" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e1165">111</a>]) and grafted to the backbone tree using custom R code (see Additional files <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#MOESM1">1</a> and <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#MOESM2">2</a>) based on secondary age calibrations and functions implemented in the R package phytools [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 112" title="Revell LJ. phytools: an R package for phylogenetic comparative biology (and other things). Methods Ecol Evol. 2012;3(2):217–23." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR112" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e1174">112</a>]. The secondary calibrations were obtained from a Bayesian analysis of a subset of 201 taxa with 61 fossil age constraints (primary calibrations). Further details on phylogenetic inference, fossil calibrations, and divergence time estimates are given in the original study [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 8" title="Betancur-R R, Broughton RE, Wiley EO, Carpenter K, Lopez JA, Li C, et al. The tree of life and a new classification of bony fishes. PLoS Currents Tree of Life. 2013; Edition 1" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR8" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e1177">8</a>]. This study does not intend to provide a new time scale for fish evolution; instead, it provides a synthesis of our current knowledge of fish divergence times into the extended phylogenetic tree assembled herein. Shallow-level relationships and ages for many specific groups should be taken cautiously.The complete time tree includes 1990 species of extant bony fishes and two chondrichthyian outgroups (Figs. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#Fig1">1</a> and <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#Fig2">2</a>). This revision preserves names and taxonomic composition of groups presented in previous versions as much as possible; however, adjustments have been made to recognize well-supported clades, many of which have been obtained by other recent studies. Criteria for recognizing and naming clades, as in previous versions, include measures of support (bootstrap) and consistent resolution obtained by independent studies (indicated in each case). For stability purposes, we adopt some names proposed in the most recent edition of Fishes of the World [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 42" title="Nelson JS, Grande T, Wilson MVH. 5th ed. Fishes of the World. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons; 2016." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR42" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e1192">42</a>] when they do not contradict our phylogeny (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#Fig2">2</a>). Examples include classification of suborders in Osmeriformes, Zeiformes and Beryciformes, validation of Trachichthyiformes and recognition of Acanthopterygii. A complete list of 29 changes made in accordance with JS Nelson, T Grande and MVH Wilson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 42" title="Nelson JS, Grande T, Wilson MVH. 5th ed. Fishes of the World. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons; 2016." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR42" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e1199">42</a>] is presented in Additional file <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#MOESM3">3</a>B. Many of the groups classified by JS Nelson, T Grande and MVH Wilson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 42" title="Nelson JS, Grande T, Wilson MVH. 5th ed. Fishes of the World. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons; 2016." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR42" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e1205">42</a>], however, are incongruent with our phylogeny and are thus not recognized. Examples of non-monophyletic taxa, as circumscribed by JS Nelson, T Grande and MVH Wilson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 42" title="Nelson JS, Grande T, Wilson MVH. 5th ed. Fishes of the World. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons; 2016." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR42" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e1208">42</a>], but not recognized here include Osmeromorpha, Zoroteleostei and Moroniformes. Others are recognized here, but have considerably different circumscriptions (e.g., Scombriformes, Perciformes). Tables <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#Tab1">1</a> and <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#Tab2">2</a> provide an exhaustive comparison of ordinal and supraordinal taxa and families that differ between this classification and JS Nelson, T Grande and MVH Wilson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 42" title="Nelson JS, Grande T, Wilson MVH. 5th ed. Fishes of the World. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons; 2016." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR42" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e1218">42</a>], respectively. Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#Tab2">2</a> also lists differences with families recognized by R Van Der Laan, WN Eschmeyer and R Fricke [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 62" title="Van Der Laan R, Eschmeyer WN, Fricke R. Family-group names of Recent fishes. Zootaxa. 2014;3882(1):230." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR62" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e1224">62</a>].A total of 72 orders and 79 suborders of bony fishes are classified in this version (compared to only 66 orders in version 1). For each order/suborder we list all families examined as well as the unexamined families whose inclusion is expected on the basis of traditional classifications or other phylogenetic evidence. Order-level or supraordinal taxa are herein endorsed based on well-supported clades (>90% bootstrap values) or based on clades featuring lower support in the current tree, which are otherwise consistently obtained by other studies. In some cases, order-level taxa that are not monophyletic in our analysis are also validated, provided the incongruence is not substantially rejected by our results (i.e., incongruent clades that are poorly supported in our phylogeny). The classification is presented in phylogenetic order up to the subordinal rank (following the branching order in our tree), but families within orders and suborders are listed alphabetically (including hyperlinks to FishBase; Additional file <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#MOESM3">3</a>A only).Family names are largely based on R Van Der Laan, WN Eschmeyer and R Fricke [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 62" title="Van Der Laan R, Eschmeyer WN, Fricke R. Family-group names of Recent fishes. Zootaxa. 2014;3882(1):230." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR62" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e1236">62</a>] and WN Eschmeyer and JD Fong [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 113" title="Species of Fishes by family/subfamily. 
 http://research.calacademy.org/ichthyology/catalog/family
 
 . Accessed 3 July 2016." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR113" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e1239">113</a>], but with several exceptions (Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#Tab2">2</a>). These studies should be consulted for authorship of family names. A total of 514 families of bony fishes are now recognized (excluding tetrapods), of which 410 (~80%) are included in our large-scale phylogenetic tree (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#Fig2">2</a>). The list of 104 unexamined families can be obtained from Additional file <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#MOESM4">4</a> (spreadsheet) that also contains the complete classification, and is intended as a resource to stimulate future phylogenetic studies. To minimize the number of non-monophyletic taxa, we have changed the membership of some traditionally recognized families whose validity is strongly challenged by phylogenetic evidence. For instance, we no longer recognize families such as Carapidae, Scaridae, Caesionidae, and Microdesmidae (lumped with Ophidiidae, Labridae, Lutjanidae, and Gobiidae, respectively). Five lineages currently recognized as separate family-level entities (“Cyclopsettidae”, “Percalatidae”, “Percophidae”, “Rivulidae” and “Pantanodontidae”) await formal nomenclatural description in compliance with the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN). The ordinal status of 30 percomorph families (vs. 50 in version 1) included in the Series Carangaria, Ovalentaria, or Eupercaria remains uncertain due to either poor phylogenetic resolution or data unavailability. We therefore list these families as incertae sedis within each of these groups (Carangaria, Ovalentaria, or Eupercaria) awaiting new phylogenetic evidence to clarify their ordinal status. Twenty-three non-monophyletic families according to the framework phylogeny (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#Fig2">2</a>) are recognized in this version (vs. 40 in version 1): Acropomatidae, Alepocephalidae, Bathydraconidae, Bathymasteridae, Chaenopsidae, Cheilodactylidae, Chlorophthalmidae, Clupeidae, Gempylidae, Grammatidae, Hemiramphidae, Ipnopidae, Labrisomidae, Nototheniidae, Paralepididae, Phosichthyidae, Scombridae, Scopelarchidae, Scorpaenidae, Stichaeidae, Synodontidae, Trachichthyidae, and Zenarchopteridae (see details below). Non-monophyly in these cases may be the result of poor resolution. These families are validated for stability purposes until additional evidence elucidating their status becomes available.We cite sources for morphological synapomorphies for clades we have found in the literature. But there are caveats: (i) the original author/s may have polarized their characters using outgroups that are different than those appearing in this classification; (ii) we note that some suites of synapomorphies were meant for a more inclusive group than we recognize due to exclusion of one or more members of the previously recognized clade; and (iii) in some cases there is obvious conflict between morphological and molecular analyses. Our purpose is not to confirm these synapomorphies or to reject morphological conclusions that differ from our results. Rather, we seek to call attention to previously accomplished morphological analyses and to point out, where we can, conflicts and consilience between morphological and molecular studies, indicating groups that lack morphological support. See Additional file <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#MOESM3">3</a>A for an indented and comment-free version of the classification.<div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-1" data-title="Fig. 1"><figure><figcaption>Fig. 1</figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><a class="c-article-section__figure-link" data-test="img-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="image" data-track-action="view figure" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3/figures/1" rel="nofollow"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1186%2Fs12862-017-0958-3/MediaObjects/12862_2017_958_Fig1_HTML.gif?as=webp"><img aria-describedby="Fig1" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1186%2Fs12862-017-0958-3/MediaObjects/12862_2017_958_Fig1_HTML.gif" alt="figure 1" loading="lazy"></picture></a></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-1-desc">Time-calibrated Fish Tree of Life with collapsed clades that highlight the relationships of major groups (ordinal or supraordinal taxa). The backbone tree is from R Betancur-R., G Orti and AR Pyron [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 27" title="Betancur-R R, Orti G, Pyron AR. Fossil-based comparative analyses reveal ancient marine ancestry erased by extinction in ray-finned fishes. Ecol Lett. 2015;18:441–50." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR27" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e1275">27</a>], with four taxonomically-dense clades grafted (see details under “Construction and content”). The complete tree is based on 1990 species of bony fishes (see Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#Fig2">2</a>). Numbers in parenthesis indicate number of orders and families included in each major clade, respectively. Please see Additional file <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#MOESM5">5</a> for high resolution image</div></div><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="article-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="view figure" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3/figures/1" data-track-dest="link:Figure1 Full size image" aria-label="Full size image figure 1" rel="nofollow">Full size image<svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div> <div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-2" data-title="Fig. 2"><figure><figcaption>Fig. 2</figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><a class="c-article-section__figure-link" data-test="img-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="image" data-track-action="view figure" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3/figures/2" rel="nofollow"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1186%2Fs12862-017-0958-3/MediaObjects/12862_2017_958_Fig2_HTML.gif?as=webp"><img aria-describedby="Fig2" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1186%2Fs12862-017-0958-3/MediaObjects/12862_2017_958_Fig2_HTML.gif" alt="figure 2" loading="lazy"></picture></a></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-2-desc">Complete time-calibrated phylogeny including 1990 species of bony fishes. Taxon labels at the tips indicate family, species name, and specimen code (Family_Genus_species_Code). The backbone tree is from R Betancur-R., G Orti and AR Pyron [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 27" title="Betancur-R R, Orti G, Pyron AR. Fossil-based comparative analyses reveal ancient marine ancestry erased by extinction in ray-finned fishes. Ecol Lett. 2015;18:441–50." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR27" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e1303">27</a>], with four taxonomically-dense clades grafted: cypriniforms [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 102" title="Stout CC, Tan M, Lemmon AR, Lemmon EM, Armbruster JW. Resolving Cypriniformes relationships using an anchored enrichment approach. BMC Evol Biol. 2016;16(1):244." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR102" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e1306">102</a>], non-cypriniform otophysans (i.e., Characiformes, Siluriformes and Gymnotiformes; [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 101" title="Arcila D, Ortí G, Vari RP, Armbruster JW, Stiassny MLJ, Ko K, et al. Genome wide interrogation advances resolution of recalcitrant groups in the Tree of Life. Nature Eco Evo. 2017:1." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR101" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e1309">101</a>]), percomorphs [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 92" title="Sanciangco MD, Carpenter KE, Betancur-R. R: Phylogenetic placement of enigmatic percomorph families (Teleostei: Percomorphaceae). Mol Phylogenet Evol 2015, 94:565–576." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR92" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e1312">92</a>], and syngnatharians [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 103" title="Longo SJ, Faircloth BC, Meyer A, Westneat MW, Alfaro ME, Wainwright PC: Phylogenomic analysis of a rapid radiation of misfit fishes (Syngnathiformes) using ultraconserved elements Mol Phylogenet Evol; 113:33–48." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR103" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e1315">103</a>]. Taxonomic annotations for suborders, orders and higher taxonomic groups are shown in blue. Some non-monophyletic suborders are not annotated (e.g., within Aulopiformes). Nodal numbers indicate bootstrap support values (not available for Cypriniformes or Syngnatharia, but see [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 102" title="Stout CC, Tan M, Lemmon AR, Lemmon EM, Armbruster JW. Resolving Cypriniformes relationships using an anchored enrichment approach. BMC Evol Biol. 2016;16(1):244." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR102" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e1319">102</a>] and [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 103" title="Longo SJ, Faircloth BC, Meyer A, Westneat MW, Alfaro ME, Wainwright PC: Phylogenomic analysis of a rapid radiation of misfit fishes (Syngnathiformes) using ultraconserved elements Mol Phylogenet Evol; 113:33–48." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR103" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e1322">103</a>], respectively). To see details either zoom in (article PDF) or download the figure online. Please see Additional file <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#MOESM6">6</a> for high resolution image</div></div><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="article-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="view figure" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3/figures/2" data-track-dest="link:Figure2 Full size image" aria-label="Full size image figure 2" rel="nofollow">Full size image<svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div> <div class="c-article-table" data-test="inline-table" data-container-section="table" id="table-1"><figure><figcaption class="c-article-table__figcaption">Table 1 Remarkable differences for ordinal or supraordinal taxa between JS Nelson, T Grande and MVH Wilson's (NGW [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 42" title="Nelson JS, Grande T, Wilson MVH. 5th ed. Fishes of the World. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons; 2016." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR42" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e1347">42</a>]) classification and the update proposed herein. The circumscription of other orders may also differ due to variations in family validation (see Table 2) or due to inclusion of fossil taxa in NGW. Differences in taxonomic ranks and endings are considered minor and thus are not listed herein. NEL: [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 41" title="Nelson JS. Fishes of the world. 4th ed. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons; 2006." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR41" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e1350">41</a>]</figcaption><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="table-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view table" data-track-label="button" rel="nofollow" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3/tables/1" aria-label="Full size table 1">Full size table<svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div> <div class="c-article-table" data-test="inline-table" data-container-section="table" id="table-2"><figure><figcaption class="c-article-table__figcaption">Table 2 Differences in the recognition of families between JS Nelson, T Grande and MVH Wilson's (NGW [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 42" title="Nelson JS, Grande T, Wilson MVH. 5th ed. Fishes of the World. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons; 2016." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR42" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e2570">42</a>]) and R Van Der Laan, WN Eschmeyer and R Fricke's(vdLE [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 62" title="Van Der Laan R, Eschmeyer WN, Fricke R. Family-group names of Recent fishes. Zootaxa. 2014;3882(1):230." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR62" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e2573">62</a>]) classifications and the update proposed herein. Taxa are listed in alphabetic order. NEL: [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 41" title="Nelson JS. Fishes of the world. 4th ed. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons; 2006." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR41" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e2576">41</a>]</figcaption><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="table-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view table" data-track-label="button" rel="nofollow" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3/tables/2" aria-label="Full size table 2">Full size table<svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div> Megaclass Osteichthyes (= extant Euteleostomi) Morphological synapomorphies: see G Arratia and HP Schultze [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 114" title="Arratia G, Schultze HP. Palatoquadrate and its ossifications: development and homology within osteichthyans. J Morphol. 1991;208:1–81." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR114" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e5666">114</a>], P Janvier [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 115" title="Janvier P. Early vertebrates. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 1996." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR115" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e5669">115</a>], P Ahlberg [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 116" title="Ahlberg P. Major Events in Early Vertebrate Evolution: Paleontology, Phylogeny, Genetics, and Development. London: Taylor and Francis; 2001." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR116" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e5672">116</a>], M Zhu and HP Schultze [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 117" title="Zhu M, Schultze HP: Interrelationships of basal osteichthyans. In: Major Events in Early Vertebrate Evolution: Paleontology, Phylogeny, Genetics, and Development. Edited by Ahlberg P. London: Taylor and Francis; 2001;289-314." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR117" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e5675">117</a>], M Zhu, X Yu and P Janvier [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 118" title="Zhu M, Yu X, Janvier P. A primitive fossil fish sheds light on the origin of bony fishes. Nature. 1999;397(6720):607–10." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR118" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e5679">118</a>]. Superclass Actinopterygii (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: see C Patterson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 119" title="Patterson C. Morphology and interrelationships of primitive actinopterygians. Am Zool. 1982;22:241–59." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR119" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e5694">119</a>], MI Coates [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 120" title="Coates MI. Actinopterygians the namurian of bearsden, scotland, with comments on early actinopterygian neurocrania. Zool J Linnean Soc. 1998;122:27–59." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR120" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e5697">120</a>], H-P Schultze and SL Cumbaa [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 121" title="Schultze H-P, Cumbaa SL. Dialipina and the characters of basal actinopterygians. In: Ahlberg PE, editor. Major events in Early Vertebrate Evolution, Paleontology, Phylogeny, Genetics and Development. London and New York: Systematic Association Special Volume - Taylor & Francis; 2001. p. 315–32." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR121" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e5700">121</a>], R Cloutier and G Arratia [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 122" title="Cloutier R, Arratia G. Early diversification of actinopterygians. In: Arratia G, MVH W, Cloutier R, editors. Recent Advances in the Origin and Early Radiation of Vertebrates. Munich: Verlag Dr. Friedrich Pfeil; 2004. p. 217–70." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR122" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e5703">122</a>], K Mickle [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 123" title="Mickle K. The lower actinopterygian fauna from the Lower Carboniferous Albert shale formation of New Brunswick, Canada – A review of previously described taxa and a description of a new genus and species. Fossil Record. 2017;20:47–67." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR123" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e5707">123</a>]. Class Cladistia (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: see E Jarvik [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 124" title="Jarvik E. Basic Structure and Evolution of Vertebrates. New York: Academic Press; 1996." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR124" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e5723">124</a>], R Britz and P Bartsch [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 125" title="Britz R, Bartsch P. The myth of dorsal ribs in gnathostome vertebrates. Proc R Soc B Biol Sci. 2003;270:1–4." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR125" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e5726">125</a>], AB Ward and NJ Kley [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 126" title="Ward AB, Kley NJ. Effects of precaudal elongation on visceral topography in a basal clade of ray-finned fishes. Anat Rec Adv Integr Anat Evol Biol. 2012;295(2):289–97." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR126" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e5729">126</a>]. Comments: polypteriforms or bichirs present a combination of characters that have led to their former identification as members of the Sarcopterygii (placed within Brachyopterygii). This view has changed since the implementation of explicit phylogenetic analyses, demonstrating that bichirs belong in Actinopterygii (e.g., [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 127" title="Bartsch P, Britz R. A single micropyle in the eggs of the most basal living actinopterygian Polypterus (Actinopterygii, Polypteriformes). J Zool. 1997;241:589–92." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR127" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e5738">127</a>]). Recent molecular analyses using the taxa necessary to assess the placement of bichirs (e.g., chondrichthyans, sarcopterygians and actinopterygians) have confirmed this view [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 8" title="Betancur-R R, Broughton RE, Wiley EO, Carpenter K, Lopez JA, Li C, et al. The tree of life and a new classification of bony fishes. PLoS Currents Tree of Life. 2013; Edition 1" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR8" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e5741">8</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 9" title="Broughton RE, Betancur-R R, Li C, Arratia G, Orti G. Multi-locus phylogenetic analysis reveals the pattern and tempo of bony fish evolution. PLOS Currents Tree of Life. 2013; Edition 1" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR9" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e5744">9</a>]. Order Polypteriformes Morphological synapomorphies: same as Cladistia (extant taxa only).<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Polypteridae </li> </ul> Class Actinopteri (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: few morphological studies provide support for this clade; e.g., R Lund and C Poplin [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 128" title="Lund R, Poplin C. Cladistic analysis of the relationships of the terrasiids (Lower Carboniferous, Actinopterygians). J Vertebr Paleontol. 2002;22(3):480–6." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR128" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e5780">128</a>] and G-H Xu, K-Q Gao and JA Finarelli [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 129" title="Xu G-H, Gao K-Q, Finarelli JA. A revision of the Middle Triassic scanilepiform fish Fukonichthys longidorsalis from Xinjiang, China, with comments on the phylogeny of the Actinoptery. J Vertebr Paleontol. 2014;34(4):747–59." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR129" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e5783">129</a>]. Note, however, that R Lund and C Poplin [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 128" title="Lund R, Poplin C. Cladistic analysis of the relationships of the terrasiids (Lower Carboniferous, Actinopterygians). J Vertebr Paleontol. 2002;22(3):480–6." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR128" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e5786">128</a>] did not include in their study fossil and/or extant members of chondrosteans and neopterygians. Likewise, G-H Xu, K-Q Gao and JA Finarelli [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 129" title="Xu G-H, Gao K-Q, Finarelli JA. A revision of the Middle Triassic scanilepiform fish Fukonichthys longidorsalis from Xinjiang, China, with comments on the phylogeny of the Actinoptery. J Vertebr Paleontol. 2014;34(4):747–59." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR129" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e5789">129</a>] used in their phylogenetic analyses the Cheirolepis as an outgroup, not as part of the ingroup, and their coding of Polypterus does not consider the homologization problems that polypteriforms versus other actinopterygians present, as highlighted by R Cloutier and G Arratia [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 122" title="Cloutier R, Arratia G. Early diversification of actinopterygians. In: Arratia G, MVH W, Cloutier R, editors. Recent Advances in the Origin and Early Radiation of Vertebrates. Munich: Verlag Dr. Friedrich Pfeil; 2004. p. 217–70." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR122" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e5799">122</a>]. Comment: Although morphological studies on Actinopteri are scarce, the currently accepted branching of chondrosteans, holosteans and teleosts (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#Fig1">1</a>) is supported by several molecular studies (e.g., [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 8" title="Betancur-R R, Broughton RE, Wiley EO, Carpenter K, Lopez JA, Li C, et al. The tree of life and a new classification of bony fishes. PLoS Currents Tree of Life. 2013; Edition 1" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR8" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e5812">8</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 10" title="Near TJ, Eytan RI, Dornburg A, Kuhn KL, Moore JA, Davis MP, et al. Resolution of ray-finned fish phylogeny and timing of diversification. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2012;109(34):13698–703." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR10" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e5815">10</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 11" title="Near TJ, Dornburg A, Eytan RI, Keck BP, Smith WL, Kuhn KL, et al. Phylogeny and tempo of diversification in the superradiation of spiny-rayed fishes. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2013;110(31):12738–43." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR11" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e5818">11</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="New and Revised Classification of Bony Fishes. Version 2: 
 http://www.deepfin.org/Classification_v2.htm
 
 . Accessed 27 Nov 2013." href="#ref-CR88" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e5822">88</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Mirande JM. Combined phylogeny of ray-finned fishes (Actinopterygii) and the use of morphological characters in large-scale analyses. Cladistics. 2016;" href="#ref-CR89" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e5822_1">89</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 90" title="Rabosky DL, Santini F, Eastman J, Smith SA, Sidlauskas B, Chang J, et al. Rates of speciation and morphological evolution are correlated across the largest vertebrate radiation. Nat Commun. 2013;4:1958." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR90" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e5825">90</a>]). Subclass Chondrostei (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: see G Arratia and HP Schultze [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 114" title="Arratia G, Schultze HP. Palatoquadrate and its ossifications: development and homology within osteichthyans. J Morphol. 1991;208:1–81." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR114" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e5840">114</a>], L Grande and WE Bemis [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 130" title="Grande L, Bemis WE. Interrelationships of Acipenseriformes with comments on "Chondrostei". In: MLJ S, Parenti LR, Johnson GD, editors. Interrelationships of fishes. London: Academic Press; 1996. p. 85–115." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR130" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e5843">130</a>], WE Bemis, EK Findeis and L Grande [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 131" title="Bemis WE, Findeis EK, Grande L. An overview of Acipenseriformes. Environ Biol Fish. 1997;48:25–71." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR131" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e5846">131</a>]. Order Acipenseriformes Morphological synapomorphies: same as Chondrostei (extant taxa only).<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Acipenseridae </li> <li> Polyodontidae </li> </ul> Subclass Neopterygii (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: see C Patterson and DE Rosen [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 47" title="Patterson C, Rosen DE. Review of ichthyodectiform and other Mesozoic teleost fishes and the theory and practice of classifying fossils. Bull Am Mus Nat Hist. 1977;158:83–172." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR47" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e5889">47</a>], BG Jamieson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 132" title="Jamieson BG. Fish Evolution and Systematics: Evidence from Spermatozoa. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1991." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR132" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e5892">132</a>], L Grande [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 133" title="Grande L: An empirical synthetic pattern study of gars (Lepisosteiformes) and closely related species, based mostly on skeletal anatomy. The resurrection of Holostei Copeia 2010, 10(2A suppl.):1-871." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR133" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e5895">133</a>], A López-Arbarello [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 134" title="López-Arbarello A. Phylogenetic interrelationships of ginglymodian fishes (Actinopterygii: Neopterygii). PLoS One. 2012;7(7):e39370." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR134" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e5898">134</a>]. Infraclass Holostei (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: L Grande [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 133" title="Grande L: An empirical synthetic pattern study of gars (Lepisosteiformes) and closely related species, based mostly on skeletal anatomy. The resurrection of Holostei Copeia 2010, 10(2A suppl.):1-871." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR133" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e5913">133</a>]. Comment: Holostei was readopted by L Grande [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 133" title="Grande L: An empirical synthetic pattern study of gars (Lepisosteiformes) and closely related species, based mostly on skeletal anatomy. The resurrection of Holostei Copeia 2010, 10(2A suppl.):1-871." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR133" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e5922">133</a>], after several decades of dismissal in ichthyology. Monophyly of Holostei has been also confirmed by several molecular studies (e.g., [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Betancur-R R, Broughton RE, Wiley EO, Carpenter K, Lopez JA, Li C, et al. The tree of life and a new classification of bony fishes. PLoS Currents Tree of Life. 2013; Edition 1" href="#ref-CR8" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e5925">8</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Broughton RE, Betancur-R R, Li C, Arratia G, Orti G. Multi-locus phylogenetic analysis reveals the pattern and tempo of bony fish evolution. PLOS Currents Tree of Life. 2013; Edition 1" href="#ref-CR9" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e5925_1">9</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 10" title="Near TJ, Eytan RI, Dornburg A, Kuhn KL, Moore JA, Davis MP, et al. Resolution of ray-finned fish phylogeny and timing of diversification. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2012;109(34):13698–703." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR10" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e5928">10</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 135" title="Hurley IA, Mueller RL, Dunn KA, Schmidt EJ, Friedman M, Ho RK, et al. A new time-scale for ray-finned fish evolution. Proceedings of the Royal Society B-Biological Sciences. 2007;274(1609):489–98." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR135" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e5931">135</a>]). Order Amiiformes (= extant Halecomorphi). Morphological synapomorphies: see L Grande and WE Bemis [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 16" title="Grande L, Bemis WE. A comprehensive phylogenetic study of amiid fishes (Amiidae) based on comparative skeletal anatomy. An empirical search for interconnected patterns of natural history. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology (Memoir 4, supplement). 1998;18(1):690." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR16" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e5946">16</a>], G Arratia [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 136" title="Arratia G. Morphology, taxonomy, and phylogeny of Triassic pholidophorid fishes (Actinopterygii, Teleostei). J Vertebr Paleontol. 2013;33(sup1):1–138." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR136" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e5949">136</a>], G Arratia [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 137" title="Arratia G. New remarkable Late Jurassic teleosts from southern Germany: Ascaloboidae n. fam., its content, morphology, and phylogenetic relationships. Fossil Record. 2016;19:31–59." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR137" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e5952">137</a>]. Comment: it should be noted that the three synapomorphies proposed by L Grande and WE Bemis [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 16" title="Grande L, Bemis WE. A comprehensive phylogenetic study of amiid fishes (Amiidae) based on comparative skeletal anatomy. An empirical search for interconnected patterns of natural history. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology (Memoir 4, supplement). 1998;18(1):690." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR16" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e5962">16</a>] for amiiforms become homoplasies when other primitive teleosts, such as Triassic pholidophorids, are included in the phylogenetic analysis (see [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 136" title="Arratia G. Morphology, taxonomy, and phylogeny of Triassic pholidophorid fishes (Actinopterygii, Teleostei). J Vertebr Paleontol. 2013;33(sup1):1–138." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR136" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e5965">136</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 137" title="Arratia G. New remarkable Late Jurassic teleosts from southern Germany: Ascaloboidae n. fam., its content, morphology, and phylogenetic relationships. Fossil Record. 2016;19:31–59." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR137" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e5968">137</a>]).<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Amiidae </li> </ul> Order Lepisosteiformes (= extant Ginglymodi) (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: see EO Wiley [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 138" title="Wiley EO. The phylogeny and biogeography of fossil and recent gars (Actinopterygii: Lepisosteidae). University of Kansas Museum of Natural History, Miscellaneous Publications. 1976;64:1–111." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR138" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e5992">138</a>], L Grande [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 133" title="Grande L: An empirical synthetic pattern study of gars (Lepisosteiformes) and closely related species, based mostly on skeletal anatomy. The resurrection of Holostei Copeia 2010, 10(2A suppl.):1-871." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR133" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e5995">133</a>].<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Lepisosteidae </li> </ul> Infraclass Teleostei (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: see G Arratia [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 17" title="Arratia G. The monophyly of Teleostei and stem-group teleosts. Consensus and disagreements. In: Arratia G, Schultze HP, editors. Mesozoic Fishes 2 – Systematics and Fossil Record. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 1999. p. 265–334." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR17" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6019">17</a>], G Arratia [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 136" title="Arratia G. Morphology, taxonomy, and phylogeny of Triassic pholidophorid fishes (Actinopterygii, Teleostei). J Vertebr Paleontol. 2013;33(sup1):1–138." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR136" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6022">136</a>], G Arratia [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 46" title="Arratia G. Complexities of early Teleostei and the evolution of particular morphological structures through time. Copeia. 2015;103(4):999–1025." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR46" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6025">46</a>], G Arratia [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 137" title="Arratia G. New remarkable Late Jurassic teleosts from southern Germany: Ascaloboidae n. fam., its content, morphology, and phylogenetic relationships. Fossil Record. 2016;19:31–59." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR137" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6028">137</a>]. See also EO Wiley and GD Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 57" title="Wiley EO, Johnson GD. A teleost classification based on monophyletic groups. In: Nelson JS, Schultze HP, MVH W, editors. Origin and Phylogenetic Interrelationships of Teleosts. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 2010. p. 123–82." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR57" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6032">57</a>]. Comment: Teleosteomorpha (or total group teleost including stem members), apomorphy-based Teleostei, and crown group Teleocephala in MCC de Pinna [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 139" title="de MCC P. Teleostean monophyly. In: MLJ S, Parenti LR, Johnson GD, editors. Interrelationships of Fishes. San Diego: Academic Press; 1996. p. 147–62." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR139" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6041">139</a>] are treated here as synonyms when only extant taxa are considered. However, we are aware that these three groups are diagnosed by different sets of synapomorphies (see G Arratia [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 46" title="Arratia G. Complexities of early Teleostei and the evolution of particular morphological structures through time. Copeia. 2015;103(4):999–1025." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR46" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6044">46</a>], G Arratia [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 137" title="Arratia G. New remarkable Late Jurassic teleosts from southern Germany: Ascaloboidae n. fam., its content, morphology, and phylogenetic relationships. Fossil Record. 2016;19:31–59." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR137" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6047">137</a>]). R Britz [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 140" title="Britz R. Book review: Fishes of the World. Fifth edition. by J. S. Nelson, T. C. Grande & M. V. W. Wilson. J Fish Biol. 2017;2017(90):451–9." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR140" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6050">140</a>] criticism of the use of Teleosteomorpha and Teleocephala in his book review of Fishes of the World [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 42" title="Nelson JS, Grande T, Wilson MVH. 5th ed. Fishes of the World. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons; 2016." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR42" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6057">42</a>] lacks solid ground because no paleontologist or neoicthyologist is confused with the meaning of one name or the other, particularly when the concept followed is being explained. Nevertheless, we agree that the presentation of Teleocephala in JS Nelson, T Grande and MVH Wilson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 42" title="Nelson JS, Grande T, Wilson MVH. 5th ed. Fishes of the World. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons; 2016." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR42" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6060">42</a>] is confusing and that the list of synapomorphies presented to support Teleocephala sensu MCC de Pinna [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 139" title="de MCC P. Teleostean monophyly. In: MLJ S, Parenti LR, Johnson GD, editors. Interrelationships of Fishes. San Diego: Academic Press; 1996. p. 147–62." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR139" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6066">139</a>] is a combination of three concepts. Megacohort Elopocephalai sensu G Arratia [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 17" title="Arratia G. The monophyly of Teleostei and stem-group teleosts. Consensus and disagreements. In: Arratia G, Schultze HP, editors. Mesozoic Fishes 2 – Systematics and Fossil Record. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 1999. p. 265–334." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR17" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6079">17</a>] (100%). Morphological synapomorphies: see G Arratia [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 17" title="Arratia G. The monophyly of Teleostei and stem-group teleosts. Consensus and disagreements. In: Arratia G, Schultze HP, editors. Mesozoic Fishes 2 – Systematics and Fossil Record. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 1999. p. 265–334." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR17" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6088">17</a>]. Cohort Elopomorpha (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: see G Arratia [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 17" title="Arratia G. The monophyly of Teleostei and stem-group teleosts. Consensus and disagreements. In: Arratia G, Schultze HP, editors. Mesozoic Fishes 2 – Systematics and Fossil Record. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 1999. p. 265–334." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR17" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6103">17</a>], G Arratia [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 136" title="Arratia G. Morphology, taxonomy, and phylogeny of Triassic pholidophorid fishes (Actinopterygii, Teleostei). J Vertebr Paleontol. 2013;33(sup1):1–138." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR136" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6106">136</a>]; see also comments below. Comments: while divergence of Elopomorpha at the base of teleosts is counter to the prevailing view that the Osteoglossomorpha represents the earliest branching teleost lineage [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 36" title="Lauder GV, Liem KF. The evolution and interrelationships of the actinopterygian fishes. Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology. 1983;150(95–197):103." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR36" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6115">36</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 40" title="Nelson JS. Fishes of the world. 3rd ed. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons; 1994." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR40" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6118">40</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 47" title="Patterson C, Rosen DE. Review of ichthyodectiform and other Mesozoic teleost fishes and the theory and practice of classifying fossils. Bull Am Mus Nat Hist. 1977;158:83–172." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR47" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6121">47</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Inoue JG, Miya M, Tsukamoto K, Nishida M. A mitogenomic perspective on the basal teleostean phylogeny: resolving higher-level relationships with longer DNA sequences. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2001;20(2):275–85." href="#ref-CR141" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6124">141</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Lavoué S, Miya M, Arnegard ME, Sullivan JP, Hopkins CD, Nishida M. Comparable ages for the independent origins of electrogenesis in African and South American weakly electric fishes. PLoS One. 2012;7(5):e36287." href="#ref-CR142" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6124_1">142</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 143" title="Austin CM, Tan MH, Croft LJ, Hammer MP, Gan HM. Whole genome sequencing of the Asian arowana (Scleropages formosus) provides insights into the evolution of ray-finned fishes. Genome Biol Evol. 2015;7(10):2885–95." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR143" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6128">143</a>], substantial morphological [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 17" title="Arratia G. The monophyly of Teleostei and stem-group teleosts. Consensus and disagreements. In: Arratia G, Schultze HP, editors. Mesozoic Fishes 2 – Systematics and Fossil Record. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 1999. p. 265–334." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR17" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6131">17</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 25" title="Arratia G. Phylogenetic relationships of Teleostei: past and present. 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J Vertebr Paleontol. 2013;33(sup1):1–138." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR136" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6140">136</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Arratia G. The caudal skeleton of Jurassic teleosts: A phylogenetic analysis. In: Chang MM, Liu YH, Zhang GR, editors. Early Vertebrates and Related Problems in Evolutionary Biology. Beijing: Science Press; 1991. p. 249–340." href="#ref-CR144" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6143">144</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Arratia G. Remarkable teleostean fishes from the Late Jurassic of southern Germany and their phylogenetic relationships. Mitteilungen aus dem Museum für Naturkunde, Berlin, Geowissenschaftliche Reihe. 2000;3:137–79." href="#ref-CR145" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6143_1">145</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Arratia G. New teleostean fishes from southern Germany and the systematic problems concerning the 'pholidophoriforms'. Paläontol Z. 2000;74:113–43." href="#ref-CR146" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6143_2">146</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Arratia G. Critical analysis of the impact of fossils on teleostean phylogenies, especially that of basal teleosts. In: Elliott DK, Maisey JG, Yu X, Miao DS, editors. Morphology, Phylogeny and Paleobiogeography of Fossil Fishes. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 2010. p. 247–74." href="#ref-CR147" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6143_3">147</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Shen M. Fossil “osteoglossomorphs” in East Asia and their implications in teleostean phylogeny. In: Arratia G, Viohl G, editors. Mesozoic Fishes – Systematics and Paleoecology. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 1996. p. 261–72." href="#ref-CR148" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6143_4">148</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Zhang YJ. Morphology and phylogenetic relationships of Kuntulunia Ma 1980 (Teleostei: Osteoglossomorpha). J Vertebr Paleontol. 1998;18:280–300." href="#ref-CR149" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6143_5">149</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Li G-Q, MVH W. Early divergence of Hiodontiformes sensu stricto in East Asia and phylogeny of some Late Mesozoic teleosts from China. In: Arratia G, Schultze H-P, editors. Mesozoic Fishes 2 – Systematics and Fossil Record. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 1999. p. 369–84." href="#ref-CR150" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6143_6">150</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Li G-Q. New osteoglossomorphs (Teleostei) from the Upper Cretaceous and Lower Tertiary of North America and their phylogenetic significance. Edmonton: University of Alberta; 1995." href="#ref-CR151" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6143_7">151</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 152" title="Li G-Q. A new species of Late Cretaceous osteoglossid (Teleostei) from the Oldman formation of Alberta, Canada, and its phylogenetic relationships. In: Arratia G, Viohl G, editors. Mesozoic Fishes —Systematics and Paleoecology. Munich: Verlag Dr. Friedrich Pfeil; 1996. p. 285–98." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR152" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6147">152</a>] and molecular [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 8" title="Betancur-R R, Broughton RE, Wiley EO, Carpenter K, Lopez JA, Li C, et al. The tree of life and a new classification of bony fishes. PLoS Currents Tree of Life. 2013; Edition 1" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR8" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6150">8</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 9" title="Broughton RE, Betancur-R R, Li C, Arratia G, Orti G. Multi-locus phylogenetic analysis reveals the pattern and tempo of bony fish evolution. PLOS Currents Tree of Life. 2013; Edition 1" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR9" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6153">9</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 153" title="Santini F, Harmon L, Carnevale G, Alfaro M. Did genome duplication drive the origin of teleosts? A comparative study of diversification in ray-finned fishes. BMC Evol Biol. 2009;9(1):194." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR153" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6156">153</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 154" title="Near TJ, Dornburg A, Kuhn KL, Eastman JT, Pennington JN, Patarnello T, et al. Ancient climate change, antifreeze, and the evolutionary diversification of Antarctic fishes. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2012;109(9):3434–9." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR154" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6159">154</a>] evidence favors elopomorphs as the first diverging teleosts. A more recent phylogenomic analysis based on 418 orthologous genes [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 155" title="Bian C, Hu Y, Ravi V, Kuznetsova IS, Shen X, Mu X, et al. The Asian arowana (Scleropages formosus) genome provides new insights into the evolution of an early lineage of teleosts. Sci Rep. 2016;6:24501." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR155" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6162">155</a>] obtained support for yet another topology – a sister-group relationship between elopomorphs and osteoglossomorphs. That study, however, has a limited taxonomic scope (12 taxa), with crucial lineages that bisect long branches missing (e.g., Hiodon, clupeiforms and Lepidogalaxias). Placement of Elopomorpha as sister to the remaining teleosts is herein maintained (i.e., it is congruent with the phylogeny presented in Figs. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#Fig1">1</a> and <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#Fig2">2</a>). Order Elopiformes (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: see PL Forey [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 156" title="Forey PL. Interrelationships of elopomorph fishes. In: MLJ S, Parenti LR, Johnson GD, editors. Interrelationships of fishes. San Diego: Academic Press; 1996. p. 175–91." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR156" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6191">156</a>], GD Johnson and R Britz [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 157" title="Johnson GD, Britz R. Occipito-vertebral fusion in actinopterygians: conjecture, myth and reality. Part 2: Teleosts. In: Nelson JS, Schultze HP, MVH W, editors. Origin and Phylogenetic Interrelationships of Teleosts. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 2010. p. 95–110." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR157" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6194">157</a>].<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Elopidae </li> <li> Megalopidae </li> </ul> Order Albuliformes (95%) Morphological synapomorphies: see PL Forey [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 156" title="Forey PL. Interrelationships of elopomorph fishes. In: MLJ S, Parenti LR, Johnson GD, editors. Interrelationships of fishes. San Diego: Academic Press; 1996. p. 175–91." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR156" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6224">156</a>].<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Albulidae </li> </ul> Order Notacanthiformes (92%) Morphological synapomorphies: see PL Forey [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 156" title="Forey PL. Interrelationships of elopomorph fishes. In: MLJ S, Parenti LR, Johnson GD, editors. Interrelationships of fishes. San Diego: Academic Press; 1996. p. 175–91." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR156" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6248">156</a>].<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Halosauridae </li> <li> Notacanthidae </li> </ul> Order Anguilliformes (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: see PL Forey [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 156" title="Forey PL. Interrelationships of elopomorph fishes. In: MLJ S, Parenti LR, Johnson GD, editors. Interrelationships of fishes. San Diego: Academic Press; 1996. p. 175–91." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR156" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6279">156</a>], GD Johnson, H Ida, J Sakaue, T Sado, T Asahida and M Miya [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 158" title="Johnson GD, Ida H, Sakaue J, Sado T, Asahida T, Miya M. A 'living fossil' eel (Anguilliformes: Protanguillidae, fam. nov.) from an undersea cave in Palau. Proc Biol Sci B. 2012;279(1730):934–43." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR158" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6282">158</a>], GD Johnson and R Britz [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 157" title="Johnson GD, Britz R. Occipito-vertebral fusion in actinopterygians: conjecture, myth and reality. Part 2: Teleosts. In: Nelson JS, Schultze HP, MVH W, editors. Origin and Phylogenetic Interrelationships of Teleosts. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 2010. p. 95–110." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR157" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6285">157</a>]. Comment: suborders recognized in EO Wiley and GD Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 57" title="Wiley EO, Johnson GD. A teleost classification based on monophyletic groups. In: Nelson JS, Schultze HP, MVH W, editors. Origin and Phylogenetic Interrelationships of Teleosts. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 2010. p. 123–82." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR57" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6294">57</a>] based on previous work cited therein are significantly incongruent with the clades obtained in this analysis; thus, no subordinal classification is proposed.<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Anguillidae </li> <li> Congridae </li> <li> Eurypharyngidae </li> <li> Muraenesocidae </li> <li> Muraenidae </li> <li> Nemichthyidae </li> <li> Ophichthidae </li> <li> Saccopharyngidae </li> <li> Serrivomeridae </li> <li> Not examined: Chlopsidae, Cyematidae, Derichthyidae (including Colocongridae [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 158" title="Johnson GD, Ida H, Sakaue J, Sado T, Asahida T, Miya M. A 'living fossil' eel (Anguilliformes: Protanguillidae, fam. nov.) from an undersea cave in Palau. Proc Biol Sci B. 2012;279(1730):934–43." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR158" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6361">158</a>]), Heterenchelyidae, Monognathidae, Moringuidae, Myrocongridae, Nettastomatidae, Protanguillidae, Synaphobranchidae. </li> </ul> Megacohort Osteoglossocephalai (= Osteoglossocephala sensu G Arratia [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 17" title="Arratia G. The monophyly of Teleostei and stem-group teleosts. Consensus and disagreements. In: Arratia G, Schultze HP, editors. Mesozoic Fishes 2 – Systematics and Fossil Record. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 1999. p. 265–334." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR17" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6376">17</a>]) (100%). Morphological synapomorphies: see G Arratia [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 17" title="Arratia G. The monophyly of Teleostei and stem-group teleosts. Consensus and disagreements. In: Arratia G, Schultze HP, editors. Mesozoic Fishes 2 – Systematics and Fossil Record. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 1999. p. 265–334." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR17" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6385">17</a>], EJ Hilton [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 159" title="Hilton EJ. Comparative osteology and phylogenetic systematics of fossil and living bony-tongue fishes (Actinopterygii, Teleostei, Osteoglossomorpha). Zool J Linnean Soc. 2003;137:1–100." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR159" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6388">159</a>], J-Y Zhang [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 160" title="Zhang J-Y. Phylogeny of Osteoglossomorpha. Vert Pal Asiat. 2006;44(1):43–59." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR160" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6391">160</a>], MVH Wilson and AM Murray [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 161" title="Wilson MVH, Murray AM. Osteoglossomorpha: phylogeny, biogeography, and fossil record and the significance of key African and Chinese fossil taxa. Geol Soc Lond, Spec Publ. 2008;295(1):185–219." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR161" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6394">161</a>]. Supercohort Osteoglossomorpha sensu G Arratia [17] Morphological synapomorphies: see G Arratia [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 17" title="Arratia G. The monophyly of Teleostei and stem-group teleosts. Consensus and disagreements. In: Arratia G, Schultze HP, editors. Mesozoic Fishes 2 – Systematics and Fossil Record. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 1999. p. 265–334." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR17" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6412">17</a>], G Arratia [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 46" title="Arratia G. Complexities of early Teleostei and the evolution of particular morphological structures through time. Copeia. 2015;103(4):999–1025." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR46" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6415">46</a>], G Arratia [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 137" title="Arratia G. New remarkable Late Jurassic teleosts from southern Germany: Ascaloboidae n. fam., its content, morphology, and phylogenetic relationships. Fossil Record. 2016;19:31–59." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR137" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6418">137</a>]; see also comments under Elopomorpha above. Comments: previous versions of the classification validated the supercohort Osteoglossocephala as well as the cohort Osteoglossomorpha, which were redundant in content. For simplicity and to avoid confusion —Osteoglossocephala sensu G Arratia [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 17" title="Arratia G. The monophyly of Teleostei and stem-group teleosts. Consensus and disagreements. In: Arratia G, Schultze HP, editors. Mesozoic Fishes 2 – Systematics and Fossil Record. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 1999. p. 265–334." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR17" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6431">17</a>] is the same as Osteoglossocephalai here and in previous versions, but not the same as Osteoglossocephala in previous versions — we now name this supercohort Osteoglossomorpha, but this change also means that the endings for the ranks cohort and supercohort are interchangeable. Order Hiodontiformes (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: see EJ Hilton [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 159" title="Hilton EJ. Comparative osteology and phylogenetic systematics of fossil and living bony-tongue fishes (Actinopterygii, Teleostei, Osteoglossomorpha). Zool J Linnean Soc. 2003;137:1–100." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR159" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6446">159</a>], J-Y Zhang [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 160" title="Zhang J-Y. Phylogeny of Osteoglossomorpha. Vert Pal Asiat. 2006;44(1):43–59." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR160" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6449">160</a>], MVH Wilson and AM Murray [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 161" title="Wilson MVH, Murray AM. Osteoglossomorpha: phylogeny, biogeography, and fossil record and the significance of key African and Chinese fossil taxa. Geol Soc Lond, Spec Publ. 2008;295(1):185–219." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR161" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6452">161</a>].<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Hiodontidae </li> </ul> Order Osteoglossiformes (42%) Morphological synapomorphies: see EJ Hilton [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 159" title="Hilton EJ. Comparative osteology and phylogenetic systematics of fossil and living bony-tongue fishes (Actinopterygii, Teleostei, Osteoglossomorpha). Zool J Linnean Soc. 2003;137:1–100." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR159" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6476">159</a>], J-Y Zhang [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 160" title="Zhang J-Y. Phylogeny of Osteoglossomorpha. Vert Pal Asiat. 2006;44(1):43–59." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR160" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6479">160</a>], MVH Wilson and AM Murray [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 161" title="Wilson MVH, Murray AM. Osteoglossomorpha: phylogeny, biogeography, and fossil record and the significance of key African and Chinese fossil taxa. Geol Soc Lond, Spec Publ. 2008;295(1):185–219." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR161" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6482">161</a>]. Comment: Osteoglossidae includes Arapaima and Heterotis, formerly in Arapaimidae [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 161" title="Wilson MVH, Murray AM. Osteoglossomorpha: phylogeny, biogeography, and fossil record and the significance of key African and Chinese fossil taxa. Geol Soc Lond, Spec Publ. 2008;295(1):185–219." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR161" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6497">161</a>].<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Gymnarchidae </li> <li> Mormyridae </li> <li> Notopteridae </li> <li> Osteoglossidae </li> <li> Pantodontidae </li> </ul> Supercohort Clupeocephala sensu G Arratia [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 48" title="Arratia G. The Clupeocephala re-visited: Analysis of characters and homologies. Revista de Biologia Marina & Oceanografia. 2010;45(Special issue):635–57." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR48" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6543">48</a>] (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: see G Arratia [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 48" title="Arratia G. The Clupeocephala re-visited: Analysis of characters and homologies. Revista de Biologia Marina & Oceanografia. 2010;45(Special issue):635–57." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR48" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6552">48</a>]. Cohort Otomorpha (= Otocephala, Ostarioclupeomorpha) (92%). Morphological synapomorphies: Morphological characters supporting Otomorpha (but excluding Alepocephalidae) can be found in G Arratia [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 45" title="Arratia G. Basal teleosts and teleostean phylogeny. Palaeo Ichthyologica. 1997;7:1–168." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR45" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6567">45</a>], G Arratia [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 17" title="Arratia G. The monophyly of Teleostei and stem-group teleosts. Consensus and disagreements. In: Arratia G, Schultze HP, editors. Mesozoic Fishes 2 – Systematics and Fossil Record. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 1999. p. 265–334." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR17" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6570">17</a>], G Arratia [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 48" title="Arratia G. The Clupeocephala re-visited: Analysis of characters and homologies. Revista de Biologia Marina & Oceanografia. 2010;45(Special issue):635–57." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR48" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6573">48</a>], EO Wiley and GD Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 57" title="Wiley EO, Johnson GD. A teleost classification based on monophyletic groups. In: Nelson JS, Schultze HP, MVH W, editors. Origin and Phylogenetic Interrelationships of Teleosts. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 2010. p. 123–82." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR57" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6576">57</a>]. Comments: Morphological support exists for the cohort Otomorpha, including only the subcohorts Clupei and Ostariophysi. According to G Arratia [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 17" title="Arratia G. The monophyly of Teleostei and stem-group teleosts. Consensus and disagreements. In: Arratia G, Schultze HP, editors. Mesozoic Fishes 2 – Systematics and Fossil Record. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 1999. p. 265–334." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR17" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6585">17</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 45" title="Arratia G. Basal teleosts and teleostean phylogeny. Palaeo Ichthyologica. 1997;7:1–168." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR45" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6588">45</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 48" title="Arratia G. The Clupeocephala re-visited: Analysis of characters and homologies. Revista de Biologia Marina & Oceanografia. 2010;45(Special issue):635–57." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR48" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6591">48</a>], otomorphs (her ostarioclupeomorphs) are clupeocephalans in which primitively there is an ankyloses or fusion between the mesial extrascapula and parietal alone or parietal and supraoccipital; hypurals 1 and 2 not joined by cartilage in any stage of growth, and autopalatine ossified early in ontogeny. Additionally, the presence of a modified uroneural or pleurostyle was listed as a potential synapomorphy because a pleurostyle is found in all extant otomorphs, but is absent in some of the primitive fossils of Clupei and Denticipitidae. Further research [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 48" title="Arratia G. The Clupeocephala re-visited: Analysis of characters and homologies. Revista de Biologia Marina & Oceanografia. 2010;45(Special issue):635–57." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR48" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6594">48</a>] re-interpreted the early ossification of the autopalatine as a clupeocephalan character, and EO Wiley and GD Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 57" title="Wiley EO, Johnson GD. A teleost classification based on monophyletic groups. In: Nelson JS, Schultze HP, MVH W, editors. Origin and Phylogenetic Interrelationships of Teleosts. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 2010. p. 123–82." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR57" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6598">57</a>] listed a few potential synapomorphies. R Britz [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 140" title="Britz R. Book review: Fishes of the World. Fifth edition. by J. S. Nelson, T. C. Grande & M. V. W. Wilson. J Fish Biol. 2017;2017(90):451–9." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR140" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6601">140</a>] considered the support of Otomorpha as “meagre.” To disprove the first character mentioned above, he used the condition present in advanced gonorynchiforms, the paedomorphic kneriids Cromeria and Grasseichthys, which lack parietal bones and consequently this loss represents a further transformation of the otomorph synapomorphy within the clade. The second character is questioned based on a supposedly cartilaginous connection between hypurals 1 and 2 in early developmental stages of the characiform Salminus, a connection that is not mentioned in the publication, but whose presence is unclear considering the unsatisfactory quality of preparation of the illustrated specimens in SMT Mattox, R Britz and M Toledo-Piza [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 162" title="Mattox SMT, Britz R, Toledo-Piza M. Skeletal development and ossification sequence of the characiform Salminus brasiliensis (Ostariophysi: Characidae). Ichthyol Explor Freshwaters. 2014;25(2):103–58." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR162" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6613">162</a>]. Such connection has not been described (or illustrated) in larvae of other otomorphs (see for instance [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 147" title="Arratia G. Critical analysis of the impact of fossils on teleostean phylogenies, especially that of basal teleosts. In: Elliott DK, Maisey JG, Yu X, Miao DS, editors. Morphology, Phylogeny and Paleobiogeography of Fossil Fishes. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 2010. p. 247–74." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR147" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6617">147</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Bird NC, Mabee PM. Developmental morphology of the axial skeleton of the zebrafish, Danio rerio (Ostariophysi: Cyprinidae). Developmental dynamics : an official publication of the American Association of Anatomists. 2003;228(3):337–57." href="#ref-CR163" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6620">163</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Bensimon-Brito A, Cancela ML, Huysseune A, Witten PE. Vestiges, rudiments and fusion events: the zebrafish caudal fin endoskeleton in an evo-devo perspective. Evolution & development. 2012;14(1):116–27." href="#ref-CR164" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6620_1">164</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Wiley EO, Fuiten AM, Doosey MH, Lohman BK, Merkes C, Azuma M. The caudal skeleton of the zebrafish, Danio rerio, from a phylogenetic perspective: a polyural interpretation of homologous structures. Copeia. 2015;103(4):740–50." href="#ref-CR165" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6620_2">165</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 166" title="Schultze HP, Arratia G. The caudal skeleton of basal teleosts, its conventions, and some of its major evolutionary novelties in a temporal dimension. In: Arratia G, Schultze H-P, MVH W, editors. Mesozoic Fishes 5 - Global Diversity and Evolution. Muenchen: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 2013. p. 187–246." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR166" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6623">166</a>]). Subcohort Clupei (= Clupeomorpha) (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: see L Grande [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 167" title="Grande L. Recent and fossil clupeomorph fishes with material for revision of the subgroups of clupeoids. Bull Amer Mus Natur Hist.1985;181:231–372." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR167" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6639">167</a>]. Order Clupeiformes (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: same as Clupei. Suborder Denticipitoidei Morphological synapomorphies: L Grande [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 167" title="Grande L. Recent and fossil clupeomorph fishes with material for revision of the subgroups of clupeoids. Bull Amer Mus Natur Hist.1985;181:231–372." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR167" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6666">167</a>], F Di Dario and MCC de Pinna [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 168" title="Di Dario F, de Pinna MCC. The supratemporal system and the pattern ofamification of cephalic sensory canals in Denticeps clupeoides (Denticipitidae, Teleostei): additional evidence for monophyly of Clupeiformes and Clupeoidei. Papéis Avulsos de Zoologia. 2006;46(10):107–23." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR168" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6669">168</a>], MCC de Pinna and F Di Dario [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 169" title="de Pinna MCC, Di Dario F. The branchial arches of the primitive clupeomorph fish, Denticeps clupeoides, and their phylogenetic implication (Clupeiformes, Denticipitidae). In: Nelson JS, Schultze HP, MVH W, editors. Origin and Phylogenetic Interrelationships of Teleosts. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 2010. p. 251–68." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR169" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6672">169</a>].<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Denticipitidae </li> </ul> Suborder Clupeoidei (98%) Morphological synapomorphies: L Grande [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 167" title="Grande L. Recent and fossil clupeomorph fishes with material for revision of the subgroups of clupeoids. Bull Amer Mus Natur Hist.1985;181:231–372." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR167" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6697">167</a>], F Di Dario and MCC de Pinna [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 168" title="Di Dario F, de Pinna MCC. The supratemporal system and the pattern ofamification of cephalic sensory canals in Denticeps clupeoides (Denticipitidae, Teleostei): additional evidence for monophyly of Clupeiformes and Clupeoidei. Papéis Avulsos de Zoologia. 2006;46(10):107–23." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR168" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6700">168</a>], MCC de Pinna and F Di Dario [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 169" title="de Pinna MCC, Di Dario F. The branchial arches of the primitive clupeomorph fish, Denticeps clupeoides, and their phylogenetic implication (Clupeiformes, Denticipitidae). In: Nelson JS, Schultze HP, MVH W, editors. Origin and Phylogenetic Interrelationships of Teleosts. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 2010. p. 251–68." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR169" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6703">169</a>]. Comment: family-level groupings may require major revision; Pristigasteridae, Chirocentridae and Engraulidae are supported by other molecular studies, but not Clupeidae [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 170" title="Li C, Orti G. Molecular phylogeny of Clupeiformes (Actinopterygii) inferred from nuclear and mitochondrial DNA sequences. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2007;44(1):386–98." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR170" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6712">170</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 171" title="Lavoué S, Miya M, Musikasinthorn P, Chen WJ, Nishida M. Mitogenomic evidence for an Indo-West Pacific origin of the Clupeoidei (Teleostei: Clupeiformes). PLoS One. 2013;8(2):e56485." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR171" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6715">171</a>]; five well-supported lineages may become new families [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 171" title="Lavoué S, Miya M, Musikasinthorn P, Chen WJ, Nishida M. Mitogenomic evidence for an Indo-West Pacific origin of the Clupeoidei (Teleostei: Clupeiformes). PLoS One. 2013;8(2):e56485." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR171" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6718">171</a>]. The family Sundasalangidae is no longer recognized because Sundasalanx is nested within Clupeidae (see also [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 172" title="Siebert DJ. Notes on the anatomy and relationships of Sundasalanx Roberts (Teleostei, Clupeidae), with descriptions of four new species from Borneo. Bulletin of The Natural History Museum Zoology Series. 1997;63:13–26." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR172" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6725">172</a>]). Clupeidae also includes the round herrings (subfamily Dussumieriinae [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 171" title="Lavoué S, Miya M, Musikasinthorn P, Chen WJ, Nishida M. Mitogenomic evidence for an Indo-West Pacific origin of the Clupeoidei (Teleostei: Clupeiformes). PLoS One. 2013;8(2):e56485." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR171" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6728">171</a>]), sometimes placed in the family Dussumieriidae [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 62" title="Van Der Laan R, Eschmeyer WN, Fricke R. Family-group names of Recent fishes. Zootaxa. 2014;3882(1):230." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR62" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6731">62</a>].<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Chirocentridae </li> <li> Clupeidae (not monophyletic in Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#Fig2">2</a>). </li> <li> Engraulidae </li> <li> Pristigasteridae </li> </ul> Subcohort Alepocephali (37%) Morphological synapomorphies: see GD Johnson and C Patterson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 49" title="Johnson GD, Patterson C. Relationships of lower euteleostean fishes. In: MLJ S, Parenti LR, Johnson GD, editors. Interrelationships of fishes. San Diego: Academic Press; 1996. p. 251–332." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR49" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6776">49</a>]. Comments: To the best of our knowledge, no morphological study has tested the molecular hypotheses that include the Alepocephaliformes as sister of Ostariophysi. However, as pointed out by JY Poulsen, PR Møller, S Lavoué, SW Knudsen, M Nishida and M Miya [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 173" title="Poulsen JY, Møller PR, Lavoué S, Knudsen SW, Nishida M, Miya M. Higher and lower-level relationships of the deep-sea fish order Alepocephaliformes (Teleostei: Otocephala) inferred from whole mitogenome sequences. Biol J Linn Soc. 2009;98(4):923–36." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR173" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6785">173</a>] “prior to the major publication of Greenwood et al. (1966), the prevailing hypothesis placed the Alepocephaliformes (with or without the Bathylaconidae) and the Clupeiformes (named Clupeoidei at this time) close to each other, within a larger group including other so-called “basal” or “primitive” teleosts, i.e., the “Isospondyli” (Berg, 1940; Bertin and Arambourg, 1958; Gosline, 1960; Marshall, 1966). Greenwood et al. (1966) tentatively transferred the Alepocephaliformes within the order Salmoniformes, only because these authors could not find any character to separate them from the Salmoniformes. However, they admitted: “there is little critical anatomical information on the Alepocephalidae, and any decision concerning their position must therefore be considered tentative… much more research is needed before the status of the Alepocephaloidei is understood.”” Order Alepocephaliformes Morphological synapomorphies: same as Alepocephali. Comment: Alepocephalidae includes Bathylaco, placed in Bathylaconidae by JS Nelson, T Grande and MVH Wilson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 42" title="Nelson JS, Grande T, Wilson MVH. 5th ed. Fishes of the World. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons; 2016." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR42" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6807">42</a>], and the former Leptochilichthyidae [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 173" title="Poulsen JY, Møller PR, Lavoué S, Knudsen SW, Nishida M, Miya M. Higher and lower-level relationships of the deep-sea fish order Alepocephaliformes (Teleostei: Otocephala) inferred from whole mitogenome sequences. Biol J Linn Soc. 2009;98(4):923–36." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR173" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6810">173</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 174" title="Lavoué S, Miya M, Poulsen JY, Møller PR, Nishida M. Monophyly, phylogenetic position and inter-familial relationships of the Alepocephaliformes (Teleostei) based on whole mitogenome sequences. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2008;47(3):1111–21." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR174" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6814">174</a>]. The position of alepocephaliforms as the sister group to Ostariophysi is contrary to their more traditional placement in Euteleostomorpha (e.g., [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 49" title="Johnson GD, Patterson C. Relationships of lower euteleostean fishes. In: MLJ S, Parenti LR, Johnson GD, editors. Interrelationships of fishes. San Diego: Academic Press; 1996. p. 251–332." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR49" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6817">49</a>]). Their current placement in Otomorpha has been consistently obtained by other molecular studies (e.g., [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 173" title="Poulsen JY, Møller PR, Lavoué S, Knudsen SW, Nishida M, Miya M. Higher and lower-level relationships of the deep-sea fish order Alepocephaliformes (Teleostei: Otocephala) inferred from whole mitogenome sequences. Biol J Linn Soc. 2009;98(4):923–36." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR173" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6820">173</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 174" title="Lavoué S, Miya M, Poulsen JY, Møller PR, Nishida M. Monophyly, phylogenetic position and inter-familial relationships of the Alepocephaliformes (Teleostei) based on whole mitogenome sequences. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2008;47(3):1111–21." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR174" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6823">174</a>]).<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Alepocephalidae (not monophyletic in Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#Fig2">2</a>). </li> <li> Platytroctidae </li> </ul> Subcohort Ostariophysi (99%) Morphological synapomorphies: see SV Fink and WL Fink [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 175" title="Fink SV, Fink WL. Interrelationships of the Ostariophysan Fishes (Teleostei). Zool J Linnean Soc. 1981;72(4):297–353." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR175" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6856">175</a>], SV Fink and WL Fink [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 176" title="Fink SV, Fink WL. Interrelationships of ostariophysan fishes (Teleostei). In: MLJ S, Parenti LR, Johnson GD, editors. Interrelationships of fishes. San Diego: Academic Press; 1996. p. 209–49." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR176" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6859">176</a>]. Section Anotophysa (= Anotophysi) (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: see SV Fink and WL Fink [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 175" title="Fink SV, Fink WL. Interrelationships of the Ostariophysan Fishes (Teleostei). Zool J Linnean Soc. 1981;72(4):297–353." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR175" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6874">175</a>], FJ Poyato-Ariza, T Grande and R Diogo [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 177" title="Poyato-Ariza FJ, Grande T, Diogo R. Gonorynchiform interrelationships: Historic Overview, Analysis, and Revised Systematics of the Group. In: Grande T, Poyato-Ariza FJ, Diogo R, editors. Gonorynchiformes and Ostariophysan Relationships. 338: Science Publishers; 2010. p. 227." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR177" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6877">177</a>], T Grande and FJ Poyato-Ariza [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 178" title="Grande T, Poyato-Ariza FJ. Phylogenetic relationships of fossil and recent gonorynchiform fishes (Teleostei: Ostariophysi). Zool J Linnean Soc. 1999;125(2):197–238." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR178" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6880">178</a>], MP Davis, G Arratia and TM Kaiser [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 21" title="Davis MP, Arratia G, Kaiser TM. The first fossil shellear and its implications for the evolution and divergence of the Kneriidae (Teleostei: Gonorynchiformes). In: Arratia G, Schultze H-P, MVH W, editors. Mesozoic Fishes 5 - Global Diversity and Evolution. Muenchen: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 2013. p. 325–62." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR21" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6883">21</a>]. Order Gonorynchiformes Morphological synapomorphies: same as Anotophysa. Comment: suborders in Gonorynchiformes are no longer recognized. See also JS Nelson, T Grande and MVH Wilson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 42" title="Nelson JS, Grande T, Wilson MVH. 5th ed. Fishes of the World. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons; 2016." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR42" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6905">42</a>]. The former Phractolaemidae is now listed as a subfamily in Kneriidae [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 21" title="Davis MP, Arratia G, Kaiser TM. The first fossil shellear and its implications for the evolution and divergence of the Kneriidae (Teleostei: Gonorynchiformes). In: Arratia G, Schultze H-P, MVH W, editors. Mesozoic Fishes 5 - Global Diversity and Evolution. Muenchen: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 2013. p. 325–62." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR21" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6908">21</a>].<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Gonorynchidae </li> <li> Chanidae </li> <li> Kneriidae </li> </ul> Section Otophysa (= Otophysi) (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: see SV Fink and WL Fink [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 175" title="Fink SV, Fink WL. Interrelationships of the Ostariophysan Fishes (Teleostei). Zool J Linnean Soc. 1981;72(4):297–353." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR175" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6944">175</a>], SV Fink and WL Fink [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 176" title="Fink SV, Fink WL. Interrelationships of ostariophysan fishes (Teleostei). In: MLJ S, Parenti LR, Johnson GD, editors. Interrelationships of fishes. San Diego: Academic Press; 1996. p. 209–49." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR176" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6947">176</a>]. Comment: although most molecular studies (e.g., [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 72" title="Nakatani M, Miya M, Mabuchi K, Saitoh K, Nishida M. Evolutionary history of Otophysi (Teleostei), a major clade of the modern freshwater fishes: Pangaean origin and Mesozoic radiation. BMC Evol Biol. 2011;11:177." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR72" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6956">72</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 179" title="Chen WJ, Lavoué S, Mayden RL. Evolutionary origin and early biogeography of otophysan fishes (Ostariophysi: Teleostei). Evolution. 2013;67(8):2218–39." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR179" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6959">179</a>]) are incongruent regarding otophysan interrelationships, our recent investigation of this question using genome-wide exon data coupled with a novel method for interrogating gene genealogies [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 101" title="Arcila D, Ortí G, Vari RP, Armbruster JW, Stiassny MLJ, Ko K, et al. Genome wide interrogation advances resolution of recalcitrant groups in the Tree of Life. Nature Eco Evo. 2017:1." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR101" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6962">101</a>] provides overwhelming support for the null morphological hypothesis of SV Fink and WL Fink [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 175" title="Fink SV, Fink WL. Interrelationships of the Ostariophysan Fishes (Teleostei). Zool J Linnean Soc. 1981;72(4):297–353." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR175" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6965">175</a>], which places the monophyletic characiforms sister to a clade including siluriforms and gymnotiforms. Three otophysan superorders (Cypriniphysae, Characiphysae and Siluriphysae) are now recognized. Their taxonomic composition is similar to that originally proposed by SV Fink and WL Fink [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 175" title="Fink SV, Fink WL. Interrelationships of the Ostariophysan Fishes (Teleostei). Zool J Linnean Soc. 1981;72(4):297–353." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR175" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6969">175</a>], except that Characiphysae now contains a single order (Characiformes) following JS Nelson, T Grande and MVH Wilson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 42" title="Nelson JS, Grande T, Wilson MVH. 5th ed. Fishes of the World. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons; 2016." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR42" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6972">42</a>]. Superorder Cypriniphysae (92%) Morphological synapomorphies: see SV Fink and WL Fink [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 175" title="Fink SV, Fink WL. Interrelationships of the Ostariophysan Fishes (Teleostei). Zool J Linnean Soc. 1981;72(4):297–353." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR175" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6988">175</a>], SV Fink and WL Fink [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 176" title="Fink SV, Fink WL. Interrelationships of ostariophysan fishes (Teleostei). In: MLJ S, Parenti LR, Johnson GD, editors. Interrelationships of fishes. San Diego: Academic Press; 1996. p. 209–49." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR176" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6991">176</a>], PM Mabee, EA Grey, G Arratia, N Bogutskaya, A Boron, MM Coburn, KW Conway, S He, A Naseka, N Rios, et al. [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 180" title="Mabee PM, Grey EA, Arratia G, Bogutskaya N, Boron A, Coburn MM, et al. Gill arch and hyoid arch diversity and cypriniform phylogeny: Distributed integration of morphology and web-based tools. Zootaxa. 2012;2877:1–40." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR180" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6994">180</a>], KW Conway [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 181" title="Conway KW. Osteology of the South Asian Genus Psilorhynchus McClelland, 1839 (Teleostei: Ostariophysi: Psilorhynchidae), with investigation of its phylogenetic relationships within the order Cypriniformes. Zool J Linnean Soc. 2011(163):50–154." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR181" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e6997">181</a>]. Order Cypriniformes Morphological synapomorphies: same as Cypriniphysae. Comments: recognition of suborders and families in Cypriniformes follows CC Stout, M Tan, AR Lemmon, EM Lemmon and JW Armbruster [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 102" title="Stout CC, Tan M, Lemmon AR, Lemmon EM, Armbruster JW. Resolving Cypriniformes relationships using an anchored enrichment approach. BMC Evol Biol. 2016;16(1):244." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR102" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7018">102</a>], which builds on WJ Chen and RL Mayden [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 182" title="Chen WJ, Mayden RL. Molecular systematics of the Cyprinoidea (Teleostei: Cypriniformes), the world's largest clade of freshwater fishes: further evidence from six nuclear genes. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2009;52(2):544–9." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR182" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7021">182</a>]. Note that the phylogenomic results by CC Stout, M Tan, AR Lemmon, EM Lemmon and JW Armbruster [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 102" title="Stout CC, Tan M, Lemmon AR, Lemmon EM, Armbruster JW. Resolving Cypriniformes relationships using an anchored enrichment approach. BMC Evol Biol. 2016;16(1):244." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR102" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7024">102</a>] differ from those derived from the analysis of morphological data (e.g., KW Conway [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 181" title="Conway KW. Osteology of the South Asian Genus Psilorhynchus McClelland, 1839 (Teleostei: Ostariophysi: Psilorhynchidae), with investigation of its phylogenetic relationships within the order Cypriniformes. Zool J Linnean Soc. 2011(163):50–154." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR181" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7027">181</a>], R Britz, K Conway and L Ruber [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 183" title="Britz R, Conway K, Ruber L. Miniatures, morphology and molecules: Paedocypris and its phylogenetic position (Teleostei, Cypriniformes). Zool J Linnean Soc. 2014;" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR183" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7031">183</a>]), in that the latter obtain a “Cobitoidea” sensu lato clade (including Gyrinocheilus, Catostomidae, and Cobitoidei sensu stricto), but there are relatively few characters that support that grouping and clade support is weak. This subordinal classification, with three suborders for “Cobitoidea”, is robust to phylogenetic uncertainty. Nodal support values of suborders are from CC Stout, M Tan, AR Lemmon, EM Lemmon and JW Armbruster [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 102" title="Stout CC, Tan M, Lemmon AR, Lemmon EM, Armbruster JW. Resolving Cypriniformes relationships using an anchored enrichment approach. BMC Evol Biol. 2016;16(1):244." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR102" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7046">102</a>]. Suborder Gyrinocheiloidei (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: see DJ Siebert [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 184" title="Siebert DJ. Interrelationships Among Families of the Order Cypriniformes (Teleostei). New York: City University of New York; 1987." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR184" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7061">184</a>], KW Conway [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 181" title="Conway KW. Osteology of the South Asian Genus Psilorhynchus McClelland, 1839 (Teleostei: Ostariophysi: Psilorhynchidae), with investigation of its phylogenetic relationships within the order Cypriniformes. Zool J Linnean Soc. 2011(163):50–154." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR181" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7064">181</a>], PM Mabee, EA Grey, G Arratia, N Bogutskaya, A Boron, MM Coburn, KW Conway, S He, A Naseka, N Rios, et al. [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 180" title="Mabee PM, Grey EA, Arratia G, Bogutskaya N, Boron A, Coburn MM, et al. Gill arch and hyoid arch diversity and cypriniform phylogeny: Distributed integration of morphology and web-based tools. Zootaxa. 2012;2877:1–40." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR180" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7067">180</a>], R Britz, K Conway and L Ruber [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 183" title="Britz R, Conway K, Ruber L. Miniatures, morphology and molecules: Paedocypris and its phylogenetic position (Teleostei, Cypriniformes). Zool J Linnean Soc. 2014;" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR183" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7070">183</a>].<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Gyrinocheilidae </li> </ul> Suborder Catostomoidei (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: see DJ Siebert [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 184" title="Siebert DJ. Interrelationships Among Families of the Order Cypriniformes (Teleostei). New York: City University of New York; 1987." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR184" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7096">184</a>], KW Conway [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 181" title="Conway KW. Osteology of the South Asian Genus Psilorhynchus McClelland, 1839 (Teleostei: Ostariophysi: Psilorhynchidae), with investigation of its phylogenetic relationships within the order Cypriniformes. Zool J Linnean Soc. 2011(163):50–154." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR181" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7099">181</a>], PM Mabee, EA Grey, G Arratia, N Bogutskaya, A Boron, MM Coburn, KW Conway, S He, A Naseka, N Rios, et al. [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 180" title="Mabee PM, Grey EA, Arratia G, Bogutskaya N, Boron A, Coburn MM, et al. Gill arch and hyoid arch diversity and cypriniform phylogeny: Distributed integration of morphology and web-based tools. Zootaxa. 2012;2877:1–40." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR180" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7102">180</a>], KW Conway [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 181" title="Conway KW. Osteology of the South Asian Genus Psilorhynchus McClelland, 1839 (Teleostei: Ostariophysi: Psilorhynchidae), with investigation of its phylogenetic relationships within the order Cypriniformes. Zool J Linnean Soc. 2011(163):50–154." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR181" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7105">181</a>], R Britz, K Conway and L Ruber [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 183" title="Britz R, Conway K, Ruber L. Miniatures, morphology and molecules: Paedocypris and its phylogenetic position (Teleostei, Cypriniformes). Zool J Linnean Soc. 2014;" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR183" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7109">183</a>].<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Catostomidae </li> </ul> Suborder Cobitoidei (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: see KW Conway [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 181" title="Conway KW. Osteology of the South Asian Genus Psilorhynchus McClelland, 1839 (Teleostei: Ostariophysi: Psilorhynchidae), with investigation of its phylogenetic relationships within the order Cypriniformes. Zool J Linnean Soc. 2011(163):50–154." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR181" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7133">181</a>], R Britz, K Conway and L Ruber [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 183" title="Britz R, Conway K, Ruber L. Miniatures, morphology and molecules: Paedocypris and its phylogenetic position (Teleostei, Cypriniformes). Zool J Linnean Soc. 2014;" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR183" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7136">183</a>]. Comment: recognition of Botiidae and Gastromyzontidae follows WJ Chen, V Lheknim and RL Mayden [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 185" title="Chen WJ, Lheknim V, Mayden RL. Molecular phylogeny of the Cobitoidea (Teleostei: Cypriniformes) revisited: position of enigmatic loach Ellopostoma resolved with six nuclear genes. J Fish Biol. 2009;75(9):2197–208." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR185" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7145">185</a>] and M Kottelat [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 186" title="Kottelat M. Conspectus Cobitidum: an inventory of the loaches of the world (Teleostei: Cypriniformes: Cobitoidei). Raffles Bull Zool. 2012;26:1–199." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR186" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7148">186</a>], respectively.<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Balitoridae </li> <li> Botiidae </li> <li> Cobitidae </li> <li> Gastromyzontidae </li> <li> Nemacheilidae </li> <li> Vaillantellidae </li> <li> Not examined: Barbuccidae, Ellopostomatidae, Serpenticobitidae. </li> </ul> Suborder Cyprinoidei (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: see KW Conway [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 181" title="Conway KW. Osteology of the South Asian Genus Psilorhynchus McClelland, 1839 (Teleostei: Ostariophysi: Psilorhynchidae), with investigation of its phylogenetic relationships within the order Cypriniformes. Zool J Linnean Soc. 2011(163):50–154." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR181" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7213">181</a>], R Britz, K Conway and L Ruber [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 183" title="Britz R, Conway K, Ruber L. Miniatures, morphology and molecules: Paedocypris and its phylogenetic position (Teleostei, Cypriniformes). Zool J Linnean Soc. 2014;" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR183" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7216">183</a>]. Comment: Cyprinidae sensu lato (not monophyletic) is now split into multiple monophyletic families that are coherent with biogeography. The rogue placement of Esomus in molecular and morphological analyses (see [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 102" title="Stout CC, Tan M, Lemmon AR, Lemmon EM, Armbruster JW. Resolving Cypriniformes relationships using an anchored enrichment approach. BMC Evol Biol. 2016;16(1):244." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR102" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7234">102</a>]) suggest that this genus may represent a distinct cyprinoid lineage, which is provisionally retained within Danionidae [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 102" title="Stout CC, Tan M, Lemmon AR, Lemmon EM, Armbruster JW. Resolving Cypriniformes relationships using an anchored enrichment approach. BMC Evol Biol. 2016;16(1):244." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR102" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7238">102</a>]. Recognition of Xenocyprididae is based on L Yang, T Sado, M Vincent Hirt, E Pasco-Viel, M Arunachalam, J Li, X Wang, J Freyhof, K Saitoh, AM Simons, et al. [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 187" title="Yang L, Sado T, Vincent Hirt M, Pasco-Viel E, Arunachalam M, Li J, Wang X, Freyhof J, Saitoh K, Simons AM et al: Phylogeny and polyploidy: resolving the classification of cyprinine fishes (Teleostei: Cypriniformes). Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2015;85:97–116." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR187" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7241">187</a>] and CC Stout, M Tan, AR Lemmon, EM Lemmon and JW Armbruster [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 102" title="Stout CC, Tan M, Lemmon AR, Lemmon EM, Armbruster JW. Resolving Cypriniformes relationships using an anchored enrichment approach. BMC Evol Biol. 2016;16(1):244." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR102" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7244">102</a>].<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Acheilognathidae </li> <li> Cyprinidae </li> <li> Danionidae </li> <li> Gobionidae </li> <li> Leuciscidae </li> <li> Paedocyprididae </li> <li> Sundadanionidae </li> <li> Tanichthyidae </li> <li> Xenocyprididae </li> <li> Not examined: Leptobarbidae, Psilorhynchidae, Tincidae. </li> </ul> Superorder Characiphysae (= Characiphysi) (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: those listed for Characiformes in SV Fink and WL Fink [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 175" title="Fink SV, Fink WL. Interrelationships of the Ostariophysan Fishes (Teleostei). Zool J Linnean Soc. 1981;72(4):297–353." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR175" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7326">175</a>], SV Fink and WL Fink [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 176" title="Fink SV, Fink WL. Interrelationships of ostariophysan fishes (Teleostei). In: MLJ S, Parenti LR, Johnson GD, editors. Interrelationships of fishes. San Diego: Academic Press; 1996. p. 209–49." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR176" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7329">176</a>], RP Vari [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 188" title="Vari RP. Higher level phylogenetic concepts within Characiformes (Ostariophysi), a historical review. In: Malabarba LR, Reis RE, Vari RP, ZMS L, CAS L, editors. Phylogeny and Classification of Neotropical Fishes. Porto Alegre: EDIPUCRS; 1998. p. 111–22." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR188" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7332">188</a>]. Comment: circumscription of Characiphysae here and in JS Nelson, T Grande and MVH Wilson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 42" title="Nelson JS, Grande T, Wilson MVH. 5th ed. Fishes of the World. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons; 2016." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR42" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7341">42</a>] differs from that of SV Fink and WL Fink [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 175" title="Fink SV, Fink WL. Interrelationships of the Ostariophysan Fishes (Teleostei). Zool J Linnean Soc. 1981;72(4):297–353." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR175" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7344">175</a>]; see comment under Otophysa above. Order Characiformes Morphological synapomorphies: same as Characiphysae. Comments: although characifom monophyly has been elusive for most molecular studies (e.g., [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 72" title="Nakatani M, Miya M, Mabuchi K, Saitoh K, Nishida M. Evolutionary history of Otophysi (Teleostei), a major clade of the modern freshwater fishes: Pangaean origin and Mesozoic radiation. BMC Evol Biol. 2011;11:177." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR72" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7366">72</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 179" title="Chen WJ, Lavoué S, Mayden RL. Evolutionary origin and early biogeography of otophysan fishes (Ostariophysi: Teleostei). Evolution. 2013;67(8):2218–39." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR179" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7369">179</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 189" title="Chakrabarty P, Faircloth BC, Alda F, Ludt WB, McMahan CD, Near TJ, et al. Phylogenomic systematics of ostariophysan fishes: ultraconserved elements support the surprising non-monophyly of characiformes. Syst Biol. 2017; In press" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR189" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7372">189</a>]), our recent phylogenomic study provides overwhelming support for the monophyly of the order [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 101" title="Arcila D, Ortí G, Vari RP, Armbruster JW, Stiassny MLJ, Ko K, et al. Genome wide interrogation advances resolution of recalcitrant groups in the Tree of Life. Nature Eco Evo. 2017:1." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR101" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7375">101</a>]. Nodal support values of suborders are from D Arcila, G Ortí, RP Vari, JW Armbruster, MLJ Stiassny, K Ko, MH Sabaj, J Lundberg, LJ Revell and R Betancur-R. [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 101" title="Arcila D, Ortí G, Vari RP, Armbruster JW, Stiassny MLJ, Ko K, et al. Genome wide interrogation advances resolution of recalcitrant groups in the Tree of Life. Nature Eco Evo. 2017:1." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR101" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7379">101</a>]. Suborder Citharinoidei (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: see RP Vari [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 190" title="Vari RP. Anatomy, relationships and classification of the families Citharinidae and Distichodontidae (Pisces: Characoidei). Bull Brit Mus (Natur Hist), Zool. 1979;36:261–344." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR190" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7394">190</a>], SV Fink and WL Fink [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 175" title="Fink SV, Fink WL. Interrelationships of the Ostariophysan Fishes (Teleostei). Zool J Linnean Soc. 1981;72(4):297–353." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR175" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7397">175</a>], SV Fink and WL Fink [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 176" title="Fink SV, Fink WL. Interrelationships of ostariophysan fishes (Teleostei). In: MLJ S, Parenti LR, Johnson GD, editors. Interrelationships of fishes. San Diego: Academic Press; 1996. p. 209–49." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR176" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7400">176</a>], RP Vari [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 188" title="Vari RP. Higher level phylogenetic concepts within Characiformes (Ostariophysi), a historical review. In: Malabarba LR, Reis RE, Vari RP, ZMS L, CAS L, editors. Phylogeny and Classification of Neotropical Fishes. Porto Alegre: EDIPUCRS; 1998. p. 111–22." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR188" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7403">188</a>].<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Citharinidae </li> <li> Distichodontidae </li> </ul> Suborder Characoidei (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: see SV Fink and WL Fink [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 175" title="Fink SV, Fink WL. Interrelationships of the Ostariophysan Fishes (Teleostei). Zool J Linnean Soc. 1981;72(4):297–353." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR175" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7434">175</a>], SV Fink and WL Fink [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 176" title="Fink SV, Fink WL. Interrelationships of ostariophysan fishes (Teleostei). In: MLJ S, Parenti LR, Johnson GD, editors. Interrelationships of fishes. San Diego: Academic Press; 1996. p. 209–49." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR176" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7437">176</a>], RP Vari [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 188" title="Vari RP. Higher level phylogenetic concepts within Characiformes (Ostariophysi), a historical review. In: Malabarba LR, Reis RE, Vari RP, ZMS L, CAS L, editors. Phylogeny and Classification of Neotropical Fishes. Porto Alegre: EDIPUCRS; 1998. p. 111–22." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR188" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7440">188</a>].<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Acestrorhynchidae </li> <li> Alestidae </li> <li> Anostomidae </li> <li> Chalceidae </li> <li> Characidae </li> <li> Chilodontidae </li> <li> Crenuchidae </li> <li> Ctenoluciidae </li> <li> Curimatidae </li> <li> Cynodontidae </li> <li> Erythrinidae </li> <li> Gasteropelecidae </li> <li> Hemiodontidae </li> <li> Hepsetidae </li> <li> Iguanodectidae </li> <li> Lebiasinidae </li> <li> Parodontidae </li> <li> Prochilodontidae </li> <li> Serrasalmidae </li> <li> Triportheidae </li> <li> Not examined: Bryconidae. </li> </ul> Superorder Siluriphysae (= Siluriphysi) (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: see SV Fink and WL Fink [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 175" title="Fink SV, Fink WL. Interrelationships of the Ostariophysan Fishes (Teleostei). Zool J Linnean Soc. 1981;72(4):297–353." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR175" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7591">175</a>], SV Fink and WL Fink [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 176" title="Fink SV, Fink WL. Interrelationships of ostariophysan fishes (Teleostei). In: MLJ S, Parenti LR, Johnson GD, editors. Interrelationships of fishes. San Diego: Academic Press; 1996. p. 209–49." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR176" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7594">176</a>]. Order Gymnotiformes (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: see SV Fink and WL Fink [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 175" title="Fink SV, Fink WL. Interrelationships of the Ostariophysan Fishes (Teleostei). Zool J Linnean Soc. 1981;72(4):297–353." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR175" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7609">175</a>], SV Fink and WL Fink [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 176" title="Fink SV, Fink WL. Interrelationships of ostariophysan fishes (Teleostei). In: MLJ S, Parenti LR, Johnson GD, editors. Interrelationships of fishes. San Diego: Academic Press; 1996. p. 209–49." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR176" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7612">176</a>], VA Tagliacollo, MJ Bernt, JM Craig, C Oliveira and JS Albert [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 191" title="Tagliacollo VA, Bernt MJ, Craig JM, Oliveira C, Albert JS. Model-based total evidence phylogeny of Neotropical electric knifefishes (Teleostei, Gymnotiformes). Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2015;95:20–33." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR191" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7615">191</a>]. Comments: VA Tagliacollo, MJ Bernt, JM Craig, C Oliveira and JS Albert [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 191" title="Tagliacollo VA, Bernt MJ, Craig JM, Oliveira C, Albert JS. Model-based total evidence phylogeny of Neotropical electric knifefishes (Teleostei, Gymnotiformes). Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2015;95:20–33." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR191" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7624">191</a>] proposed a revised classification for Gymnotiformes based on the most comprehensive phylogenetic analyses of the order to date, using both multi-locus sequence data and morphological evidence. They obtained two major clades within Sternopygoidei, which they named Rhamphichthyoidea (Rhamphichthyidae + Hypopomidae) and Sinusoidea (Sternopygidae + Apteronotidae). Although ranks for these clades are not explicit in their classification scheme, the endings suggest that these are superfamilies. According to the ICZN (article 61.2.2) “when a nominal taxon in the family group… is raised or lowered in rank, or its name is used at more than one rank simultaneously, the name-bearing type remains the same [Arts. 36.2, 43.1, 46.2].” In other words, the proper superfamily name for the “Sinusoidea” clade should be Sternopygoidea (suborder Sternopygoidei), to reflect a name-bearing type. Aside from these nomenclatural points, a phylogenomic-based gymnotiform clade (with a limited taxonomic sampling) does not support the monophyly of “Sinusoidea” [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 101" title="Arcila D, Ortí G, Vari RP, Armbruster JW, Stiassny MLJ, Ko K, et al. Genome wide interrogation advances resolution of recalcitrant groups in the Tree of Life. Nature Eco Evo. 2017:1." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR101" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7627">101</a>]. Nodal support values of suborders are from D Arcila, G Ortí, RP Vari, JW Armbruster, MLJ Stiassny, K Ko, MH Sabaj, J Lundberg, LJ Revell and R Betancur-R. [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 101" title="Arcila D, Ortí G, Vari RP, Armbruster JW, Stiassny MLJ, Ko K, et al. Genome wide interrogation advances resolution of recalcitrant groups in the Tree of Life. Nature Eco Evo. 2017:1." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR101" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7630">101</a>]. Suborder Gymnotoidei (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: see VA Tagliacollo, MJ Bernt, JM Craig, C Oliveira and JS Albert [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 191" title="Tagliacollo VA, Bernt MJ, Craig JM, Oliveira C, Albert JS. Model-based total evidence phylogeny of Neotropical electric knifefishes (Teleostei, Gymnotiformes). Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2015;95:20–33." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR191" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7646">191</a>].<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Gymnotidae </li> </ul> Suborder Sternopygoidei (not monophyletic here but see [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 191" title="Tagliacollo VA, Bernt MJ, Craig JM, Oliveira C, Albert JS. Model-based total evidence phylogeny of Neotropical electric knifefishes (Teleostei, Gymnotiformes). Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2015;95:20–33." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR191" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7664">191</a>]) Morphological synapomorphies: see VA Tagliacollo, MJ Bernt, JM Craig, C Oliveira and JS Albert [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 191" title="Tagliacollo VA, Bernt MJ, Craig JM, Oliveira C, Albert JS. Model-based total evidence phylogeny of Neotropical electric knifefishes (Teleostei, Gymnotiformes). Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2015;95:20–33." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR191" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7673">191</a>].<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Apteronotidae </li> <li> Hypopomidae </li> <li> Rhamphichthyidae </li> <li> Sternopygidae </li> </ul> Order Siluriformes (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: see SV Fink and WL Fink [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 175" title="Fink SV, Fink WL. Interrelationships of the Ostariophysan Fishes (Teleostei). Zool J Linnean Soc. 1981;72(4):297–353." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR175" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7715">175</a>], SV Fink and WL Fink [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 176" title="Fink SV, Fink WL. Interrelationships of ostariophysan fishes (Teleostei). In: MLJ S, Parenti LR, Johnson GD, editors. Interrelationships of fishes. San Diego: Academic Press; 1996. p. 209–49." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR176" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7718">176</a>], G Arratia [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 192" title="Arratia G. Description of the primitive family Diplomystidae (Siluriformes, Teleostei, Pisces): morphology, taxonomy, and phylogenetic implications. Bonner Zoologische Monographien. 1987;24." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR192" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7721">192</a>], T Mo [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 193" title="Mo T. Anatomy, relationships and systematics of the Bagridae (Teleostei: Siluroidei) with a hypothesis of siluroid phylogeny. Theses Zoologicae. 1991;17:1–216." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR193" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7724">193</a>], G Arratia [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 194" title="Arratia G. Development and variation of the suspensorium of primitive catfishes (Teleostei: Ostariophysi) and their phylogenetic relationships. Bonner Zoologische Monographien. 1992;32:1–149." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR194" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7728">194</a>], MCC de Pinna [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 195" title="de MCC P. Higher-Level Phylogeny of the Siluriformes, with a New Classification of the Order, Ph.D. thesis. New York: City University of New York; 1993." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR195" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7731">195</a>], MCC de Pinna [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 196" title="de Pinna MCC. Phylogenetic relationships of Neotropical Siluriformes (Teleostei: Ostariophysi): historical overview and synthesis of hypotheses. In: Malabarba LR, Reis RE, Vari RP, ZMS L, CAS L, editors. Phylogeny and Classification of Neotropical Fishes. EDIPUCRS: Porto Alegre; 1998." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR196" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7734">196</a>], R Diogo [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 197" title="Diogo R. Phylogeny, origin and biogeography of catfishes: support for a Pangean origin of 'modern teleosts' and reexamination of some Mesozoic Pangean connections between the Gondwanan and Laurasian supercontinents. Anim Biol. 2004;54(4):331–51." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR197" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7737">197</a>]; see also JP Sullivan, JG Lundberg and M Hardman [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 198" title="Sullivan JP, Lundberg JG, Hardman M. A phylogenetic analysis of the major groups of catfishes (Teleostei : Siluriformes) using rag1 and rag2 nuclear gene sequences. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2006;41(3):636–62." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR198" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7740">198</a>]. Comments: recognition of catfish families follows JP Sullivan, JG Lundberg and M Hardman [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 198" title="Sullivan JP, Lundberg JG, Hardman M. A phylogenetic analysis of the major groups of catfishes (Teleostei : Siluriformes) using rag1 and rag2 nuclear gene sequences. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2006;41(3):636–62." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR198" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7749">198</a>] and JG Lundberg, JP Sullivan, R Rodiles-Hernández and DA Hendrickson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 77" title="Lundberg JG, Sullivan JP, Rodiles-Hernández R, Hendrickson DA. Discovery of African roots for the Mesoamerican Chiapas catfish, Lacantunia enigmatica, requires an ancient intercontinental passage. Proc Acad Natl Sci Phila. 2007;156:39–53." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR77" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7752">77</a>], except for Ailiidae, Auchenoglanididae and Ritidae that are herein recognized following JS Nelson, T Grande and MVH Wilson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 42" title="Nelson JS, Grande T, Wilson MVH. 5th ed. Fishes of the World. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons; 2016." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR42" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7755">42</a>], and Kryptoglanidae that follows R Britz, F Kakkassery and R Raghavan [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 199" title="Britz R, Kakkassery F, Raghavan R. Osteology of Kryptoglanis shajii, a stygobitic catfish (Teleostei: Siluriformes) from peninsular India, with diagnosis of a new family Kryptoglanidae. Ichthyol Explor Freshwaters. 2014;24(3):193–207." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR199" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7758">199</a>]. The subordinal classification is based on JP Sullivan, JG Lundberg and M Hardman [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 198" title="Sullivan JP, Lundberg JG, Hardman M. A phylogenetic analysis of the major groups of catfishes (Teleostei : Siluriformes) using rag1 and rag2 nuclear gene sequences. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2006;41(3):636–62." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR198" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7762">198</a>]. Nodal support values of suborders are from D Arcila, G Ortí, RP Vari, JW Armbruster, MLJ Stiassny, K Ko, MH Sabaj, J Lundberg, LJ Revell and R Betancur-R. [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 101" title="Arcila D, Ortí G, Vari RP, Armbruster JW, Stiassny MLJ, Ko K, et al. Genome wide interrogation advances resolution of recalcitrant groups in the Tree of Life. Nature Eco Evo. 2017:1." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR101" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7765">101</a>]. Suborder Loricarioidei (75%) Morphological synapomorphies: see R Diogo [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 197" title="Diogo R. Phylogeny, origin and biogeography of catfishes: support for a Pangean origin of 'modern teleosts' and reexamination of some Mesozoic Pangean connections between the Gondwanan and Laurasian supercontinents. Anim Biol. 2004;54(4):331–51." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR197" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7781">197</a>].<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Astroblepidae </li> <li> Callichthyidae </li> <li> Loricariidae </li> <li> Nematogenyidae </li> <li> Trichomycteridae </li> <li> Not examined: Scoloplacidae. </li> </ul> Suborder Diplomystoidei Morphological synapomorphies: see G Arratia [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 192" title="Arratia G. Description of the primitive family Diplomystidae (Siluriformes, Teleostei, Pisces): morphology, taxonomy, and phylogenetic implications. Bonner Zoologische Monographien. 1987;24." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR192" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7839">192</a>], G Arratia [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 194" title="Arratia G. Development and variation of the suspensorium of primitive catfishes (Teleostei: Ostariophysi) and their phylogenetic relationships. Bonner Zoologische Monographien. 1992;32:1–149." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR194" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7842">194</a>], MCC de Pinna [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 195" title="de MCC P. Higher-Level Phylogeny of the Siluriformes, with a New Classification of the Order, Ph.D. thesis. New York: City University of New York; 1993." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR195" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7845">195</a>], MCC de Pinna [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 196" title="de Pinna MCC. Phylogenetic relationships of Neotropical Siluriformes (Teleostei: Ostariophysi): historical overview and synthesis of hypotheses. In: Malabarba LR, Reis RE, Vari RP, ZMS L, CAS L, editors. Phylogeny and Classification of Neotropical Fishes. EDIPUCRS: Porto Alegre; 1998." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR196" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7848">196</a>], G Arratia and C Quezada-Romegialli [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 200" title="Arratia G, Quezada-Romegialli C. Understanding morphological variability in a taxonomic context in Chilean diplomystids (Teleostei: Siluriformes), including the description of a new species. PeerJ. 2017;5:e2991." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR200" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7852">200</a>].<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Diplomystidae </li> </ul> Suborder Siluroidei (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: see R Diogo [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 197" title="Diogo R. Phylogeny, origin and biogeography of catfishes: support for a Pangean origin of 'modern teleosts' and reexamination of some Mesozoic Pangean connections between the Gondwanan and Laurasian supercontinents. Anim Biol. 2004;54(4):331–51." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR197" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7876">197</a>]. Comment: Bagridae includes taxa formerly in Olyridae (following JP Sullivan, JG Lundberg and M Hardman [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 198" title="Sullivan JP, Lundberg JG, Hardman M. A phylogenetic analysis of the major groups of catfishes (Teleostei : Siluriformes) using rag1 and rag2 nuclear gene sequences. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2006;41(3):636–62." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR198" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e7886">198</a>]).<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Ailiidae </li> <li> Aspredinidae </li> <li> Auchenipteridae </li> <li> Bagridae </li> <li> Cetopsidae </li> <li> Clariidae </li> <li> Claroteidae </li> <li> Doradidae </li> <li> Heptapteridae </li> <li> Ictaluridae </li> <li> Mochokidae </li> <li> Pangasiidae </li> <li> Pimelodidae </li> <li> Plotosidae </li> <li> Pseudopimelodidae </li> <li> Siluridae </li> <li> Sisoridae </li> <li> Not examined: Akysidae, Amblycipitidae, Amphiliidae, Anchariidae, Ariidae, Auchenoglanididae, Austroglanididae, Chacidae, Cranoglanididae, Erethistidae, Heteropneustidae, Horabagridae, Kryptoglanidae, Lacantuniidae, Malapteruridae, Ritidae, and Schilbeidae. </li> </ul> Cohort Euteleosteomorpha (= Euteleostei sensu GD Johnson and C Patterson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 49" title="Johnson GD, Patterson C. Relationships of lower euteleostean fishes. In: MLJ S, Parenti LR, Johnson GD, editors. Interrelationships of fishes. San Diego: Academic Press; 1996. p. 251–332." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR49" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8015">49</a>]) (100%). Morphological synapomorphies: see GD Johnson and C Patterson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 49" title="Johnson GD, Patterson C. Relationships of lower euteleostean fishes. In: MLJ S, Parenti LR, Johnson GD, editors. Interrelationships of fishes. San Diego: Academic Press; 1996. p. 251–332." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR49" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8024">49</a>]. Comments: while relationships among major euteleost lineages are contentious (e.g., Protacanthopterygii; see below), many unexpected clades classified here are consistently obtained by other molecular studies. For instance, alepocephalids have affinities within Otomorpha, instead of Argentiformes as proposed by GD Johnson and C Patterson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 49" title="Johnson GD, Patterson C. Relationships of lower euteleostean fishes. In: MLJ S, Parenti LR, Johnson GD, editors. Interrelationships of fishes. San Diego: Academic Press; 1996. p. 251–332." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR49" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8033">49</a>] (e.g., [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 173" title="Poulsen JY, Møller PR, Lavoué S, Knudsen SW, Nishida M, Miya M. Higher and lower-level relationships of the deep-sea fish order Alepocephaliformes (Teleostei: Otocephala) inferred from whole mitogenome sequences. Biol J Linn Soc. 2009;98(4):923–36." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR173" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8036">173</a>]; see also comments under Alepocephali above); Lepidogalaxias (order Lepidogalaxiiformes) lies at the base of the euteleost tree (e.g., [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 201" title="Li J, Xia R, McDowall RM, Lopez JA, Lei G, Fu C. Phylogenetic position of the enigmatic Lepidogalaxias salamandroides with comment on the orders of lower euteleostean fishes. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2010;57(2):932–6." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR201" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8042">201</a>]), rendering Galaxiidae sensu lato non-monophyletic; Osmeriformes (considered a suborder of Salmoniformes by EO Wiley and GD Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 57" title="Wiley EO, Johnson GD. A teleost classification based on monophyletic groups. In: Nelson JS, Schultze HP, MVH W, editors. Origin and Phylogenetic Interrelationships of Teleosts. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 2010. p. 123–82." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR57" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8052">57</a>]) and Stomiatiformes are sister orders (see also [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 76" title="López JA, Chen WJ, Orti G. Esociform phylogeny. Copeia. 2004;2004(3):449–64." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR76" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8055">76</a>]), placed here in the subcohort Stomiati. Subcohort Lepidogalaxii Morphological synapomorphies: see DE Rosen [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 202" title="Rosen DE. Phylogeny and zoogeography of salmoniform fishes and relationships of Lepidogalaxias salamandroides. Bull Am Mus Nat Hist. 1974;153:265–326." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR202" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8070">202</a>]. Order Lepidogalaxiiformes Morphological synapomorphies: same as Lepidogalaxii.<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Lepidogalaxiidae </li> </ul> Subcohort Protacanthopterygii sedis mutabilis (100%) Comments: Circumscription of Protacanthopterygii is controversial (hence sedis mutabilis). JS Nelson, T Grande and MVH Wilson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 42" title="Nelson JS, Grande T, Wilson MVH. 5th ed. Fishes of the World. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons; 2016." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR42" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8113">42</a>] restricted Protacanthopterygii to the clade including Salmoniformes and Esociformes. They also placed the orders Galaxiiformes and Argentiniformes, along with Stomiatiformes and Osmeriformes, in a new taxon they named Osmeromorpha. Circumscription of Osmeromorpha follows the results of the molecular phylogeny of CP Burridge, RM McDowall, D Craw, MVH Wilson and JM Waters [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 203" title="Burridge CP, McDowall RM, Craw D, Wilson MVH, Waters JM. Marine dispersal as a pre-requisite for Gondwanan vicariance among elements of the galaxiid fish fauna. J Biogeogr. 2012;39(2):306–21." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR203" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8116">203</a>]. Note that Burridge et al.’s study was designed to address intrafamilial galaxiid relationships. Their selection of non-galaxiid outgroups was only for time-calibration purposes; they did not intend to assess supraordinal relationships among early euteleosts. In addition to Osmeromorpha, JS Nelson, T Grande and MVH Wilson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 42" title="Nelson JS, Grande T, Wilson MVH. 5th ed. Fishes of the World. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons; 2016." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR42" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8119">42</a>] classified a purported clade including most euteleosts, except for Lepidogalaxiiformes, Salmoniformes and Esociformes, in an unranked taxon named Zoroteleostei by MVH Wilson and RG Williams [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 204" title="Wilson MVH, Williams RG. Salmoniform fishes: key fossils, supertree, and possible morphological synapomorphies. In: Nelson JS, Schultze HP, MVH W, editors. Origin and Phylogenetic Interrelationships of Teleosts. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 2010. p. 379–402." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR204" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8123">204</a>]. Circumscriptions of Osmeromorpha and Zoroteleostei sensu JS Nelson, T Grande and MVH Wilson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 42" title="Nelson JS, Grande T, Wilson MVH. 5th ed. Fishes of the World. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons; 2016." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR42" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8129">42</a>] are incongruent with all recent higher-level phylogenetic analyses of fishes (i.e., [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Betancur-R R, Broughton RE, Wiley EO, Carpenter K, Lopez JA, Li C, et al. The tree of life and a new classification of bony fishes. PLoS Currents Tree of Life. 2013; Edition 1" href="#ref-CR8" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8132">8</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Broughton RE, Betancur-R R, Li C, Arratia G, Orti G. Multi-locus phylogenetic analysis reveals the pattern and tempo of bony fish evolution. PLOS Currents Tree of Life. 2013; Edition 1" href="#ref-CR9" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8132_1">9</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 10" title="Near TJ, Eytan RI, Dornburg A, Kuhn KL, Moore JA, Davis MP, et al. Resolution of ray-finned fish phylogeny and timing of diversification. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2012;109(34):13698–703." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR10" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8135">10</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 27" title="Betancur-R R, Orti G, Pyron AR. Fossil-based comparative analyses reveal ancient marine ancestry erased by extinction in ray-finned fishes. Ecol Lett. 2015;18:441–50." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR27" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8138">27</a>]). Order Argentiniformes (47%) Morphological synapomorphies: see GD Johnson and C Patterson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 49" title="Johnson GD, Patterson C. Relationships of lower euteleostean fishes. In: MLJ S, Parenti LR, Johnson GD, editors. Interrelationships of fishes. San Diego: Academic Press; 1996. p. 251–332." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR49" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8153">49</a>].<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Argentinidae </li> <li> Bathylagidae </li> <li> Microstomatidae </li> <li> Opisthoproctidae </li> </ul> Order Galaxiiformes (94%) Morphological synapomorphies: lacking.<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Galaxiidae </li> </ul> Order Salmoniformes (62%) Morphological synapomorphies: see CJ Sanford [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 205" title="Sanford CJ. The phylogenetic relationships of salmonoid fishes. Bull Brit Mus Natur Hist, Zool. 1990;56:145–53." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR205" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8217">205</a>], GD Johnson and C Patterson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 49" title="Johnson GD, Patterson C. Relationships of lower euteleostean fishes. In: MLJ S, Parenti LR, Johnson GD, editors. Interrelationships of fishes. San Diego: Academic Press; 1996. p. 251–332." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR49" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8220">49</a>], [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 206" title="Sanford CJ. Salmonid Fish Osteology and Phylogeny (Teleostei: Salmonoidei). Ruggell: Lichtenstein; 2000." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR206" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8223">206</a>].<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Salmonidae </li> </ul> Order Esociformes (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: see GD Johnson and C Patterson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 49" title="Johnson GD, Patterson C. Relationships of lower euteleostean fishes. In: MLJ S, Parenti LR, Johnson GD, editors. Interrelationships of fishes. San Diego: Academic Press; 1996. p. 251–332." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR49" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8247">49</a>].<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Esocidae </li> <li> Umbridae </li> </ul> Subcohort Stomiati (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: lacking Comments: see comments under Protacanthopterygii above. Order Stomiatiformes sensu DE Rosen [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 43" title="Rosen DE. Interrelationships of higher euteleostean fishes. In: Greenwood PH, Miles RS, Patterson C, editors. Interrelationships of fishes. London: Academic Press; 1973. p. 397–513." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR43" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8293">43</a>] (= Stomiiformes sensu WL Fink and SH Weitzman [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 207" title="Fink WL, Weitzman SH. Relationships of the stomiiform fishes (Teleostei), with a redescription of Diplophos. Bull Mus Comp Zool. 1982;150:31–93." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR207" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8299">207</a>]) (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: see AS Harold and SH Weitzman [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 208" title="Harold AS, Weitzman SH. Interrelationships of stomiiform fishes. In: MLJ S, Parenti LR, Johnson GD, editors. Interrelationships of fishes. San Diego: Academic Press; 1996. p. 333–53." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR208" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8308">208</a>], AS Harold [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 209" title="Harold AS. Phylogenetic relationships of the Gonostomatidae (Teleostei: Stomiiformes). Bull Mar Sci. 1998;62(3):715–41." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR209" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8311">209</a>]. Comments: suborders in Stomiatiformes are now recognized following JS Nelson, T Grande and MVH Wilson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 42" title="Nelson JS, Grande T, Wilson MVH. 5th ed. Fishes of the World. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons; 2016." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR42" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8320">42</a>], except that their Phosichthyoidei is named Stomiatoidei herein (based on Stomiidae). Suborder Gonostomatoidei (54%) Morphological synapomorphies: see AS Harold [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 209" title="Harold AS. Phylogenetic relationships of the Gonostomatidae (Teleostei: Stomiiformes). Bull Mar Sci. 1998;62(3):715–41." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR209" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8336">209</a>]. Comment: Diplophidae is no longer recognized as a separate family; it is listed as subfamily of Gonostomatidae in R Van Der Laan, WN Eschmeyer and R Fricke [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 62" title="Van Der Laan R, Eschmeyer WN, Fricke R. Family-group names of Recent fishes. Zootaxa. 2014;3882(1):230." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR62" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8345">62</a>] and JS Nelson, T Grande and MVH Wilson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 42" title="Nelson JS, Grande T, Wilson MVH. 5th ed. Fishes of the World. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons; 2016." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR42" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8348">42</a>]. Diplophos is sister to all other gonostomatids in Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#Fig2">2</a>.<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Gonostomatidae </li> </ul> Suborder Stomiatoidei (= Phosichthyoidei) (61%) Morphological synapomorphies: lacking.<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Phosichthyidae (not monophyletic in Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#Fig2">2</a>). </li> <li> Sternoptychidae </li> <li> Stomiidae </li> </ul> Order Osmeriformes (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: Formal diagnosis of the present order is not established on synapomorphies. This concept conflicts with the morphological hypothesis of GD Johnson and C Patterson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 49" title="Johnson GD, Patterson C. Relationships of lower euteleostean fishes. In: MLJ S, Parenti LR, Johnson GD, editors. Interrelationships of fishes. San Diego: Academic Press; 1996. p. 251–332." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR49" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8416">49</a>] who grouped retropinnids with galaxiids and lepidogalaxiids. Comments: EO Wiley and GD Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 57" title="Wiley EO, Johnson GD. A teleost classification based on monophyletic groups. In: Nelson JS, Schultze HP, MVH W, editors. Origin and Phylogenetic Interrelationships of Teleosts. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 2010. p. 123–82." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR57" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8425">57</a>], citing GD Johnson and C Patterson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 49" title="Johnson GD, Patterson C. Relationships of lower euteleostean fishes. In: MLJ S, Parenti LR, Johnson GD, editors. Interrelationships of fishes. San Diego: Academic Press; 1996. p. 251–332." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR49" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8428">49</a>], placed Galaxiidae as sister to retropinnids within the suborder Osmeroidei (order Salmoniformes sensu EO Wiley and GD Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 57" title="Wiley EO, Johnson GD. A teleost classification based on monophyletic groups. In: Nelson JS, Schultze HP, MVH W, editors. Origin and Phylogenetic Interrelationships of Teleosts. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 2010. p. 123–82." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR57" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8434">57</a>]). Suborders in Osmeriformes are now classified following JS Nelson, T Grande and MVH Wilson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 42" title="Nelson JS, Grande T, Wilson MVH. 5th ed. Fishes of the World. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons; 2016." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR42" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8438">42</a>]. Suborder Osmeroidei (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: GD Johnson and C Patterson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 49" title="Johnson GD, Patterson C. Relationships of lower euteleostean fishes. In: MLJ S, Parenti LR, Johnson GD, editors. Interrelationships of fishes. San Diego: Academic Press; 1996. p. 251–332." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR49" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8453">49</a>].<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Osmeridae </li> <li> Plecoglossidae </li> <li> Salangidae </li> </ul> Suborder Retropinnoidei (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: GD Johnson and C Patterson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 49" title="Johnson GD, Patterson C. Relationships of lower euteleostean fishes. In: MLJ S, Parenti LR, Johnson GD, editors. Interrelationships of fishes. San Diego: Academic Press; 1996. p. 251–332." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR49" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8489">49</a>]. Comment: Retropinnidae includes the former Prototroctidae, following JS Nelson, T Grande and MVH Wilson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 42" title="Nelson JS, Grande T, Wilson MVH. 5th ed. Fishes of the World. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons; 2016." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR42" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8499">42</a>].<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Retropinnidae </li> </ul> Subcohort Neoteleostei (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: see DE Rosen [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 43" title="Rosen DE. Interrelationships of higher euteleostean fishes. In: Greenwood PH, Miles RS, Patterson C, editors. Interrelationships of fishes. London: Academic Press; 1973. p. 397–513." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR43" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8523">43</a>], GD Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 210" title="Johnson GD. Monophyly of the euteleostean clades Neoteleostei, Eurypterygii and Ctenosquamata. Copeia. 1992;8:8–25." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR210" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8526">210</a>], EO Wiley and GD Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 57" title="Wiley EO, Johnson GD. A teleost classification based on monophyletic groups. In: Nelson JS, Schultze HP, MVH W, editors. Origin and Phylogenetic Interrelationships of Teleosts. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 2010. p. 123–82." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR57" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8529">57</a>]. Note that previous classifications (e.g., [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 57" title="Wiley EO, Johnson GD. A teleost classification based on monophyletic groups. In: Nelson JS, Schultze HP, MVH W, editors. Origin and Phylogenetic Interrelationships of Teleosts. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 2010. p. 123–82." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR57" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8532">57</a>]) included Stomiiformes in Neoteleostei. Infracohort Ateleopodia (= Ateleopodomorpha) (98%). Morphological synapomorphies: see DE Rosen [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 43" title="Rosen DE. Interrelationships of higher euteleostean fishes. In: Greenwood PH, Miles RS, Patterson C, editors. Interrelationships of fishes. London: Academic Press; 1973. p. 397–513." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR43" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8547">43</a>], JE Olney, DG Johnson and CC Baldwin [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 211" title="Olney JE, Johnson DG, Baldwin CC. Phylogeny of lampridiform fishes. Bull Mar Sci. 1993;52(1):137–69." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR211" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8550">211</a>]. Order Ateleopodiformes Morphological synapomorphies: same as Ateleopodia.<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Ateleopodidae </li> </ul> Infracohort Eurypterygia (= Eurypterygii) (96%) Morphological synapomorphies: see GV Lauder and KF Liem [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 36" title="Lauder GV, Liem KF. The evolution and interrelationships of the actinopterygian fishes. Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology. 1983;150(95–197):103." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR36" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8587">36</a>], GD Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 210" title="Johnson GD. Monophyly of the euteleostean clades Neoteleostei, Eurypterygii and Ctenosquamata. Copeia. 1992;8:8–25." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR210" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8590">210</a>], MLJ Stiassny [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 212" title="MLJ S. Basal ctenosquamate relationships and the interrelationships of the myctophiform (scopelomorph) fishes. In: MLJ S, Parenti LR, Johnson GD, editors. Interrelationships of fishes. San Diego: Academic Press; 1996. p. 405–26." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR212" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8593">212</a>], VG Springer and DG Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 213" title="Springer VG, Johnson DG. Study of the dorsal gill-arch musculature of teleostome fishes, with special reference to the Actinopterygii. Bulletin of the Biological Society of Washington. 2004;11:1–235." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR213" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8596">213</a>]. Section Cyclosquamata (= Aulopa) (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: see C Baldwin and GD Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 214" title="Baldwin C, Johnson GD. Relationships of lower euteleostean fishes. In: MLJ S, Parenti LR, Johnson GD, editors. Interrelationships of fishes. San Diego: Academic Press; 1996. p. 355–404." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR214" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8611">214</a>], TP Satoh and T Nakabo [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 215" title="Satoh TP, Nakabo T. Paraulopidae and Paraulopus, a new family and genus of aulopiform fshes with revised relationships within the order. Ichthyol Res. 2002;49(1):25–46." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR215" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8614">215</a>], MP Davis [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 216" title="Davis MP. Evolutionary relationships of the Aulopiformes (Euteleostei: Cyclosquamata): a molecular and total evidence approach. In: Nelson JS, Schultze HP, MVH W, editors. Origin and Phylogenetic Interrelationships of Teleosts. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 2010. p. 317–36." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR216" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8617">216</a>]. Comment: We now recognize Cyclosquamata sensu Rosen following other recent classifications (e.g., [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 42" title="Nelson JS, Grande T, Wilson MVH. 5th ed. Fishes of the World. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons; 2016." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR42" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8629">42</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 216" title="Davis MP. Evolutionary relationships of the Aulopiformes (Euteleostei: Cyclosquamata): a molecular and total evidence approach. In: Nelson JS, Schultze HP, MVH W, editors. Origin and Phylogenetic Interrelationships of Teleosts. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 2010. p. 317–36." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR216" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8632">216</a>]; = Aulopa in EO Wiley and GD Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 57" title="Wiley EO, Johnson GD. A teleost classification based on monophyletic groups. In: Nelson JS, Schultze HP, MVH W, editors. Origin and Phylogenetic Interrelationships of Teleosts. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 2010. p. 123–82." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR57" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8635">57</a>] and in previous versions of this classification). Order Aulopiformes (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: same as Cyclosquamata. Comment: although not monophyletic herein, the monophyly of aulopiform suborders is supported by MP Davis [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 216" title="Davis MP. Evolutionary relationships of the Aulopiformes (Euteleostei: Cyclosquamata): a molecular and total evidence approach. In: Nelson JS, Schultze HP, MVH W, editors. Origin and Phylogenetic Interrelationships of Teleosts. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 2010. p. 317–36." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR216" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8657">216</a>]. Aulopiform families listed follow MP Davis [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 216" title="Davis MP. Evolutionary relationships of the Aulopiformes (Euteleostei: Cyclosquamata): a molecular and total evidence approach. In: Nelson JS, Schultze HP, MVH W, editors. Origin and Phylogenetic Interrelationships of Teleosts. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 2010. p. 317–36." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR216" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8660">216</a>] and other recent sources (see below). Suborder Aulopoidei (not monophyletic in Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#Fig2">2</a>) (= Synodontoidei sensu C Baldwin and GD Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 214" title="Baldwin C, Johnson GD. Relationships of lower euteleostean fishes. In: MLJ S, Parenti LR, Johnson GD, editors. Interrelationships of fishes. San Diego: Academic Press; 1996. p. 355–404." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR214" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8675">214</a>] and EO Wiley and GD Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 57" title="Wiley EO, Johnson GD. A teleost classification based on monophyletic groups. In: Nelson JS, Schultze HP, MVH W, editors. Origin and Phylogenetic Interrelationships of Teleosts. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 2010. p. 123–82." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR57" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8678">57</a>]). Morphological synapomorphies: see C Baldwin and GD Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 214" title="Baldwin C, Johnson GD. Relationships of lower euteleostean fishes. In: MLJ S, Parenti LR, Johnson GD, editors. Interrelationships of fishes. San Diego: Academic Press; 1996. p. 355–404." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR214" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8687">214</a>], MP Davis [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 216" title="Davis MP. Evolutionary relationships of the Aulopiformes (Euteleostei: Cyclosquamata): a molecular and total evidence approach. In: Nelson JS, Schultze HP, MVH W, editors. Origin and Phylogenetic Interrelationships of Teleosts. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 2010. p. 317–36." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR216" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8690">216</a>].<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Aulopidae </li> <li> Pseudotrichonotidae </li> <li> Synodontidae (not monophyletic in Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#Fig2">2</a>). </li> </ul> Suborder Paraulopoidei Morphological synapomorphies: see MP Davis [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 216" title="Davis MP. Evolutionary relationships of the Aulopiformes (Euteleostei: Cyclosquamata): a molecular and total evidence approach. In: Nelson JS, Schultze HP, MVH W, editors. Origin and Phylogenetic Interrelationships of Teleosts. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 2010. p. 317–36." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR216" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8730">216</a>].<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Paraulopidae </li> </ul> Suborder Alepisauroidei (not monophyletic in Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#Fig2">2</a>) Morphological synapomorphies: see MP Davis [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 216" title="Davis MP. Evolutionary relationships of the Aulopiformes (Euteleostei: Cyclosquamata): a molecular and total evidence approach. In: Nelson JS, Schultze HP, MVH W, editors. Origin and Phylogenetic Interrelationships of Teleosts. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 2010. p. 317–36." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR216" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8757">216</a>]. Comments: Alepisauridae includes taxa previously listed in Omosudidae and Anotopteridae, following MP Davis [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 216" title="Davis MP. Evolutionary relationships of the Aulopiformes (Euteleostei: Cyclosquamata): a molecular and total evidence approach. In: Nelson JS, Schultze HP, MVH W, editors. Origin and Phylogenetic Interrelationships of Teleosts. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 2010. p. 317–36." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR216" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8766">216</a>]. Lestidiidae is now recognized following MJ Ghedotti, RW Barton, AM Simons and MP Davis [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 217" title="Ghedotti MJ, Barton RW, Simons AM, Davis MP. The first report of luminescent liver tissue in fishes: evolution and structure of bioluminescent organs in the deep-sea naked barracudinas (Aulopiformes: Lestidiidae). J Morphol. 2015;276(3):310–8." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR217" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8769">217</a>] and JS Nelson, T Grande and MVH Wilson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 42" title="Nelson JS, Grande T, Wilson MVH. 5th ed. Fishes of the World. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons; 2016." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR42" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8772">42</a>].<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Alepisauridae </li> <li> Bathysauridae </li> <li> Chlorophthalmidae (not monophyletic in Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#Fig2">2</a>) </li> <li> Evermannellidae </li> <li> Giganturidae </li> <li> Ipnopidae (not monophyletic in Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#Fig2">2</a>) </li> <li> Lestidiidae </li> <li> Notosudidae </li> <li> Paralepididae (not monophyletic in Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#Fig2">2</a>) </li> <li> Scopelarchidae (not monophyletic in Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#Fig2">2</a>) </li> <li> Sudidae (following [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 216" title="Davis MP. Evolutionary relationships of the Aulopiformes (Euteleostei: Cyclosquamata): a molecular and total evidence approach. In: Nelson JS, Schultze HP, MVH W, editors. Origin and Phylogenetic Interrelationships of Teleosts. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 2010. p. 317–36." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR216" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8854">216</a>]) </li> <li> Not examined: Bathysauroididae, Bathysauropsidae sensu MP Davis [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 216" title="Davis MP. Evolutionary relationships of the Aulopiformes (Euteleostei: Cyclosquamata): a molecular and total evidence approach. In: Nelson JS, Schultze HP, MVH W, editors. Origin and Phylogenetic Interrelationships of Teleosts. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 2010. p. 317–36." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR216" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8870">216</a>]. </li> </ul> Section Ctenosquamata sensu DE Rosen [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 43" title="Rosen DE. Interrelationships of higher euteleostean fishes. In: Greenwood PH, Miles RS, Patterson C, editors. Interrelationships of fishes. London: Academic Press; 1973. p. 397–513." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR43" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8885">43</a>] (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: see GD Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 210" title="Johnson GD. Monophyly of the euteleostean clades Neoteleostei, Eurypterygii and Ctenosquamata. Copeia. 1992;8:8–25." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR210" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8894">210</a>], MLJ Stiassny [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 212" title="MLJ S. Basal ctenosquamate relationships and the interrelationships of the myctophiform (scopelomorph) fishes. In: MLJ S, Parenti LR, Johnson GD, editors. Interrelationships of fishes. San Diego: Academic Press; 1996. p. 405–26." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR212" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8897">212</a>]. Subsection Myctophata (= Scopelomorpha) (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: see MLJ Stiassny [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 212" title="MLJ S. Basal ctenosquamate relationships and the interrelationships of the myctophiform (scopelomorph) fishes. In: MLJ S, Parenti LR, Johnson GD, editors. Interrelationships of fishes. San Diego: Academic Press; 1996. p. 405–26." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR212" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8913">212</a>], VG Springer and DG Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 213" title="Springer VG, Johnson DG. Study of the dorsal gill-arch musculature of teleostome fishes, with special reference to the Actinopterygii. Bulletin of the Biological Society of Washington. 2004;11:1–235." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR213" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8916">213</a>]. Order Myctophiformes Morphological synapomorphies: same as Myctophata.<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Myctophidae </li> <li> Neoscopelidae </li> </ul> Subsection Acanthomorphata (= Acanthomorpha) (96%) Morphological synapomorphies: see MLJ Stiassny [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 218" title="Stiassny MLJ. The limits and relationships of the acanthomorph teleosts. J Zool. 1986:411–60." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR218" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8958">218</a>], GD Johnson and C Patterson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 51" title="Johnson GD, Patterson C. Percomorph phylogeny: a survey of acanthomorphs and a new proposal. Bull Mar Sci. 1993;52(1):554–626." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR51" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8961">51</a>], D Davesne, C Gallut, V Barriel, P Janvier, G Lecointre and O Otero [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 24" title="Davesne D, Gallut C, Barriel V, Janvier P, Lecointre G, Otero O. The phylogenetic intrarelationships of spiny-rayed fishes (Acanthomorpha, Teleostei, Actinopterygii): fossil taxa increase the congruence of morphology with molecular data. Front Ecol Evol. 2016;4:129." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR24" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8964">24</a>]. Division Lampripterygii (= Lampridacea in previous versions; = Lamprimorpha in [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 42" title="Nelson JS, Grande T, Wilson MVH. 5th ed. Fishes of the World. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons; 2016." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR42" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8974">42</a>]) (82%). Morphological synapomorphies: see JE Olney, DG Johnson and CC Baldwin [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 211" title="Olney JE, Johnson DG, Baldwin CC. Phylogeny of lampridiform fishes. Bull Mar Sci. 1993;52(1):137–69." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR211" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8983">211</a>] (but including Stylephorus, now in Stylephoriformes; see below), D Davesne, M Friedman, V Barriel, G Lecointre, P Janvier, C Gallut and O Otero [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 219" title="Davesne D, Friedman M, Barriel V, Lecointre G, Janvier P, Gallut C, Otero O: Early fossils illuminate character evolution and interrelationships of Lampridiformes (Teleostei, Acanthomorpha). Zool J Linnean Soc 2014:n/a-n/a." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR219" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e8989">219</a>]. Comments: Endings for the rank “division” have been changed to “-pterygii” (see comments under Acanthopterygii below). Order Lampriformes (= Lampridiformes in previous versions, = Allotriognathi). Morphological synapomorphies: same as Lampripterygii.<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Lampridae (= Lamprididae in previous versions). </li> <li> Lophotidae </li> <li> Regalecidae </li> <li> Trachipteridae </li> <li> Not examined: Radiicephalidae, Veliferidae. </li> </ul> Division Paracanthopterygii sensu M Miya, T Satoh and M Nishida [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 69" title="Miya M, Satoh T, Nishida M. The phylogenetic position of toadfishes (order Batrachoidiformes) in the higher ray-finned fish as inferred from partitioned Bayesian analysis of 102 whole mitochondrial genome sequences. Biol J Linn Soc. 2005;85:289–306." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR69" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9055">69</a>], T Grande, WC Borden and WL Smith [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 220" title="Grande T, Borden WC, Smith WL. Limits and relationships of Paracanthopterygii: a molecular framework for evaluating past morphological hypotheses. In: Arratia G, Schultze H-P, MVH W, editors. Mesozoic Fishes 5 - Global Diversity and Evolution. Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil: Muenchen; 2013." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR220" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9058">220</a>] (but excluding Polymixiidae; = Paracanthomorphacea in previous versions) (100%). Morphological synapomorphies: see T Grande, WC Borden and WL Smith [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 220" title="Grande T, Borden WC, Smith WL. Limits and relationships of Paracanthopterygii: a molecular framework for evaluating past morphological hypotheses. In: Arratia G, Schultze H-P, MVH W, editors. Mesozoic Fishes 5 - Global Diversity and Evolution. Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil: Muenchen; 2013." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR220" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9068">220</a>], but restricted to our concept of the clade (without Polymixia). Comments: endings for the rank Division have been changed to “-pterygii” (see comments under Acanthopterygii below). Placement of Polymixiidae inside [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 69" title="Miya M, Satoh T, Nishida M. The phylogenetic position of toadfishes (order Batrachoidiformes) in the higher ray-finned fish as inferred from partitioned Bayesian analysis of 102 whole mitochondrial genome sequences. Biol J Linn Soc. 2005;85:289–306." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR69" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9080">69</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 106" title="Malmstrøm M, Matschiner M, Tørresen OK, Star B, Snipen LG, Hansen TF, et al. Evolution of the immune system influences speciation rates in teleost fishes. Nat Genet. 2016;48:1204–10." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR106" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9083">106</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 220" title="Grande T, Borden WC, Smith WL. Limits and relationships of Paracanthopterygii: a molecular framework for evaluating past morphological hypotheses. In: Arratia G, Schultze H-P, MVH W, editors. Mesozoic Fishes 5 - Global Diversity and Evolution. Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil: Muenchen; 2013." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR220" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9086">220</a>] or outside [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 8" title="Betancur-R R, Broughton RE, Wiley EO, Carpenter K, Lopez JA, Li C, et al. The tree of life and a new classification of bony fishes. PLoS Currents Tree of Life. 2013; Edition 1" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR8" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9089">8</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 10" title="Near TJ, Eytan RI, Dornburg A, Kuhn KL, Moore JA, Davis MP, et al. Resolution of ray-finned fish phylogeny and timing of diversification. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2012;109(34):13698–703." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR10" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9093">10</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 11" title="Near TJ, Dornburg A, Eytan RI, Keck BP, Smith WL, Kuhn KL, et al. Phylogeny and tempo of diversification in the superradiation of spiny-rayed fishes. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2013;110(31):12738–43." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR11" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9096">11</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 27" title="Betancur-R R, Orti G, Pyron AR. Fossil-based comparative analyses reveal ancient marine ancestry erased by extinction in ray-finned fishes. Ecol Lett. 2015;18:441–50." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR27" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9099">27</a>] Paracanthopterygii is contentious. A restricted circumscription of Paracanthopterygii, including only the orders Percopsiformes, Zeiformes, Stylephoriformes, and Gadiformes is largely robust to phylogenetic uncertainty. Series Percopsaria (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: see VG Springer and DG Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 213" title="Springer VG, Johnson DG. Study of the dorsal gill-arch musculature of teleostome fishes, with special reference to the Actinopterygii. Bulletin of the Biological Society of Washington. 2004;11:1–235." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR213" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9114">213</a>], T Grande, WC Borden and WL Smith [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 220" title="Grande T, Borden WC, Smith WL. Limits and relationships of Paracanthopterygii: a molecular framework for evaluating past morphological hypotheses. In: Arratia G, Schultze H-P, MVH W, editors. Mesozoic Fishes 5 - Global Diversity and Evolution. Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil: Muenchen; 2013." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR220" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9117">220</a>], D Davesne, C Gallut, V Barriel, P Janvier, G Lecointre and O Otero [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 24" title="Davesne D, Gallut C, Barriel V, Janvier P, Lecointre G, Otero O. The phylogenetic intrarelationships of spiny-rayed fishes (Acanthomorpha, Teleostei, Actinopterygii): fossil taxa increase the congruence of morphology with molecular data. Front Ecol Evol. 2016;4:129." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR24" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9120">24</a>]. Order Percopsiformes Morphological synapomorphies: same as Percopsaria.<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Amblyopsidae </li> <li> Aphredoderidae </li> <li> Percopsidae </li> </ul> Series Zeiogadaria (= Zeiogadiformes sensu B Li, A Dettai, C Cruaud, A Couloux, M Desoutter-Meniger and G Lecointre [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 80" title="Li B, Dettai A, Cruaud C, Couloux A, Desoutter-Meniger M, Lecointre G. RNF213, a new nuclear marker for acanthomorph phylogeny. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2009;50(2):345–63." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR80" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9166">80</a>]) (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: see D Davesne, C Gallut, V Barriel, P Janvier, G Lecointre and O Otero [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 24" title="Davesne D, Gallut C, Barriel V, Janvier P, Lecointre G, Otero O. The phylogenetic intrarelationships of spiny-rayed fishes (Acanthomorpha, Teleostei, Actinopterygii): fossil taxa increase the congruence of morphology with molecular data. Front Ecol Evol. 2016;4:129." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR24" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9175">24</a>]. Subseries Zeiariae (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: see GD Johnson and C Patterson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 51" title="Johnson GD, Patterson C. Percomorph phylogeny: a survey of acanthomorphs and a new proposal. Bull Mar Sci. 1993;52(1):554–626." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR51" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9190">51</a>], JC Tyler, B O’Toole and R Winterbottom [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 221" title="Tyler JC, O'Toole B, Winterbottom R. Phylogeny of the genera and families of zeiform fishes, with comments on their relationships with tetraodontiforms and caproids. Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology. 2003;618:1–51." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR221" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9193">221</a>], D Davesne, C Gallut, V Barriel, P Janvier, G Lecointre and O Otero [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 24" title="Davesne D, Gallut C, Barriel V, Janvier P, Lecointre G, Otero O. The phylogenetic intrarelationships of spiny-rayed fishes (Acanthomorpha, Teleostei, Actinopterygii): fossil taxa increase the congruence of morphology with molecular data. Front Ecol Evol. 2016;4:129." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR24" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9196">24</a>]. Order Zeiformes Morphological synapomorphies: same as Zeiariae. Comment: Zeiform suborders are now classified following JC Tyler, B O’Toole and R Winterbottom [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 221" title="Tyler JC, O'Toole B, Winterbottom R. Phylogeny of the genera and families of zeiform fishes, with comments on their relationships with tetraodontiforms and caproids. Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology. 2003;618:1–51." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR221" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9218">221</a>] and JS Nelson, T Grande and MVH Wilson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 42" title="Nelson JS, Grande T, Wilson MVH. 5th ed. Fishes of the World. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons; 2016." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR42" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9221">42</a>]. Suborder Cyttoidei Morphological synapomorphies: see JC Tyler, B O’Toole and R Winterbottom [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 221" title="Tyler JC, O'Toole B, Winterbottom R. Phylogeny of the genera and families of zeiform fishes, with comments on their relationships with tetraodontiforms and caproids. Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology. 2003;618:1–51." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR221" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9236">221</a>].<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Not examined: Cyttidae. </li> </ul> Suborder Zeiodei Morphological synapomorphies: see JC Tyler, B O’Toole and R Winterbottom [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 221" title="Tyler JC, O'Toole B, Winterbottom R. Phylogeny of the genera and families of zeiform fishes, with comments on their relationships with tetraodontiforms and caproids. Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology. 2003;618:1–51." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR221" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9263">221</a>].<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Parazenidae </li> <li> Zeidae </li> <li> Zeniontidae (= Zenionidae) </li> <li> Not examined: Grammicolepididae, Oreosomatidae. </li> </ul> Subseries Gadariae (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: lacking; note that morphology unites Stylephoriformes with Zeiformes to the exclusion of Gadiformes [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 24" title="Davesne D, Gallut C, Barriel V, Janvier P, Lecointre G, Otero O. The phylogenetic intrarelationships of spiny-rayed fishes (Acanthomorpha, Teleostei, Actinopterygii): fossil taxa increase the congruence of morphology with molecular data. Front Ecol Evol. 2016;4:129." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR24" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9309">24</a>]. Order Stylephoriformes sensu M Miya, NI Holcroft, TP Satoh, M Yamaguchi, M Nishida and EO Wiley [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 70" title="Miya M, Holcroft NI, Satoh TP, Yamaguchi M, Nishida M, Wiley EO. Mitochondrial genome and a nuclear gene indicate a novel phylogenetic position of deep-sea tube-eye fish (Stylephoridae). Ichthyol Res. 2007;54(4):323–32." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR70" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9321">70</a>]. Morphological synapomorphies: see JE Olney, DG Johnson and CC Baldwin [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 211" title="Olney JE, Johnson DG, Baldwin CC. Phylogeny of lampridiform fishes. Bull Mar Sci. 1993;52(1):137–69." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR211" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9330">211</a>]. Comment: Removal of Stylephoridae from Lampriformes is well supported by molecular evidence [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 8" title="Betancur-R R, Broughton RE, Wiley EO, Carpenter K, Lopez JA, Li C, et al. The tree of life and a new classification of bony fishes. PLoS Currents Tree of Life. 2013; Edition 1" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR8" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9339">8</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 10" title="Near TJ, Eytan RI, Dornburg A, Kuhn KL, Moore JA, Davis MP, et al. Resolution of ray-finned fish phylogeny and timing of diversification. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2012;109(34):13698–703." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR10" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9342">10</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 70" title="Miya M, Holcroft NI, Satoh TP, Yamaguchi M, Nishida M, Wiley EO. Mitochondrial genome and a nuclear gene indicate a novel phylogenetic position of deep-sea tube-eye fish (Stylephoridae). Ichthyol Res. 2007;54(4):323–32." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR70" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9345">70</a>].<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Stylephoridae </li> </ul> Order Gadiformes (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: see H Endo [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 222" title="Endo H. Phylogeny of the order gadiformes (Teleostei, Paracanthopterygii). Mem Grad Sch Fish Sci Hokkaido Univ. 2002;49:75–149." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR222" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9369">222</a>]. Comments: the classification of suborders and families in Gadiformes is controversial (see discussion in A Roa-Varon and G Orti ([<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 223" title="Roa-Varon A, Orti G. Phylogenetic relationships among families of Gadiformes (Teleostei, Paracanthopterygii) based on nuclear and mitochondrial data. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2009;52(3):688–704." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR223" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9379">223</a>]: Fig. 6) and recent results by M Malmstrøm, M Matschiner, OK Tørresen, B Star, LG Snipen, TF Hansen, HT Baalsrud, AJ Nederbragt, R Hanel, W Salzburger, et al. [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 106" title="Malmstrøm M, Matschiner M, Tørresen OK, Star B, Snipen LG, Hansen TF, et al. Evolution of the immune system influences speciation rates in teleost fishes. Nat Genet. 2016;48:1204–10." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR106" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9382">106</a>]). Until further evidence for resolution of relationships among families becomes available, we refrain from classifying suborders and list all families alphabetically. The family Lotidae is no longer recognized here because it is not monophyletic (see also [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 106" title="Malmstrøm M, Matschiner M, Tørresen OK, Star B, Snipen LG, Hansen TF, et al. Evolution of the immune system influences speciation rates in teleost fishes. Nat Genet. 2016;48:1204–10." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR106" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9385">106</a>]); the three genera (Brosme, Lota, and Molva) formerly in Lotidae are now included in Gadidae (see also JS Nelson, T Grande and MVH Wilson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 42" title="Nelson JS, Grande T, Wilson MVH. 5th ed. Fishes of the World. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons; 2016." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR42" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9398">42</a>]). The families Bathygadidae, Macruronidae, Ranicipitidae, and Trachyrincidae (not validated in previous versions) are now recognized following JS Nelson, T Grande and MVH Wilson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 42" title="Nelson JS, Grande T, Wilson MVH. 5th ed. Fishes of the World. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons; 2016." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR42" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9401">42</a>].<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Bathygadidae </li> <li> Gadidae </li> <li> Gaidropsaridae </li> <li> Macrouridae </li> <li> Macruronidae </li> <li> Merlucciidae </li> <li> Moridae </li> <li> Muraenolepididae </li> <li> Phycidae </li> <li> Steindachneriidae </li> <li> Not examined: Bregmacerotidae, Euclichthyidae, Melanonidae, Ranicipitidae, Trachyrincidae. </li> </ul> Division Polymixiipterygii (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: see MLJ Stiassny [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 218" title="Stiassny MLJ. The limits and relationships of the acanthomorph teleosts. J Zool. 1986:411–60." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR218" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9489">218</a>], D Davesne, C Gallut, V Barriel, P Janvier, G Lecointre and O Otero [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 24" title="Davesne D, Gallut C, Barriel V, Janvier P, Lecointre G, Otero O. The phylogenetic intrarelationships of spiny-rayed fishes (Acanthomorpha, Teleostei, Actinopterygii): fossil taxa increase the congruence of morphology with molecular data. Front Ecol Evol. 2016;4:129." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR24" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9492">24</a>]. Comments: endings for the rank Division have been changed to “-pterygii” (see comments under Acanthopterygii below). We place Polymixiidae in its own division (as opposed to Paracanthopterygii as in previous studies [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 69" title="Miya M, Satoh T, Nishida M. The phylogenetic position of toadfishes (order Batrachoidiformes) in the higher ray-finned fish as inferred from partitioned Bayesian analysis of 102 whole mitochondrial genome sequences. Biol J Linn Soc. 2005;85:289–306." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR69" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9501">69</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 106" title="Malmstrøm M, Matschiner M, Tørresen OK, Star B, Snipen LG, Hansen TF, et al. Evolution of the immune system influences speciation rates in teleost fishes. Nat Genet. 2016;48:1204–10." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR106" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9504">106</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 220" title="Grande T, Borden WC, Smith WL. Limits and relationships of Paracanthopterygii: a molecular framework for evaluating past morphological hypotheses. In: Arratia G, Schultze H-P, MVH W, editors. Mesozoic Fishes 5 - Global Diversity and Evolution. Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil: Muenchen; 2013." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR220" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9507">220</a>]) to recognize its rogue placement among early acanthomorph lineages. See also comments above under Paracanthopterygii. Order Polymixiiformes Morphological synapomorphies: same as Polymixiipterygii.<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Polymixiidae </li> </ul> Division Acanthopterygii (= Euacanthomorphacea in previous versions) (95%) Morphological synapomorphies: see MLJ Stiassny and JA Moore [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 52" title="Stiassny MLJ, Moore JA. A review of the pelvic girdle of atherinomorph fishes. Zool J Linnean Soc. 1992;104:209–42." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR52" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9544">52</a>], GD Johnson and C Patterson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 51" title="Johnson GD, Patterson C. Percomorph phylogeny: a survey of acanthomorphs and a new proposal. Bull Mar Sci. 1993;52(1):554–626." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR51" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9547">51</a>], EO Wiley and GD Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 57" title="Wiley EO, Johnson GD. A teleost classification based on monophyletic groups. In: Nelson JS, Schultze HP, MVH W, editors. Origin and Phylogenetic Interrelationships of Teleosts. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 2010. p. 123–82." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR57" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9550">57</a>] (but their circumscription of the group includes Zeiformes). Comment: previous versions of this classification named this clade Euacanthomorphacea, a taxon recognized by GD Johnson and C Patterson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 51" title="Johnson GD, Patterson C. Percomorph phylogeny: a survey of acanthomorphs and a new proposal. Bull Mar Sci. 1993;52(1):554–626." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR51" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9559">51</a>] to include polymixiids, percopsids and crown acanthomorphs. Because polymixiids and percopsids are not members of this group, it seems reasonable to instead adopt Acanthopterygii, recognizing its extensive use in ichthyology. Note that Acanthopterygii was listed but not classified by EO Wiley and GD Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 57" title="Wiley EO, Johnson GD. A teleost classification based on monophyletic groups. In: Nelson JS, Schultze HP, MVH W, editors. Origin and Phylogenetic Interrelationships of Teleosts. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 2010. p. 123–82." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR57" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9562">57</a>]. This change follows TJ Near, A Dornburg, RI Eytan, BP Keck, WL Smith, KL Kuhn, JA Moore, SA Price, FT Burbrink, M Friedman, et al. [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 11" title="Near TJ, Dornburg A, Eytan RI, Keck BP, Smith WL, Kuhn KL, et al. Phylogeny and tempo of diversification in the superradiation of spiny-rayed fishes. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2013;110(31):12738–43." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR11" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9565">11</a>] and JS Nelson, T Grande and MVH Wilson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 42" title="Nelson JS, Grande T, Wilson MVH. 5th ed. Fishes of the World. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons; 2016." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR42" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9568">42</a>]. For consistency, we also changed all Division suffixes to “-pterygii.” Subdivision Berycimorphaceae (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: lacking for the entire group. A subgroup comprised of berycoids, trachichthyiforms and holocentriforms, but excluding stephanoberycoids has been recognized by presence of the Jakubowski’s organ and the absence of pharyngobranchial 4 [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 51" title="Johnson GD, Patterson C. Percomorph phylogeny: a survey of acanthomorphs and a new proposal. Bull Mar Sci. 1993;52(1):554–626." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR51" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9583">51</a>]. This subgroup plus the zeiforms was also united by GD Johnson and C Patterson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 51" title="Johnson GD, Patterson C. Percomorph phylogeny: a survey of acanthomorphs and a new proposal. Bull Mar Sci. 1993;52(1):554–626." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR51" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9586">51</a>] with Percomorphaceae based on three hypothesized synapomorphies. These authors also hypothesized a sister-group relationship between Beryciformes (minus stephanoberycoids) and Percomorphaceae (forming the Euacanthopterygii) based on five other synapomorphies (see [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 57" title="Wiley EO, Johnson GD. A teleost classification based on monophyletic groups. In: Nelson JS, Schultze HP, MVH W, editors. Origin and Phylogenetic Interrelationships of Teleosts. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 2010. p. 123–82." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR57" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9589">57</a>]). More recently, D Davesne, C Gallut, V Barriel, P Janvier, G Lecointre and O Otero [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 24" title="Davesne D, Gallut C, Barriel V, Janvier P, Lecointre G, Otero O. The phylogenetic intrarelationships of spiny-rayed fishes (Acanthomorpha, Teleostei, Actinopterygii): fossil taxa increase the congruence of morphology with molecular data. Front Ecol Evol. 2016;4:129." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR24" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9592">24</a>] recognized holocentriforms as the sister to Percomorphaceae, as proposed originally by MLJ Stiassny and JA Moore [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 52" title="Stiassny MLJ, Moore JA. A review of the pelvic girdle of atherinomorph fishes. Zool J Linnean Soc. 1992;104:209–42." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR52" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9596">52</a>]. We conclude that no current diagnosis based on morphological synapomorphies exists for this clade. Comments: Beryciformes sensu lato (as in previous versions) is now split into Beryciformes sensu stricto (including Berycoidei and Stephanoberycoidei) and Trachichthyiformes sensu JA Moore [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 53" title="Moore JA. Phylogeny of the Trachichthyiformes (Teleostei: Percomorpha). Bull Mar Sci. 1993;52(1):114–36." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR53" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9618">53</a>], following JS Nelson, T Grande and MVH Wilson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 42" title="Nelson JS, Grande T, Wilson MVH. 5th ed. Fishes of the World. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons; 2016." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR42" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9621">42</a>]. Order Beryciformes (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: lacking for current circumscription; see JA Moore [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 53" title="Moore JA. Phylogeny of the Trachichthyiformes (Teleostei: Percomorpha). Bull Mar Sci. 1993;52(1):114–36." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR53" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9637">53</a>] and MLJ Stiassny and JA Moore [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 52" title="Stiassny MLJ, Moore JA. A review of the pelvic girdle of atherinomorph fishes. Zool J Linnean Soc. 1992;104:209–42." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR52" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9640">52</a>]. Comment: beryciform suborders are now classified following JS Nelson, T Grande and MVH Wilson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 42" title="Nelson JS, Grande T, Wilson MVH. 5th ed. Fishes of the World. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons; 2016." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR42" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9649">42</a>]. Suborder Berycoidei (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: lacking for current circumscription; see JA Moore [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 53" title="Moore JA. Phylogeny of the Trachichthyiformes (Teleostei: Percomorpha). Bull Mar Sci. 1993;52(1):114–36." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR53" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9664">53</a>] and MLJ Stiassny and JA Moore [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 52" title="Stiassny MLJ, Moore JA. A review of the pelvic girdle of atherinomorph fishes. Zool J Linnean Soc. 1992;104:209–42." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR52" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9667">52</a>].<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Berycidae </li> <li> Melamphaidae </li> </ul> Suborder Stephanoberycoidei (78%) Morphological synapomorphies: see GD Johnson and C Patterson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 49" title="Johnson GD, Patterson C. Relationships of lower euteleostean fishes. In: MLJ S, Parenti LR, Johnson GD, editors. Interrelationships of fishes. San Diego: Academic Press; 1996. p. 251–332." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR49" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9698">49</a>], JA Moore [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 53" title="Moore JA. Phylogeny of the Trachichthyiformes (Teleostei: Percomorpha). Bull Mar Sci. 1993;52(1):114–36." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR53" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9701">53</a>]. Note that GD Johnson and C Patterson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 49" title="Johnson GD, Patterson C. Relationships of lower euteleostean fishes. In: MLJ S, Parenti LR, Johnson GD, editors. Interrelationships of fishes. San Diego: Academic Press; 1996. p. 251–332." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR49" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9704">49</a>] did not consider stephanoberycoids closely related to other beryciforms and suggested that JA Moore [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 53" title="Moore JA. Phylogeny of the Trachichthyiformes (Teleostei: Percomorpha). Bull Mar Sci. 1993;52(1):114–36." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR53" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9707">53</a>]‘s synapomorphies were ambiguous.<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Barbourisiidae </li> <li> Cetomimidae </li> <li> Rondeletiidae </li> <li> Stephanoberycidae </li> <li> Not examined: Gibberichthyidae, Hispidoberycidae. </li> </ul> Order Trachichthyiformes sensu JA Moore [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 53" title="Moore JA. Phylogeny of the Trachichthyiformes (Teleostei: Percomorpha). Bull Mar Sci. 1993;52(1):114–36." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR53" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9756">53</a>] (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: see JA Moore [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 53" title="Moore JA. Phylogeny of the Trachichthyiformes (Teleostei: Percomorpha). Bull Mar Sci. 1993;52(1):114–36." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR53" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9765">53</a>] and C Baldwin and GD Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 224" title="Baldwin C, Johnson GD. A larva of the Atlantic flashlight fish, Kryptophanaron alfredi (Beryciformes: Anomalopidae), with a comparison of beryciform and stephanoberyciform larvae. Bull Mar Sci. 1995;56(1):1–24." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR224" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9768">224</a>]. Comment: The subordinal classification for Trachichthyiformes proposed by JS Nelson, T Grande and MVH Wilson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 42" title="Nelson JS, Grande T, Wilson MVH. 5th ed. Fishes of the World. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons; 2016." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR42" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9777">42</a>] is incongruent with the phylogeny in Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#Fig2">2</a> and is therefore not implemented herein.<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Anomalopidae </li> <li> Anoplogastridae </li> <li> Diretmidae </li> <li> Monocentridae </li> <li> Trachichthyidae (not monophyletic in Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#Fig2">2</a>) </li> </ul> Subdivision Holocentrimorphaceae (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: MLJ Stiassny and JA Moore [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 52" title="Stiassny MLJ, Moore JA. A review of the pelvic girdle of atherinomorph fishes. Zool J Linnean Soc. 1992;104:209–42." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR52" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9831">52</a>] and JA Moore [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 53" title="Moore JA. Phylogeny of the Trachichthyiformes (Teleostei: Percomorpha). Bull Mar Sci. 1993;52(1):114–36." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR53" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9834">53</a>] provided morphological evidence supporting a sister-group relationship between holocentrids and percomorphs, validating the placement of this family in its own order (but see [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 225" title="Dornburg A, Moore JA, Webster R, Warren DL, Brandley MC, Iglesias TL, et al. Molecular phylogenetics of squirrelfishes and soldierfishes (Teleostei: Beryciformes: Holocentridae): Reconciling more than 100 years of taxonomic confusion. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2012;65(2):727–38." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR225" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9837">225</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 226" title="Dornburg A, Townsend JP, Brooks W, Spriggs E, Eytan RI, Moore JA, et al. New insights on the sister lineage of percomorph fishes with an anchored hybrid enrichment dataset. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2017;110:27–38." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR226" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9840">226</a>]). See also D Davesne, C Gallut, V Barriel, P Janvier, G Lecointre and O Otero [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 24" title="Davesne D, Gallut C, Barriel V, Janvier P, Lecointre G, Otero O. The phylogenetic intrarelationships of spiny-rayed fishes (Acanthomorpha, Teleostei, Actinopterygii): fossil taxa increase the congruence of morphology with molecular data. Front Ecol Evol. 2016;4:129." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR24" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9844">24</a>]. Order Holocentriformes Morphological synapomorphies: same as Holocentrimorphaceae.<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Holocentridae </li> </ul> Subdivision Percomorphaceae (= Percomorpha sensu M Miya, H Takeshima, H Endo, N Ishiguro, J Inoue, T Mukai, T Satoh, M Yamaguchi, A Kawaguchi, K Mabuchi, et al. [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 68" title="Miya M, Takeshima H, Endo H, Ishiguro N, Inoue J, Mukai T, et al. Major patterns of higher teleostean phylogenies: a new perspective based on 100 complete mitochondrial DNA sequences. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2003;26(1):121–38." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR68" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9878">68</a>], and M Miya, T Satoh and M Nishida [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 69" title="Miya M, Satoh T, Nishida M. The phylogenetic position of toadfishes (order Batrachoidiformes) in the higher ray-finned fish as inferred from partitioned Bayesian analysis of 102 whole mitochondrial genome sequences. Biol J Linn Soc. 2005;85:289–306." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR69" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9881">69</a>]). Morphological synapomorphies: see GD Johnson and C Patterson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 49" title="Johnson GD, Patterson C. Relationships of lower euteleostean fishes. In: MLJ S, Parenti LR, Johnson GD, editors. Interrelationships of fishes. San Diego: Academic Press; 1996. p. 251–332." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR49" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9890">49</a>], EO Wiley and GD Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 57" title="Wiley EO, Johnson GD. A teleost classification based on monophyletic groups. In: Nelson JS, Schultze HP, MVH W, editors. Origin and Phylogenetic Interrelationships of Teleosts. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 2010. p. 123–82." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR57" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9893">57</a>]. Comments: the diversity of percomorph fishes (>17,000 species) is grouped into nine well-supported series (supraordinal groups). See comments in the Introduction. Series Ophidiaria (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: a cranial ophidiiform synapomorphy was recently proposed by G Carnevale and D Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 227" title="Carnevale G, Johnson D. A Cretaceous Cusk-Eel (Teleostei, Ophidiiformes) from Italy and the Mesozoic Diversification of Percomorph Fishes. Copeia. 2015;103(2015:4):771–91." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR227" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9915">227</a>]. Although monophyly of this group is robust from a molecular perspective, evidence from other anatomical studies is rather weak (e.g., [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 35" title="Rosen DE. An essay on euteleostean classification. Am Mus Novit. 1985;2827:1–57." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR35" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9918">35</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 57" title="Wiley EO, Johnson GD. A teleost classification based on monophyletic groups. In: Nelson JS, Schultze HP, MVH W, editors. Origin and Phylogenetic Interrelationships of Teleosts. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 2010. p. 123–82." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR57" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9921">57</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 228" title="Howes GJ. Notes on the anatomy and classifi cation of ophidiiform fishes with particular reference to the abyssal genus Acanthonus Günther. Bull Brit Mus (Natur Hist), Zool. 1992;58:95–131." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR228" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9924">228</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 229" title="Nielsen JG, Cohen DM, Markle DF, Robins CR. Ophidiiform fishes of the world (Order Ophidiiformes). An annotated and illustrated catalogue of pearlfishes, cusk-eels, brotulas and other ophidiiform fishes known to date, vol. 125; 1999." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR229" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9928">229</a>]). Order Ophidiiformes Morphological synapomorphies: same as Ophidiaria. Suborder Ophidioidei (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: lacking; see JG Nielsen, Cohen, D. M., Markle, D. F. & Robins, C. R. [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 229" title="Nielsen JG, Cohen DM, Markle DF, Robins CR. Ophidiiform fishes of the world (Order Ophidiiformes). An annotated and illustrated catalogue of pearlfishes, cusk-eels, brotulas and other ophidiiform fishes known to date, vol. 125; 1999." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR229" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9955">229</a>], EO Wiley and GD Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 57" title="Wiley EO, Johnson GD. A teleost classification based on monophyletic groups. In: Nelson JS, Schultze HP, MVH W, editors. Origin and Phylogenetic Interrelationships of Teleosts. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 2010. p. 123–82." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR57" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9958">57</a>].Ophidiidae (includes the former Carapidae). Suborder Bythitoidei (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: see C Patterson and D Rosen [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 230" title="Patterson C, Rosen D. The Paracanthopterygii revisited: order and disorder. In: Cohen DM, editor. Papers on the systematics of gadiform fishes, vol. 32. Los Angeles: Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County; 1989. p. 5–36." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR230" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9977">230</a>] and JG Nielsen, Cohen, D. M., Markle, D. F. & Robins, C. R. [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 229" title="Nielsen JG, Cohen DM, Markle DF, Robins CR. Ophidiiform fishes of the world (Order Ophidiiformes). An annotated and illustrated catalogue of pearlfishes, cusk-eels, brotulas and other ophidiiform fishes known to date, vol. 125; 1999." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR229" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9980">229</a>]. Comments: Carapidae is now synonymized with Ophidiidae due to phylogenetic nestedness. Recognition of Dinematichthyidae follows PR Møller, SW Knudsen, W Schwarzhans and JG Nielsen [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 231" title="Møller PR, Knudsen SW, Schwarzhans W, Nielsen JG. A new classification of viviparous brotulas (Bythitidae) – with the establishment of a new family Dinematichthyidae – based on molecular, morphological and fossil data. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2016;100:391–408." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR231" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9989">231</a>]; raised from subfamily Dinematichthyinae (formerly Bythitidae). These authors also lumped Aphyonidae with Bythitidae; thus, Aphyonidae is no longer validated. Finally, Parabrotulidae is also now synonymized with Bythitidae based on recent results by MA Campbell, JG Nielsen, T Sado, C Shinzato, M Kanda, TP Satoh and M Miya [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 232" title="Campbell MA, Nielsen JG, Sado T, Shinzato C, Kanda M, Satoh TP, et al. Evolutionary affinities of the unfathomable Parabrotulidae: Molecular data indicate placement of Parabrotula within the Ophidiiformes. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2017;" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR232" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e9992">232</a>].<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Dinematichthyidae </li> <li> Bythitidae (includes the former Aphyonidae and Parabrotulidae). </li> </ul> Series Batrachoidaria (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: see DW Greenfield, R Winterbottom and BB Collette [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 233" title="Greenfield DW, Winterbottom R, Collette BB. Review of the toadfi sh genera (Teleostei: Batra-choididae). Proc California Acad Sci. 2008;59:665–710." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR233" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10022">233</a>], EO Wiley and GD Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 57" title="Wiley EO, Johnson GD. A teleost classification based on monophyletic groups. In: Nelson JS, Schultze HP, MVH W, editors. Origin and Phylogenetic Interrelationships of Teleosts. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 2010. p. 123–82." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR57" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10025">57</a>] (references therein). Order Batrachoidiformes Morphological synapomorphies: same as Batrachoidaria.<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Batrachoididae </li> </ul> Series Pelagiaria (= Stromateoidei sensu B Li, A Dettai, C Cruaud, A Couloux, M Desoutter-Meniger and G Lecointre [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 80" title="Li B, Dettai A, Cruaud C, Couloux A, Desoutter-Meniger M, Lecointre G. RNF213, a new nuclear marker for acanthomorph phylogeny. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2009;50(2):345–63." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR80" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10059">80</a>]; = Pelagia sensu M Miya, M Friedman, TP Satoh, H Takeshima, T Sado, W Iwasaki, Y Yamanoue, M Nakatani, K Mabuchi, JG Inoue, et al. [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 234" title="Miya M, Friedman M, Satoh TP, Takeshima H, Sado T, Iwasaki W, et al. Evolutionary origin of the Scombridae (tunas and mackerels): members of a paleogene adaptive radiation with 14 other pelagic fish families. PLoS One. 2013;8(9):e73535." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR234" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10065">234</a>]) (99%). Morphological synapomorphies: lacking. The diagnosis provided by EO Wiley and GD Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 57" title="Wiley EO, Johnson GD. A teleost classification based on monophyletic groups. In: Nelson JS, Schultze HP, MVH W, editors. Origin and Phylogenetic Interrelationships of Teleosts. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 2010. p. 123–82." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR57" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10074">57</a>], based on GD Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 235" title="Johnson GD. Scombroid phylogeny: An alternative hypothesis. Bull Mar Sci. 1986;39:1–41." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR235" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10077">235</a>], includes families placed outside this clade in Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#Fig2">2</a> (e.g., Istiophoridae). The circumscription of Scombriformes presented here is also incongruent with that of BB Collette, T Potthoff, WJ Richards, S Ueyanagi, JL Russo and Y Nishikawa [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 236" title="Collette BB, Potthoff T, Richards WJ, Ueyanagi S, Russo JL, Nishikawa Y. Scombroidei: development and relationships. In: Moser H, Richards W, Cohen D, Fahay M, Kendell Jr A, Richardson S, editors. Ontogeny and Systematics of Fishes. Lawrence: American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists Special Publication; 1984. p. 591–620." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR236" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10083">236</a>] and other studies cited by EO Wiley and GD Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 57" title="Wiley EO, Johnson GD. A teleost classification based on monophyletic groups. In: Nelson JS, Schultze HP, MVH W, editors. Origin and Phylogenetic Interrelationships of Teleosts. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 2010. p. 123–82." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR57" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10087">57</a>]. No morphological diagnosis exists for pelagiarians, representing a case of significant incongruence between morphological and molecular data. Despite the disparate morphology among members of Scombriformes, most are offshore fishes that inhabit pelagic environments (hence the clade name). Order Scombriformes Morphological synapomorphies: same as Pelagiaria. Comment: interfamilial resolution in Scombriformes is tenuous; classification of scombriform families into suborders (e.g., Scombroidei, Stromateoidei, Icosteoidei) or new orders requires further work. Our circumscription of Scombriformes includes taxa placed by JS Nelson, T Grande and MVH Wilson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 42" title="Nelson JS, Grande T, Wilson MVH. 5th ed. Fishes of the World. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons; 2016." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR42" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10108">42</a>] in the orders Scombriformes, Trachiniformes in part, Icosteiformes and Scombrolabraciformes.<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Ariommatidae </li> <li> Arripidae </li> <li> Bramidae </li> <li> Caristiidae </li> <li> Centrolophidae </li> <li> Chiasmodontidae </li> <li> Gempylidae (not monophyletic in Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#Fig2">2</a>) </li> <li> Icosteidae </li> <li> Nomeidae </li> <li> Pomatomidae </li> <li> Scombridae (not monophyletic here, but see [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 234" title="Miya M, Friedman M, Satoh TP, Takeshima H, Sado T, Iwasaki W, et al. Evolutionary origin of the Scombridae (tunas and mackerels): members of a paleogene adaptive radiation with 14 other pelagic fish families. PLoS One. 2013;8(9):e73535." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR234" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10181">234</a>]) </li> <li> Scombrolabracidae </li> <li> Stromateidae </li> <li> Trichiuridae </li> <li> Not examined: Amarsipidae, Scombropidae, Tetragonuridae (see [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 234" title="Miya M, Friedman M, Satoh TP, Takeshima H, Sado T, Iwasaki W, et al. Evolutionary origin of the Scombridae (tunas and mackerels): members of a paleogene adaptive radiation with 14 other pelagic fish families. PLoS One. 2013;8(9):e73535." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR234" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10212">234</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 237" title="Doiuchi R, Sato T, Nakabo T. Phylogenetic relationships of the stromateoid fishes (Perciformes). Ichthyol Res. 2004;51(3):202–12." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR237" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10215">237</a>]). </li> </ul> Series Syngnatharia (84%) Morphological synapomorphies: lacking; no morphological character seems to unite some disparate groups (e.g., mullids) with other members of this clade (e.g., syngnathids). Comment: Nodal support values of suborders are from SJ Longo, BC Faircloth, A Meyer, MW Westneat, ME Alfaro and PC Wainwright [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 103" title="Longo SJ, Faircloth BC, Meyer A, Westneat MW, Alfaro ME, Wainwright PC: Phylogenomic analysis of a rapid radiation of misfit fishes (Syngnathiformes) using ultraconserved elements Mol Phylogenet Evol; 113:33–48." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR103" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10240">103</a>]. Order Syngnathiformes (see also [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 103" title="Longo SJ, Faircloth BC, Meyer A, Westneat MW, Alfaro ME, Wainwright PC: Phylogenomic analysis of a rapid radiation of misfit fishes (Syngnathiformes) using ultraconserved elements Mol Phylogenet Evol; 113:33–48." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR103" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10249">103</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 238" title="Song HY, Mabuchi K, Satoh TP, Moore JA, Yamanoue Y, Miya M, et al. Mitogenomic circumscription of a novel percomorph fish clade mainly comprising "Syngnathoidei" (Teleostei). Gene. 2014;542(2):146–55." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR238" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10252">238</a>]) Morphological synapomorphies: same as Syngnatharia. Suborder Syngnathoidei (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: EO Wiley and GD Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 57" title="Wiley EO, Johnson GD. A teleost classification based on monophyletic groups. In: Nelson JS, Schultze HP, MVH W, editors. Origin and Phylogenetic Interrelationships of Teleosts. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 2010. p. 123–82." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR57" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10274">57</a>] diagnosis included the family Pegasidae, now placed in Dactylopteroidei.<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Aulostomidae </li> <li> Centriscidae (including taxa often placed in Macroramphosidae) </li> <li> Fistulariidae </li> <li> Solenostomidae </li> <li> Syngnathidae </li> </ul> Suborder Dactylopteroidei (>92%; see [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 103" title="Longo SJ, Faircloth BC, Meyer A, Westneat MW, Alfaro ME, Wainwright PC: Phylogenomic analysis of a rapid radiation of misfit fishes (Syngnathiformes) using ultraconserved elements Mol Phylogenet Evol; 113:33–48." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR103" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10316">103</a>]) Morphological synapomorphies: sea moths (pegasids) and flying gurnards (dactylopterids) share the condition of fused nasals in adults [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 57" title="Wiley EO, Johnson GD. A teleost classification based on monophyletic groups. In: Nelson JS, Schultze HP, MVH W, editors. Origin and Phylogenetic Interrelationships of Teleosts. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 2010. p. 123–82." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR57" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10325">57</a>] – a possible synapomorphy.<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Dactylopteridae </li> <li> Pegasidae </li> </ul> Suborder Callionymoidei (= Callionymiformes sensu JS Nelson, T Grande and MVH Wilson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 42" title="Nelson JS, Grande T, Wilson MVH. 5th ed. Fishes of the World. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons; 2016." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR42" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10352">42</a>]) (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: see EO Wiley and GD Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 57" title="Wiley EO, Johnson GD. A teleost classification based on monophyletic groups. In: Nelson JS, Schultze HP, MVH W, editors. Origin and Phylogenetic Interrelationships of Teleosts. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 2010. p. 123–82." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR57" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10361">57</a>], citing WA Gosline [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 239" title="Gosline WA. A reinterpretation of the teleostean fish order Gobiesociformes. Proc California Acad Sci. 1970;37(19):363–82." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR239" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10364">239</a>], who grouped callionymoids with Gobiesocoidei in the order Gobiesociformes.<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Callionymidae </li> <li> Not examined: Draconettidae (assumed affinity with Callionymidae). </li> </ul> Suborder Mulloidei (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: see B-J Kim [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 240" title="Kim B-J. Comparative anatomy and phylogeny of the family Mullidae (Teleostei: Perciformes). Mem Grad Sch Fish Sci Hokkaido Univ. 2002;49(1):1–74." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR240" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10398">240</a>].<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Mullidae </li> </ul> Series Gobiaria (= Gobiiformes sensu CE Thacker [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 241" title="Thacker CE. Phylogeny of Gobioidei and placement within acanthomorpha, with a new classification and investigation of diversification and character evolution. Copeia. 2009;2009(1):93–104." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR241" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10419">241</a>], and CE Thacker, TP Satoh, E Katayama, RC Harrington, RI Eytan and TJ Near [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 242" title="Thacker CE, Satoh TP, Katayama E, Harrington RC, Eytan RI, Near TJ. Molecular phylogeny of Percomorpha resolves Trichonotus as the sister lineage to Gobioidei (Teleostei: Gobiiformes) and confirms the polyphyly of Trachinoidei. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2015;93:72–9." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR242" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10422">242</a>]) (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: CE Thacker [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 241" title="Thacker CE. Phylogeny of Gobioidei and placement within acanthomorpha, with a new classification and investigation of diversification and character evolution. Copeia. 2009;2009(1):93–104." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR241" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10431">241</a>], CE Thacker [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 241" title="Thacker CE. Phylogeny of Gobioidei and placement within acanthomorpha, with a new classification and investigation of diversification and character evolution. Copeia. 2009;2009(1):93–104." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR241" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10434">241</a>], and CE Thacker, TP Satoh, E Katayama, RC Harrington, RI Eytan and TJ Near [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 242" title="Thacker CE, Satoh TP, Katayama E, Harrington RC, Eytan RI, Near TJ. Molecular phylogeny of Percomorpha resolves Trichonotus as the sister lineage to Gobioidei (Teleostei: Gobiiformes) and confirms the polyphyly of Trachinoidei. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2015;93:72–9." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR242" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10437">242</a>]. Order Kurtiformes (= Apogonoidei sensu CE Thacker, TP Satoh, E Katayama, RC Harrington, RI Eytan and TJ Near [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 242" title="Thacker CE, Satoh TP, Katayama E, Harrington RC, Eytan RI, Near TJ. Molecular phylogeny of Percomorpha resolves Trichonotus as the sister lineage to Gobioidei (Teleostei: Gobiiformes) and confirms the polyphyly of Trachinoidei. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2015;93:72–9." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR242" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10449">242</a>]) (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: GD Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 50" title="Johnson GD. Percomorph phylogeny: progress and problems. Bull Mar Sci. 1993;52(1):3–28." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR50" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10458">50</a>] noted that the configuration of dorsal gill-arch elements and sensory papillae may be homologous in Kurtus and apogonids (see also [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 241" title="Thacker CE. Phylogeny of Gobioidei and placement within acanthomorpha, with a new classification and investigation of diversification and character evolution. Copeia. 2009;2009(1):93–104." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR241" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10464">241</a>]). Suborder Kurtoidei (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: see TM Berra [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 243" title="Berra TM: Nurseryfsh, Kurtus gulliveri (Perciformes: Kurtidae), from northern Australia: Redescription, distribution, egg mass, and comparison with K. indicus from southeast Asia. 2003." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR243" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10480">243</a>].<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Kurtidae </li> </ul> Suborder Apogonoidei (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: see C Baldwin and GD Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 244" title="Baldwin C, Johnson GD. Paxton concilians: A new genus and species of pseudamine apogonid (Teleostei: Percoidei) from western Australia: the sister group of the enigmatic Gymnapogon. Copeia. 1999;1999(4):1050–71." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR244" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10504">244</a>].<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Apogonidae </li> </ul> Order Gobiiformes (100%) (=Trichonotoidei sensu CE Thacker, TP Satoh, E Katayama, RC Harrington, RI Eytan and TJ Near [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 242" title="Thacker CE, Satoh TP, Katayama E, Harrington RC, Eytan RI, Near TJ. Molecular phylogeny of Percomorpha resolves Trichonotus as the sister lineage to Gobioidei (Teleostei: Gobiiformes) and confirms the polyphyly of Trachinoidei. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2015;93:72–9." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR242" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10525">242</a>]) Morphological synapomorphies: lacking for current circumscription, but see discussion in CE Thacker [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 241" title="Thacker CE. Phylogeny of Gobioidei and placement within acanthomorpha, with a new classification and investigation of diversification and character evolution. Copeia. 2009;2009(1):93–104." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR241" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10534">241</a>], and CE Thacker, TP Satoh, E Katayama, RC Harrington, RI Eytan and TJ Near [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 242" title="Thacker CE, Satoh TP, Katayama E, Harrington RC, Eytan RI, Near TJ. Molecular phylogeny of Percomorpha resolves Trichonotus as the sister lineage to Gobioidei (Teleostei: Gobiiformes) and confirms the polyphyly of Trachinoidei. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2015;93:72–9." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR242" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10537">242</a>]. Comments: The classification of suborders in Gobiiformes is now based on CE Thacker, TP Satoh, E Katayama, RC Harrington, RI Eytan and TJ Near [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 242" title="Thacker CE, Satoh TP, Katayama E, Harrington RC, Eytan RI, Near TJ. Molecular phylogeny of Percomorpha resolves Trichonotus as the sister lineage to Gobioidei (Teleostei: Gobiiformes) and confirms the polyphyly of Trachinoidei. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2015;93:72–9." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR242" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10546">242</a>], but with modifications. Our delimitation of Kurtiformes is the same as Apogonoidei in CE Thacker, TP Satoh, E Katayama, RC Harrington, RI Eytan and TJ Near [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 242" title="Thacker CE, Satoh TP, Katayama E, Harrington RC, Eytan RI, Near TJ. Molecular phylogeny of Percomorpha resolves Trichonotus as the sister lineage to Gobioidei (Teleostei: Gobiiformes) and confirms the polyphyly of Trachinoidei. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2015;93:72–9." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR242" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10549">242</a>]. We also place Trichonotus in its own suborder (Trichonotoidei) in Gobiiformes (see comments below); note that Trichonotoidei sensu CE Thacker, TP Satoh, E Katayama, RC Harrington, RI Eytan and TJ Near [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 242" title="Thacker CE, Satoh TP, Katayama E, Harrington RC, Eytan RI, Near TJ. Molecular phylogeny of Percomorpha resolves Trichonotus as the sister lineage to Gobioidei (Teleostei: Gobiiformes) and confirms the polyphyly of Trachinoidei. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2015;93:72–9." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR242" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10559">242</a>] is equivalent to Gobiiformes here. Finally, Odontobutoidei and Eleotroidei, validated in previous versions of the classification, are now considered synonyms of Gobioidei. Suborder Trichonotoidei Morphological synapomorphies: JS Nelson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 245" title="Nelson JS. Some characters of Trichonotidae, with emphasis to those distinguishing it from Creediidae (Perciformes: Trachinioidei). Japanese Journal of Ichthyology. 1986;33:1–6." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR245" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10575">245</a>], DG Smith and GD Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 246" title="Smith DG, Johnson GD. A New Species of Pteropsaron (Teleostei: Trichonotidae: Hemerocoetinae) from the Western Pacific, with Notes on Related Species. Copeia. 2007;2007(2):364–77." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR246" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10578">246</a>]. Comments: DG Smith and GD Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 246" title="Smith DG, Johnson GD. A New Species of Pteropsaron (Teleostei: Trichonotidae: Hemerocoetinae) from the Western Pacific, with Notes on Related Species. Copeia. 2007;2007(2):364–77." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR246" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10587">246</a>] allied Trichonotus with two families we place in the Pempheriformes (Creediidae and Hemerocoetidae) as subfamilies of an expanded Trichonotidae on the basis of specialized configuration of the suspensorium (following JS Nelson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 245" title="Nelson JS. Some characters of Trichonotidae, with emphasis to those distinguishing it from Creediidae (Perciformes: Trachinioidei). Japanese Journal of Ichthyology. 1986;33:1–6." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR245" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10593">245</a>]). Placement of Trichonotoide here is based on molecular evidence from CE Thacker, TP Satoh, E Katayama, RC Harrington, RI Eytan and TJ Near [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 242" title="Thacker CE, Satoh TP, Katayama E, Harrington RC, Eytan RI, Near TJ. Molecular phylogeny of Percomorpha resolves Trichonotus as the sister lineage to Gobioidei (Teleostei: Gobiiformes) and confirms the polyphyly of Trachinoidei. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2015;93:72–9." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR242" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10596">242</a>], who identified Trichonotus as the sister lineage of the gobies (rendering Trichonotidae sensu DG Smith and GD Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 246" title="Smith DG, Johnson GD. A New Species of Pteropsaron (Teleostei: Trichonotidae: Hemerocoetinae) from the Western Pacific, with Notes on Related Species. Copeia. 2007;2007(2):364–77." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR246" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10606">246</a>] polyphyletic).<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Not examined: Trichonotidae. </li> </ul> Suborder Gobioidei (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: see R Winterbottom [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 247" title="Winterbottom R. Search for the gobioid sister group (Actinopterygii: Percomorpha). Bull Mar Sci. 1993;52:395–414." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR247" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10633">247</a>], GD Johnson and EB Brothers [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 248" title="Johnson GD, Brothers EB. Schindleria: a paedomorphic goby (Teleostei: Gobioidei). Bull Mar Sci. 1993;52:441–71." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR248" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10636">248</a>]; see also Gobiiformes in EO Wiley and GD Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 57" title="Wiley EO, Johnson GD. A teleost classification based on monophyletic groups. In: Nelson JS, Schultze HP, MVH W, editors. Origin and Phylogenetic Interrelationships of Teleosts. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 2010. p. 123–82." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR57" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10639">57</a>]. Comments: recognition of Butidae, Oxudercidae and Milyeringidae follows CE Thacker [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 241" title="Thacker CE. Phylogeny of Gobioidei and placement within acanthomorpha, with a new classification and investigation of diversification and character evolution. Copeia. 2009;2009(1):93–104." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR241" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10648">241</a>] and CE Thacker, TP Satoh, E Katayama, RC Harrington, RI Eytan and TJ Near [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 242" title="Thacker CE, Satoh TP, Katayama E, Harrington RC, Eytan RI, Near TJ. Molecular phylogeny of Percomorpha resolves Trichonotus as the sister lineage to Gobioidei (Teleostei: Gobiiformes) and confirms the polyphyly of Trachinoidei. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2015;93:72–9." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR242" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10651">242</a>]. We now recognize Oxudercidae instead of Gobionellidae (Gobionellidae is a junior synonym). The former Microdesmidae, Kraemeriidae, Ptereleotridae, and Schindleriidae are now synonymized with Gobiidae [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 241" title="Thacker CE. Phylogeny of Gobioidei and placement within acanthomorpha, with a new classification and investigation of diversification and character evolution. Copeia. 2009;2009(1):93–104." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR241" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10654">241</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 242" title="Thacker CE, Satoh TP, Katayama E, Harrington RC, Eytan RI, Near TJ. Molecular phylogeny of Percomorpha resolves Trichonotus as the sister lineage to Gobioidei (Teleostei: Gobiiformes) and confirms the polyphyly of Trachinoidei. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2015;93:72–9." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR242" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10657">242</a>]. The former Xenisthmidae is now synonymized with Eleotridae [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 241" title="Thacker CE. Phylogeny of Gobioidei and placement within acanthomorpha, with a new classification and investigation of diversification and character evolution. Copeia. 2009;2009(1):93–104." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR241" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10661">241</a>]. Note that Schindleriidae was first recognized as a goby by GD Johnson and EB Brothers [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 248" title="Johnson GD, Brothers EB. Schindleria: a paedomorphic goby (Teleostei: Gobioidei). Bull Mar Sci. 1993;52:441–71." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR248" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10664">248</a>].<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Eleotridae </li> <li> Gobiidae </li> <li> Odontobutidae </li> <li> Not examined: Butidae, Milyeringidae, Oxudercidae (= Gobionellidae), Rhyacichthyidae, Thalasseleotrididae. </li> </ul> Series Anabantaria (= Anabantiformes sensu B Li, A Dettai, C Cruaud, A Couloux, M Desoutter-Meniger and G Lecointre [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 80" title="Li B, Dettai A, Cruaud C, Couloux A, Desoutter-Meniger M, Lecointre G. RNF213, a new nuclear marker for acanthomorph phylogeny. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2009;50(2):345–63." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR80" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10707">80</a>]) (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: lacking. Comments: members of this group are mostly of freshwater origin and their geographic distribution is largely restricted to Africa and South East Asia (although some synbranchid species occur in Mexico and Central and South America). Most species occupy marginal, stagnant waters due to their capacity to tolerate anoxia and to obtain oxygen directly from the air. Order Synbranchiformes (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: lacking for current circumscription (with Indostomidae); for synapomorphies uniting Mastacembeloidei and Synbranchoidei, see RA Travers [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 249" title="Travers RA. A review of the Mastacembeloidei, a suborder of synbranchiform teleost fishes. Part II: Phylogenetic analysis. Bull Brit Mus (Natur Hist), Zool. 1984;47:83–150." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR249" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10734">249</a>], GD Johnson and C Patterson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 49" title="Johnson GD, Patterson C. Relationships of lower euteleostean fishes. In: MLJ S, Parenti LR, Johnson GD, editors. Interrelationships of fishes. San Diego: Academic Press; 1996. p. 251–332." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR49" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10737">49</a>], R Britz [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 250" title="Britz R. Ontogeny of the ethmoidal region and hyopalatine arch in Macrognathus pancalus (Teleostei, Mastacembeloidei), with critical remarks on mastacembeloid inter- and intrarelationships. Amer Mus Novitates 3181. 1996;3181:1–18." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR250" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10740">250</a>], EO Wiley and GD Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 57" title="Wiley EO, Johnson GD. A teleost classification based on monophyletic groups. In: Nelson JS, Schultze HP, MVH W, editors. Origin and Phylogenetic Interrelationships of Teleosts. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 2010. p. 123–82." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR57" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10743">57</a>]. Suborder Mastacembeloidei (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: see RA Travers [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 249" title="Travers RA. A review of the Mastacembeloidei, a suborder of synbranchiform teleost fishes. Part II: Phylogenetic analysis. Bull Brit Mus (Natur Hist), Zool. 1984;47:83–150." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR249" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10759">249</a>], R Britz and M Kottelat [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 251" title="Britz R, Kottelat M. Descriptive osteology of the family Chaudhuriidae (Teleostei, Synbranchiformes, Mastacembeloidei). Amer Mus Novitates. 2002;3418:1–62." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR251" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10762">251</a>].<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Mastacembelidae </li> <li> Not examined: Chaudhuriidae. </li> </ul> Suborder Indostomoidei (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: R Britz and GD Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 252" title="Britz R, Johnson GD. “Paradox Lost”: Skeletal ontogeny of Indostomus paradoxus and its significance for the phylogenetic relationships of Indostomidae (Teleostei, Gasterosteiformes). Amer Mus Novitates. 2002;3383:1–43." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR252" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10795">252</a>], but placed phylogenetically with Gasterosteales.<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Indostomidae </li> </ul> Suborder Synbranchoidei Morphological synapomorphies: see DE Rosen and PH Greewood [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 253" title="Rosen DE, Greewood PH. A fourth Neotropical species of synbranchid eel and the phylogeny and systematics of synbranchiform fishes. Bull Amer Mus Natur Hist. 1976;157:1–70." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR253" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10819">253</a>].<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Synbranchidae </li> </ul> Order Anabantiformes sensu R Britz [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 254" title="Britz R. Ontogenetic features of Luciocephalus (Perciformes, Anabantoidei), with a revised hypothesis of anabantoid intrarelationships. Zool J Linnean Soc. 1994;112:491–508." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR254" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10840">254</a>] (= Labyrinthici) (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: see R Britz [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 254" title="Britz R. Ontogenetic features of Luciocephalus (Perciformes, Anabantoidei), with a revised hypothesis of anabantoid intrarelationships. Zool J Linnean Soc. 1994;112:491–508." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR254" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10850">254</a>], R Britz [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 255" title="Britz R. Suborder Anabantoidei: Labyrinth fishes. In: Hutchins M, Thoney DA, Loiselle PV, Schlager N, editors. Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia, vol. 5. Fishes II, 2nd ed. Farmington Hills: Gale Group; 2003. p. 427–36." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR255" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10853">255</a>]. Comment: Affinities of Channidae with other anabantiform families vary among studies (e.g., [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 8" title="Betancur-R R, Broughton RE, Wiley EO, Carpenter K, Lopez JA, Li C, et al. The tree of life and a new classification of bony fishes. PLoS Currents Tree of Life. 2013; Edition 1" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR8" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10862">8</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 11" title="Near TJ, Dornburg A, Eytan RI, Keck BP, Smith WL, Kuhn KL, et al. Phylogeny and tempo of diversification in the superradiation of spiny-rayed fishes. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2013;110(31):12738–43." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR11" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10865">11</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 92" title="Sanciangco MD, Carpenter KE, Betancur-R. R: Phylogenetic placement of enigmatic percomorph families (Teleostei: Percomorphaceae). Mol Phylogenet Evol 2015, 94:565–576." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR92" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10868">92</a>]). The subordinal scheme presented with three suborders is robust to this ambiguity. Suborder Anabantoidei (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: see GV Lauder and KF Liem [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 36" title="Lauder GV, Liem KF. The evolution and interrelationships of the actinopterygian fishes. Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology. 1983;150(95–197):103." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR36" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10883">36</a>], R Britz [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 255" title="Britz R. Suborder Anabantoidei: Labyrinth fishes. In: Hutchins M, Thoney DA, Loiselle PV, Schlager N, editors. Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia, vol. 5. Fishes II, 2nd ed. Farmington Hills: Gale Group; 2003. p. 427–36." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR255" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10886">255</a>], VG Springer and DG Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 213" title="Springer VG, Johnson DG. Study of the dorsal gill-arch musculature of teleostome fishes, with special reference to the Actinopterygii. Bulletin of the Biological Society of Washington. 2004;11:1–235." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR213" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10889">213</a>].<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Anabantidae </li> <li> Helostomatidae </li> <li> Osphronemidae </li> </ul> Suborder Channoidei (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: see GV Lauder and KF Liem [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 36" title="Lauder GV, Liem KF. The evolution and interrelationships of the actinopterygian fishes. Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology. 1983;150(95–197):103." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR36" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10925">36</a>], EO Wiley and GD Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 57" title="Wiley EO, Johnson GD. A teleost classification based on monophyletic groups. In: Nelson JS, Schultze HP, MVH W, editors. Origin and Phylogenetic Interrelationships of Teleosts. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 2010. p. 123–82." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR57" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10928">57</a>] and citations therein.<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Channidae </li> </ul> Suborder Nandoidei (91%) Morphological synapomorphies: RA Collins, R Britz and L Rüber [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 256" title="Collins RA, Britz R, Rüber L. Phylogenetic systematics of leaffishes (Teleostei: Polycentridae, Nandidae). J Zool Syst Evol Res. 2015;53(4):259–72." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR256" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10953">256</a>].<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Badidae </li> <li> Nandidae </li> <li> Pristolepididae </li> </ul> Series Carangaria (= Carangimorpha sensu B Li, A Dettai, C Cruaud, A Couloux, M Desoutter-Meniger and G Lecointre [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 80" title="Li B, Dettai A, Cruaud C, Couloux A, Desoutter-Meniger M, Lecointre G. RNF213, a new nuclear marker for acanthomorph phylogeny. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2009;50(2):345–63." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR80" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10986">80</a>]; = Carangimorpharia in previous versions of this classification) (99%) Morphological synapomorphies: in looking for possible anatomical synapomorphies uniting flatfishes, billfishes, and carangids, AG Little, SC Lougheed and CD Moyes [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 257" title="Little AG, Lougheed SC, Moyes CD. Evolutionary affinity of billfishes (Xiphiidae and Istiophoridae) and flatfishes (Plueronectiformes): independent and trans-subordinal origins of endothermy in teleost fishes. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2010;56(3):897–904." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR257" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10995">257</a>] found that most taxa share a relatively low number of vertebrae, have multiple dorsal pterygiophores inserting before the second neural spine, and lack supraneurals. However, according to M Friedman [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 258" title="Friedman M. Osteology of †Heteronectes chaneti (Acanthomorpha, Pleuronectiformes), an Eocene stem flatfish, with a discussion of flatfish sister-group relationships. J Vertebr Paleontol. 2012;32(4):735–56." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR258" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e10998">258</a>], some of these characters are symplesiomorphies while others are absent in the remaining carangimorph groups. Despite the apparent lack of morphological synapomorphies for carangimorphs there is a strong molecular signal supporting their monophyly (e.g., [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 8" title="Betancur-R R, Broughton RE, Wiley EO, Carpenter K, Lopez JA, Li C, et al. The tree of life and a new classification of bony fishes. PLoS Currents Tree of Life. 2013; Edition 1" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR8" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11001">8</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 11" title="Near TJ, Dornburg A, Eytan RI, Keck BP, Smith WL, Kuhn KL, et al. Phylogeny and tempo of diversification in the superradiation of spiny-rayed fishes. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2013;110(31):12738–43." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR11" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11004">11</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 27" title="Betancur-R R, Orti G, Pyron AR. Fossil-based comparative analyses reveal ancient marine ancestry erased by extinction in ray-finned fishes. Ecol Lett. 2015;18:441–50." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR27" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11008">27</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 80" title="Li B, Dettai A, Cruaud C, Couloux A, Desoutter-Meniger M, Lecointre G. RNF213, a new nuclear marker for acanthomorph phylogeny. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2009;50(2):345–63." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR80" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11011">80</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 92" title="Sanciangco MD, Carpenter KE, Betancur-R. R: Phylogenetic placement of enigmatic percomorph families (Teleostei: Percomorphaceae). Mol Phylogenet Evol 2015, 94:565–576." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR92" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11014">92</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 100" title="Harrington RC, Faircloth BC, Eytan RI, Smith WL, Near TJ, Alfaro ME, et al. Phylogenomic analysis of carangimorph fishes reveals flatfish asymmetry arose in a blink of the evolutionary eye. BMC Evol Biol. 2016;16(1):224." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR100" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11017">100</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Betancur-R R, Li C, Munroe TA, Ballesteros JA, Orti G. Addressing gene-tree discordance and non-stationarity to resolve a multi-locus phylogeny of the flatfishes (Teleostei: Pleuronectiformes). Syst Biol. 2013;62(5):763–85." href="#ref-CR259" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11020">259</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Betancur-R R, Orti G. Molecular evidence for the monophyly of flatfishes (Carangimorpharia: Pleuronectiformes). Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2014;73(2014):18–22." href="#ref-CR260" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11020_1">260</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 261" title="Campbell MA, Chen WJ, Lopez JA. Are flatfishes (Pleuronectiformes) monophyletic? Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2013;69(3):664–73." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR261" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11023">261</a>]). Inclusion of the billfishes (Istiophoriformes) in this series represents a significant departure from previous work in morphology where most studies placed them within or sister to the scombriforms (among pelagiarians) (see [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 57" title="Wiley EO, Johnson GD. A teleost classification based on monophyletic groups. In: Nelson JS, Schultze HP, MVH W, editors. Origin and Phylogenetic Interrelationships of Teleosts. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 2010. p. 123–82." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR57" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11027">57</a>]). Comment: Centropomidae includes the former Latidae, following PH Greenwood [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 262" title="Greenwood PH. A review of the family Centropomidae (Pisces, Perciformes). Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History) Zoology. 1976;29:1–81." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR262" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11036">262</a>] and C Li, R Betancur-R., WL Smith and G Orti [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 82" title="Li C, Betancur-R R, Smith WL, Orti G. Monophyly and interrelationships of snook and barramundi (Centropomidae sensu Greenwood) and five new markers for fish phylogenetics. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2011;60(3):463–71." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR82" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11039">82</a>]. Order - level incertae sedis in Carangaria <ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Centropomidae </li> <li> Lactariidae </li> <li> Leptobramidae </li> <li> Menidae </li> <li> Polynemidae </li> <li> Sphyraenidae </li> <li> Toxotidae </li> </ul> Order Istiophoriformes (= superfamily Xiphiicae sensu I Nakamura [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 263" title="Nakamura I. Systematics of the billfishes (Xiphiidae and Istiophoridae). Publ Seto Mar Biol Lab. 1983;28(5–6):255–396." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR263" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11117">263</a>]) (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: see I Nakamura [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 263" title="Nakamura I. Systematics of the billfishes (Xiphiidae and Istiophoridae). Publ Seto Mar Biol Lab. 1983;28(5–6):255–396." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR263" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11126">263</a>]. Comment: our tree (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#Fig2">2</a>) does not support placement of Sphyraenidae in this order, as suggested by JS Nelson, T Grande and MVH Wilson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 42" title="Nelson JS, Grande T, Wilson MVH. 5th ed. Fishes of the World. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons; 2016." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR42" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11138">42</a>].<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Istiophoridae </li> <li> Xiphiidae </li> </ul> Order Carangiformes (not monophyletic in Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#Fig2">2</a>) Morphological synapomorphies: see GD Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 59" title="Johnson GD. Percoidei: development and relationships. In: Moser H, Richards W, Cohen D, Fahay M, Kendell Jr A, Richardson S, editors. Ontogeny and Systematics of Fishes. Lawrence: American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists Special Publication; 1984. p. 438–47." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR59" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11171">59</a>], WF Smith-Vaniz [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 264" title="Smith-Vaniz WF. Carangidae: relationships. In: Moser HG, Richards WJ, Cohen DM, Fahay MP, Kendell Jr AW, Richardson SL, editors. Ontogeny and Systematics of Fishes, vol. 1: Am. Soc. Ichthyo. Herpe. Spec. Publ; 1984. p. 640–70." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR264" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11174">264</a>]. Comment: monophyly of Carangiformes is not significantly rejected by the data [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 259" title="Betancur-R R, Li C, Munroe TA, Ballesteros JA, Orti G. Addressing gene-tree discordance and non-stationarity to resolve a multi-locus phylogeny of the flatfishes (Teleostei: Pleuronectiformes). Syst Biol. 2013;62(5):763–85." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR259" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11183">259</a>].<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Carangidae </li> <li> Coryphaenidae </li> <li> Echeneidae </li> <li> Nematistiidae </li> <li> Rachycentridae </li> </ul> Order Pleuronectiformes (21%) Morphological synapomorphies: see F Chapleau [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 265" title="Chapleau F. Pleuronectiform relationships - A cladistic reassessment. Bull Mar Sci. 1993;52(1):516–40." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR265" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11232">265</a>], TA Munroe [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 266" title="Munroe TA. Chapter 2: Systematic Diversity of the Pleuronectiformes. In: Gibson RN, editor. Flatfishes: Biology and Exploitation. Oxford: Blackwell Science Ltd; 2005. p. 10–41." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR266" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11235">266</a>]. Comment: although contentious (e.g., [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 261" title="Campbell MA, Chen WJ, Lopez JA. Are flatfishes (Pleuronectiformes) monophyletic? Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2013;69(3):664–73." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR261" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11244">261</a>]), the monophyly of Pleuronectiformes is resolved by several molecular studies [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 92" title="Sanciangco MD, Carpenter KE, Betancur-R. R: Phylogenetic placement of enigmatic percomorph families (Teleostei: Percomorphaceae). Mol Phylogenet Evol 2015, 94:565–576." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR92" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11247">92</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 100" title="Harrington RC, Faircloth BC, Eytan RI, Smith WL, Near TJ, Alfaro ME, et al. Phylogenomic analysis of carangimorph fishes reveals flatfish asymmetry arose in a blink of the evolutionary eye. BMC Evol Biol. 2016;16(1):224." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR100" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11250">100</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 259" title="Betancur-R R, Li C, Munroe TA, Ballesteros JA, Orti G. Addressing gene-tree discordance and non-stationarity to resolve a multi-locus phylogeny of the flatfishes (Teleostei: Pleuronectiformes). Syst Biol. 2013;62(5):763–85." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR259" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11253">259</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 260" title="Betancur-R R, Orti G. Molecular evidence for the monophyly of flatfishes (Carangimorpharia: Pleuronectiformes). Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2014;73(2014):18–22." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR260" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11257">260</a>]. Suborder Psettodoidei (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: see F Chapleau [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 265" title="Chapleau F. Pleuronectiform relationships - A cladistic reassessment. Bull Mar Sci. 1993;52(1):516–40." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR265" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11272">265</a>], TA Munroe [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 266" title="Munroe TA. Chapter 2: Systematic Diversity of the Pleuronectiformes. In: Gibson RN, editor. Flatfishes: Biology and Exploitation. Oxford: Blackwell Science Ltd; 2005. p. 10–41." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR266" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11275">266</a>].<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Psettodidae </li> </ul> Suborder Pleuronectoidei (99%) Morphological synapomorphies: see F Chapleau [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 265" title="Chapleau F. Pleuronectiform relationships - A cladistic reassessment. Bull Mar Sci. 1993;52(1):516–40." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR265" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11300">265</a>], TA Munroe [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 266" title="Munroe TA. Chapter 2: Systematic Diversity of the Pleuronectiformes. In: Gibson RN, editor. Flatfishes: Biology and Exploitation. Oxford: Blackwell Science Ltd; 2005. p. 10–41." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR266" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11303">266</a>]. Comment: Paralichthyidae is monophyletic if the Cyclopsetta group is included in its own family [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 259" title="Betancur-R R, Li C, Munroe TA, Ballesteros JA, Orti G. Addressing gene-tree discordance and non-stationarity to resolve a multi-locus phylogeny of the flatfishes (Teleostei: Pleuronectiformes). Syst Biol. 2013;62(5):763–85." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR259" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11315">259</a>]. Formal description of a new family for Cyclopsetta is needed in compliance with the ICZN (hence “Cyclopsettidae”). Poecilopsettidae and Paralichthodidae are validated following previous work [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 265" title="Chapleau F. Pleuronectiform relationships - A cladistic reassessment. Bull Mar Sci. 1993;52(1):516–40." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR265" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11321">265</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 266" title="Munroe TA. Chapter 2: Systematic Diversity of the Pleuronectiformes. In: Gibson RN, editor. Flatfishes: Biology and Exploitation. Oxford: Blackwell Science Ltd; 2005. p. 10–41." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR266" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11325">266</a>]. Rhombosoleidae includes taxa formerly listed in Achiropsettidae [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 259" title="Betancur-R R, Li C, Munroe TA, Ballesteros JA, Orti G. Addressing gene-tree discordance and non-stationarity to resolve a multi-locus phylogeny of the flatfishes (Teleostei: Pleuronectiformes). Syst Biol. 2013;62(5):763–85." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR259" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11328">259</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 265" title="Chapleau F. Pleuronectiform relationships - A cladistic reassessment. Bull Mar Sci. 1993;52(1):516–40." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR265" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11331">265</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 266" title="Munroe TA. Chapter 2: Systematic Diversity of the Pleuronectiformes. In: Gibson RN, editor. Flatfishes: Biology and Exploitation. Oxford: Blackwell Science Ltd; 2005. p. 10–41." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR266" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11334">266</a>].<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Achiridae </li> <li> Bothidae </li> <li> Citharidae </li> <li> Cynoglossidae </li> <li> “Cyclopsettidae” (see comments) </li> <li> Paralichthyidae </li> <li> Pleuronectidae </li> <li> Poecilopsettidae </li> <li> Rhombosoleidae </li> <li> Samaridae </li> <li> Scophthalmidae </li> <li> Soleidae </li> <li> Not examined: Paralichthodidae. </li> </ul> Series Ovalentaria sensu Smith and Near in [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 267" title="Wainwright PC, Smith WL, Price SA, Tang KL, Sparks JS, Ferry LA, et al. The evolution of pharyngognathy: a phylogenetic and functional appraisal of the pharyngeal jaw key innovation in labroid fishes and beyond. Syst Biol. 2012;61(6):1001–27." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR267" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11432">267</a>] (= Stiassnyiformes sensu B Li, A Dettai, C Cruaud, A Couloux, M Desoutter-Meniger and G Lecointre [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 80" title="Li B, Dettai A, Cruaud C, Couloux A, Desoutter-Meniger M, Lecointre G. RNF213, a new nuclear marker for acanthomorph phylogeny. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2009;50(2):345–63." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR80" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11438">80</a>]) (97%). Morphological synapomorphies: lacking, but see diagnosis by Smith and Near in [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 267" title="Wainwright PC, Smith WL, Price SA, Tang KL, Sparks JS, Ferry LA, et al. The evolution of pharyngognathy: a phylogenetic and functional appraisal of the pharyngeal jaw key innovation in labroid fishes and beyond. Syst Biol. 2012;61(6):1001–27." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR267" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11447">267</a>]. Order-level incertae sedis in Ovalentaria Comment: Congrogadidae is validated following CM Godkin and R Winterbottom [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 268" title="Godkin CM, Winterbottom R. Phylogeny of the family Congrodgadidae (Pisces: Perciformes) and its placement as a subfamily of Pseudochromidae. Bull Mar Sci. 1985;36(3):633–71." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR268" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11468">268</a>] (formerly a subfamily of Pseudochromidae).<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Ambassidae (= Chandidae) </li> <li> Congrogadidae </li> <li> Embiotocidae </li> <li> Grammatidae (= Grammidae; not monophyletic in Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#Fig2">2</a>, but see [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 269" title="Gill A, Mooi RD. Monophyly of the Grammatidae and of the Notograptidae, with evidence for their phylogenetic positions among perciforms. Bull Mar Sci. 1993;52(1):327–50." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR269" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11498">269</a>]) </li> <li> Opistognathidae </li> <li> Plesiopidae </li> <li> Polycentridae </li> <li> Pomacentridae </li> <li> Pseudochromidae </li> </ul> Superorder Cichlomorphae (94%) Morphological synapomorphies: lacking; but see PC Wainwright, WL Smith, SA Price, KL Tang, JS Sparks, LA Ferry, KL Kuhn, RI Eytan and TJ Near [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 267" title="Wainwright PC, Smith WL, Price SA, Tang KL, Sparks JS, Ferry LA, et al. The evolution of pharyngognathy: a phylogenetic and functional appraisal of the pharyngeal jaw key innovation in labroid fishes and beyond. Syst Biol. 2012;61(6):1001–27." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR267" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11548">267</a>]. Order Cichliformes Morphological synapomorphies: same as Cichlomorphae. Comment: the circumscription of Cichliformes is expanded herein to include Pholidichthyidae (formerly Pholidichthyiformes [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 42" title="Nelson JS, Grande T, Wilson MVH. 5th ed. Fishes of the World. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons; 2016." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR42" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11569">42</a>]).<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Cichlidae </li> <li> Pholidichthyidae </li> </ul> Superoder Atherinomorphae (= Atherinomorpha sensu PH Greenwood, DE Rosen, SH Weitzman and GS Myers [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 6" title="Greenwood PH, Rosen DE, Weitzman SH, Myers GS. Phyletic studies of teleostean fishes, with a provisional classification of living forms. Bull Am Mus Nat Hist. 1966;131(4):339–456." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR6" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11596">6</a>]) (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: LR Parenti [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 270" title="Parenti LR. Relationships of atherinomorph fishes (Teleostei). Bull Mar Sci. 1993;52:170–96." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR270" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11606">270</a>], VG Springer and TM Orrell [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 271" title="Springer VG, Orrell TM. Phylogenetic analysis of the families of acanthomorph fishes based on dorsal gill-arch muscles and skeleton. Bulletin of the Biological Society of Washington. 2004;11:237–60." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR271" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11609">271</a>], LR Parenti [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 272" title="Parenti LR. The Phylogeny of Atherinomorphs: Evolution of a Novel Fish Reproductive System. In: Uribe MC, Grier HJ, editors. Viviparous Fishes Systematics, Biogeography, and Evolution. Homestead: New Life Publications; 2005. p. 13–30." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR272" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11612">272</a>]. Order Atheriniformes (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: see LR Parenti [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 270" title="Parenti LR. Relationships of atherinomorph fishes (Teleostei). Bull Mar Sci. 1993;52:170–96." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR270" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11627">270</a>], BS Dyer and B Chernoff [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 273" title="Dyer BS, Chernoff B. Phylogenetic relationships among atheriniform fishes. Zool J Linnean Soc. 1996;117:1–69." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR273" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11630">273</a>], LR Parenti [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 272" title="Parenti LR. The Phylogeny of Atherinomorphs: Evolution of a Novel Fish Reproductive System. In: Uribe MC, Grier HJ, editors. Viviparous Fishes Systematics, Biogeography, and Evolution. Homestead: New Life Publications; 2005. p. 13–30." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR272" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11633">272</a>]. Suborder Atherinoidei (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: see BS Dyer and B Chernoff [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 273" title="Dyer BS, Chernoff B. Phylogenetic relationships among atheriniform fishes. Zool J Linnean Soc. 1996;117:1–69." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR273" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11648">273</a>]. Comment: classification of suborders and families in Atheriniformes follows D Campanella, LC Hughes, PJ Unmack, DD Bloom, KR Piller and G Orti [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 274" title="Campanella D, Hughes LC, Unmack PJ, Bloom DD, Piller KR, Orti G. Multi-locus fossil-calibrated phylogeny of Atheriniformes (Teleostei, Ovalentaria). Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2015;86:8–23." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR274" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11657">274</a>]; Notocheiridae is no longer recognized (subfamily of Atherinopsidae). These authors did not include Cairnsichthys in Melanotaeniidae, and recommend that it should be recognized as an independent lineage (potential new family).<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Atherinidae </li> <li> Bedotiidae </li> <li> Isonidae </li> <li> Melanotaeniidae </li> <li> Phallostethidae </li> <li> Pseudomugilidae </li> <li> Telmatherinidae </li> <li> Not examined: Atherionidae, Dentatherinidae. </li> </ul> Suborder Atherinopsoidei (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: see BS Dyer and B Chernoff [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 273" title="Dyer BS, Chernoff B. Phylogenetic relationships among atheriniform fishes. Zool J Linnean Soc. 1996;117:1–69." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR273" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11731">273</a>]. Comment: Atherinopsidae includes the subfamilies Atherinopsinae, Notocheirinae and Menidiinae. The circumscription of Atherinopsidae sensu JS Nelson, T Grande and MVH Wilson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 42" title="Nelson JS, Grande T, Wilson MVH. 5th ed. Fishes of the World. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons; 2016." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR42" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11743">42</a>] includes only Menidiinae and Atherinopsinae, which renders Atherinopsidae non-monophyletic (Notocheirinae is nested within; see [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 274" title="Campanella D, Hughes LC, Unmack PJ, Bloom DD, Piller KR, Orti G. Multi-locus fossil-calibrated phylogeny of Atheriniformes (Teleostei, Ovalentaria). Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2015;86:8–23." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR274" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11746">274</a>]).<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Atherinopsidae </li> </ul> Order Beloniformes (79%) Morphological synapomorphies: see DE Rosen and LR Parenti [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 275" title="Rosen DE, Parenti LR. Relationships of Oryzias and the groups of atherinomorph fishes. Amer Mus Novitates. 1981;2719:1–15." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR275" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11770">275</a>], LR Parenti [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 272" title="Parenti LR. The Phylogeny of Atherinomorphs: Evolution of a Novel Fish Reproductive System. In: Uribe MC, Grier HJ, editors. Viviparous Fishes Systematics, Biogeography, and Evolution. Homestead: New Life Publications; 2005. p. 13–30." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR272" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11773">272</a>], LR Parenti [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 276" title="Parenti LR. A phylogenetic analysis and taxonomic revision of ricefishes, Oryzias and relatives (Beloniformes, Adrianichthyidae). Zool J Linnean Soc. 2008;154:494–610." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR276" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11776">276</a>]. Suborder Adrianichthyoidei Morphological synapomorphies: see LR Parenti [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 276" title="Parenti LR. A phylogenetic analysis and taxonomic revision of ricefishes, Oryzias and relatives (Beloniformes, Adrianichthyidae). Zool J Linnean Soc. 2008;154:494–610." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR276" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11792">276</a>].<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Adrianichthyidae </li> </ul> Suborder Belonoidei (100%) (= Exocoetoidei sensu EO Wiley and GD Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 57" title="Wiley EO, Johnson GD. A teleost classification based on monophyletic groups. In: Nelson JS, Schultze HP, MVH W, editors. Origin and Phylogenetic Interrelationships of Teleosts. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 2010. p. 123–82." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR57" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11813">57</a>], JS Nelson, T Grande and MVH Wilson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 42" title="Nelson JS, Grande T, Wilson MVH. 5th ed. Fishes of the World. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons; 2016." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR42" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11816">42</a>]). Morphological synapomorphies: see DE Rosen and LR Parenti [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 275" title="Rosen DE, Parenti LR. Relationships of Oryzias and the groups of atherinomorph fishes. Amer Mus Novitates. 1981;2719:1–15." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR275" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11825">275</a>], LR Parenti [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 277" title="Parenti LR. A phylogenetic and biogeographic analysis of cyprinodontiform fishes (Teleostei, Atherinomorpha). Bull Am Mus Nat Hist. 1981;168." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR277" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11828">277</a>]. Comment: Belonidae includes the former Scomberesocidae [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 278" title="Lovejoy NR, Collette BB. Phylogenetic relationships of new world needlefishes (Teleostei : Belonidae) and the biogeography of transitions between marine and freshwater habitats. Copeia. 2001;2:324–38." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR278" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11837">278</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 279" title="Lovejoy NR, Iranpour M, Collette BB. Phylogeny and jaw ontogeny of beloniform fishes. Integr Comp Biol. 2004;44(5):366–77." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR279" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11840">279</a>].<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Belonidae </li> <li> Exocoetidae </li> <li> Hemiramphidae (not monophyletic in Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#Fig2">2</a>) </li> <li> Zenarchopteridae (not monophyletic here, but see [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 279" title="Lovejoy NR, Iranpour M, Collette BB. Phylogeny and jaw ontogeny of beloniform fishes. Integr Comp Biol. 2004;44(5):366–77." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR279" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11870">279</a>]) </li> </ul> Order Cyprinodontiformes (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: see DE Rosen and LR Parenti [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 275" title="Rosen DE, Parenti LR. Relationships of Oryzias and the groups of atherinomorph fishes. Amer Mus Novitates. 1981;2719:1–15." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR275" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11888">275</a>], LR Parenti [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 277" title="Parenti LR. A phylogenetic and biogeographic analysis of cyprinodontiform fishes (Teleostei, Atherinomorpha). Bull Am Mus Nat Hist. 1981;168." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR277" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11891">277</a>]. Suborder Aplocheiloidei Morphological synapomorphies: see LR Parenti [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 277" title="Parenti LR. A phylogenetic and biogeographic analysis of cyprinodontiform fishes (Teleostei, Atherinomorpha). Bull Am Mus Nat Hist. 1981;168." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR277" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11907">277</a>], WJEM Costa [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 280" title="Costa WJEM. Phylogeny and classification of Rivulidae revisited: origin and evolution of annualism and miniatureization in rivulid fishes (Cyprinodontiformes: Aplocheiloidei). J Comp Biol. 1998;3(1):33–94." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR280" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11910">280</a>]. Comment: according to R Van Der Laan, WN Eschmeyer and R Fricke [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 62" title="Van Der Laan R, Eschmeyer WN, Fricke R. Family-group names of Recent fishes. Zootaxa. 2014;3882(1):230." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR62" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11919">62</a>] the name Rivulidae Myers 1925 is preoccupied by Rivulini Grote 1895 in Lepidoptera (hence "Rivulidae").<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Aplocheilidae </li> <li> Not examined: Nothobranchiidae, "Rivulidae" (see comments). </li> </ul> Suborder Cyprinodontoidei (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: see LR Parenti [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 277" title="Parenti LR. A phylogenetic and biogeographic analysis of cyprinodontiform fishes (Teleostei, Atherinomorpha). Bull Am Mus Nat Hist. 1981;168." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR277" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11952">277</a>], WJEM Costa [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 281" title="Costa WJEM. Phylogeny and classification of the Cyprinodontidae revisited (Teleostei: Cyprinodontiformes): are Andean and Anatolian killifishes sister taxa? J Comp Biol. 1997;2(1):1–17." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR281" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11955">281</a>]. Comments: Cyprinodontidae and Poeciliidae are monophyletic here, with reduced taxonomic sampling, but not in two other recent studies that included a much broader coverage [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 282" title="Pollux BJ, Meredith RW, Springer MS, Garland T, Reznick DN. The evolution of the placenta drives a shift in sexual selection in livebearing fish. Nature. 2014;513(7517):233–6." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR282" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11964">282</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 283" title="Pohl M, Milvertz FC, Meyer A, Vences M. Multigene phylogeny of cyprinodontiform fishes suggests continental radiations and a rogue taxon position of Pantanodon. Vertebrate Zoology. 2015;65(1):37–44." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR283" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11967">283</a>]. M Pohl, FC Milvertz, A Meyer and M Vences [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 283" title="Pohl M, Milvertz FC, Meyer A, Vences M. Multigene phylogeny of cyprinodontiform fishes suggests continental radiations and a rogue taxon position of Pantanodon. Vertebrate Zoology. 2015;65(1):37–44." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR283" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11970">283</a>] identified a rogue placement for Pantanodon among cyprinodontiforms. The topology most often obtained by these authors included Pantanodon as sister to all cyprinodontoids. Formal description of a new family for Pantanodon is needed in compliance with the ICZN. The family Valenciidae is herein circumscribed to include the genus Aphanius (formerly in Cyprinodontidae), forming an Eurasian clade (following [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 283" title="Pohl M, Milvertz FC, Meyer A, Vences M. Multigene phylogeny of cyprinodontiform fishes suggests continental radiations and a rogue taxon position of Pantanodon. Vertebrate Zoology. 2015;65(1):37–44." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR283" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e11986">283</a>]). This revised circumscription renders Cyprinodontidae monophyletic.<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Cyprinodontidae </li> <li> Fundulidae </li> <li> Poeciliidae </li> <li> Not examined: Anablepidae, Goodeidae, Profundulidae, Valenciidae (includes Aphanius; see comments). Possibly included: “Pantanodontidae” (see comments). </li> </ul> Superorder Mugilomorphae (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: see MLJ Stiassny [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 284" title="Stiassny MLJ. What are grey mullets? Bull Mar Sci. 1993;52:197–219." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR284" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12035">284</a>], GD Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 50" title="Johnson GD. Percomorph phylogeny: progress and problems. Bull Mar Sci. 1993;52(1):3–28." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR50" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12038">50</a>], GD Johnson and C Patterson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 51" title="Johnson GD, Patterson C. Percomorph phylogeny: a survey of acanthomorphs and a new proposal. Bull Mar Sci. 1993;52(1):554–626." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR51" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12041">51</a>]. Order Mugiliformes Morphological synapomorphies: same as Mugilomorphae.<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Mugilidae </li> </ul> Superorder Blenniimorphae (90%) Morphological synapomorphies: see H-C Lin and PA Hastings [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 285" title="Lin H-C, Hastings PA. Phylogeny and biogeography of a shallow water fish clade (Teleostei: Blenniiformes). BMC Evol Biol. 2013;13" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR285" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12077">285</a>] (unnamed clade including gobiesocids and blennioids), VG Springer and TM Orrell [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 271" title="Springer VG, Orrell TM. Phylogenetic analysis of the families of acanthomorph fishes based on dorsal gill-arch muscles and skeleton. Bulletin of the Biological Society of Washington. 2004;11:237–60." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR271" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12080">271</a>]. Comment: see also PC Wainwright, WL Smith, SA Price, KL Tang, JS Sparks, LA Ferry, KL Kuhn, RI Eytan and TJ Near [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 267" title="Wainwright PC, Smith WL, Price SA, Tang KL, Sparks JS, Ferry LA, et al. The evolution of pharyngognathy: a phylogenetic and functional appraisal of the pharyngeal jaw key innovation in labroid fishes and beyond. Syst Biol. 2012;61(6):1001–27." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR267" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12090">267</a>] for additional molecular evidence supporting the reciprocal monophyly of gobiesocoids and blennioids. Order Gobiesociformes (100%) (= Gobiesocoidei in EO Wiley and GD Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 57" title="Wiley EO, Johnson GD. A teleost classification based on monophyletic groups. In: Nelson JS, Schultze HP, MVH W, editors. Origin and Phylogenetic Interrelationships of Teleosts. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 2010. p. 123–82." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR57" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12099">57</a>]) Morphological synapomorphies: see WA Gosline [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 239" title="Gosline WA. A reinterpretation of the teleostean fish order Gobiesociformes. Proc California Acad Sci. 1970;37(19):363–82." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR239" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12108">239</a>], LR Parenti and J Song [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 286" title="Parenti LR, Song J. Phylogenetic Significance of the pectoral-pelvic fin association in acanthomorph fishes: a reassessment using comparative neuroanatomy. In: MLJ S, Parenti LR, Johnson GD, editors. Interrelationships of Fishes. San Diego: Academic Press; 1996. p. 427–44." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR286" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12111">286</a>], EO Wiley and GD Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 57" title="Wiley EO, Johnson GD. A teleost classification based on monophyletic groups. In: Nelson JS, Schultze HP, MVH W, editors. Origin and Phylogenetic Interrelationships of Teleosts. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 2010. p. 123–82." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR57" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12114">57</a>]. Comment: the order Gobiesociformes is now recognized following EO Wiley and GD Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 57" title="Wiley EO, Johnson GD. A teleost classification based on monophyletic groups. In: Nelson JS, Schultze HP, MVH W, editors. Origin and Phylogenetic Interrelationships of Teleosts. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 2010. p. 123–82." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR57" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12123">57</a>] (but excluding Callionymoidei) and JS Nelson, T Grande and MVH Wilson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 42" title="Nelson JS, Grande T, Wilson MVH. 5th ed. Fishes of the World. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons; 2016." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR42" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12126">42</a>].<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Gobiesocidae </li> </ul> Order Blenniiformes (39%) (= Blennioidei in V Springer [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 287" title="Springer V. Definition of the suborder Blennioidei and its included families (Pisces: Perciformes). Bull Mar Sci. 1993;52:472–95." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR287" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12144">287</a>]) Morphological synapomorphies: see V Springer [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 287" title="Springer V. Definition of the suborder Blennioidei and its included families (Pisces: Perciformes). Bull Mar Sci. 1993;52:472–95." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR287" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12153">287</a>], GD Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 50" title="Johnson GD. Percomorph phylogeny: progress and problems. Bull Mar Sci. 1993;52(1):3–28." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR50" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12156">50</a>], RD Mooi and AC Gill [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 288" title="Mooi RD, Gill AC. Association of epaxial musculature with dorsal-fin pterygiophores in acanthomorph fishes, and its phylogenetic significance. Bull Natur Hist Mus London (Zool). 1995;61(2):121–37." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR288" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12159">288</a>], VG Springer and TM Orrell [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 271" title="Springer VG, Orrell TM. Phylogenetic analysis of the families of acanthomorph fishes based on dorsal gill-arch muscles and skeleton. Bulletin of the Biological Society of Washington. 2004;11:237–60." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR271" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12162">271</a>], EO Wiley and GD Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 57" title="Wiley EO, Johnson GD. A teleost classification based on monophyletic groups. In: Nelson JS, Schultze HP, MVH W, editors. Origin and Phylogenetic Interrelationships of Teleosts. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 2010. p. 123–82." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR57" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12166">57</a>]. Comments: Circumscription of Blenniiformes follows H-C Lin and PA Hastings [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 285" title="Lin H-C, Hastings PA. Phylogeny and biogeography of a shallow water fish clade (Teleostei: Blenniiformes). BMC Evol Biol. 2013;13" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR285" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12176">285</a>], based on V Springer [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 287" title="Springer V. Definition of the suborder Blennioidei and its included families (Pisces: Perciformes). Bull Mar Sci. 1993;52:472–95." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR287" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12179">287</a>] (Blennioidei). Our new tree (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#Fig2">2</a>) resolves the blennioids as monophyletic, a result not obtained in our previous large-scale studies. According to H-C Lin and PA Hastings [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 285" title="Lin H-C, Hastings PA. Phylogeny and biogeography of a shallow water fish clade (Teleostei: Blenniiformes). BMC Evol Biol. 2013;13" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR285" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12185">285</a>], Chaenopsidae is monophyletic if Stathmonotus is included in Labrisomidae.<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Blenniidae </li> <li> Chaenopsidae (not monophyletic in Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#Fig2">2</a>) </li> <li> Clinidae </li> <li> Dactyloscopidae </li> <li> Labrisomidae (not monophyletic in Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#Fig2">2</a>, but see [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 285" title="Lin H-C, Hastings PA. Phylogeny and biogeography of a shallow water fish clade (Teleostei: Blenniiformes). BMC Evol Biol. 2013;13" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR285" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12228">285</a>]) </li> <li> Tripterygiidae </li> </ul> Series Eupercaria (= Percomorpharia in previous versions of this classification) (83%) Morphological synapomorphies: lacking. Comments: with more than 6000 species arranged in 161 families and at least 17 orders (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#Fig1">1</a>), Eupercaria is by far the largest series of percomorphs. Some of the most diverse orders (e.g., Perciformes, Labriformes, Lophiiformes, and Tetraodontiformes) and families (e.g., Labridae, Serranidae, and Scorpaenidae) of fishes are included in this group. Previous molecular studies obtained monophyletic groups with a combination of taxa here assigned to Eupercaria, but including far more limited sampling (e.g, [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 11" title="Near TJ, Dornburg A, Eytan RI, Keck BP, Smith WL, Kuhn KL, et al. Phylogeny and tempo of diversification in the superradiation of spiny-rayed fishes. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2013;110(31):12738–43." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR11" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12262">11</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 58" title="Smith WL, Craig MT. Casting the percomorph net widely: The importance of broad taxonomic sampling in the search for the placement of serranid and percid fishes. Copeia. 2007;2007(1):35–55." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR58" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12265">58</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 68" title="Miya M, Takeshima H, Endo H, Ishiguro N, Inoue J, Mukai T, et al. Major patterns of higher teleostean phylogenies: a new perspective based on 100 complete mitochondrial DNA sequences. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2003;26(1):121–38." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR68" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12268">68</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 69" title="Miya M, Satoh T, Nishida M. The phylogenetic position of toadfishes (order Batrachoidiformes) in the higher ray-finned fish as inferred from partitioned Bayesian analysis of 102 whole mitochondrial genome sequences. Biol J Linn Soc. 2005;85:289–306." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR69" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12272">69</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 289" title="Smith WL, Wheeler WC. Venom evolution widespread in fishes: a phylogenetic road map for the bioprospecting of piscine venoms. J Hered. 2006;97(3):206–17." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR289" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12275">289</a>]). Although most family-level and ordinal groups within this series receive high nodal support, interrelationships among them are largely unresolved – Eupercaria constitutes the “new bush at the top” [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 8" title="Betancur-R R, Broughton RE, Wiley EO, Carpenter K, Lopez JA, Li C, et al. The tree of life and a new classification of bony fishes. PLoS Currents Tree of Life. 2013; Edition 1" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR8" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12278">8</a>]. The largest group within Eupercaria is the order Perciformes, as currently circumscribed. Order-level incertae sedis in Eupercaria. Comment: although we lack phylogenetic evidence, the family Parascorpididae, traditionally classified in “Perciformes”, is provisionally listed here; it is not placed in Perciformes, as currently circumscribed, given the long history of phylogenetic indistinctiveness between Percoidei, Perciformes, and Percomorpha [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 50" title="Johnson GD. Percomorph phylogeny: progress and problems. Bull Mar Sci. 1993;52(1):3–28." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR50" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12299">50</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 51" title="Johnson GD, Patterson C. Percomorph phylogeny: a survey of acanthomorphs and a new proposal. Bull Mar Sci. 1993;52(1):554–626." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR51" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12302">51</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 58" title="Smith WL, Craig MT. Casting the percomorph net widely: The importance of broad taxonomic sampling in the search for the placement of serranid and percid fishes. Copeia. 2007;2007(1):35–55." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR58" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12305">58</a>]. While not examined, Dinolestidae and Dinopercidae are included here based on previous molecular work [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 58" title="Smith WL, Craig MT. Casting the percomorph net widely: The importance of broad taxonomic sampling in the search for the placement of serranid and percid fishes. Copeia. 2007;2007(1):35–55." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR58" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12308">58</a>].<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Callanthiidae </li> <li> Centrogenyidae </li> <li> Emmelichthyidae </li> <li> Malacanthidae </li> <li> Monodactylidae </li> <li> Moronidae </li> <li> Pomacanthidae </li> <li> Scatophagidae </li> <li> Sciaenidae </li> <li> Siganidae </li> <li> Sillaginidae </li> <li> Not examined: Dinolestidae, Dinopercidae, Parascorpididae. </li> </ul> Order Gerreiformes (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: lacking. Comment: validation of Gerreiformes (Bleeker name; resurrected herein) reflects the consistent placement of Gerreidae as sister to all other eupercarians.<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Gerreidae </li> </ul> Order Uranoscopiformes (= Paratrachinoidei sensu B Li, A Dettai, C Cruaud, A Couloux, M Desoutter-Meniger and G Lecointre [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 80" title="Li B, Dettai A, Cruaud C, Couloux A, Desoutter-Meniger M, Lecointre G. RNF213, a new nuclear marker for acanthomorph phylogeny. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2009;50(2):345–63." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR80" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12429">80</a>]) (98%). Morphological synapomorphies: lacking, but see H Imamura and K Odani [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 290" title="Imamura H, Odani K. An overview of the phylogenetic relationships of the suborder Trachinoidei (Acanthomorpha: Perciformes). Ichthyol Res. 2013;2013(60):1–15." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR290" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12438">290</a>] for a review of hypotheses of relationships of the five families in this order to other members of the former suborder Trachinoidei. See also comments in EO Wiley and GD Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 57" title="Wiley EO, Johnson GD. A teleost classification based on monophyletic groups. In: Nelson JS, Schultze HP, MVH W, editors. Origin and Phylogenetic Interrelationships of Teleosts. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 2010. p. 123–82." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR57" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12441">57</a>].<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Ammodytidae </li> <li> Cheimarrichthyidae (= Cheimarrhichthyidae) </li> <li> Pinguipedidae </li> <li> Uranoscopidae </li> </ul> Order Labriformes (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: see M Stiassny and J Jensen [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 291" title="Stiassny M, Jensen J. Labroid intrarelationships revisited: morphological complexity, key innovations, and the study of comparative diversity. Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology. 1987;151:269–319." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR291" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12484">291</a>] and GD Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 50" title="Johnson GD. Percomorph phylogeny: progress and problems. Bull Mar Sci. 1993;52(1):3–28." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR50" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12487">50</a>].Labridae (includes taxa previoulsy listed in Scaridae and Odacidae; see also [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 267" title="Wainwright PC, Smith WL, Price SA, Tang KL, Sparks JS, Ferry LA, et al. The evolution of pharyngognathy: a phylogenetic and functional appraisal of the pharyngeal jaw key innovation in labroid fishes and beyond. Syst Biol. 2012;61(6):1001–27." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR267" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12493">267</a>]). Order Ephippiformes (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: lacking; however, PH Greenwood, DE Rosen, SH Weitzman and GS Myers [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 6" title="Greenwood PH, Rosen DE, Weitzman SH, Myers GS. Phyletic studies of teleostean fishes, with a provisional classification of living forms. Bull Am Mus Nat Hist. 1966;131(4):339–456." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR6" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12508">6</a>] hypothesized a close affinity between Drepane and ephippids, and GD Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 50" title="Johnson GD. Percomorph phylogeny: progress and problems. Bull Mar Sci. 1993;52(1):3–28." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR50" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12514">50</a>] cites an unpublished dissertation by Blum that provides additional morphological support. Comments: JS Nelson, T Grande and MVH Wilson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 42" title="Nelson JS, Grande T, Wilson MVH. 5th ed. Fishes of the World. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons; 2016." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR42" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12523">42</a>] named this clade Moroniformes, including Moronidae in addition to Drepaneidae and Ephippidae. Our results do not support the placement of Moronidae in this order.<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Drepaneidae </li> <li> Ephippidae </li> </ul> Order Chaetodontiformes (66%) Morphological synapomorphies: lacking. Comment: this clade has been consistently obtained by previous studies with higher nodal support than that reported here.<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Chaetodontidae </li> <li> Leiognathidae </li> </ul> Order Acanthuriformes, restricted circumscription (see also [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 292" title="Holcroft NI, Wiley EO. Acanthuroid relationships revisited: a new nuclear gene-based analysis that incorporates tetraodontiform representatives. Ichthyol Res. 2008;55:274–83." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR292" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12581">292</a>]) (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: see JC Tyler, GD Johnson, I Nakamura and BB Collette [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 293" title="Tyler JC, Johnson GD, Nakamura I, Collette BB. Morphology of Luvarus imperialis (Luvaridae), with a phylogenetic analysis of the Acanthuroidei. Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology. 1989;485:1–78." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR293" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12590">293</a>]. Comments: JS Nelson, T Grande and MVH Wilson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 42" title="Nelson JS, Grande T, Wilson MVH. 5th ed. Fishes of the World. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons; 2016." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR42" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12599">42</a>] included Emmelichthyidae and Sciaenidae in this order, in addition to Acanthuridae, Luvaridae and Zanclidae. Our results do not support the placement of Emmelichthyidae and Sciaenidae in Acanthuriformes.<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Acanthuridae </li> <li> Luvaridae </li> <li> Zanclidae </li> </ul> Order Lutjaniformes, new circumscription (59%) Morphological synapomorphies: lacking. Comment: the order Lutjaniformes (Bleeker name) is herein resurrected for the clade including lutjanids and haemulids. Although nodal support is low, this clade is often obtained in various large-scale studies.<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Haemulidae </li> <li> Lutjanidae (includes the former Caesionidae; e.g., [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 50" title="Johnson GD. Percomorph phylogeny: progress and problems. Bull Mar Sci. 1993;52(1):3–28." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR50" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12654">50</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 294" title="Miller TL, Cribb TH. Phylogenetic relationships of some common Indo-Pacific snappers (Perciformes: Lutjanidae) based on mitochondrial DNA sequences, with comments on the taxonomic position of the Caesioninae. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2007;44(1):450–60." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR294" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12657">294</a>]) </li> </ul> Order Lobotiformes (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: lacking, but JM Leis and BM Carson-Ewart [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 295" title="Leis JM, Carson-Ewart BM. The larvae of Indo-Pacific coastal fishes. An identification guide to marine fish larvae. Fauna Malesiana Handbooks 2: Brill; 2000." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR295" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12675">295</a>] suggested that Lobotes, Datnioides, and Hapalogenys share remarkable similarities in larval morphology. See discussion in MD Sanciangco, KE Carpenter and R Betancur-R. [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 92" title="Sanciangco MD, Carpenter KE, Betancur-R. R: Phylogenetic placement of enigmatic percomorph families (Teleostei: Percomorphaceae). Mol Phylogenet Evol 2015, 94:565–576." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR92" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12688">92</a>].<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Hapalogenyidae (= Hapalogeniidae) </li> <li> Datnioididae </li> <li> Lobotidae </li> </ul> Order Spariformes sensu M Akazaki [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 296" title="Akazaki M. Studies on the spariform fishes-anatomy - phylogeny, ecology, and taxonomy. Osaka: Kosugi Co. Ltd.; 1962." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR296" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12721">296</a>] and GD Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 297" title="Johnson GD. The limits and relationships of the Lutjanidae and associated families. Bulletin of the Scripps Institution of Oceanography. 1981;24:1–114." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR297" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12724">297</a>] (87%) Morphological synapomorphies: see M Akazaki [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 296" title="Akazaki M. Studies on the spariform fishes-anatomy - phylogeny, ecology, and taxonomy. Osaka: Kosugi Co. Ltd.; 1962." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR296" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12733">296</a>], GD Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 50" title="Johnson GD. Percomorph phylogeny: progress and problems. Bull Mar Sci. 1993;52(1):3–28." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR50" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12736">50</a>] and GD Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 297" title="Johnson GD. The limits and relationships of the Lutjanidae and associated families. Bulletin of the Scripps Institution of Oceanography. 1981;24:1–114." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR297" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12739">297</a>]. Comments: the family Centracanthidae is no longer recognized as valid; synonym of Sparidae following F Santini, G Carnevale and L Sorenson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 298" title="Santini F, Carnevale G, Sorenson L. First multi-locus timetree of seabreams and porgies (Percomorpha: Sparidae). Italian Journal of Zoology. 2014;81(1):55–71." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR298" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12749">298</a>] and MD Sanciangco, KE Carpenter and R Betancur-R. [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 92" title="Sanciangco MD, Carpenter KE, Betancur-R. R: Phylogenetic placement of enigmatic percomorph families (Teleostei: Percomorphaceae). Mol Phylogenet Evol 2015, 94:565–576." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR92" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12752">92</a>]. JS Nelson, T Grande and MVH Wilson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 42" title="Nelson JS, Grande T, Wilson MVH. 5th ed. Fishes of the World. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons; 2016." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR42" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12755">42</a>] also included in this order the families Callanthiidae, Lobotidae (including Datnioididae) and Sillaginidae. Our results do not support the placement of these three or four families in Spariformes.<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Lethrinidae </li> <li> Nemipteridae </li> <li> Sparidae (includes the former Centracanthidae) </li> </ul> Order Priacanthiformes, new circumscription (98%) Morphological synapomorphies: lacking, but implied by unspecified larval similarities (discussed by JM Leis and BM Carson-Ewart [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 295" title="Leis JM, Carson-Ewart BM. The larvae of Indo-Pacific coastal fishes. An identification guide to marine fish larvae. Fauna Malesiana Handbooks 2: Brill; 2000." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR295" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12791">295</a>]). Comments: a sister-group relationship between cepolids and priacanthids is strongly supported by other molecular studies (see also [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 295" title="Leis JM, Carson-Ewart BM. The larvae of Indo-Pacific coastal fishes. An identification guide to marine fish larvae. Fauna Malesiana Handbooks 2: Brill; 2000." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR295" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12800">295</a>]).<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Priacanthidae </li> <li> Cepolidae </li> </ul> Order Caproiformes (37%) Morphological synapomorphies: lacking, but see F Santini and G Lecointre [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 299" title="Santini F, Lecointre G. Phylogeny of the Caproidae (Acanthomorpha) with comments on their relationship with Tetraodontiformes and Acanthuroidae. In: Integrative and Comparative Biology: 2005: Oxford University Press. p. 1189–9." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR299" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12830">299</a>]. Comment: this order is herein recognized following JS Nelson, T Grande and MVH Wilson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 42" title="Nelson JS, Grande T, Wilson MVH. 5th ed. Fishes of the World. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons; 2016." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR42" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12840">42</a>].<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Caproidae </li> </ul> Order Lophiiformes (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: see TW Pietsch [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 300" title="Pietsch TW. The osteology and relationships of the anglerfish genus Tetrabrachium, with comments on lophiiform classification. US Fish Bull. 1981;79:387–419." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR300" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12864">300</a>], TW Pietsch [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 301" title="Pietsch TW. Lophiiformes: Development and relationships. In: Moser HG, Richards WJ, Cohen DM, Fahay MP, Kendell Jr AW, Richardson SL, editors. Ontogeny and Systematics of Fishes, vol. 1. Lawrence: American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists Special Publication; 1984. p. 320–5." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR301" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12867">301</a>]. Comments: this order is the sister group of Tetraodontiformes (45% bootstrap). This relationship is also supported by anatomical evidence [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 302" title="Chanet B, Guintard C, Betti E, Gallut C, Dettai A, Lecointre G. Evidence for a close phylogenetic relationship between the teleost orders Tetraodontiformes and Lophiiformes based on an analysis of soft anatomy. Cybium. 2013;37(3):179–98." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR302" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12876">302</a>], larval characters [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 303" title="Baldwin CC. The phylogenetic significance of colour patterns in marine teleost larvae. Zool J Linnean Soc. 2013;168(3):496–563." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR303" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12879">303</a>], and previous molecular studies [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 68" title="Miya M, Takeshima H, Endo H, Ishiguro N, Inoue J, Mukai T, et al. Major patterns of higher teleostean phylogenies: a new perspective based on 100 complete mitochondrial DNA sequences. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2003;26(1):121–38." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR68" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12882">68</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 304" title="Miya M, Pietsch T, Orr J, Arnold R, Satoh T, Shedlock A, et al. Evolutionary history of anglerfishes (Teleostei: Lophiiformes): a mitogenomic perspective. BMC Evol Biol. 2010;10(1):58." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR304" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12885">304</a>]. Suborder Lophioidei (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: see TW Pietsch [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 300" title="Pietsch TW. The osteology and relationships of the anglerfish genus Tetrabrachium, with comments on lophiiform classification. US Fish Bull. 1981;79:387–419." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR300" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12900">300</a>].<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Lophiidae </li> </ul> Suborder Antennarioidei (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: see TW Pietsch [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 300" title="Pietsch TW. The osteology and relationships of the anglerfish genus Tetrabrachium, with comments on lophiiform classification. US Fish Bull. 1981;79:387–419." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR300" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12925">300</a>].<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Antennariidae </li> </ul> Not examined: Brachionichthyidae, Lophichthyidae, Tetrabrachiidae. Suborder Chaunacoidei (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: the suborder is unquestionably monophyletic, but a list of synapomorphies is lacking [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 57" title="Wiley EO, Johnson GD. A teleost classification based on monophyletic groups. In: Nelson JS, Schultze HP, MVH W, editors. Origin and Phylogenetic Interrelationships of Teleosts. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 2010. p. 123–82." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR57" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12955">57</a>]; for a morphological diagnosis see TW Pietsch and DB Grobecker [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 305" title="Pietsch TW, Grobecker DB. Frogfishes of the world. Systematics, Zoogeography & Behavioral ecology. Stanford: Stanford University Press; 1987." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR305" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12958">305</a>].<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Chaunacidae </li> </ul> Suborder Ogcocephaloidei (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: the suborder is unquestionably monophyletic, but a list of synapomorphies is lacking [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 57" title="Wiley EO, Johnson GD. A teleost classification based on monophyletic groups. In: Nelson JS, Schultze HP, MVH W, editors. Origin and Phylogenetic Interrelationships of Teleosts. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 2010. p. 123–82." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR57" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12983">57</a>]; for a morphological diagnosis see TW Pietsch and DB Grobecker [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 305" title="Pietsch TW, Grobecker DB. Frogfishes of the world. Systematics, Zoogeography & Behavioral ecology. Stanford: Stanford University Press; 1987." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR305" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e12986">305</a>].<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Ogcocephalidae </li> </ul> Suborder Ceratioidei (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: T Pietsch and J Orr [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 306" title="Pietsch T, Orr J. Phylogenetic relationships of deep-sea anglerfishes of the suborder Ceratioidei (Teleostei: Lophiiformes) based on morphology. Copeia. 2007;2007:1–34." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR306" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13010">306</a>].<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Ceratiidae </li> <li> Gigantactinidae </li> <li> Himantolophidae </li> <li> Melanocetidae </li> <li> Oneirodidae </li> <li> Not examined: Caulophrynidae, Centrophrynidae, Diceratiidae, Linophrynidae, Neoceratiidae, Thaumatichthyidae. </li> </ul> Order Tetraodontiformes (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: several studies by J. Tyler and colleagues (e.g., [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Tyler JC: Osteology phylogeny and higher classification of the fishes of the order plectognathi tetraodontiformes. vol. 431: NMFS Circ; 1980." href="#ref-CR307" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13068">307</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Tyler JC, Santini F. Review and reconstruction of the tetraodontiforms fishes from the eocene of Monte Bolca, Italy, with comments on related tertiary taxa. Studi e Ricerche sui Glacimenti Terziari di Bolca, Museo Civico di Storia Naturale di Verona. 2002;9:47–119." href="#ref-CR308" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13068_1">308</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Tyler JC, Sorbini L. New superfamily and three new families of tetraodontiform fishes from the Upper Cretaceous: the earliest and most morphologically primitive plectognaths. Smithson Contrib Paleobiol. 1996;82:1–59." href="#ref-CR309" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13068_2">309</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 310" title="Santini F, Tyler JC. A phylogeny of the families of fossil and extant tetraodontiform fishes (Acanthomorpha, Tetraodontiformes), Upper Cretaceous to recent. Zool J Linnean Soc. 2003;139:565–617." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR310" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13071">310</a>]). Morphological synapomorphies for suborders are implied in several recent phylogenetic analyses of fossils and extant taxa (e.g., [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 23" title="Arcila D, Pyron R, Tyler C, Ortí G, Betancur-R R. An evaluation of fossil tip-dating versus node-age calibrations in tetraodontiform fishes (Teleostei: Percomorphaceae). Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2015;82:131–45." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR23" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13074">23</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 310" title="Santini F, Tyler JC. A phylogeny of the families of fossil and extant tetraodontiform fishes (Acanthomorpha, Tetraodontiformes), Upper Cretaceous to recent. Zool J Linnean Soc. 2003;139:565–617." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR310" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13077">310</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 311" title="Bannikov AF, Tyler JC, Arcila D, Carnevale G. A new family of gymnodont fish (Tetraodontiformes) from the earliest Eocene of the Peri-Tethys (Kabardino-Balkaria, northern Caucasus, Russia). J Syst Palaeontol. 2016:1–18." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR311" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13081">311</a>]). Comments: Although interrelationships of major tetraodontiform lineages is controversial, several clades are congruent across studies. The subordinal classification proposed here differs from that by F Santini and JC Tyler [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 310" title="Santini F, Tyler JC. A phylogeny of the families of fossil and extant tetraodontiform fishes (Acanthomorpha, Tetraodontiformes), Upper Cretaceous to recent. Zool J Linnean Soc. 2003;139:565–617." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR310" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13090">310</a>], with many more suborders now recognized. Our scheme is robust to phylogenetic uncertainty and has recently been adopted by AF Bannikov, JC Tyler, D Arcila and G Carnevale [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 311" title="Bannikov AF, Tyler JC, Arcila D, Carnevale G. A new family of gymnodont fish (Tetraodontiformes) from the earliest Eocene of the Peri-Tethys (Kabardino-Balkaria, northern Caucasus, Russia). J Syst Palaeontol. 2016:1–18." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR311" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13093">311</a>]. Suborder Triodontoidei Morphological synapomorphies: implied in various phylogenetic analyses by J. Tyler and colleagues (e.g., [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 23" title="Arcila D, Pyron R, Tyler C, Ortí G, Betancur-R R. An evaluation of fossil tip-dating versus node-age calibrations in tetraodontiform fishes (Teleostei: Percomorphaceae). Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2015;82:131–45." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR23" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13109">23</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 310" title="Santini F, Tyler JC. A phylogeny of the families of fossil and extant tetraodontiform fishes (Acanthomorpha, Tetraodontiformes), Upper Cretaceous to recent. Zool J Linnean Soc. 2003;139:565–617." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR310" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13112">310</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 311" title="Bannikov AF, Tyler JC, Arcila D, Carnevale G. A new family of gymnodont fish (Tetraodontiformes) from the earliest Eocene of the Peri-Tethys (Kabardino-Balkaria, northern Caucasus, Russia). J Syst Palaeontol. 2016:1–18." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR311" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13115">311</a>]).<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Triodontidae </li> </ul> Suborder Triacanthoidei Morphological synapomorphies: implied in various phylogenetic analyses by J. Tyler and colleagues (e.g., [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 23" title="Arcila D, Pyron R, Tyler C, Ortí G, Betancur-R R. An evaluation of fossil tip-dating versus node-age calibrations in tetraodontiform fishes (Teleostei: Percomorphaceae). Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2015;82:131–45." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR23" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13139">23</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 310" title="Santini F, Tyler JC. A phylogeny of the families of fossil and extant tetraodontiform fishes (Acanthomorpha, Tetraodontiformes), Upper Cretaceous to recent. Zool J Linnean Soc. 2003;139:565–617." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR310" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13142">310</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 311" title="Bannikov AF, Tyler JC, Arcila D, Carnevale G. A new family of gymnodont fish (Tetraodontiformes) from the earliest Eocene of the Peri-Tethys (Kabardino-Balkaria, northern Caucasus, Russia). J Syst Palaeontol. 2016:1–18." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR311" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13145">311</a>]).<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Triacanthidae </li> </ul> Suborder Triacanthodoidei (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: implied in various phylogenetic analyses by J. Tyler and colleagues (e.g., [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 23" title="Arcila D, Pyron R, Tyler C, Ortí G, Betancur-R R. An evaluation of fossil tip-dating versus node-age calibrations in tetraodontiform fishes (Teleostei: Percomorphaceae). Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2015;82:131–45." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR23" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13169">23</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 310" title="Santini F, Tyler JC. A phylogeny of the families of fossil and extant tetraodontiform fishes (Acanthomorpha, Tetraodontiformes), Upper Cretaceous to recent. Zool J Linnean Soc. 2003;139:565–617." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR310" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13172">310</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 311" title="Bannikov AF, Tyler JC, Arcila D, Carnevale G. A new family of gymnodont fish (Tetraodontiformes) from the earliest Eocene of the Peri-Tethys (Kabardino-Balkaria, northern Caucasus, Russia). J Syst Palaeontol. 2016:1–18." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR311" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13175">311</a>]).<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Triacanthodidae </li> </ul> Suborder Tetraodontoidei (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: implied in various phylogenetic analyses by J. Tyler and colleagues (e.g., [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 23" title="Arcila D, Pyron R, Tyler C, Ortí G, Betancur-R R. An evaluation of fossil tip-dating versus node-age calibrations in tetraodontiform fishes (Teleostei: Percomorphaceae). Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2015;82:131–45." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR23" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13200">23</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 310" title="Santini F, Tyler JC. A phylogeny of the families of fossil and extant tetraodontiform fishes (Acanthomorpha, Tetraodontiformes), Upper Cretaceous to recent. Zool J Linnean Soc. 2003;139:565–617." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR310" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13203">310</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 311" title="Bannikov AF, Tyler JC, Arcila D, Carnevale G. A new family of gymnodont fish (Tetraodontiformes) from the earliest Eocene of the Peri-Tethys (Kabardino-Balkaria, northern Caucasus, Russia). J Syst Palaeontol. 2016:1–18." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR311" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13206">311</a>]).<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Diodontidae </li> <li> Tetraodontidae </li> </ul> Suborder Moloidei (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: implied in various phylogenetic analyses by J. Tyler and colleagues (e.g., [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 23" title="Arcila D, Pyron R, Tyler C, Ortí G, Betancur-R R. An evaluation of fossil tip-dating versus node-age calibrations in tetraodontiform fishes (Teleostei: Percomorphaceae). Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2015;82:131–45." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR23" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13236">23</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 310" title="Santini F, Tyler JC. A phylogeny of the families of fossil and extant tetraodontiform fishes (Acanthomorpha, Tetraodontiformes), Upper Cretaceous to recent. Zool J Linnean Soc. 2003;139:565–617." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR310" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13239">310</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 311" title="Bannikov AF, Tyler JC, Arcila D, Carnevale G. A new family of gymnodont fish (Tetraodontiformes) from the earliest Eocene of the Peri-Tethys (Kabardino-Balkaria, northern Caucasus, Russia). J Syst Palaeontol. 2016:1–18." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR311" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13242">311</a>]).<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Molidae </li> </ul> Suborder Balistoidei (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: implied in various phylogenetic analyses by J. Tyler and colleagues (e.g., [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 23" title="Arcila D, Pyron R, Tyler C, Ortí G, Betancur-R R. An evaluation of fossil tip-dating versus node-age calibrations in tetraodontiform fishes (Teleostei: Percomorphaceae). Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2015;82:131–45." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR23" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13266">23</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 310" title="Santini F, Tyler JC. A phylogeny of the families of fossil and extant tetraodontiform fishes (Acanthomorpha, Tetraodontiformes), Upper Cretaceous to recent. Zool J Linnean Soc. 2003;139:565–617." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR310" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13269">310</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 311" title="Bannikov AF, Tyler JC, Arcila D, Carnevale G. A new family of gymnodont fish (Tetraodontiformes) from the earliest Eocene of the Peri-Tethys (Kabardino-Balkaria, northern Caucasus, Russia). J Syst Palaeontol. 2016:1–18." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR311" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13272">311</a>]).<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Balistidae </li> <li> Monacanthidae </li> </ul> Suborder Ostracioidei (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: implied in various phylogenetic analyses by J. Tyler and colleagues (e.g., [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 23" title="Arcila D, Pyron R, Tyler C, Ortí G, Betancur-R R. An evaluation of fossil tip-dating versus node-age calibrations in tetraodontiform fishes (Teleostei: Percomorphaceae). Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2015;82:131–45." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR23" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13303">23</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 310" title="Santini F, Tyler JC. A phylogeny of the families of fossil and extant tetraodontiform fishes (Acanthomorpha, Tetraodontiformes), Upper Cretaceous to recent. Zool J Linnean Soc. 2003;139:565–617." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR310" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13306">310</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 311" title="Bannikov AF, Tyler JC, Arcila D, Carnevale G. A new family of gymnodont fish (Tetraodontiformes) from the earliest Eocene of the Peri-Tethys (Kabardino-Balkaria, northern Caucasus, Russia). J Syst Palaeontol. 2016:1–18." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR311" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13309">311</a>]).<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Aracanidae </li> <li> Ostraciidae </li> </ul> Order Pempheriformes (33%) Morphological synapomorphies: lacking. Note that Y Tominaga [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 312" title="Tominaga Y. The relationships of the families Glaucosomatidae and Pempherididae. In: Uyeno T, Arai R, Taniuchi T, Matsuura K, editors. Indo-Pacific fish biology. Tokyo: lchthyological Society of Japan; 1986. p. 595–9." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR312" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13339">312</a>] suggested that features of the cranium and swimbladder may be homologous in Pempheris and Glaucosoma; see also GD Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 50" title="Johnson GD. Percomorph phylogeny: progress and problems. Bull Mar Sci. 1993;52(1):3–28." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR50" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13348">50</a>]. Comments: Although support for Pempheriformes is low, this clade has been obtained by several studies. Because Percophis brasiliensis (type species of Percophidae) is a Notothenioid [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 313" title="Near TJ, Dornburg A, Harrington RC, Oliveira C, Pietsch TW, Thacker CE, et al. Identification of the notothenioid sister lineage illuminates the biogeographic history of an Antarctic adaptive radiation. BMC Evol Biol. 2015;15:109." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR313" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13360">313</a>], and the remaining “percophids” are in Pempheriformes, then the pempheriform “percophids” require family relocation. The subfamily Hemerocoetinae Kaup 1873 is now raised to the family level, following CE Thacker, TP Satoh, E Katayama, RC Harrington, RI Eytan and TJ Near [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 242" title="Thacker CE, Satoh TP, Katayama E, Harrington RC, Eytan RI, Near TJ. Molecular phylogeny of Percomorpha resolves Trichonotus as the sister lineage to Gobioidei (Teleostei: Gobiiformes) and confirms the polyphyly of Trachinoidei. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2015;93:72–9." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR242" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13363">242</a>]: “Additional proposed changes to the classification of Percomorpha include... recognition of Hemerocoetidae as a taxonomic family containing Matsubaraea, Enigmapercis, Pteropsaron, Acanthaphritis, and Osopsaron and the unsampled Dactylopsaron, Hemerocoetes, and Squamicreedia.” See comments under Order Gobiiformes for notes regarding the placement of Creediidae and Hemerocoetidae in Pempheriformes rather than Trachinoidei.<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Acropomatidae (not monophyletic in Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#Fig2">2</a>) </li> <li> Banjosidae </li> <li> Bathyclupeidae </li> <li> Champsodontidae </li> <li> Creediidae </li> <li> Epigonidae </li> <li> Glaucosomatidae </li> <li> Howellidae </li> <li> Lateolabracidae </li> <li> Ostracoberycidae </li> <li> Pempheridae </li> <li> Pentacerotidae </li> <li> “Percophidae” (see comments) </li> <li> Polyprionidae </li> <li> Symphysanodontidae </li> <li> Not examined: Hemerocoetidae, Leptoscopidae (assumed affinity with Creediidae; see [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 314" title="Odani K, Imamura H. New Phylogenetic Proposal for the Family Leptoscopidae (Perciformes: Trachinoidei). Bulletin of Fisheries Sciences Hokkaido University. 2011;61(2):49–63." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR314" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13496">314</a>]). </li> </ul> Order Centrarchiformes (98%) Morphological synapomorphies: lacking. Comment: although the family name Cirrithidae Macleay 1841 is older than Centrarchidae Bleeker 1859, we retain the name Centrarchiformes for this order (in agreement with previous usage) but expand its membership following recent proposals [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 11" title="Near TJ, Dornburg A, Eytan RI, Keck BP, Smith WL, Kuhn KL, et al. Phylogeny and tempo of diversification in the superradiation of spiny-rayed fishes. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2013;110(31):12738–43." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR11" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13521">11</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 315" title="Chen W-J, Lavoué S, Beheregaray LB, Mayden RL, Riddle B. Historical biogeography of a new antitropical clade of temperate freshwater fishes. J Biogeogr. 2014;41(9):1806–18." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR315" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13524">315</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 316" title="Lavoué S, Nakayama K, Jerry DR, Yamanoue Y, Yagishita N, Suzuki N, et al. Mitogenomic phylogeny of the Percichthyidae and Centrarchiformes (Percomorphaceae): comparison with recent nuclear gene-based studies and simultaneous analysis. Gene. 2014;549(1):46–57." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR316" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13527">316</a>]. Suborder Centrarchoidei (93%) Morphological synapomorphies: lacking. Comments: inclusion of Enoploside in this suborder differs from the results obtained by S Lavoué, K Nakayama, DR Jerry, Y Yamanoue, N Yagishita, N Suzuki, M Nishida and M Miya [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 316" title="Lavoué S, Nakayama K, Jerry DR, Yamanoue Y, Yagishita N, Suzuki N, et al. Mitogenomic phylogeny of the Percichthyidae and Centrarchiformes (Percomorphaceae): comparison with recent nuclear gene-based studies and simultaneous analysis. Gene. 2014;549(1):46–57." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR316" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13548">316</a>]. Sinipercidae is recognized following C Li, G Orti and J Zhao [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 317" title="Li C, Orti G, Zhao J. The phylogenetic placement of sinipercid fishes ("Perciformes") revealed by 11 nuclear loci. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2010;56(3):1096–104." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR317" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13551">317</a>] (formerly a synonym of Percichthyidae). As suggested by earlier classifications and confirmed by recent molecular studies (e.g., [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 318" title="Near TJ, Sandel M, Kuhn KL, Unmack PJ, Wainwright PC, Leo Smith W. Nuclear gene-inferred phylogenies resolve the relationships of the enigmatic Pygmy Sunfishes, Elassoma (Teleostei: Percomorpha). Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2012;63(2):388–95." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR318" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13554">318</a>]), pygmy sunfishes (Elassoma) and sunfishes (centrarchids) are allied (placed in separate orders by EO Wiley and GD Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 57" title="Wiley EO, Johnson GD. A teleost classification based on monophyletic groups. In: Nelson JS, Schultze HP, MVH W, editors. Origin and Phylogenetic Interrelationships of Teleosts. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 2010. p. 123–82." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR57" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13561">57</a>]).<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Centrarchidae </li> <li> Elassomatidae </li> <li> Enoplosidae </li> <li> Sinipercidae </li> </ul> Suborder Cirrhitoidei (similar to Cirrhitoidea sensu PH Greenwood [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 319" title="Greenwood PH. A revised familial classification for certain cirrhitoid genera (Teleostei, Percoidei, Cirrhitoidea), with comments on the groups monophyly and taxonomic ranking. Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History) Zoology. 1995;61:1–10." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR319" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13600">319</a>], and CP Burridge and AJ Smolenski [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 320" title="Burridge CP, Smolenski AJ. Molecular phylogeny of the Cheilodactylidae and Latridae (Perciformes: Cirrhitoidea) with notes on taxonomy and biogeography. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2004;30(1):118–27." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR320" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13603">320</a>]; treated as Cirrhitiformes in previous versions of the classification) (97%). Morphological synapomorphies: see PH Greenwood [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 319" title="Greenwood PH. A revised familial classification for certain cirrhitoid genera (Teleostei, Percoidei, Cirrhitoidea), with comments on the groups monophyly and taxonomic ranking. Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History) Zoology. 1995;61:1–10." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR319" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13613">319</a>]. Comment: the families Latridae, Chironemidae and Aplodactylidae are nested within Cheilodactylidae, rendering the latter non-monophyletic [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 92" title="Sanciangco MD, Carpenter KE, Betancur-R. R: Phylogenetic placement of enigmatic percomorph families (Teleostei: Percomorphaceae). Mol Phylogenet Evol 2015, 94:565–576." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR92" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13622">92</a>].<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Aplodactylidae </li> <li> Cheilodactylidae (not monophyletic in Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#Fig2">2</a>) </li> <li> Chironemidae </li> <li> Cirrhitidae </li> <li> Latridae </li> </ul> Suborder Percichthyoidei (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: GD Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 59" title="Johnson GD. Percoidei: development and relationships. In: Moser H, Richards W, Cohen D, Fahay M, Kendell Jr A, Richardson S, editors. Ontogeny and Systematics of Fishes. Lawrence: American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists Special Publication; 1984. p. 438–47." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR59" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13673">59</a>], but with a different circumscription (a series of nested synapomorphies uniting all members except Percalates). Comment: percichthyoids and Percichthyidae sensu GD Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 59" title="Johnson GD. Percoidei: development and relationships. In: Moser H, Richards W, Cohen D, Fahay M, Kendell Jr A, Richardson S, editors. Ontogeny and Systematics of Fishes. Lawrence: American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists Special Publication; 1984. p. 438–47." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR59" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13688">59</a>] are not monophyletic: the Australian species Percalates colonorum and Percalates novemaculeata are not closely related to other members of Percichthyidae [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 8" title="Betancur-R R, Broughton RE, Wiley EO, Carpenter K, Lopez JA, Li C, et al. The tree of life and a new classification of bony fishes. PLoS Currents Tree of Life. 2013; Edition 1" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR8" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13698">8</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 315" title="Chen W-J, Lavoué S, Beheregaray LB, Mayden RL, Riddle B. Historical biogeography of a new antitropical clade of temperate freshwater fishes. J Biogeogr. 2014;41(9):1806–18." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR315" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13701">315</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 316" title="Lavoué S, Nakayama K, Jerry DR, Yamanoue Y, Yagishita N, Suzuki N, et al. Mitogenomic phylogeny of the Percichthyidae and Centrarchiformes (Percomorphaceae): comparison with recent nuclear gene-based studies and simultaneous analysis. Gene. 2014;549(1):46–57." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR316" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13704">316</a>], so these species are herein placed in their own suborder [P. Unmack pers. comm.; 317]. Percalates is listed as a junior synonym of Macquaria by WN Eschmeyer [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 60" title="Catalog of Fishes. 
 http://research.calacademy.org/redirect?url=http://researcharchive.calacademy.org/research/Ichthyology/catalog/fishcatmain.asp
 
 . Accessed on 30 June 2016." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR60" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13713">60</a>], but the type species of Macquaria (M. australasica) is closely related to other species of Macquaria (M. ambigua) within Percichthyidae sensu stricto, thus both are valid genus names [P. Unmack pers. comm.; 317]. Percichthyidae sensu stricto includes Percilia (formerly placed in its own family, Perciliidae).<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Percichthyidae </li> </ul> Suborder Percalatoidei (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: lacking. Comment: formal description of a new family for Percalates is required to comply with the ICZN.<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> “Percalatidae” (see comment) </li> </ul> Suborder Terapontoidei (= Clade “h2” of N Yagishita, M Miya, Y Yamanoue, SM Shirai, K Nakayama, N Suzuki, TP Satoh, K Mabuchi, M Nishida and T Nakabo [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 321" title="Yagishita N, Miya M, Yamanoue Y, Shirai SM, Nakayama K, Suzuki N, et al. Mitogenomic evaluation of the unique facial nerve pattern as a phylogenetic marker within the percifom fishes (Teleostei: Percomorpha). Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2009;53(1):258–66." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR321" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13785">321</a>]; = Terapontiformes in previous versions of the classification) (99%) Morphological synapomorphies: lacking for current circumscription. GD Johnson and RA Fritzsche [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 322" title="Johnson GD, Fritzsche RA. Graus nigra Philippi, an omnivorous girellid, with comments on relationships of the Girellidae (Pisces: Perciformes). Proc Acad Natur Sci Philadelphia. 1989;141:1–27." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR322" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13794">322</a>] cite nerve pattern evidence uniting all but one of the families listed here (Dichistiidae) plus other groups currently placed in Pelagiaria (Arripdidae and stromateoids). Comment: The families Girellidae, Microcanthidae and Scorpididae are herein recognized following several recent studies [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 321" title="Yagishita N, Miya M, Yamanoue Y, Shirai SM, Nakayama K, Suzuki N, et al. Mitogenomic evaluation of the unique facial nerve pattern as a phylogenetic marker within the percifom fishes (Teleostei: Percomorpha). Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2009;53(1):258–66." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR321" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13803">321</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Carpenter K. Girellidae, Scorpididae, Microcanthidae. In: Carpenter K, Niem VH, editors. The Living Marine Resources of the Western Central Pacific FAO Species Identification Guide for Fisheries Purposes, vol. 5. Rome: FAO; 2001. p. 2791–3379." href="#ref-CR323" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13806">323</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Yagishita N, Kobayashi T, Nakabo T. Review of monophyly of the Kyphosidae (sensu Nelson, 1994), inferred from the mitochondrial ND2 gene. Ichthyol Res. 2002;49:103–8." href="#ref-CR324" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13806_1">324</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Knudsen SW. Revision of the fish family Kyphosidae (Teleostei: Perciformes). Zootaxa. 2013;3751:1–101." href="#ref-CR325" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13806_2">325</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Knudsen SW, Clements KD. World-wide species distributions in the family Kyphosidae (Teleostei: Perciformes). Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2016;101:252–66." href="#ref-CR326" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13806_3">326</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 327" title="Davis A, Unmack P, Vari RP, Betancur-R R. Herbivory promotes dental disparification and macroevolutionary dynamics in grunters (Teleostei: Terapontidae), a freshwater adaptive radiation. Am Nat. 2016;187(3):320–33." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR327" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13809">327</a>]; these are listed as subfamilies of Kyphosidae in R Van Der Laan, WN Eschmeyer and R Fricke [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 62" title="Van Der Laan R, Eschmeyer WN, Fricke R. Family-group names of Recent fishes. Zootaxa. 2014;3882(1):230." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR62" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13812">62</a>] and JS Nelson, T Grande and MVH Wilson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 42" title="Nelson JS, Grande T, Wilson MVH. 5th ed. Fishes of the World. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons; 2016." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR42" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13816">42</a>].<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Dichistiidae </li> <li> Girellidae </li> <li> Kuhliidae </li> <li> Kyphosidae </li> <li> Oplegnathidae </li> <li> Terapontidae </li> <li> Not examined: Microcanthidae, Scorpididae. </li> </ul> Order Perciformes (= Serraniformes sensu B Li, A Dettai, C Cruaud, A Couloux, M Desoutter-Meniger and G Lecointre [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 80" title="Li B, Dettai A, Cruaud C, Couloux A, Desoutter-Meniger M, Lecointre G. RNF213, a new nuclear marker for acanthomorph phylogeny. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2009;50(2):345–63." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR80" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13877">80</a>], and A-C Lautredou, H Motomura, C Gallut, C Ozouf-Costaz, C Cruaud, G Lecointre and A Dettai [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 328" title="Lautredou A-C, Motomura H, Gallut C, Ozouf-Costaz C, Cruaud C, Lecointre G, et al. Multi-scale exploration of the relationships among Serraniformes (Acanthomorpha, Teleostei) using new nuclear markers. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2013;67(1):140–55." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR328" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13880">328</a>]) (93%) Morphological synapomorphies: lacking. Comments: although Perciformes has been traditionally regarded as a “taxonomic waste basket” (e.g., [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 41" title="Nelson JS. Fishes of the world. 4th ed. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons; 2006." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR41" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13896">41</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 42" title="Nelson JS, Grande T, Wilson MVH. 5th ed. Fishes of the World. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons; 2016." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR42" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13899">42</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 50" title="Johnson GD. Percomorph phylogeny: progress and problems. Bull Mar Sci. 1993;52(1):3–28." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR50" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13902">50</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 51" title="Johnson GD, Patterson C. Percomorph phylogeny: a survey of acanthomorphs and a new proposal. Bull Mar Sci. 1993;52(1):554–626." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR51" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13905">51</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Wiley EO, Johnson GD. A teleost classification based on monophyletic groups. In: Nelson JS, Schultze HP, MVH W, editors. Origin and Phylogenetic Interrelationships of Teleosts. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 2010. p. 123–82." href="#ref-CR57" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13909">57</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Smith WL, Craig MT. Casting the percomorph net widely: The importance of broad taxonomic sampling in the search for the placement of serranid and percid fishes. Copeia. 2007;2007(1):35–55." href="#ref-CR58" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13909_1">58</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 59" title="Johnson GD. Percoidei: development and relationships. In: Moser H, Richards W, Cohen D, Fahay M, Kendell Jr A, Richardson S, editors. Ontogeny and Systematics of Fishes. Lawrence: American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists Special Publication; 1984. p. 438–47." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR59" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13912">59</a>]), the first version of this classification [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 8" title="Betancur-R R, Broughton RE, Wiley EO, Carpenter K, Lopez JA, Li C, et al. The tree of life and a new classification of bony fishes. PLoS Currents Tree of Life. 2013; Edition 1" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR8" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13915">8</a>] proposed for the first time a monophyletic definition of the order based on robust molecular analyses. Compared to classification by other authors, the revised circumscription of Perciformes reduces significantly the number of included taxa, while retaining remarkable diversity that is now organized into several suborders and infraorders. Our definition comprises 61 perciform families, including species assigned by previous classifications to the orders Scorpaeniformes, Cottiformes, and Trachiniformes (no longer validated as orders herein). Suborder Bembropoidei, new (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: lacking. Comment: This suborder is newly classified to accommodate the family Bembropidae. Bembropidae is recognized following WL Smith and MT Craig [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 58" title="Smith WL, Craig MT. Casting the percomorph net widely: The importance of broad taxonomic sampling in the search for the placement of serranid and percid fishes. Copeia. 2007;2007(1):35–55." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR58" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13936">58</a>]; it is a synonym of Percophidae according to R Van Der Laan, WN Eschmeyer and R Fricke [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 62" title="Van Der Laan R, Eschmeyer WN, Fricke R. Family-group names of Recent fishes. Zootaxa. 2014;3882(1):230." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR62" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13939">62</a>].<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Bembropidae </li> </ul> Suborder Normanichthyoidei Morphological synapomorphies: see M Yabe, and T. Uyeno. [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 329" title="Yabe M, Uyeno T. Anatomical description of Normanichthys crockeri (Scorpaeniformes, incertae sedis: family Normanichthyidae). Bull Mar Sci. 1996;58:494–510." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR329" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13964">329</a>]. Comment: this suborder is classified following R Van Der Laan, WN Eschmeyer and R Fricke [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 62" title="Van Der Laan R, Eschmeyer WN, Fricke R. Family-group names of Recent fishes. Zootaxa. 2014;3882(1):230." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR62" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13973">62</a>] and JS Nelson, T Grande and MVH Wilson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 42" title="Nelson JS, Grande T, Wilson MVH. 5th ed. Fishes of the World. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons; 2016." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR42" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e13976">42</a>].<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Not examined: Normanichthyidae. </li> </ul> Suborder Serranoidei (64%) Morphological synapomorphies: see GD Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 330" title="Johnson GD: Niphon spinosus: A primitive epinepheline serranid, with comments on the monophyly and intrarelationships of the Serranidae. Copeia. 1983(3):777–87." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR330" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14003">330</a>], C Baldwin and GD Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 331" title="Baldwin C, Johnson GD. Phylogeny of the Epinephelinae (Teleostei: Serranidae). Bull Mar Sci. 1993;52:240–80." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR331" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14006">331</a>], but with a different circumscription (including Niphon). Comments: we do not recognize Epinephelidae as a separate family, following WL Smith and MT Craig [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 58" title="Smith WL, Craig MT. Casting the percomorph net widely: The importance of broad taxonomic sampling in the search for the placement of serranid and percid fishes. Copeia. 2007;2007(1):35–55." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR58" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14018">58</a>] and KY Ma, MT Craig, JH Choat and L van Herwerden [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 332" title="Ma KY, Craig MT, Choat JH, van Herwerden L. The historical biogeography of groupers: clade diversification patterns and processes. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2016;100:21–30." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR332" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14021">332</a>]. The main justification for such nomenclatural change was that Smith and Craig’s phylogenetic analysis failed to resolve the monophyly of serranids (including epinephelines, anthiines and serranines); however, they did not conduct a topology test to ask whether this null hypothesis is rejected by their data. Our large-scale analysis supports the monophyly of Serranidae (excluding Niphon; see comments under Percoidei below), albeit with low support. Also, while elevating Epinephelinae to family is a minor nomenclatural change, this rearrangement creates confusion for fish managers and conservation biologists given the commercial importance of groupers and the endangered status of many species.<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Serranidae </li> </ul> Suborder Percoidei, restricted circumscription (99%) Morphological synapomorphies: lacking. Comments: A-C Lautredou, H Motomura, C Gallut, C Ozouf-Costaz, C Cruaud, G Lecointre and A Dettai [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 328" title="Lautredou A-C, Motomura H, Gallut C, Ozouf-Costaz C, Cruaud C, Lecointre G, et al. Multi-scale exploration of the relationships among Serraniformes (Acanthomorpha, Teleostei) using new nuclear markers. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2013;67(1):140–55." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR328" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14055">328</a>] obtained a clade uniting Percidae and Trachinidae with full support, based on the analysis of seven nuclear markers. Like with Perciformes, the restricted and monophyletic circumscription of Percoidei in this classification contrasts markedly with the long history of confusion regarding the limits and polyphyly of Percoidei (e.g., [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 50" title="Johnson GD. Percomorph phylogeny: progress and problems. Bull Mar Sci. 1993;52(1):3–28." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR50" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14058">50</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 51" title="Johnson GD, Patterson C. Percomorph phylogeny: a survey of acanthomorphs and a new proposal. Bull Mar Sci. 1993;52(1):554–626." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR51" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14061">51</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 58" title="Smith WL, Craig MT. Casting the percomorph net widely: The importance of broad taxonomic sampling in the search for the placement of serranid and percid fishes. Copeia. 2007;2007(1):35–55." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR58" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14064">58</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 59" title="Johnson GD. Percoidei: development and relationships. In: Moser H, Richards W, Cohen D, Fahay M, Kendell Jr A, Richardson S, editors. Ontogeny and Systematics of Fishes. Lawrence: American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists Special Publication; 1984. p. 438–47." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR59" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14068">59</a>]). Removal of Niphon from Serranidae (e.g., as in [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 330" title="Johnson GD: Niphon spinosus: A primitive epinepheline serranid, with comments on the monophyly and intrarelationships of the Serranidae. Copeia. 1983(3):777–87." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR330" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14074">330</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 331" title="Baldwin C, Johnson GD. Phylogeny of the Epinephelinae (Teleostei: Serranidae). Bull Mar Sci. 1993;52:240–80." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR331" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14077">331</a>]) and placement in its own family (Niphonidae) is consistent with several other studies (e.g., [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 58" title="Smith WL, Craig MT. Casting the percomorph net widely: The importance of broad taxonomic sampling in the search for the placement of serranid and percid fishes. Copeia. 2007;2007(1):35–55." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR58" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14080">58</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 333" title="Craig MT, Hastings PA. A molecular phylogeny of the groupers of the subfamily Epinephelinae (Serranidae) with a revised classification of the Epinephelini. Ichthyol Res. 2007;54:1–17." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR333" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14083">333</a>]).<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Niphonidae </li> <li> Percidae </li> <li> Not examined: Trachinidae. </li> </ul> Suborder Notothenioidei (= Nototheniiformes in EO Wiley and GD Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 57" title="Wiley EO, Johnson GD. A teleost classification based on monophyletic groups. In: Nelson JS, Schultze HP, MVH W, editors. Origin and Phylogenetic Interrelationships of Teleosts. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 2010. p. 123–82." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR57" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14117">57</a>]) (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: see PA Hastings [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 334" title="Hastings PA. Relationships of fishes of the perciform suborder Notothenioidei. In: Miller RC, editor. History and Atlas of the Fishes of the Antarctic Ocean. Carson: Forresta Institute for Ocean and Mountain Studies; 1993. p. 99–107." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR334" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14126">334</a>], EO Wiley and GD Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 57" title="Wiley EO, Johnson GD. A teleost classification based on monophyletic groups. In: Nelson JS, Schultze HP, MVH W, editors. Origin and Phylogenetic Interrelationships of Teleosts. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 2010. p. 123–82." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR57" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14129">57</a>] (but with a different circumscription; see comment below). Comment: Percophidae is herein placed in Notothenioidei following TJ Near, A Dornburg, RC Harrington, C Oliveira, TW Pietsch, CE Thacker, TP Satoh, E Katayama, PC Wainwright, JT Eastman, et al. [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 313" title="Near TJ, Dornburg A, Harrington RC, Oliveira C, Pietsch TW, Thacker CE, et al. Identification of the notothenioid sister lineage illuminates the biogeographic history of an Antarctic adaptive radiation. BMC Evol Biol. 2015;15:109." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR313" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14138">313</a>]; see comments above under Pempheriformes.<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Artedidraconidae </li> <li> Bathydraconidae (not monophyletic here; but see [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 335" title="Derome N, Chen WJ, Dettai A, Bonillo C, Lecointre G. Phylogeny of Antarctic dragonfishes (Bathydraconidae, Notothenioidei, Teleostei) and related families based on their anatomy and two mitochondrial genes. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2002;24(1):139–52." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR335" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14153">335</a>]) </li> <li> Bovichtidae </li> <li> Channichthyidae </li> <li> Eleginopsidae </li> <li> Harpagiferidae </li> <li> Nototheniidae (not monophyletic in Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#Fig2">2</a>) </li> <li> Pseudaphritidae </li> <li> Not examined: Percophidae. </li> </ul> Suborder Scorpaenoidei (72%) Morphological synapomorphies: lacking. Phylogenetic analysis on all or part of various scorpaenoid families (e.g., [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Imamura H. Phylogenetic relationships and new classification of the superfamily Scorpaenoidea (Actinopterygii: Perciformes). Species Diversity. 2004;9:1–36." href="#ref-CR336" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14218">336</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Imamura I, Yabe M. Demise of the Scorpaeniformes (Actinopterygii: Percomorpha): an alternative phylogenetic hypothesis. Bull Fish Sci Hokkaido Univ. 2002;53:107–28." href="#ref-CR337" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14218_1">337</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 338" title="Mandrytsa SA. Seismosensory system and classification of scorpionfishes (Scorpaeniformes: Scorpaenodei). Perm: Perm State University Press; 2001." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR338" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14221">338</a>]) vary to a greater or lesser degree than the results presented here. Comment: nine families now included in Scorpaenoidei were listed in previous versions of this classification as not examined under Perciformes. See also H Imamura [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 336" title="Imamura H. Phylogenetic relationships and new classification of the superfamily Scorpaenoidea (Actinopterygii: Perciformes). Species Diversity. 2004;9:1–36." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR336" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14230">336</a>].<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Scorpaenidae (not monophyletic in Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#Fig2">2</a>) </li> <li> Sebastidae </li> <li> Setarchidae </li> <li> Synanceiidae </li> <li> Tetrarogidae </li> <li> Not examined: Apistidae, Aploactinidae, Congiopodidae, Eschmeyeridae, Gnathanacanthidae, Neosebastidae, Pataecidae, Perryenidae (see [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 339" title="Honma Y, Imamura H, Kawai T. Anatomical description of the genus Perryena, and proposal to erect a new family for it based on its phylogenetic relationships with related taxa (Scorpaeniformes). Ichthyol Res. 2013;60(2):122–41." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR339" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14276">339</a>]), Zanclorhynchidae. </li> </ul> Suborder Platycephaloidei (= Bembroidei in previous versions) (26%) Morphological synapomorphies: lacking (see comments). Comment: previous versions of this classification included Bembridae and Parabembridae in the suborder Bembroidei, which we now expand to also include Hoplichthyidae, Platycephalidae and Plectrogeniidae (previously listed as suborder-level incertae sedis in Perciformes) – a well-supported clade in our analysis (100% BS). We now name this taxon Platycephaloidei in accordance to other classifications (e.g., [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 336" title="Imamura H. Phylogenetic relationships and new classification of the superfamily Scorpaenoidea (Actinopterygii: Perciformes). Species Diversity. 2004;9:1–36." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR336" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14303">336</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 340" title="Imamura H. Phylogeny of the Family Platycephalidae and Related Taxa (Pisces: Scorpaeniformes). Species Diversity. 1996;1:123–233." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR340" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14306">340</a>]). Note that the family composition differs from that in other studies as Peristediidae and Triglidae are herein placed in a different suborder (Triglioidei).<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Bembridae </li> <li> Hoplichthyidae </li> <li> Parabembridae </li> <li> Platycephalidae </li> <li> Not examined: Plectrogeniidae (see [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 336" title="Imamura H. Phylogenetic relationships and new classification of the superfamily Scorpaenoidea (Actinopterygii: Perciformes). Species Diversity. 2004;9:1–36." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR336" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14342">336</a>]). </li> </ul> Suborder Triglioidei sensu DS Jordan [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 341" title="Jordan DS. A classification of fishes including families and genera as far as known. Stanford Univ Publ, Univ Ser Biol Sci. 1923;3(2):77–243." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR341" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14357">341</a>] (100%) Morphological diagnosis: SA Mandrytsa [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 338" title="Mandrytsa SA. Seismosensory system and classification of scorpionfishes (Scorpaeniformes: Scorpaenodei). Perm: Perm State University Press; 2001." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR338" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14367">338</a>] presents synapomorphies; other results by H Imamura [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 336" title="Imamura H. Phylogenetic relationships and new classification of the superfamily Scorpaenoidea (Actinopterygii: Perciformes). Species Diversity. 2004;9:1–36." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR336" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14370">336</a>], and H Imamura [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 340" title="Imamura H. Phylogeny of the Family Platycephalidae and Related Taxa (Pisces: Scorpaeniformes). Species Diversity. 1996;1:123–233." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR340" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14373">340</a>] differ significantly from ours.<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Peristediidae </li> <li> Triglidae </li> </ul> Suborder Cottoidei (= Cottimorpha sensu Li, A Dettai, C Cruaud, A Couloux, M Desoutter-Meniger and G Lecointre [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 80" title="Li B, Dettai A, Cruaud C, Couloux A, Desoutter-Meniger M, Lecointre G. RNF213, a new nuclear marker for acanthomorph phylogeny. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2009;50(2):345–63." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR80" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14400">80</a>]) (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: H Imamura, S Shirai and M Yabe [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 342" title="Imamura H, Shirai S, Yabe M. Phylogenetic position of the family Trichodontidae (Teleostei: Perciformes), with a revised classification of the perciform suborder Cottoidei. Ichthyol Res. 2005;52:264–74." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR342" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14409">342</a>]. Comment: we have chosen to recognize clades within this suborder as infraorders, adopting the ending “–ales” for this rank. Gasterosteales and Zoarcales have been grouped in a clade named Zoarciformes by B Li, A Dettai, C Cruaud, A Couloux, M Desoutter-Meniger and G Lecointre [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 80" title="Li B, Dettai A, Cruaud C, Couloux A, Desoutter-Meniger M, Lecointre G. RNF213, a new nuclear marker for acanthomorph phylogeny. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2009;50(2):345–63." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR80" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14418">80</a>]. Infraorder Anoplopomatales (= Anoplopomatoidei in previous classifications). Morphological synapomorphies: H Imamura, S Shirai and M Yabe [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 342" title="Imamura H, Shirai S, Yabe M. Phylogenetic position of the family Trichodontidae (Teleostei: Perciformes), with a revised classification of the perciform suborder Cottoidei. Ichthyol Res. 2005;52:264–74." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR342" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14433">342</a>].<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Anoplopomatidae </li> </ul> Infraorder Zoarcales (= Zoarcoidei in previous classifications) (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: ME Anderson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 343" title="Anderson ME. Systematics and osteology of the Zoarcidae (Teleostei: Perciformes). Ichthyol Bull J L B Smith Inst Ichthyol. 1994;60:1–120." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR343" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14458">343</a>], I Imamura and M Yabe [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 337" title="Imamura I, Yabe M. Demise of the Scorpaeniformes (Actinopterygii: Percomorpha): an alternative phylogenetic hypothesis. Bull Fish Sci Hokkaido Univ. 2002;53:107–28." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR337" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14461">337</a>].<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Anarhichadidae </li> <li> Bathymasteridae (not monophyletic in Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#Fig2">2</a>) </li> <li> Cryptacanthodidae </li> <li> Pholidae </li> <li> Stichaeidae (not monophyletic in Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#Fig2">2</a>). </li> <li> Zaproridae </li> <li> Zoarcidae </li> <li> Not examined: Eulophiidae [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 42" title="Nelson JS, Grande T, Wilson MVH. 5th ed. Fishes of the World. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons; 2016." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR42" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14522">42</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 344" title="Kwun HJ, Kim JK. Molecular phylogeny and new classification of the genera Eulophias and Zoarchias (Pisces, Zoarcoidei). Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2013;69(3):787–95." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR344" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14525">344</a>], Ptilichthyidae, Scytalinidae. </li> </ul> Infraorder Gasterosteales (similar to Gasterosteoidei in other classifications, but excluding Indostomidae) (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: R Britz and GD Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 252" title="Britz R, Johnson GD. “Paradox Lost”: Skeletal ontogeny of Indostomus paradoxus and its significance for the phylogenetic relationships of Indostomidae (Teleostei, Gasterosteiformes). Amer Mus Novitates. 2002;3383:1–43." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR252" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14543">252</a>] and EO Wiley and GD Johnson [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 57" title="Wiley EO, Johnson GD. A teleost classification based on monophyletic groups. In: Nelson JS, Schultze HP, MVH W, editors. Origin and Phylogenetic Interrelationships of Teleosts. München: Verlag Dr. F. Pfeil; 2010. p. 123–82." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR57" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14546">57</a>] provided synapomorphies for this clade but their diagnosis included Indostomidae, now placed in the series Anabantaria.<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Aulorhynchidae </li> <li> Gasterosteidae </li> <li> Hypoptychidae </li> </ul> Infraorder Zaniolepidoales (= Zaniolepidoidei sensu WL Smith and MS Busby [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 345" title="Smith WL, Busby MS. Phylogeny and taxonomy of sculpins, sandfishes, and snailfishes (Perciformes: Cottoidei) with comments on the phylogenetic significance of their early-life-history specializations. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2014;79:332–52." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR345" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14579">345</a>]). Morphological synapomorphies: WL Smith and MS Busby [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 345" title="Smith WL, Busby MS. Phylogeny and taxonomy of sculpins, sandfishes, and snailfishes (Perciformes: Cottoidei) with comments on the phylogenetic significance of their early-life-history specializations. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2014;79:332–52." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR345" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14588">345</a>], H Imamura, S Shirai and M Yabe [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 342" title="Imamura H, Shirai S, Yabe M. Phylogenetic position of the family Trichodontidae (Teleostei: Perciformes), with a revised classification of the perciform suborder Cottoidei. Ichthyol Res. 2005;52:264–74." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR342" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14591">342</a>]<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Zaniolepididae (formerly a subfamily of Hexagrammidae [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 62" title="Van Der Laan R, Eschmeyer WN, Fricke R. Family-group names of Recent fishes. Zootaxa. 2014;3882(1):230." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR62" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14600">62</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 345" title="Smith WL, Busby MS. Phylogeny and taxonomy of sculpins, sandfishes, and snailfishes (Perciformes: Cottoidei) with comments on the phylogenetic significance of their early-life-history specializations. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2014;79:332–52." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR345" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14603">345</a>]) </li> </ul> Infraorder Hexagrammales (100%) (= Hexagrammoidei in previous classifications) Morphological synapomorphies: WL Smith and MS Busby [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 345" title="Smith WL, Busby MS. Phylogeny and taxonomy of sculpins, sandfishes, and snailfishes (Perciformes: Cottoidei) with comments on the phylogenetic significance of their early-life-history specializations. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2014;79:332–52." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR345" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14622">345</a>]. Comment: Hexagrammidae as formerly defined is not monophyletic. We now split it into two families (formerly subfamilies): Hexagrammidae (sensu stricto) and Zaniolepididae [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Smith WL, Busby MS. Phylogeny and taxonomy of sculpins, sandfishes, and snailfishes (Perciformes: Cottoidei) with comments on the phylogenetic significance of their early-life-history specializations. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2014;79:332–52." href="#ref-CR345" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14634">345</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Washington BB, Eschmeyer WN, Howe KM. Scorpaeniformes: relationships. In: Moser H, Richards W, Cohen D, Fahay M, Kendell Jr A, Richardson S, editors. Ontogeny and Systematics of Fishes. Lawrence: American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists Special Publication; 1984. p. 438–47." href="#ref-CR346" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14634_1">346</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 347" title="Shinohara G. Memoirs of the Faculty of Fisheries Hokkaido University. 1994;4:1–97." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR347" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14637">347</a>]. As in previous cottoid classifications, these families are placed in their own infraorders (note that previous classifications use suborders instead of infraorders).<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Hexagrammidae (sensu stricto; following [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 345" title="Smith WL, Busby MS. Phylogeny and taxonomy of sculpins, sandfishes, and snailfishes (Perciformes: Cottoidei) with comments on the phylogenetic significance of their early-life-history specializations. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2014;79:332–52." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR345" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14649">345</a>]) </li> </ul> Infraorder Cottales (99%) (= Cottoidei sensu WL Smith and MS Busby [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 345" title="Smith WL, Busby MS. Phylogeny and taxonomy of sculpins, sandfishes, and snailfishes (Perciformes: Cottoidei) with comments on the phylogenetic significance of their early-life-history specializations. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2014;79:332–52." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR345" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14664">345</a>]) Morphological synapomorphies: WL Smith and MS Busby [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 345" title="Smith WL, Busby MS. Phylogeny and taxonomy of sculpins, sandfishes, and snailfishes (Perciformes: Cottoidei) with comments on the phylogenetic significance of their early-life-history specializations. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2014;79:332–52." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR345" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14673">345</a>]. Comments: WL Smith and MS Busby [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 345" title="Smith WL, Busby MS. Phylogeny and taxonomy of sculpins, sandfishes, and snailfishes (Perciformes: Cottoidei) with comments on the phylogenetic significance of their early-life-history specializations. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2014;79:332–52." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR345" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14682">345</a>] changed the membership of Agonidae (now including the former Hemitripteridae), Cottidae (now including the former Abyssocottidae, Comephoridae, and Cottocomephoridae), and Psycholutridae (now including the former Bathylutichthyidae and many marine genera previously placed in Cottidae) to achieve monophyly of these families. Our phylogenetic results support their revised circumscription.<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Agonidae </li> <li> Cottidae </li> <li> Cyclopteridae </li> <li> Liparidae </li> <li> Psychrolutidae </li> <li> Scorpaenichthyidae </li> <li> Trichodontidae </li> <li> Not examined: Jordaniidae (following [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 345" title="Smith WL, Busby MS. Phylogeny and taxonomy of sculpins, sandfishes, and snailfishes (Perciformes: Cottoidei) with comments on the phylogenetic significance of their early-life-history specializations. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2014;79:332–52." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR345" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14737">345</a>]) and Rhamphocottidae (includes the former Ereuniidae; see [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 345" title="Smith WL, Busby MS. Phylogeny and taxonomy of sculpins, sandfishes, and snailfishes (Perciformes: Cottoidei) with comments on the phylogenetic significance of their early-life-history specializations. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2014;79:332–52." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR345" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14740">345</a>]). </li> </ul> Superclass Sarcopterygii (58%) Morphological synapomorphies: see R Cloutier and P Ahlberg [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 348" title="Cloutier R, Ahlberg P. Morphology, Characters, and the Interrelationships of Basal Sarcopterygians. In: MLJ S, Parenti LR, Johnson GD, editors. Interrelationships of fishes. San Diego: Academic Press; 1996. p. 445–80." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR348" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14759">348</a>], HP Schultze and R Cloutier [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 349" title="Schultze HP, Cloutier R. Comparison of the Escuminac Formation ichthyofaunal with other late Givetian/early Frasnian ichthyofaunas. In: Schultze HP, Cloutier R, editors. Devonian Fishes and Plants of Miguasha, Quebec, Canada. Munich: Verlag Dr. Friedrich Pfeil; 1996. p. 348–68." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR349" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14762">349</a>], M Zhu, X Yu and P Janvier [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 118" title="Zhu M, Yu X, Janvier P. A primitive fossil fish sheds light on the origin of bony fishes. Nature. 1999;397(6720):607–10." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR118" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14765">118</a>]. Comment: Phylogenetic studies on sarcopterygians, based on morphological evidence, include both fossil and extant taxa. Some ranks below are thus redundant in content when only extant taxa are considered (e.g., Dipnomorpha, Ceratodontae and Ceratodontiformes). Class Coelacanthimorpha (= Actinistia). Morphological synapomorphies: see R Cloutier and P Ahlberg [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 348" title="Cloutier R, Ahlberg P. Morphology, Characters, and the Interrelationships of Basal Sarcopterygians. In: MLJ S, Parenti LR, Johnson GD, editors. Interrelationships of fishes. San Diego: Academic Press; 1996. p. 445–80." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR348" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14786">348</a>], H Dutel, JG Maisey, DR Schwimmer, P Janvier, M Herbin and G Clément [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 350" title="Dutel H, Maisey JG, Schwimmer DR, Janvier P, Herbin M, Clément G. The giant Cretaceous coelacanth (Actinistia, Sarcopterygii) Megalocoelacanthus dobiei Schwimmer, Stewart & Williams, 1994, and its bearing on Latimerioidei interrelationships. PLoS One. 2012;7(11):e49911." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR350" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14789">350</a>] and G Arratia and HP Schultze [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 351" title="Arratia G, Schultze HP. A new fossil actinistian from the Early Jurassic of Chile and its bearing on the phylogeny of Actinistia. J Vertebr Paleontol. 2015;e983524:983512." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR351" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14792">351</a>] (extant taxa only). Order Coelacanthiformes Morphological synapomorphies: same as Coelacanthimorpha (extant taxa only).<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Latimeriidae </li> </ul> Class Dipnotetrapodomorpha (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: R Cloutier and P Ahlberg [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 348" title="Cloutier R, Ahlberg P. Morphology, Characters, and the Interrelationships of Basal Sarcopterygians. In: MLJ S, Parenti LR, Johnson GD, editors. Interrelationships of fishes. San Diego: Academic Press; 1996. p. 445–80." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR348" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14829">348</a>]. Comment: recent genomic evidence supports the sister-group relationship between lungfishes and tetrapods [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 352" title="Chen MY, Liang D, Zhang P. Selecting question-specific genes to reduce incongruence in phylogenomics: a case study of jawed vertebrate backbone phylogeny. Syst Biol. 2015;64(6):1104–20." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR352" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14838">352</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 353" title="Irisarri I, Meyer A. The identification of the closest living relative(s) of tetrapods: phylogenomic lessons for resolving short ancient internodes. Syst Biol. 2016." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR353" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14841">353</a>]. Subclass Dipnomorpha Morphological synapomorphies: see HP Schultze and KSW Campbell [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 354" title="Schultze HP, Campbell KSW. Characterization of the Dipnoi, a monophyletic group. J Morphol. 1987;(Suppl. 1):25–37." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR354" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14856">354</a>], WE Bemis [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 355" title="Bemis WE. Feeding systems of living Dipnoi; anatomy and function. J Morphol. 1986;190(Supplement S1):249–75." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR355" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14859">355</a>], R Cloutier and P Ahlberg [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 348" title="Cloutier R, Ahlberg P. Morphology, Characters, and the Interrelationships of Basal Sarcopterygians. In: MLJ S, Parenti LR, Johnson GD, editors. Interrelationships of fishes. San Diego: Academic Press; 1996. p. 445–80." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR348" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14862">348</a>], G Arratia, HP Schultze and J Casciotta [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 356" title="Arratia G, Schultze HP, Casciotta J. Vertebral column and associated elements in dipnoans and comparison with other fishes: Development and homology. J Morphol. 2001;250(2):101–72." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR356" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14865">356</a>] (extant taxa only). Superorder Ceratodontae (= Dipnoi) Morphological synapomorphies: same as Dipnomorpha (extant taxa only). Order Ceratodontiformes Morphological synapomorphies: same as Dipnomorpha (extant taxa only). Suborder Ceratodontoidei Morphological synapomorphies: see Cloutier and P Ahlberg [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 342" title="Imamura H, Shirai S, Yabe M. Phylogenetic position of the family Trichodontidae (Teleostei: Perciformes), with a revised classification of the perciform suborder Cottoidei. Ichthyol Res. 2005;52:264–74." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR342" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14905">342</a>].<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Neoceratodontidae </li> </ul> Suborder Lepidosirenoidei (100%) Morphological synapomorphies: see Cloutier and P Ahlberg [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 342" title="Imamura H, Shirai S, Yabe M. Phylogenetic position of the family Trichodontidae (Teleostei: Perciformes), with a revised classification of the perciform suborder Cottoidei. Ichthyol Res. 2005;52:264–74." href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR342" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14930">342</a>].<ul class="u-list-style-none"> <li> Lepidosirenidae </li> <li> Protopteridae </li> </ul> Subclass Tetrapodomorpha (100%)</div></div></section><section data-title="Conclusions"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec3-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec3">Conclusions</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec3-content">This update of the phylogenetic classification of bony fishes is substantially improved, implementing over a hundred changes (Additional file <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#MOESM3">3</a>B) relative to the first version published in 2013 [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 8" title="Betancur-R R, Broughton RE, Wiley EO, Carpenter K, Lopez JA, Li C, et al. The tree of life and a new classification of bony fishes. PLoS Currents Tree of Life. 2013; Edition 1" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#ref-CR8" id="ref-link-section-d31888148e14966">8</a>]. The updated classification is based on a global phylogenetic tree assembled from four different phylogenetic studies that collectively resolve the placement for nearly 2000 species representing 410 families (~80% of the total) of fishes. Citations have been included to refer readers to morphological studies that provide evidence for the monophyly of specific groups, where available. A total of 514 families of bony fishes in 72 orders and 79 suborders are classified in the current version. Several families, however, remain unexamined or lack phylogenetic resolution. Comments are also included to support taxonomic decisions and an exhaustive comparison with conflicting taxonomic groups proposed by others is presented. In summary, rather than maintaining the taxonomic status quo that that has prevailed in ichthyology for decades, this classification uses an explicit and robust phylogenetic framework based on a large-scale phylogenetic backbone as well as on multiple recent, clade-specific studies that continue to improve our knowledge of the fish Tree of Life.</div></div></section> <div id="MagazineFulltextArticleBodySuffix"><section aria-labelledby="Bib1" data-title="References"><div class="c-article-section" id="Bib1-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Bib1">References</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Bib1-content"><div data-container-section="references"><ol class="c-article-references" data-track-component="outbound reference" data-track-context="references section"><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="1.">Linnaeus C: Philosophia Botanica. 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Larval record of a red firefish, Pterois volitans, from northwestern Australia (Pisces: Scorpaeniformes). Bulletin of the Faculty of Fisheries Hokkaido University. 1996;47(2–3):41–6.</li></ol><a data-track="click" data-track-action="download citation references" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow" href="https://citation-needed.springer.com/v2/references/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3?format=refman&flavour=references">Download references<svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-download-medium"></use></svg></a></div></div></div></section></div><section data-title="Acknowledgments"><div class="c-article-section" id="Ack1-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Ack1">Acknowledgments</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Ack1-content">We wish to acknowledge G. David Johnson for reviewing the initial manuscript and then agreeing to review the revision. Dave’s insistence that we pay closer attention to the morphological evidence, both supporting and conflicting our conclusions, has resulted in a much improved and more complete classification. For that he has our deepest thanks. We also thank W. Leo Smith, M. Tan, S. Longo, C. Stout, J. Armbruster, E. Ribeiro, R. Rivero, C. Pedraza, L. Hughes and D. Arcila for additional comments and suggestions on the classification. <h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="FPar1">Funding</h3> This work is supported by National Science Foundation (NSF) grants to R.B.R. (DEB-147184, DEB-1541491), E.O.W. (NSF DEB-0732819), and G.O. (DEB-1457426 and DEB-1541554), and JSPS/MEXT JSPS KAKENHI grants to M.M. (22,370,035 and 26,291,083). <h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="FPar2">Availability of data and materials</h3> All supporting data are included as additional files in the form of Additional files <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#MOESM1">1</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#MOESM2">2</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#MOESM3">3</a> and <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#MOESM4">4</a>. <h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="FPar3">Authors’ contributions</h3> All authors contributed intellectually to the work and approved the submission. <h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="FPar4">Competing interests</h3> The authors declare that they have no competing interests. <h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="FPar5">Ethics approval and consent to participate</h3> Not applicable. <h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="FPar6">Consent for publication</h3> Not applicable. <h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="FPar7">Publisher’s Note</h3> Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. </div></div></section><section aria-labelledby="author-information" data-title="Author information"><div class="c-article-section" id="author-information-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="author-information">Author information</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="author-information-content"><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="affiliations">Authors and Affiliations</h3><ol class="c-article-author-affiliation__list"><li id="Aff1">Department of Biology, University of Puerto Rico, Río Piedras, P.O. 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(ZIP 110 kb)</div></div><div class="c-article-supplementary__item" data-test="supp-item" id="MOESM2"><h3 class="c-article-supplementary__title u-h3"><a class="print-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view supplementary info" data-test="supp-info-link" data-track-label="additional file 2:" href="https://static-content.springer.com/esm/art%3A10.1186%2Fs12862-017-0958-3/MediaObjects/12862_2017_958_MOESM2_ESM.tre" data-supp-info-image="">Additional file 2:</a></h3><div class="c-article-supplementary__description" data-component="thumbnail-container">Complete tree in newick format. See details under legend of Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3#Fig2">2</a>. (TRE 125 kb)</div></div><div class="c-article-supplementary__item" data-test="supp-item" id="MOESM3"><h3 class="c-article-supplementary__title u-h3"><a class="print-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view supplementary info" data-test="supp-info-link" data-track-label="additional file 3:" href="https://static-content.springer.com/esm/art%3A10.1186%2Fs12862-017-0958-3/MediaObjects/12862_2017_958_MOESM3_ESM.docx" data-supp-info-image="">Additional file 3:</a></h3><div class="c-article-supplementary__description" data-component="thumbnail-container">(A) Comment-free classification; (B) list of changes. (DOCX 104 kb)</div></div><div class="c-article-supplementary__item" data-test="supp-item" id="MOESM4"><h3 class="c-article-supplementary__title u-h3"><a class="print-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view supplementary info" data-test="supp-info-link" data-track-label="additional file 4: table s1." href="https://static-content.springer.com/esm/art%3A10.1186%2Fs12862-017-0958-3/MediaObjects/12862_2017_958_MOESM4_ESM.xlsx" data-supp-info-image="">Additional file 4: Table S1.</a></h3><div class="c-article-supplementary__description" data-component="thumbnail-container">Spreadsheet with the complete classification. (XLSX 130 kb)</div></div><div class="c-article-supplementary__item" data-test="supp-item" id="MOESM5"><h3 class="c-article-supplementary__title u-h3"><a class="print-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view supplementary info" data-test="supp-info-link" data-track-label="additional file 5: figure s1." href="https://static-content.springer.com/esm/art%3A10.1186%2Fs12862-017-0958-3/MediaObjects/12862_2017_958_MOESM5_ESM.pdf" data-supp-info-image="">Additional file 5: Figure S1.</a></h3><div class="c-article-supplementary__description" data-component="thumbnail-container">High resolution image of Figure 1. (PDF 1120 kb)</div></div><div class="c-article-supplementary__item" data-test="supp-item" id="MOESM6"><h3 class="c-article-supplementary__title u-h3"><a class="print-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view supplementary info" data-test="supp-info-link" data-track-label="additional file 6: figure s2." href="https://static-content.springer.com/esm/art%3A10.1186%2Fs12862-017-0958-3/MediaObjects/12862_2017_958_MOESM6_ESM.pdf" data-supp-info-image="">Additional file 6: Figure S2.</a></h3><div class="c-article-supplementary__description" data-component="thumbnail-container">High resolution image of Figure 2. 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id="citeas">Cite this article</h3>Betancur-R, R., Wiley, E.O., Arratia, G. et al. Phylogenetic classification of bony fishes. BMC Evol Biol 17, 162 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3<a data-test="citation-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="download article citation" data-track-label="link" data-track-external="" rel="nofollow" href="https://citation-needed.springer.com/v2/references/10.1186/s12862-017-0958-3?format=refman&flavour=citation">Download citation<svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-download-medium"></use></svg></a><ul class="c-bibliographic-information__list" data-test="publication-history"><li class="c-bibliographic-information__list-item">Received: <time datetime="2016-12-06">06 December 2016</time></li><li class="c-bibliographic-information__list-item">Accepted: <time datetime="2017-04-26">26 April 2017</time></li><li class="c-bibliographic-information__list-item">Published: <time datetime="2017-07-06">06 July 2017</time></li><li 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