A Model-Driven Approach to Extract Multi-Source Fault Features of a Screw Pump

<!DOCTYPE html> <html lang="en" xmlns:og="http://ogp.me/ns#" xmlns:fb="https://www.facebook.com/2008/fbml"> <head> <meta charset="utf-8"> <meta http-equiv="X-UA-Compatible" content="IE=edge,chrome=1"> <meta content="mdpi" name="sso-service" /> <meta content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0" name="viewport" /> <title>A Model-Driven Approach to Extract Multi-Source Fault Features of a Screw Pump</title><link rel="stylesheet" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/css/font-awesome.min.css?eb190a3a77e5e1ee?1732615622"> <link rel="stylesheet" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/css/jquery.multiselect.css?f56c135cbf4d1483?1732615622"> <link rel="stylesheet" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/css/chosen.min.css?d7ca5ca9441ef9e1?1732615622"> <link rel="stylesheet" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/css/main2.css?69b39374e6b554b7?1732615622"> <link rel="mask-icon" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/mask-icon-128.svg?c1c7eca266cd7013?1732615622" color="#4f5671"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="180x180" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/icon/apple-touch-icon-180x180.png?1732615622"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="152x152" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/icon/apple-touch-icon-152x152.png?1732615622"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="144x144" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/icon/apple-touch-icon-144x144.png?1732615622"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="120x120" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/icon/apple-touch-icon-120x120.png?1732615622"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="114x114" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/icon/apple-touch-icon-114x114.png?1732615622"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="76x76" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/icon/apple-touch-icon-76x76.png?1732615622"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="72x72" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/icon/apple-touch-icon-72x72.png?1732615622"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="57x57" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/icon/apple-touch-icon-57x57.png?1732615622"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/icon/apple-touch-icon-57x57.png?1732615622"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon-precomposed" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/icon/apple-touch-icon-57x57.png?1732615622"> <link rel="manifest" href="/manifest.json"> <meta name="theme-color" content="#ffffff"> <meta name="application-name" content=" "/> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/journals/processes-logo-sq.png?8600e93ff98dbf14"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/journals/processes-logo-sq.png?8600e93ff98dbf14"> <meta name="msapplication-TileImage" content="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/journals/processes-logo-sq.png?8600e93ff98dbf14"> <link rel="stylesheet" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/css/jquery-ui-1.10.4.custom.min.css?80647d88647bf347?1732615622"> <link rel="stylesheet" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/css/magnific-popup.min.css?04d343e036f8eecd?1732615622"> <link rel="stylesheet" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/css/xml2html/article-html.css?230b005b39af4260?1732615622"> <style> h2, #abstract .related_suggestion_title { } .batch_articles a { color: #000; } a, .batch_articles .authors a, a:focus, a:hover, a:active, .batch_articles a:focus, .batch_articles a:hover, li.side-menu-li a { } span.label a { color: #fff; } #main-content a.title-link:hover, #main-content a.title-link:focus, #main-content div.generic-item a.title-link:hover, #main-content div.generic-item a.title-link:focus { } #main-content #middle-column .generic-item.article-item a.title-link:hover, #main-content #middle-column .generic-item.article-item a.title-link:focus { } .art-authors a.toEncode { color: #333; font-weight: 700; } #main-content #middle-column ul li::before { } .accordion-navigation.active a.accordion__title, .accordion-navigation.active a.accordion__title::after { } .accordion-navigation li:hover::before, .accordion-navigation li:hover a, .accordion-navigation li:focus a { } .relative-size-container .relative-size-image .relative-size { } .middle-column__help__fixed a:hover i, } input[type="checkbox"]:checked:after { } input[type="checkbox"]:not(:disabled):hover:before { } #main-content .bolded-text { } #main-content .hypothesis-count-container { } #main-content .hypothesis-count-container:before { } .full-size-menu ul li.menu-item .dropdown-wrapper { } .full-size-menu ul li.menu-item > a.open::after { } #title-story .title-story-orbit .orbit-caption { #background: url('/img/design/000000_background.png') !important; background: url('/img/design/ffffff_background.png') !important; color: rgb(51, 51, 51) !important; } #main-content .content__container__orbit { background-color: #000 !important; } #main-content .content__container__journal { color: #fff; } .html-article-menu .row span { } .html-article-menu .row span.active { } .accordion-navigation__journal .side-menu-li.active::before, .accordion-navigation__journal .side-menu-li.active a { color: rgba(153,77,69,0.75) !important; font-weight: 700; } .accordion-navigation__journal .side-menu-li:hover::before , .accordion-navigation__journal .side-menu-li:hover a { color: rgba(153,77,69,0.75) !important; } .side-menu-ul li.active a, .side-menu-ul li.active, .side-menu-ul li.active::before { color: rgba(153,77,69,0.75) !important; } .side-menu-ul li.active a { } .result-selected, .active-result.highlighted, .active-result:hover, .result-selected, .active-result.highlighted, .active-result:focus { } .search-container.search-container__default-scheme { } nav.tab-bar .open-small-search.active:after { } .search-container.search-container__default-scheme .custom-accordion-for-small-screen-link::after { color: #fff; } @media only screen and (max-width: 50em) { #main-content .content__container.journal-info { color: #fff; } #main-content .content__container.journal-info a { color: #fff; } } .button.button--color { } .button.button--color:hover, .button.button--color:focus { } .button.button--color-journal { position: relative; background-color: rgba(153,77,69,0.75); border-color: #fff; color: #fff !important; } .button.button--color-journal:hover::before { content: ''; position: absolute; top: 0; left: 0; height: 100%; width: 100%; background-color: #ffffff; opacity: 0.2; } .button.button--color-journal:visited, .button.button--color-journal:hover, .button.button--color-journal:focus { background-color: rgba(153,77,69,0.75); border-color: #fff; color: #fff !important; } .button.button--color path { } .button.button--color:hover path { fill: #fff; } #main-content #search-refinements .ui-slider-horizontal .ui-slider-range { } .breadcrumb__element:last-of-type a { } #main-header { } #full-size-menu .top-bar, #full-size-menu li.menu-item span.user-email { } .top-bar-section li:not(.has-form) a:not(.button) { } #full-size-menu li.menu-item .dropdown-wrapper li a:hover { } #full-size-menu li.menu-item a:hover, #full-size-menu li.menu.item a:focus, nav.tab-bar a:hover { } #full-size-menu li.menu.item a:active, #full-size-menu li.menu.item a.active { } #full-size-menu li.menu-item a.open-mega-menu.active, #full-size-menu li.menu-item div.mega-menu, a.open-mega-menu.active { } #full-size-menu li.menu-item div.mega-menu li, #full-size-menu li.menu-item div.mega-menu a { border-color: #9a9a9a; } div.type-section h2 { font-size: 20px; line-height: 26px; font-weight: 300; } div.type-section h3 { margin-left: 15px; margin-bottom: 0px; font-weight: 300; } .journal-tabs .tab-title.active a { } </style> <link rel="stylesheet" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/css/slick.css?f38b2db10e01b157?1732615622"> <meta name="title" content="A Model-Driven Approach to Extract Multi-Source Fault Features of a Screw Pump"> <meta name="description" content="Screw pumps’ faulty working conditions affect the stability of oil production. At project sites, different sensors are used simultaneously to collect multi-dimensional signals; the data fault labels and location are not clear, and how to comprehensively use multi-source information in effective fault feature extraction has become an urgent issue. Existing diagnostic methods use a single signal or part of a signal and do not fully utilize the acquired signal, which makes it difficult to achieve the required accuracy of diagnostic results. This paper focuses on the model-driven approach to extract multi-source fault features of screw pumps. Firstly, it constructs a fault data model (FDM) by analyzing the fault mechanism of the screw pump. Secondly, it uses the FDM to select an effective data set. Thirdly, it constructs a multi-dimensional fault feature extraction model (MDFEM) to extract featured signal features and data features, for which we also comprehensively used multi-source signals in effective fault feature extraction, while other traditional methods only use one or two signals. Finally, after feature selection, unsupervised fault diagnosis was achieved by using the k-means method. After experimental verification, the method can comprehensively use multi-source information to construct an effective data set and extract multi-dimensional, effective fault features for screw pump fault diagnosis." > <link rel="image_src" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/journals/processes-logo.png?8600e93ff98dbf14" > <meta name="dc.title" content="A Model-Driven Approach to Extract Multi-Source Fault Features of a Screw Pump"> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Weigang Wen"> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Jingqi Qin"> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Xiangru Xu"> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Kaifu Mi"> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Meng Zhou"> <meta name="dc.type" content="Article"> <meta name="dc.source" content="Processes 2024, Vol. 12, Page 2571"> <meta name="dc.date" content="2024-11-17"> <meta name ="dc.identifier" content="10.3390/pr12112571"> <meta name="dc.publisher" content="Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"> <meta name="dc.rights" content="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/"> <meta name="dc.format" content="application/pdf" > <meta name="dc.language" content="en" > <meta name="dc.description" content="Screw pumps’ faulty working conditions affect the stability of oil production. At project sites, different sensors are used simultaneously to collect multi-dimensional signals; the data fault labels and location are not clear, and how to comprehensively use multi-source information in effective fault feature extraction has become an urgent issue. Existing diagnostic methods use a single signal or part of a signal and do not fully utilize the acquired signal, which makes it difficult to achieve the required accuracy of diagnostic results. This paper focuses on the model-driven approach to extract multi-source fault features of screw pumps. Firstly, it constructs a fault data model (FDM) by analyzing the fault mechanism of the screw pump. Secondly, it uses the FDM to select an effective data set. Thirdly, it constructs a multi-dimensional fault feature extraction model (MDFEM) to extract featured signal features and data features, for which we also comprehensively used multi-source signals in effective fault feature extraction, while other traditional methods only use one or two signals. Finally, after feature selection, unsupervised fault diagnosis was achieved by using the k-means method. After experimental verification, the method can comprehensively use multi-source information to construct an effective data set and extract multi-dimensional, effective fault features for screw pump fault diagnosis." > <meta name="dc.subject" content="feature extraction" > <meta name="dc.subject" content="model-driven" > <meta name="dc.subject" content="multi-source information" > <meta name="dc.subject" content="screw pump" > <meta name="dc.subject" content="fault diagnosis" > <meta name ="prism.issn" content="2227-9717"> <meta name ="prism.publicationName" content="Processes"> <meta name ="prism.publicationDate" content="2024-11-17"> <meta name ="prism.volume" content="12"> <meta name ="prism.number" content="11"> <meta name ="prism.section" content="Article" > <meta name ="prism.startingPage" content="2571" > <meta name="citation_issn" content="2227-9717"> <meta name="citation_journal_title" content="Processes"> <meta name="citation_publisher" content="Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"> <meta name="citation_title" content="A Model-Driven Approach to Extract Multi-Source Fault Features of a Screw Pump"> <meta name="citation_publication_date" content="2024/11"> <meta name="citation_online_date" content="2024/11/17"> <meta name="citation_volume" content="12"> <meta name="citation_issue" content="11"> <meta name="citation_firstpage" content="2571"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Wen, Weigang"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Qin, Jingqi"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Xu, Xiangru"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Mi, Kaifu"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Zhou, Meng"> <meta name="citation_doi" content="10.3390/pr12112571"> <meta name="citation_id" content="mdpi-pr12112571"> <meta name="citation_abstract_html_url" content="https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/12/11/2571"> <meta name="citation_pdf_url" content="https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/12/11/2571/pdf?version=1731913633"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/pdf" title="PDF Full-Text" href="https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/12/11/2571/pdf?version=1731913633"> <meta name="fulltext_pdf" content="https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/12/11/2571/pdf?version=1731913633"> <meta name="citation_fulltext_html_url" content="https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/12/11/2571/htm"> <link rel="alternate" type="text/html" title="HTML Full-Text" href="https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/12/11/2571/htm"> <meta name="fulltext_html" content="https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/12/11/2571/htm"> <link rel="alternate" type="text/xml" title="XML Full-Text" href="https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/12/11/2571/xml"> <meta name="fulltext_xml" content="https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/12/11/2571/xml"> <meta name="citation_xml_url" content="https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/12/11/2571/xml"> <meta name="twitter:card" content="summary" /> <meta name="twitter:site" content="@MDPIOpenAccess" /> <meta name="twitter:image" content="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/journals/processes-logo-social.png?8600e93ff98dbf14" /> <meta property="fb:app_id" content="131189377574"/> <meta property="og:site_name" content="MDPI"/> <meta property="og:type" content="article"/> <meta property="og:url" content="https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/12/11/2571" /> <meta property="og:title" content="A Model-Driven Approach to Extract Multi-Source Fault Features of a Screw Pump" /> <meta property="og:description" content="Screw pumps’ faulty working conditions affect the stability of oil production. At project sites, different sensors are used simultaneously to collect multi-dimensional signals; the data fault labels and location are not clear, and how to comprehensively use multi-source information in effective fault feature extraction has become an urgent issue. Existing diagnostic methods use a single signal or part of a signal and do not fully utilize the acquired signal, which makes it difficult to achieve the required accuracy of diagnostic results. This paper focuses on the model-driven approach to extract multi-source fault features of screw pumps. Firstly, it constructs a fault data model (FDM) by analyzing the fault mechanism of the screw pump. Secondly, it uses the FDM to select an effective data set. Thirdly, it constructs a multi-dimensional fault feature extraction model (MDFEM) to extract featured signal features and data features, for which we also comprehensively used multi-source signals in effective fault feature extraction, while other traditional methods only use one or two signals. Finally, after feature selection, unsupervised fault diagnosis was achieved by using the k-means method. After experimental verification, the method can comprehensively use multi-source information to construct an effective data set and extract multi-dimensional, effective fault features for screw pump fault diagnosis." /> <meta property="og:image" content="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g001-550.jpg?1731913718" /> <link rel="alternate" type="application/rss+xml" title="MDPI Publishing - Latest articles" href="https://www.mdpi.com/rss"> <meta name="google-site-verification" content="PxTlsg7z2S00aHroktQd57fxygEjMiNHydKn3txhvwY"> <meta name="facebook-domain-verification" content="mcoq8dtq6sb2hf7z29j8w515jjoof7" /> <script id="Cookiebot" data-cfasync="false" src="https://consent.cookiebot.com/uc.js" data-cbid="51491ddd-fe7a-4425-ab39-69c78c55829f" type="text/javascript" async></script>  <script type="text/plain" data-cookieconsent="statistics"> (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start': new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0], j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src= 'https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f); })(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-WPK7SW5'); </script> <script type="text/plain" data-cookieconsent="statistics"> _linkedin_partner_id = "2846186"; window._linkedin_data_partner_ids = window._linkedin_data_partner_ids || []; window._linkedin_data_partner_ids.push(_linkedin_partner_id); </script><script type="text/javascript"> (function(){var s = document.getElementsByTagName("script")[0]; var b = document.createElement("script"); b.type = "text/javascript";b.async = true; b.src = "https://snap.licdn.com/li.lms-analytics/insight.min.js"; s.parentNode.insertBefore(b, s);})(); </script> <script type="text/plain" data-cookieconsent="statistics" data-cfasync="false" src="//script.crazyegg.com/pages/scripts/0116/4951.js" async="async" ></script> </head> <body> <div class="direction direction_right" id="small_right" style="border-right-width: 0px; padding:0;"> <i class="fa fa-caret-right fa-2x"></i> </div> <div class="big_direction direction_right" id="big_right" style="border-right-width: 0px;"> <div style="text-align: right;"> Next Article in Journal<br> <div><a href="/2227-9717/12/11/2573">Numerical Simulation Study on the Stable Combustion of a 660 MW Supercritical Unit Boiler at Ultra-Low Load</a></div> </div> </div> <div class="direction" id="small_left" style="border-left-width: 0px"> <i class="fa fa-caret-left fa-2x"></i> </div> <div class="big_direction" id="big_left" style="border-left-width: 0px;"> <div> Previous Article in Journal<br> <div><a href="/2227-9717/12/11/2570">Application of an Improved State Feedback Control in the Selective Catalytic Reduction Denitrification Systems of Coal Power Units Under Variable Load Conditions</a></div> </div> </div> <div style="clear: both;"></div> <div id="menuModal" class="reveal-modal reveal-modal-new reveal-modal-menu" aria-hidden="true" data-reveal role="dialog"> <div class="menu-container"> <div class="UI_NavMenu"> <div class="content__container " > <div class="custom-accordion-for-small-screen-link " > <h2>Journals</h2> </div> <div class="target-item custom-accordion-for-small-screen-content show-for-medium-up"> <div class="menu-container__links"> <div style="width: 100%; float: left;"> <a href="/about/journals">Active Journals</a> <a href="/about/journalfinder">Find a Journal</a> <a href="/about/journals/proposal">Journal Proposal</a> <a href="/about/proceedings">Proceedings Series</a> </div> </div> </div> </div> <a href="/topics"> <h2>Topics</h2> </a> <div class="content__container " > <div class="custom-accordion-for-small-screen-link " > <h2>Information</h2> </div> <div class="target-item custom-accordion-for-small-screen-content show-for-medium-up"> <div class="menu-container__links"> <div style="width: 100%; max-width: 200px; float: left;"> <a href="/authors">For Authors</a> <a href="/reviewers">For Reviewers</a> <a href="/editors">For Editors</a> <a href="/librarians">For Librarians</a> <a href="/publishing_services">For Publishers</a> <a href="/societies">For Societies</a> <a href="/conference_organizers">For Conference Organizers</a> </div> <div style="width: 100%; max-width: 250px; float: left;"> <a href="/openaccess">Open Access Policy</a> <a href="/ioap">Institutional Open Access Program</a> <a href="/special_issues_guidelines">Special Issues Guidelines</a> <a href="/editorial_process">Editorial Process</a> <a href="/ethics">Research and Publication Ethics</a> <a href="/apc">Article Processing Charges</a> <a href="/awards">Awards</a> <a href="/testimonials">Testimonials</a> </div> </div> </div> </div> <a href="/authors/english"> <h2>Editing Services</h2> </a> <div class="content__container " > <div class="custom-accordion-for-small-screen-link " > <h2>Initiatives</h2> </div> <div class="target-item custom-accordion-for-small-screen-content show-for-medium-up"> <div class="menu-container__links"> <div style="width: 100%; float: left;"> <a href="https://sciforum.net" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Sciforum</a> <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/books" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">MDPI Books</a> <a href="https://www.preprints.org" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Preprints.org</a> <a href="https://www.scilit.net" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Scilit</a> <a href="https://sciprofiles.com" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">SciProfiles</a> <a href="https://encyclopedia.pub" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Encyclopedia</a> <a href="https://jams.pub" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">JAMS</a> <a href="/about/proceedings">Proceedings Series</a> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="content__container " > <div class="custom-accordion-for-small-screen-link " > <h2>About</h2> </div> <div class="target-item custom-accordion-for-small-screen-content show-for-medium-up"> <div class="menu-container__links"> <div style="width: 100%; float: left;"> <a href="/about">Overview</a> <a href="/about/contact">Contact</a> <a href="https://careers.mdpi.com" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Careers</a> <a href="/about/announcements">News</a> <a href="/about/press">Press</a> <a href="http://blog.mdpi.com/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Blog</a> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="menu-container__buttons"> <a class="button UA_SignInUpButton" href="/user/login">Sign In / Sign Up</a> </div> </div> </div> <div id="captchaModal" class="reveal-modal reveal-modal-new reveal-modal-new--small" data-reveal aria-label="Captcha" aria-hidden="true" role="dialog"></div> <div id="actionDisabledModal" class="reveal-modal" data-reveal aria-labelledby="actionDisableModalTitle" aria-hidden="true" role="dialog" style="width: 300px;"> <h2 id="actionDisableModalTitle">Notice</h2> <form action="/email/captcha" method="post" id="emailCaptchaForm"> <div class="row"> <div id="js-action-disabled-modal-text" class="small-12 columns"> </div> <div id="js-action-disabled-modal-submit" class="small-12 columns" style="margin-top: 10px; display: none;"> You can make submissions to other journals <a href="https://susy.mdpi.com/user/manuscripts/upload">here</a>. </div> </div> </form> <a class="close-reveal-modal" aria-label="Close"> <i class="material-icons">clear</i> </a> </div> <div id="rssNotificationModal" class="reveal-modal reveal-modal-new" data-reveal aria-labelledby="rssNotificationModalTitle" aria-hidden="true" role="dialog"> <div class="row"> <div class="small-12 columns"> <h2 id="rssNotificationModalTitle">Notice</h2> <p> You are accessing a machine-readable page. In order to be human-readable, please install an RSS reader. </p> </div> </div> <div class="row"> <div class="small-12 columns"> <a class="button button--color js-rss-notification-confirm">Continue</a> <a class="button button--grey" onclick="$(this).closest('.reveal-modal').find('.close-reveal-modal').click(); return false;">Cancel</a> </div> </div> <a class="close-reveal-modal" aria-label="Close"> <i class="material-icons">clear</i> </a> </div> <div id="drop-article-label-openaccess" class="f-dropdown medium" data-dropdown-content aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"> <p> All articles published by MDPI are made immediately available worldwide under an open access license. No special permission is required to reuse all or part of the article published by MDPI, including figures and tables. For articles published under an open access Creative Common CC BY license, any part of the article may be reused without permission provided that the original article is clearly cited. For more information, please refer to <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/openaccess">https://www.mdpi.com/openaccess</a>. </p> </div> <div id="drop-article-label-feature" class="f-dropdown medium" data-dropdown-content aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"> <p> Feature papers represent the most advanced research with significant potential for high impact in the field. A Feature Paper should be a substantial original Article that involves several techniques or approaches, provides an outlook for future research directions and describes possible research applications. </p> <p> Feature papers are submitted upon individual invitation or recommendation by the scientific editors and must receive positive feedback from the reviewers. </p> </div> <div id="drop-article-label-choice" class="f-dropdown medium" data-dropdown-content aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"> <p> Editor’s Choice articles are based on recommendations by the scientific editors of MDPI journals from around the world. Editors select a small number of articles recently published in the journal that they believe will be particularly interesting to readers, or important in the respective research area. The aim is to provide a snapshot of some of the most exciting work published in the various research areas of the journal. <div style="margin-top: -10px;"> <div id="drop-article-label-choice-journal-link" style="display: none; margin-top: -10px; padding-top: 10px;"> </div> </div> </p> </div> <div id="drop-article-label-resubmission" class="f-dropdown medium" data-dropdown-content aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"> <p> Original Submission Date Received: <span id="drop-article-label-resubmission-date"></span>. </p> </div> <div id="container"> <noscript> <div id="no-javascript"> You seem to have javascript disabled. Please note that many of the page functionalities won't work as expected without javascript enabled. </div> </noscript> <div class="fixed"> <nav class="tab-bar show-for-medium-down"> <div class="row full-width collapse"> <div class="medium-3 small-4 columns"> <a href="/"> <img class="full-size-menu__mdpi-logo" src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/design/mdpi-pub-logo-black-small1.svg?da3a8dcae975a41c?1732615622" style="width: 64px;" title="MDPI Open Access Journals"> </a> </div> <div class="medium-3 small-4 columns right-aligned"> <div class="show-for-medium-down"> <a href="#" style="display: none;"> <i class="material-icons" onclick="$('#menuModal').foundation('reveal', 'close'); return false;">clear</i> </a> <a class="js-toggle-desktop-layout-link" title="Toggle desktop layout" style="display: none;" href="/toggle_desktop_layout_cookie"> <i class="material-icons">zoom_out_map</i> </a> <a href="#" class="js-open-small-search open-small-search"> <i class="material-icons show-for-small only">search</i> </a> <a title="MDPI main page" class="js-open-menu" data-reveal-id="menuModal" href="#"> <i class="material-icons">menu</i> </a> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <section class="main-section"> <header> <div class="full-size-menu show-for-large-up"> <div class="row full-width"> <div class="large-1 columns"> <a href="/"> <img class="full-size-menu__mdpi-logo" src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/design/mdpi-pub-logo-black-small1.svg?da3a8dcae975a41c?1732615622" title="MDPI Open Access Journals"> </a> </div> <div class="large-8 columns text-right UI_NavMenu"> <ul> <li class="menu-item"> <a href="/about/journals" data-dropdown="journals-dropdown" aria-controls="journals-dropdown" aria-expanded="false" data-options="is_hover: true; hover_timeout: 200">Journals</a> <ul id="journals-dropdown" class="f-dropdown dropdown-wrapper dropdown-wrapper__small" data-dropdown-content aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"> <li> <div class="row"> <div class="small-12 columns"> <ul> <li> <a href="/about/journals"> Active Journals </a> </li> <li> <a href="/about/journalfinder"> Find a Journal </a> </li> <li> <a href="/about/journals/proposal"> Journal Proposal </a> </li> <li> <a href="/about/proceedings"> Proceedings Series </a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="menu-item"> <a href="/topics">Topics</a> </li> <li class="menu-item"> <a href="/authors" data-dropdown="information-dropdown" aria-controls="information-dropdown" aria-expanded="false" data-options="is_hover:true; hover_timeout:200">Information</a> <ul id="information-dropdown" class="f-dropdown dropdown-wrapper" data-dropdown-content aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"> <li> <div class="row"> <div class="small-5 columns right-border"> <ul> <li> <a href="/authors">For Authors</a> </li> <li> <a href="/reviewers">For Reviewers</a> </li> <li> <a href="/editors">For Editors</a> </li> <li> <a href="/librarians">For Librarians</a> </li> <li> <a href="/publishing_services">For Publishers</a> </li> <li> <a href="/societies">For Societies</a> </li> <li> <a href="/conference_organizers">For Conference Organizers</a> </li> </ul> </div> <div class="small-7 columns"> <ul> <li> <a href="/openaccess">Open Access Policy</a> </li> <li> <a href="/ioap">Institutional Open Access Program</a> </li> <li> <a href="/special_issues_guidelines">Special Issues Guidelines</a> </li> <li> <a href="/editorial_process">Editorial Process</a> </li> <li> <a href="/ethics">Research and Publication Ethics</a> </li> <li> <a href="/apc">Article Processing Charges</a> </li> <li> <a href="/awards">Awards</a> </li> <li> <a href="/testimonials">Testimonials</a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="menu-item"> <a href="/authors/english">Editing Services</a> </li> <li class="menu-item"> <a href="/about/initiatives" data-dropdown="initiatives-dropdown" aria-controls="initiatives-dropdown" aria-expanded="false" data-options="is_hover: true; hover_timeout: 200">Initiatives</a> <ul id="initiatives-dropdown" class="f-dropdown dropdown-wrapper dropdown-wrapper__small" data-dropdown-content aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"> <li> <div class="row"> <div class="small-12 columns"> <ul> <li> <a href="https://sciforum.net" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> Sciforum </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/books" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> MDPI Books </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://www.preprints.org" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> Preprints.org </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://www.scilit.net" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> Scilit </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://sciprofiles.com" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> SciProfiles </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://encyclopedia.pub" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> Encyclopedia </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://jams.pub" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> JAMS </a> </li> <li> <a href="/about/proceedings"> Proceedings Series </a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="menu-item"> <a href="/about" data-dropdown="about-dropdown" aria-controls="about-dropdown" aria-expanded="false" data-options="is_hover: true; hover_timeout: 200">About</a> <ul id="about-dropdown" class="f-dropdown dropdown-wrapper dropdown-wrapper__small" data-dropdown-content aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"> <li> <div class="row"> <div class="small-12 columns"> <ul> <li> <a href="/about"> Overview </a> </li> <li> <a href="/about/contact"> Contact </a> </li> <li> <a href="https://careers.mdpi.com" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> Careers </a> </li> <li> <a href="/about/announcements"> News </a> </li> <li> <a href="/about/press"> Press </a> </li> <li> <a href="http://blog.mdpi.com/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> Blog </a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> <div class="large-3 columns text-right full-size-menu__buttons"> <div> <a class="button button--default-inversed UA_SignInUpButton" href="/user/login">Sign In / Sign Up</a> <a class="button button--default js-journal-active-only-link js-journal-active-only-submit-link UC_NavSubmitButton" href=" https://susy.mdpi.com/user/manuscripts/upload?journal=processes " data-disabledmessage="new submissions are not possible.">Submit</a> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="header-divider"> </div> <div class="search-container hide-for-small-down row search-container__homepage-scheme"> <form id="basic_search" style="background-color: inherit !important;" class="large-12 medium-12 columns " action="/search" method="get"> <div class="row search-container__main-elements"> <div class="large-2 medium-2 small-12 columns text-right1 small-only-text-left"> <div class="show-for-medium-up"> <div class="search-input-label"> </div> </div> <span class="search-container__title">Search<span class="hide-for-medium"> for Articles</span><span class="hide-for-small">:</span></span> </div> <div class="custom-accordion-for-small-screen-content"> <div class="large-2 medium-2 small-6 columns "> <div class=""> <div class="search-input-label">Title / Keyword</div> </div> <input type="text" placeholder="Title / Keyword" id="q" tabindex="1" name="q" value="" /> </div> <div class="large-2 medium-2 small-6 columns "> <div class=""> <div class="search-input-label">Author / Affiliation / Email</div> </div> <input type="text" id="authors" placeholder="Author / Affiliation / Email" tabindex="2" name="authors" value="" /> </div> <div class="large-2 medium-2 small-6 columns "> <div class=""> <div class="search-input-label">Journal</div> </div> <select id="journal" tabindex="3" name="journal" class="chosen-select"> <option value="">All Journals</option> <option value="acoustics" > Acoustics </option> <option value="amh" > Acta Microbiologica Hellenica (AMH) </option> <option value="actuators" > Actuators </option> <option value="admsci" > Administrative Sciences </option> <option value="adolescents" > Adolescents </option> <option value="arm" > Advances in Respiratory Medicine (ARM) </option> <option value="aerobiology" > Aerobiology </option> <option value="aerospace" > Aerospace </option> <option value="agriculture" > Agriculture </option> <option value="agriengineering" > AgriEngineering </option> <option value="agrochemicals" > Agrochemicals </option> <option value="agronomy" > Agronomy </option> <option value="ai" > AI </option> <option value="air" > Air </option> <option value="algorithms" > Algorithms </option> <option value="allergies" > Allergies </option> <option value="alloys" > Alloys </option> <option value="analytica" > Analytica </option> <option value="analytics" > Analytics </option> <option value="anatomia" > Anatomia </option> <option value="anesthres" > Anesthesia Research </option> <option value="animals" > Animals </option> <option value="antibiotics" > Antibiotics </option> <option value="antibodies" > Antibodies </option> <option value="antioxidants" > Antioxidants </option> <option value="applbiosci" > Applied Biosciences </option> <option value="applmech" > Applied Mechanics </option> <option value="applmicrobiol" > Applied Microbiology </option> <option value="applnano" > Applied Nano </option> <option value="applsci" > Applied Sciences </option> <option value="asi" > Applied System Innovation (ASI) </option> <option value="appliedchem" > AppliedChem </option> <option value="appliedmath" > AppliedMath </option> <option value="aquacj" > Aquaculture Journal </option> <option value="architecture" > Architecture </option> <option value="arthropoda" > Arthropoda </option> <option value="arts" > Arts </option> <option value="astronomy" > Astronomy </option> <option value="atmosphere" > Atmosphere </option> <option value="atoms" > Atoms </option> <option value="audiolres" > Audiology Research </option> <option value="automation" > Automation </option> <option value="axioms" > Axioms </option> <option value="bacteria" > Bacteria </option> <option value="batteries" > Batteries </option> <option value="behavsci" > Behavioral Sciences </option> <option value="beverages" > Beverages </option> <option value="BDCC" > Big Data and Cognitive Computing (BDCC) </option> <option value="biochem" > BioChem </option> <option value="bioengineering" > Bioengineering </option> <option value="biologics" > Biologics </option> <option value="biology" > Biology </option> <option value="blsf" > Biology and Life Sciences Forum </option> <option value="biomass" > Biomass </option> <option value="biomechanics" > Biomechanics </option> <option value="biomed" > BioMed </option> <option value="biomedicines" > Biomedicines </option> <option value="biomedinformatics" > BioMedInformatics </option> <option value="biomimetics" > Biomimetics </option> <option value="biomolecules" > Biomolecules </option> <option value="biophysica" > Biophysica </option> <option value="biosensors" > Biosensors </option> <option value="biotech" > BioTech </option> <option value="birds" > Birds </option> <option value="blockchains" > Blockchains </option> <option value="brainsci" > Brain Sciences </option> <option value="buildings" > Buildings </option> <option value="businesses" > Businesses </option> <option value="carbon" > C </option> <option value="cancers" > Cancers </option> <option value="cardiogenetics" > Cardiogenetics </option> <option value="catalysts" > Catalysts </option> <option value="cells" > Cells </option> <option value="ceramics" > Ceramics </option> <option value="challenges" > Challenges </option> <option value="ChemEngineering" > ChemEngineering </option> <option value="chemistry" > Chemistry </option> <option value="chemproc" > Chemistry Proceedings </option> <option value="chemosensors" > Chemosensors </option> <option value="children" > Children </option> <option value="chips" > Chips </option> <option value="civileng" > CivilEng </option> <option value="cleantechnol" > Clean Technologies (Clean Technol.) </option> <option value="climate" > Climate </option> <option value="ctn" > Clinical and Translational Neuroscience (CTN) </option> <option value="clinbioenerg" > Clinical Bioenergetics </option> <option value="clinpract" > Clinics and Practice </option> <option value="clockssleep" > Clocks & Sleep </option> <option value="coasts" > Coasts </option> <option value="coatings" > Coatings </option> <option value="colloids" > Colloids and Interfaces </option> <option value="colorants" > Colorants </option> <option value="commodities" > Commodities </option> <option value="complications" > Complications </option> <option value="compounds" > Compounds </option> <option value="computation" > Computation </option> <option value="csmf" > Computer Sciences & Mathematics Forum </option> <option value="computers" > Computers </option> <option value="condensedmatter" > Condensed Matter </option> <option value="conservation" > Conservation </option> <option value="constrmater" > Construction Materials </option> <option value="cmd" > Corrosion and Materials Degradation (CMD) </option> <option value="cosmetics" > Cosmetics </option> <option value="covid" > COVID </option> <option value="crops" > Crops </option> <option value="cryo" > Cryo </option> <option value="cryptography" > Cryptography </option> <option value="crystals" > Crystals </option> <option value="cimb" > Current Issues in Molecular Biology (CIMB) </option> <option value="curroncol" > Current Oncology </option> <option value="dairy" > Dairy </option> <option value="data" > Data </option> <option value="dentistry" > Dentistry Journal </option> <option value="dermato" > Dermato </option> <option value="dermatopathology" > Dermatopathology </option> <option value="designs" > Designs </option> <option value="diabetology" > Diabetology </option> <option value="diagnostics" > Diagnostics </option> <option value="dietetics" > Dietetics </option> <option value="digital" > Digital </option> <option value="disabilities" > Disabilities </option> <option value="diseases" > Diseases </option> <option value="diversity" > Diversity </option> <option value="dna" > DNA </option> <option value="drones" > Drones </option> <option value="ddc" > Drugs and Drug Candidates (DDC) </option> <option value="dynamics" > Dynamics </option> <option value="earth" > Earth </option> <option value="ecologies" > Ecologies </option> <option value="econometrics" > Econometrics </option> <option value="economies" > Economies </option> <option value="education" > Education Sciences </option> <option value="electricity" > Electricity </option> <option value="electrochem" > Electrochem </option> <option value="electronicmat" > Electronic Materials </option> <option value="electronics" > Electronics </option> <option value="ecm" > Emergency Care and Medicine </option> <option value="encyclopedia" > Encyclopedia </option> <option value="endocrines" > Endocrines </option> <option value="energies" > Energies </option> <option value="esa" > Energy Storage and Applications (ESA) </option> <option value="eng" > Eng </option> <option value="engproc" > Engineering Proceedings </option> <option value="entropy" > Entropy </option> <option value="environsciproc" > Environmental Sciences Proceedings </option> <option value="environments" > Environments </option> <option value="epidemiologia" > Epidemiologia </option> <option value="epigenomes" > Epigenomes </option> <option value="ebj" > European Burn Journal (EBJ) </option> <option value="ejihpe" > European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education (EJIHPE) </option> <option value="fermentation" > Fermentation </option> <option value="fibers" > Fibers </option> <option value="fintech" > FinTech </option> <option value="fire" > Fire </option> <option value="fishes" > Fishes </option> <option value="fluids" > Fluids </option> <option value="foods" > Foods </option> <option value="forecasting" > Forecasting </option> <option value="forensicsci" > Forensic Sciences </option> <option value="forests" > Forests </option> <option value="fossstud" > Fossil Studies </option> <option value="foundations" > Foundations </option> <option value="fractalfract" > Fractal and Fractional (Fractal Fract) </option> <option value="fuels" > Fuels </option> <option value="future" > Future </option> <option value="futureinternet" > Future Internet </option> <option value="futurepharmacol" > Future Pharmacology </option> <option value="futuretransp" > Future Transportation </option> <option value="galaxies" > Galaxies </option> <option value="games" > Games </option> <option value="gases" > Gases </option> <option value="gastroent" > Gastroenterology Insights </option> <option value="gastrointestdisord" > Gastrointestinal Disorders </option> <option value="gastronomy" > Gastronomy </option> <option value="gels" > Gels </option> <option value="genealogy" > Genealogy </option> <option value="genes" > Genes </option> <option value="geographies" > Geographies </option> <option value="geohazards" > GeoHazards </option> <option value="geomatics" > Geomatics </option> <option value="geometry" > Geometry </option> <option value="geosciences" > Geosciences </option> <option value="geotechnics" > Geotechnics </option> <option value="geriatrics" > Geriatrics </option> <option value="glacies" > Glacies </option> <option value="gucdd" > Gout, Urate, and Crystal Deposition Disease (GUCDD) </option> <option value="grasses" > Grasses </option> <option value="hardware" > Hardware </option> <option value="healthcare" > Healthcare </option> <option value="hearts" > Hearts </option> <option value="hemato" > Hemato </option> <option value="hematolrep" > Hematology Reports </option> <option value="heritage" > Heritage </option> <option value="histories" > Histories </option> <option value="horticulturae" > Horticulturae </option> <option value="hospitals" > Hospitals </option> <option value="humanities" > Humanities </option> <option value="humans" > Humans </option> <option value="hydrobiology" > Hydrobiology </option> <option value="hydrogen" > Hydrogen </option> <option value="hydrology" > Hydrology </option> <option value="hygiene" > Hygiene </option> <option value="immuno" > Immuno </option> <option value="idr" > Infectious Disease Reports </option> <option value="informatics" > Informatics </option> <option value="information" > Information </option> <option value="infrastructures" > Infrastructures </option> <option value="inorganics" > Inorganics </option> <option value="insects" > Insects </option> <option value="instruments" > Instruments </option> <option value="iic" > Intelligent Infrastructure and Construction </option> <option value="ijerph" > International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (IJERPH) </option> <option value="ijfs" > International Journal of Financial Studies (IJFS) </option> <option value="ijms" > International Journal of Molecular Sciences (IJMS) </option> <option value="IJNS" > International Journal of Neonatal Screening (IJNS) </option> <option value="ijpb" > International Journal of Plant Biology (IJPB) </option> <option value="ijt" > International Journal of Topology </option> <option value="ijtm" > International Journal of Translational Medicine (IJTM) </option> <option value="ijtpp" > International Journal of Turbomachinery, Propulsion and Power (IJTPP) </option> <option value="ime" > International Medical Education (IME) </option> <option value="inventions" > Inventions </option> <option value="IoT" > IoT </option> <option value="ijgi" > ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information (IJGI) </option> <option value="J" > J </option> <option value="jal" > Journal of Ageing and Longevity (JAL) </option> <option value="jcdd" > Journal of Cardiovascular Development and Disease (JCDD) </option> <option value="jcto" > Journal of Clinical & Translational Ophthalmology (JCTO) </option> <option value="jcm" > Journal of Clinical Medicine (JCM) </option> <option value="jcs" > Journal of Composites Science (J. Compos. Sci.) </option> <option value="jcp" > Journal of Cybersecurity and Privacy (JCP) </option> <option value="jdad" > Journal of Dementia and Alzheimer's Disease (JDAD) </option> <option value="jdb" > Journal of Developmental Biology (JDB) </option> <option value="jeta" > Journal of Experimental and Theoretical Analyses (JETA) </option> <option value="jfb" > Journal of Functional Biomaterials (JFB) </option> <option value="jfmk" > Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology (JFMK) </option> <option value="jof" > Journal of Fungi (JoF) </option> <option value="jimaging" > Journal of Imaging (J. Imaging) </option> <option value="jintelligence" > Journal of Intelligence (J. Intell.) </option> <option value="jlpea" > Journal of Low Power Electronics and Applications (JLPEA) </option> <option value="jmmp" > Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing (JMMP) </option> <option value="jmse" > Journal of Marine Science and Engineering (JMSE) </option> <option value="jmahp" > Journal of Market Access & Health Policy (JMAHP) </option> <option value="jmp" > Journal of Molecular Pathology (JMP) </option> <option value="jnt" > Journal of Nanotheranostics (JNT) </option> <option value="jne" > Journal of Nuclear Engineering (JNE) </option> <option value="ohbm" > Journal of Otorhinolaryngology, Hearing and Balance Medicine (JOHBM) </option> <option value="jop" > Journal of Parks </option> <option value="jpm" > Journal of Personalized Medicine (JPM) </option> <option value="jpbi" > Journal of Pharmaceutical and BioTech Industry (JPBI) </option> <option value="jor" > Journal of Respiration (JoR) </option> <option value="jrfm" > Journal of Risk and Financial Management (JRFM) </option> <option value="jsan" > Journal of Sensor and Actuator Networks (JSAN) </option> <option value="joma" > Journal of the Oman Medical Association (JOMA) </option> <option value="jtaer" > Journal of Theoretical and Applied Electronic Commerce Research (JTAER) </option> <option value="jvd" > Journal of Vascular Diseases (JVD) </option> <option value="jox" > Journal of Xenobiotics (JoX) </option> <option value="jzbg" > Journal of Zoological and Botanical Gardens (JZBG) </option> <option value="journalmedia" > Journalism and Media </option> <option value="kidneydial" > Kidney and Dialysis </option> <option value="kinasesphosphatases" > Kinases and Phosphatases </option> <option value="knowledge" > Knowledge </option> <option value="labmed" > LabMed </option> <option value="laboratories" > Laboratories </option> <option value="land" > Land </option> <option value="languages" > Languages </option> <option value="laws" > Laws </option> <option value="life" > Life </option> <option value="limnolrev" > Limnological Review </option> <option value="lipidology" > Lipidology </option> <option value="liquids" > Liquids </option> <option value="literature" > Literature </option> <option value="livers" > Livers </option> <option value="logics" > Logics </option> <option value="logistics" > Logistics </option> <option value="lubricants" > Lubricants </option> <option value="lymphatics" > Lymphatics </option> <option value="make" > Machine Learning and Knowledge Extraction (MAKE) </option> <option value="machines" > Machines </option> <option value="macromol" > Macromol </option> <option value="magnetism" > Magnetism </option> <option value="magnetochemistry" > Magnetochemistry </option> <option value="marinedrugs" > Marine Drugs </option> <option value="materials" > Materials </option> <option value="materproc" > Materials Proceedings </option> <option value="mca" > Mathematical and Computational Applications (MCA) </option> <option value="mathematics" > Mathematics </option> <option value="medsci" > Medical Sciences </option> <option value="msf" > Medical Sciences Forum </option> <option value="medicina" > Medicina </option> <option value="medicines" > Medicines </option> <option value="membranes" > Membranes </option> <option value="merits" > Merits </option> <option value="metabolites" > Metabolites </option> <option value="metals" > Metals </option> <option value="meteorology" > Meteorology </option> <option value="methane" > Methane </option> <option value="mps" > Methods and Protocols (MPs) </option> <option value="metrics" > Metrics </option> <option value="metrology" > Metrology </option> <option value="micro" > Micro </option> <option value="microbiolres" > Microbiology Research </option> <option value="micromachines" > Micromachines </option> <option value="microorganisms" > Microorganisms </option> <option value="microplastics" > Microplastics </option> <option value="minerals" > Minerals </option> <option value="mining" > Mining </option> <option value="modelling" > Modelling </option> <option value="mmphys" > Modern Mathematical Physics </option> <option value="molbank" > Molbank </option> <option value="molecules" > Molecules </option> <option value="mti" > Multimodal Technologies and Interaction (MTI) </option> <option value="muscles" > Muscles </option> <option value="nanoenergyadv" > Nanoenergy Advances </option> <option value="nanomanufacturing" > Nanomanufacturing </option> <option value="nanomaterials" > Nanomaterials </option> <option value="ndt" > NDT </option> <option value="network" > Network </option> <option value="neuroglia" > Neuroglia </option> <option value="neurolint" > Neurology International </option> <option value="neurosci" > NeuroSci </option> <option value="nitrogen" > Nitrogen </option> <option value="ncrna" > Non-Coding RNA (ncRNA) </option> <option value="nursrep" > Nursing Reports </option> <option value="nutraceuticals" > Nutraceuticals </option> <option value="nutrients" > Nutrients </option> <option value="obesities" > Obesities </option> <option value="oceans" > Oceans </option> <option value="onco" > Onco </option> <option value="optics" > Optics </option> <option value="oral" > Oral </option> <option value="organics" > Organics </option> <option value="organoids" > Organoids </option> <option value="osteology" > Osteology </option> <option value="oxygen" > Oxygen </option> <option value="parasitologia" > Parasitologia </option> <option value="particles" > Particles </option> <option value="pathogens" > Pathogens </option> <option value="pathophysiology" > Pathophysiology </option> <option value="pediatrrep" > Pediatric Reports </option> <option value="pets" > Pets </option> <option value="pharmaceuticals" > Pharmaceuticals </option> <option value="pharmaceutics" > Pharmaceutics </option> <option value="pharmacoepidemiology" > Pharmacoepidemiology </option> <option value="pharmacy" > Pharmacy </option> <option value="philosophies" > Philosophies </option> <option value="photochem" > Photochem </option> <option value="photonics" > Photonics </option> <option value="phycology" > Phycology </option> <option value="physchem" > Physchem </option> <option value="psf" > Physical Sciences Forum </option> <option value="physics" > Physics </option> <option value="physiologia" > Physiologia </option> <option value="plants" > Plants </option> <option value="plasma" > Plasma </option> <option value="platforms" > Platforms </option> <option value="pollutants" > Pollutants </option> <option value="polymers" > Polymers </option> <option value="polysaccharides" > Polysaccharides </option> <option value="populations" > Populations </option> <option value="poultry" > Poultry </option> <option value="powders" > Powders </option> <option value="proceedings" > Proceedings </option> <option value="processes" selected='selected'> Processes </option> <option value="prosthesis" > Prosthesis </option> <option value="proteomes" > Proteomes </option> <option value="psychiatryint" > Psychiatry International </option> <option value="psychoactives" > Psychoactives </option> <option value="psycholint" > Psychology International </option> <option value="publications" > Publications </option> <option value="qubs" > Quantum Beam Science (QuBS) </option> <option value="quantumrep" > Quantum Reports </option> <option value="quaternary" > Quaternary </option> <option value="radiation" > Radiation </option> <option value="reactions" > Reactions </option> <option value="realestate" > Real Estate </option> <option value="receptors" > Receptors </option> <option value="recycling" > Recycling </option> <option value="rsee" > Regional Science and Environmental Economics (RSEE) </option> <option value="religions" > Religions </option> <option value="remotesensing" > Remote Sensing </option> <option value="reports" > Reports </option> <option value="reprodmed" > Reproductive Medicine (Reprod. Med.) </option> <option value="resources" > Resources </option> <option value="rheumato" > Rheumato </option> <option value="risks" > Risks </option> <option value="robotics" > Robotics </option> <option value="ruminants" > Ruminants </option> <option value="safety" > Safety </option> <option value="sci" > Sci </option> <option value="scipharm" > Scientia Pharmaceutica (Sci. Pharm.) </option> <option value="sclerosis" > Sclerosis </option> <option value="seeds" > Seeds </option> <option value="sensors" > Sensors </option> <option value="separations" > Separations </option> <option value="sexes" > Sexes </option> <option value="signals" > Signals </option> <option value="sinusitis" > Sinusitis </option> <option value="smartcities" > Smart Cities </option> <option value="socsci" > Social Sciences </option> <option value="siuj" > Société Internationale d’Urologie Journal (SIUJ) </option> <option value="societies" > Societies </option> <option value="software" > Software </option> <option value="soilsystems" > Soil Systems </option> <option value="solar" > Solar </option> <option value="solids" > Solids </option> <option value="spectroscj" > Spectroscopy Journal </option> <option value="sports" > Sports </option> <option value="standards" > Standards </option> <option value="stats" > Stats </option> <option value="stresses" > Stresses </option> <option value="surfaces" > Surfaces </option> <option value="surgeries" > Surgeries </option> <option value="std" > Surgical Techniques Development </option> <option value="sustainability" > Sustainability </option> <option value="suschem" > Sustainable Chemistry </option> <option value="symmetry" > Symmetry </option> <option value="synbio" > SynBio </option> <option value="systems" > Systems </option> <option value="targets" > Targets </option> <option value="taxonomy" > Taxonomy </option> <option value="technologies" > Technologies </option> <option value="telecom" > Telecom </option> <option value="textiles" > Textiles </option> <option value="thalassrep" > Thalassemia Reports </option> <option value="therapeutics" > Therapeutics </option> <option value="thermo" > Thermo </option> <option value="timespace" > Time and Space </option> <option value="tomography" > Tomography </option> <option value="tourismhosp" > Tourism and Hospitality </option> <option value="toxics" > Toxics </option> <option value="toxins" > Toxins </option> <option value="transplantology" > Transplantology </option> <option value="traumacare" > Trauma Care </option> <option value="higheredu" > Trends in Higher Education </option> <option value="tropicalmed" > Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease (TropicalMed) </option> <option value="universe" > Universe </option> <option value="urbansci" > Urban Science </option> <option value="uro" > Uro </option> <option value="vaccines" > Vaccines </option> <option value="vehicles" > Vehicles </option> <option value="venereology" > Venereology </option> <option value="vetsci" > Veterinary Sciences </option> <option value="vibration" > Vibration </option> <option value="virtualworlds" > Virtual Worlds </option> <option value="viruses" > Viruses </option> <option value="vision" > Vision </option> <option value="waste" > Waste </option> <option value="water" > Water </option> <option value="wild" > Wild </option> <option value="wind" > Wind </option> <option value="women" > Women </option> <option value="world" > World </option> <option value="wevj" > World Electric Vehicle Journal (WEVJ) </option> <option value="youth" > Youth </option> <option value="zoonoticdis" > Zoonotic Diseases </option> </select> </div> <div class="large-2 medium-2 small-6 columns "> <div class=""> <div class="search-input-label">Article Type</div> </div> <select id="article_type" tabindex="4" name="article_type" class="chosen-select"> <option value="">All Article Types</option> <option value="research-article">Article</option> <option value="review-article">Review</option> <option value="rapid-communication">Communication</option> <option value="editorial">Editorial</option> <option value="abstract">Abstract</option> <option value="book-review">Book Review</option> <option value="brief-communication">Brief Communication</option> <option value="brief-report">Brief Report</option> <option value="case-report">Case Report</option> <option value="clinicopathological-challenge">Clinicopathological Challenge</option> <option value="article-commentary">Comment</option> <option value="commentary">Commentary</option> <option value="concept-paper">Concept Paper</option> <option value="conference-report">Conference Report</option> <option value="correction">Correction</option> <option value="creative">Creative</option> <option value="data-descriptor">Data Descriptor</option> <option value="discussion">Discussion</option> <option value="Entry">Entry</option> <option value="essay">Essay</option> <option value="expression-of-concern">Expression of Concern</option> <option value="extended-abstract">Extended Abstract</option> <option value="field-guide">Field Guide</option> <option value="guidelines">Guidelines</option> <option value="hypothesis">Hypothesis</option> <option value="interesting-image">Interesting Images</option> <option value="letter">Letter</option> <option value="books-received">New Book Received</option> <option value="obituary">Obituary</option> <option value="opinion">Opinion</option> <option value="perspective">Perspective</option> <option value="proceedings">Proceeding Paper</option> <option value="project-report">Project Report</option> <option value="protocol">Protocol</option> <option value="registered-report">Registered Report</option> <option value="reply">Reply</option> <option value="retraction">Retraction</option> <option value="note">Short Note</option> <option value="study-protocol">Study Protocol</option> <option value="systematic_review">Systematic Review</option> <option value="technical-note">Technical Note</option> <option value="tutorial">Tutorial</option> <option value="viewpoint">Viewpoint</option> </select> </div> <div class="large-1 medium-1 small-6 end columns small-push-6 medium-reset-order large-reset-order js-search-collapsed-button-container"> <div class="search-input-label"> </div> <input type="submit" id="search" value="Search" class="button button--dark button--full-width searchButton1 US_SearchButton" tabindex="12"> </div> <div class="large-1 medium-1 small-6 end columns large-text-left small-only-text-center small-pull-6 medium-reset-order large-reset-order js-search-collapsed-link-container"> <div class="search-input-label"> </div> <a class="main-search-clear search-container__link" href="#" onclick="openAdvanced(''); return false;">Advanced<span class="show-for-small-only"> Search</span></a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="search-container__advanced" style="margin-top: 0; padding-top: 0px; background-color: inherit; color: inherit;"> <div class="row"> <div class="large-2 medium-2 columns show-for-medium-up"> </div> <div class="large-2 medium-2 small-6 columns "> <div class=""> <div class="search-input-label">Section</div> </div> <select id="section" tabindex="5" name="section" class="chosen-select"> <option value=""></option> </select> </div> <div class="large-2 medium-2 small-6 columns "> <div class=""> <div class="search-input-label">Special Issue</div> </div> <select id="special_issue" tabindex="6" name="special_issue" class="chosen-select"> <option value=""></option> </select> </div> <div class="large-1 medium-1 small-6 end columns "> <div class="search-input-label">Volume</div> <input type="text" id="volume" tabindex="7" name="volume" placeholder="..." value="12" /> </div> <div class="large-1 medium-1 small-6 end columns "> <div class="search-input-label">Issue</div> <input type="text" id="issue" tabindex="8" name="issue" placeholder="..." value="11" /> </div> <div class="large-1 medium-1 small-6 end columns "> <div class="search-input-label">Number</div> <input type="text" id="number" tabindex="9" name="number" placeholder="..." value="" /> </div> <div class="large-1 medium-1 small-6 end columns "> <div class="search-input-label">Page</div> <input type="text" id="page" tabindex="10" name="page" placeholder="..." value="" /> </div> <div class="large-1 medium-1 small-6 columns small-push-6 medium-reset order large-reset-order medium-reset-order js-search-expanded-button-container"></div> <div class="large-1 medium-1 small-6 columns large-text-left small-only-text-center small-pull-6 medium-reset-order large-reset-order js-search-expanded-link-container"></div> </div> </div> </form> <form id="advanced-search" class="large-12 medium-12 columns"> <div class="search-container__advanced"> <div id="advanced-search-template" class="row advanced-search-row"> <div class="large-2 medium-2 small-12 columns show-for-medium-up"> </div> <div class="large-2 medium-2 small-3 columns connector-div"> <div class="search-input-label"><span class="show-for-medium-up">Logical Operator</span><span class="show-for-small">Operator</span></div> <select class="connector"> <option value="and">AND</option> <option value="or">OR</option> </select> </div> <div class="large-3 medium-3 small-6 columns search-text-div"> <div class="search-input-label">Search Text</div> <input type="text" class="search-text" placeholder="Search text"> </div> <div class="large-2 medium-2 small-6 large-offset-0 medium-offset-0 small-offset-3 columns search-field-div"> <div class="search-input-label">Search Type</div> <select class="search-field"> <option value="all">All fields</option> <option value="title">Title</option> <option value="abstract">Abstract</option> <option value="keywords">Keywords</option> <option value="authors">Authors</option> <option value="affiliations">Affiliations</option> <option value="doi">Doi</option> <option value="full_text">Full Text</option> <option value="references">References</option> </select> </div> <div class="large-1 medium-1 small-3 columns"> <div class="search-input-label"> </div> <div class="search-action-div"> <div class="search-plus"> <i class="material-icons">add_circle_outline</i> </div> </div> <div class="search-action-div"> <div class="search-minus"> <i class="material-icons">remove_circle_outline</i> </div> </div> </div> <div class="large-1 medium-1 small-6 large-offset-0 medium-offset-0 small-offset-3 end columns"> <div class="search-input-label"> </div> <input class="advanced-search-button button button--dark search-submit" type="submit" value="Search"> </div> <div class="large-1 medium-1 small-6 end columns show-for-medium-up"></div> </div> </div> </form> </div> <div class="header-divider"> </div> <div class="breadcrumb row full-row"> <div class="breadcrumb__element"> <a href="/about/journals">Journals</a> </div> <div class="breadcrumb__element"> <a href="/journal/processes">Processes</a> </div> <div class="breadcrumb__element"> <a href="/2227-9717/12">Volume 12</a> </div> <div class="breadcrumb__element"> <a href="/2227-9717/12/11">Issue 11</a> </div> <div class="breadcrumb__element"> <a href="#">10.3390/pr12112571</a> </div> </div> </header> <div id="main-content" class=""> <div class="row full-width row-fixed-left-column"> <div id="left-column" class="content__column large-3 medium-3 small-12 columns"> <div class="content__container"> <a href="/journal/processes"> <img src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/journals/processes-logo.png?8600e93ff98dbf14" alt="processes-logo" title="Processes" style="max-height: 60px; margin: 0 0 0 0;"> </a> <div class="generic-item no-border"> <a class="button button--color button--full-width js-journal-active-only-link js-journal-active-only-submit-link UC_ArticleSubmitButton" href="https://susy.mdpi.com/user/manuscripts/upload?form%5Bjournal_id%5D%3D164" data-disabledmessage="creating new submissions is not possible."> Submit to this Journal </a> <a class="button button--color button--full-width js-journal-active-only-link UC_ArticleReviewButton" href="https://susy.mdpi.com/volunteer/journals/review" data-disabledmessage="volunteering as journal reviewer is not possible."> Review for this Journal </a> <a class="button button--color-inversed button--color-journal button--full-width js-journal-active-only-link UC_ArticleEditIssueButton" href="/journalproposal/sendproposalspecialissue/processes" data-path="/2227-9717/12/11/2571" data-disabledmessage="proposing new special issue is not possible."> Propose a Special Issue </a> </div> <div class="generic-item link-article-menu show-for-small"> <a href="#" class="link-article-menu show-for-small"> <span class="closed">►</span> <span class="open" style="display: none;">▼</span> Article Menu </a> </div> <div class="hide-small-down-initially UI_ArticleMenu"> <div class="generic-item"> <h2>Article Menu</h2> </div> <ul class="accordion accordion__menu" data-accordion data-options="multi_expand:true;toggleable: true"> <li class="accordion-navigation"> <a href="#academic_editors" class="accordion__title">Academic Editors</a> <div id="academic_editors" class="content active"> <div class="academic-editor-container " title="1. National and Local Joint Laboratory for Bigdata Analysis and Computing Technology, CAS, Beijing 100086, China 2. Institute for Scientific Computation, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA"> <div class="sciprofiles-link" style="display: inline-block"><a class="sciprofiles-link__link" href="https://sciprofiles.com/profile/2082720?utm_source=mdpi.com&utm_medium=website&utm_campaign=avatar_name" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><img class="sciprofiles-link__image" src="/bundles/mdpisciprofileslink/img/unknown-user.png" style="width: auto; height: 16px; border-radius: 50%;"><span class="sciprofiles-link__name">Yuhe Wang</span></a></div> </div> <div class="academic-editor-container " title="College of Control Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China"> <div class="sciprofiles-link" style="display: inline-block"><a class="sciprofiles-link__link" href="https://sciprofiles.com/profile/2215688?utm_source=mdpi.com&utm_medium=website&utm_campaign=avatar_name" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><img class="sciprofiles-link__image" src="/profiles/2215688/thumb/Chunhui_Zhao.png" style="width: auto; height: 16px; border-radius: 50%;"><span class="sciprofiles-link__name">Chunhui Zhao</span></a></div> </div> </div> </li> <li class="accordion-direct-link"> <a href="/2227-9717/12/11/2571/scifeed_display" data-reveal-id="scifeed-modal" data-reveal-ajax="true">Subscribe SciFeed</a> </li> <li class="accordion-direct-link js-article-similarity-container" style="display: none"> <a href="#" class="js-similarity-related-articles">Recommended Articles</a> </li> <li class="accordion-navigation"> <a href="#related" class="accordion__title">Related Info Link</a> <div id="related" class="content UI_ArticleMenu_RelatedLinks"> <ul> <li class="li-link"> <a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=A%20Model-Driven%20Approach%20to%20Extract%20Multi-Source%20Fault%20Features%20of%20a%20Screw%20Pump" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Google Scholar</a> </li> </ul> </div> </li> <li class="accordion-navigation"> <a href="#authors" class="accordion__title">More by Authors Links</a> <div id="authors" class="content UI_ArticleMenu_AuthorsLinks"> <ul class="side-menu-ul"> <li> <a class="expand" onclick='$(this).closest("li").next("div").toggle(); return false;'>on DOAJ</a> </li> <div id="AuthorDOAJExpand" style="display:none;"> <ul class="submenu"> <li class="li-link"> <a href='http://doaj.org/search/articles?source=%7B%22query%22%3A%7B%22query_string%22%3A%7B%22query%22%3A%22%5C%22Weigang%20Wen%5C%22%22%2C%22default_operator%22%3A%22AND%22%2C%22default_field%22%3A%22bibjson.author.name%22%7D%7D%7D' target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Wen, W.</a> <li> </li> <li class="li-link"> <a href='http://doaj.org/search/articles?source=%7B%22query%22%3A%7B%22query_string%22%3A%7B%22query%22%3A%22%5C%22Jingqi%20Qin%5C%22%22%2C%22default_operator%22%3A%22AND%22%2C%22default_field%22%3A%22bibjson.author.name%22%7D%7D%7D' target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Qin, J.</a> <li> </li> <li class="li-link"> <a href='http://doaj.org/search/articles?source=%7B%22query%22%3A%7B%22query_string%22%3A%7B%22query%22%3A%22%5C%22Xiangru%20Xu%5C%22%22%2C%22default_operator%22%3A%22AND%22%2C%22default_field%22%3A%22bibjson.author.name%22%7D%7D%7D' target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Xu, X.</a> <li> </li> <li class="li-link"> <a href='http://doaj.org/search/articles?source=%7B%22query%22%3A%7B%22query_string%22%3A%7B%22query%22%3A%22%5C%22Kaifu%20Mi%5C%22%22%2C%22default_operator%22%3A%22AND%22%2C%22default_field%22%3A%22bibjson.author.name%22%7D%7D%7D' target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Mi, K.</a> <li> </li> <li class="li-link"> <a href='http://doaj.org/search/articles?source=%7B%22query%22%3A%7B%22query_string%22%3A%7B%22query%22%3A%22%5C%22Meng%20Zhou%5C%22%22%2C%22default_operator%22%3A%22AND%22%2C%22default_field%22%3A%22bibjson.author.name%22%7D%7D%7D' target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Zhou, M.</a> <li> </li> </ul> </div> <li> <a class="expand" onclick='$(this).closest("li").next("div").toggle(); return false;'>on Google Scholar</a> </li> <div id="AuthorGoogleExpand" style="display:none;"> <ul class="submenu"> <li class="li-link"> <a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Weigang%20Wen" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Wen, W.</a> <li> </li> <li class="li-link"> <a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Jingqi%20Qin" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Qin, J.</a> <li> </li> <li class="li-link"> <a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Xiangru%20Xu" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Xu, X.</a> <li> </li> <li class="li-link"> <a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Kaifu%20Mi" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Mi, K.</a> <li> </li> <li class="li-link"> <a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Meng%20Zhou" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Zhou, M.</a> <li> </li> </ul> </div> <li> <a class="expand" onclick='$(this).closest("li").next("div").toggle(); return false;'>on PubMed</a> </li> <div id="AuthorPubMedExpand" style="display:none;"> <ul class="submenu"> <li class="li-link"> <a href="http://www.pubmed.gov/?cmd=Search&term=Weigang%20Wen" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Wen, W.</a> <li> </li> <li class="li-link"> <a href="http://www.pubmed.gov/?cmd=Search&term=Jingqi%20Qin" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Qin, J.</a> <li> </li> <li class="li-link"> <a href="http://www.pubmed.gov/?cmd=Search&term=Xiangru%20Xu" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Xu, X.</a> <li> </li> <li class="li-link"> <a href="http://www.pubmed.gov/?cmd=Search&term=Kaifu%20Mi" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Mi, K.</a> <li> </li> <li class="li-link"> <a href="http://www.pubmed.gov/?cmd=Search&term=Meng%20Zhou" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Zhou, M.</a> <li> </li> </ul> </div> </ul> </div> </li> </ul> <span style="display:none" id="scifeed_hidden_flag"></span> <span style="display:none" id="scifeed_subscribe_url">/ajax/scifeed/subscribe</span> </div> </div> <div class="content__container responsive-moving-container large medium active hidden" data-id="article-counters"> <div id="counts-wrapper" class="row generic-item no-border" data-equalizer> <div id="js-counts-wrapper__views" class="small-12 hide columns count-div-container"> <a href="#metrics" > <div class="count-div" data-equalizer-watch> <span class="name">Article Views</span> <span class="count view-number"></span> </div> </a> </div> <div id="js-counts-wrapper__citations" class="small-12 columns hide count-div-container"> <a href="#metrics" > <div class="count-div" data-equalizer-watch> <span class="name">Citations</span> <span class="count citations-number Var_ArticleMaxCitations">-</span> </div> </a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="content__container"> <div class="hide-small-down-initially"> <ul class="accordion accordion__menu" data-accordion data-options="multi_expand:true;toggleable: true"> <li class="accordion-navigation"> <a href="#table_of_contents" class="accordion__title">Table of Contents</a> <div id="table_of_contents" class="content active"> <div class="menu-caption" id="html-quick-links-title"></div> </div> </li> </ul> </div> </div>  <div id="pbgrd-sky"></div> <script src="https://cdn.pbgrd.com/core-mdpi.js"></script> <style>.content__container { min-width: 300px; }</style>  </div> <div id="middle-column" class="content__column large-9 medium-9 small-12 columns end middle-bordered"> <div class="middle-column__help"> <div class="middle-column__help__fixed show-for-medium-up"> <span id="js-altmetrics-donut" href="#" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer" style="display: none;"> <span data-badge-type='donut' class='altmetric-embed' data-doi='10.3390/pr12112571'></span> <span>Altmetric</span> </span> <a href="#" class="UA_ShareButton" data-reveal-id="main-share-modal" title="Share"> <i class="material-icons">share</i> <span>Share</span> </a> <a href="#" data-reveal-id="main-help-modal" title="Help"> <i class="material-icons">announcement</i> <span>Help</span> </a> <a href="javascript:void(0);" data-reveal-id="cite-modal" data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/12/11/2571/cite" > <i class="material-icons">format_quote</i> <span>Cite</span> </a> <a href="https://sciprofiles.com/discussion-groups/public/10.3390/pr12112571?utm_source=mpdi.com&utm_medium=publication&utm_campaign=discuss_in_sciprofiles" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer" title="Discuss in Sciprofiles"> <i class="material-icons">question_answer</i> <span>Discuss in SciProfiles</span> </a> <a href="#" class="" data-hypothesis-trigger-endorses-tab title="Endorse"> <i data-hypothesis-endorse-trigger class="material-icons" >thumb_up</i> <div data-hypothesis-endorsement-count data-hypothesis-trigger-endorses-tab class="hypothesis-count-container"> ... </div> <span>Endorse</span> </a> <a href="#" data-hypothesis-trigger class="js-hypothesis-open UI_ArticleAnnotationsButton" title="Comment"> <i class="material-icons">textsms</i> <div data-hypothesis-annotation-count class="hypothesis-count-container"> ... </div> <span>Comment</span> </a> </div> <div id="main-help-modal" class="reveal-modal reveal-modal-new" data-reveal aria-labelledby="modalTitle" aria-hidden="true" role="dialog"> <div class="row"> <div class="small-12 columns"> <h2 style="margin: 0;">Need Help?</h2> </div> <div class="small-6 columns"> <h3>Support</h3> <p> Find support for a specific problem in the support section of our website. </p> <a target="_blank" href="/about/contactform" class="button button--color button--full-width"> Get Support </a> </div> <div class="small-6 columns"> <h3>Feedback</h3> <p> Please let us know what you think of our products and services. </p> <a target="_blank" href="/feedback/send" class="button button--color button--full-width"> Give Feedback </a> </div> <div class="small-6 columns end"> <h3>Information</h3> <p> Visit our dedicated information section to learn more about MDPI. </p> <a target="_blank" href="/authors" class="button button--color button--full-width"> Get Information </a> </div> </div> <a class="close-reveal-modal" aria-label="Close"> <i class="material-icons">clear</i> </a> </div> </div> <div class="middle-column__main "> <div class="page-highlight"> <style type="text/css"> img.review-status { width: 30px; } </style> <div id="jmolModal" class="reveal-modal" data-reveal aria-labelledby="Captcha" aria-hidden="true" role="dialog"> <h2>JSmol Viewer</h2> <div class="row"> <div class="small-12 columns text-center"> <iframe style="width: 520px; height: 520px;" frameborder="0" id="jsmol-content"></iframe> <div class="content"></div> </div> </div> <a class="close-reveal-modal" aria-label="Close"> <i class="material-icons">clear</i> </a> </div> <div itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/ScholarlyArticle" id="abstract" class="abstract_div"> <div class="js-check-update-container"></div> <div class="html-content__container content__container content__container__combined-for-large__first" style="overflow: auto; position: inherit;"> <div class='html-profile-nav'> <div class='top-bar'> <div class='nav-sidebar-btn show-for-large-up' data-status='opened' > <i class='material-icons'>first_page</i> </div> <a id="js-button-download" class="button button--color-inversed" style="display: none;" href="/2227-9717/12/11/2571/pdf?version=1731913633" data-name="A Model-Driven Approach to Extract Multi-Source Fault Features of a Screw Pump" data-journal="processes"> <i class="material-icons custom-download"></i> Download PDF </a> <div class='nav-btn'> <i class='material-icons'>settings</i> </div> <a href="/2227-9717/12/11/2571/reprints" id="js-button-reprints" class="button button--color-inversed"> Order Article Reprints </a> </div> <div class='html-article-menu'> <div class='html-first-step row'> <div class='html-font-family large-6 medium-6 small-12 columns'> <div class='row'> <div class='html-font-label large-4 medium-4 small-12 columns'> Font Type: </div> <div class='large-8 medium-8 small-12 columns'> <span class="html-article-menu-option"><i style='font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;' data-fontfamily='Arial, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif'>Arial</i></span> <span class="html-article-menu-option"><i style='font-family:Georgia1, Georgia, serif;' data-fontfamily='Georgia1, Georgia, serif'>Georgia</i></span> <span class="html-article-menu-option"><i style='font-family:Verdana, Verdana, Geneva, sans-serif;' data-fontfamily='Verdana, Verdana, Geneva, sans-serif' >Verdana</i></span> </div> </div> </div> <div class='html-font-resize large-6 medium-6 small-12 columns'> <div class='row'> <div class='html-font-label large-4 medium-4 small-12 columns'>Font Size:</div> <div class='large-8 medium-8 small-12 columns'> <span class="html-article-menu-option a1" data-percent="100">Aa</span> <span class="html-article-menu-option a2" data-percent="120">Aa</span> <span class="html-article-menu-option a3" data-percent="160">Aa</span> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class='row'> <div class='html-line-space large-6 medium-6 small-12 columns'> <div class='row'> <div class='html-font-label large-4 medium-4 small-12 columns' >Line Spacing:</div> <div class='large-8 medium-8 small-12 columns'> <span class="html-article-menu-option a1" data-line-height="1.5em"> <i class="fa"></i> </span> <span class="html-article-menu-option a2" data-line-height="1.8em"> <i class="fa"></i> </span> <span class="html-article-menu-option a3" data-line-height="2.1em"> <i class="fa"></i> </span> </div> </div> </div> <div class='html-column-width large-6 medium-6 small-12 columns'> <div class='row'> <div class='html-font-label large-4 medium-4 small-12 columns' >Column Width:</div> <div class='large-8 medium-8 small-12 columns'> <span class="html-article-menu-option a1" data-column-width="20%"> <i class="fa"></i> </span> <span class="html-article-menu-option a2" data-column-width="10%"> <i class="fa"></i> </span> <span class="html-article-menu-option a3" data-column-width="0%"> <i class="fa"></i> </span> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class='row'> <div class='html-font-bg large-6 medium-6 small-12 columns end'> <div class='row'> <div class='html-font-label large-4 medium-4 small-12 columns'>Background:</div> <div class='large-8 medium-8 small-12 columns'> <div class="html-article-menu-option html-nav-bg html-nav-bright" data-bg="bright"> <i class="fa fa-file-text"></i> </div> <div class="html-article-menu-option html-nav-bg html-nav-dark" data-bg="dark"> <i class="fa fa-file-text-o"></i> </div> <div class="html-article-menu-option html-nav-bg html-nav-creme" data-bg="creme"> <i class="fa fa-file-text"></i> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <article ><div class='html-article-content'> <span itemprop="publisher" content="Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"></span><span itemprop="url" content="https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/12/11/2571"></span> <div class="article-icons"><span class="label openaccess" data-dropdown="drop-article-label-openaccess" aria-expanded="false">Open Access</span><span class="label articletype">Article</span></div> <h1 class="title hypothesis_container" itemprop="name"> A Model-Driven Approach to Extract Multi-Source Fault Features of a Screw Pump </h1> <div class="art-authors hypothesis_container"> by <span class="inlineblock "><div class='profile-card-drop' data-dropdown='profile-card-drop13408089' data-options='is_hover:true, hover_timeout:5000'> Weigang Wen</div><div id="profile-card-drop13408089" data-dropdown-content class="f-dropdown content profile-card-content" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"><div class="profile-card__title"><div class="sciprofiles-link" style="display: inline-block"><div class="sciprofiles-link__link"><img class="sciprofiles-link__image" src="/bundles/mdpisciprofileslink/img/unknown-user.png" style="width: auto; height: 16px; border-radius: 50%;"><span class="sciprofiles-link__name">Weigang Wen</span></div></div></div><div class="profile-card__buttons" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"><a href="https://sciprofiles.com/profile/968828?utm_source=mdpi.com&utm_medium=website&utm_campaign=avatar_name" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank"> SciProfiles </a><a href="https://scilit.net/scholars?q=Weigang%20Wen" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank"> Scilit </a><a href="https://www.preprints.org/search?search1=Weigang%20Wen&field1=authors" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank"> Preprints.org </a><a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Weigang%20Wen" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank" rels="noopener noreferrer"> Google Scholar </a></div></div><sup> 1</sup><span style="display: inline; margin-left: 5px;"></span><a class="toEncode emailCaptcha visibility-hidden" data-author-id="13408089" href="/cdn-cgi/l/email-protection#dcf3bfb2b8f1bfbbb5f3b0f3b9b1bdb5b0f1acaeb3a8b9bfa8b5b3b2ffececedecebebececedeeede5efebede9edb8ecefeceee9e5edeeedefeceee9e5ede8ede5"><sup><i class="fa fa-envelope-o"></i></sup></a>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><div class='profile-card-drop' data-dropdown='profile-card-drop13408090' data-options='is_hover:true, hover_timeout:5000'> Jingqi Qin</div><div id="profile-card-drop13408090" data-dropdown-content class="f-dropdown content profile-card-content" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"><div class="profile-card__title"><div class="sciprofiles-link" style="display: inline-block"><div class="sciprofiles-link__link"><img class="sciprofiles-link__image" src="/bundles/mdpisciprofileslink/img/unknown-user.png" style="width: auto; height: 16px; border-radius: 50%;"><span class="sciprofiles-link__name">Jingqi Qin</span></div></div></div><div class="profile-card__buttons" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"><a href="https://sciprofiles.com/profile/3841058?utm_source=mdpi.com&utm_medium=website&utm_campaign=avatar_name" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank"> SciProfiles </a><a href="https://scilit.net/scholars?q=Jingqi%20Qin" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank"> Scilit </a><a href="https://www.preprints.org/search?search1=Jingqi%20Qin&field1=authors" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank"> Preprints.org </a><a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Jingqi%20Qin" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank" rels="noopener noreferrer"> Google Scholar </a></div></div><sup> 1,*</sup><span style="display: inline; margin-left: 5px;"></span><a class="toEncode emailCaptcha visibility-hidden" data-author-id="13408090" href="/cdn-cgi/l/email-protection#cfe0aca1abe2aca8a6e0a3e0aaa2aea6a3e2bfbda0bbaaacbba6a0a1ecfffffeadf8fefffffbf6fbf9fbf6fbf9fcfefbfffbf8fbfdfaa9fefdfeaafeac"><sup><i class="fa fa-envelope-o"></i></sup></a><a href="https://orcid.org/0009-0008-0068-455X" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><img src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/design/orcid.png?0465bc3812adeb52?1732615622" title="ORCID" style="position: relative; width: 13px; margin-left: 3px; max-width: 13px !important; height: auto; top: -5px;"></a>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><div class='profile-card-drop' data-dropdown='profile-card-drop13408091' data-options='is_hover:true, hover_timeout:5000'> Xiangru Xu</div><div id="profile-card-drop13408091" data-dropdown-content class="f-dropdown content profile-card-content" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"><div class="profile-card__title"><div class="sciprofiles-link" style="display: inline-block"><div class="sciprofiles-link__link"><img class="sciprofiles-link__image" src="/bundles/mdpisciprofileslink/img/unknown-user.png" style="width: auto; height: 16px; border-radius: 50%;"><span class="sciprofiles-link__name">Xiangru Xu</span></div></div></div><div class="profile-card__buttons" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"><a href="https://sciprofiles.com/profile/author/cGNZS2Y2dGY4U25TRGpWUmR3NGc2VE9aWTJkbFpVZmJNMVhCMWNqM3FaWT0=?utm_source=mdpi.com&utm_medium=website&utm_campaign=avatar_name" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank"> SciProfiles </a><a href="https://scilit.net/scholars?q=Xiangru%20Xu" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank"> Scilit </a><a href="https://www.preprints.org/search?search1=Xiangru%20Xu&field1=authors" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank"> Preprints.org </a><a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Xiangru%20Xu" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank" rels="noopener noreferrer"> Google Scholar </a></div></div><sup> 2</sup><span style="display: inline; margin-left: 5px;"></span><a class="toEncode emailCaptcha visibility-hidden" data-author-id="13408091" href="/cdn-cgi/l/email-protection#91bef2fff5bcf2f6f8befdbef4fcf0f8fdbce1e3fee5f4f2e5f8feffb2a1a1a1f5a6a9a1a1a1f0a0f2a1f0a2a9a0f3a0a7a1a9a0f3a4a7a0f3a0a6a0a4a4a7a0f3a0a7"><sup><i class="fa fa-envelope-o"></i></sup></a>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><div class='profile-card-drop' data-dropdown='profile-card-drop13408092' data-options='is_hover:true, hover_timeout:5000'> Kaifu Mi</div><div id="profile-card-drop13408092" data-dropdown-content class="f-dropdown content profile-card-content" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"><div class="profile-card__title"><div class="sciprofiles-link" style="display: inline-block"><div class="sciprofiles-link__link"><img class="sciprofiles-link__image" src="/bundles/mdpisciprofileslink/img/unknown-user.png" style="width: auto; height: 16px; border-radius: 50%;"><span class="sciprofiles-link__name">Kaifu Mi</span></div></div></div><div class="profile-card__buttons" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"><a href="https://sciprofiles.com/profile/author/T1NKNHZKdnRzWHB5bDlzMzdUeDM4RVNuRHh2UVV1UTFoNnI3a3A4cmJBMD0=?utm_source=mdpi.com&utm_medium=website&utm_campaign=avatar_name" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank"> SciProfiles </a><a href="https://scilit.net/scholars?q=Kaifu%20Mi" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank"> Scilit </a><a href="https://www.preprints.org/search?search1=Kaifu%20Mi&field1=authors" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank"> Preprints.org </a><a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Kaifu%20Mi" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank" rels="noopener noreferrer"> Google Scholar </a></div></div><sup> 2</sup><span style="display: inline; margin-left: 5px;"></span><a class="toEncode emailCaptcha visibility-hidden" data-author-id="13408092" href="/cdn-cgi/l/email-protection#331c505d571e50545a1c5f1c565e525a5f1e43415c475650475a5c5d1003030307055703050351030a0255015703560300025703560700035603010303070003560300"><sup><i class="fa fa-envelope-o"></i></sup></a> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><div class='profile-card-drop' data-dropdown='profile-card-drop13408093' data-options='is_hover:true, hover_timeout:5000'> Meng Zhou</div><div id="profile-card-drop13408093" data-dropdown-content class="f-dropdown content profile-card-content" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"><div class="profile-card__title"><div class="sciprofiles-link" style="display: inline-block"><div class="sciprofiles-link__link"><img class="sciprofiles-link__image" src="/bundles/mdpisciprofileslink/img/unknown-user.png" style="width: auto; height: 16px; border-radius: 50%;"><span class="sciprofiles-link__name">Meng Zhou</span></div></div></div><div class="profile-card__buttons" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"><a href="https://sciprofiles.com/profile/author/Q0NIRUovUE5GQWFWcWRONE4waFpxZz09?utm_source=mdpi.com&utm_medium=website&utm_campaign=avatar_name" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank"> SciProfiles </a><a href="https://scilit.net/scholars?q=Meng%20Zhou" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank"> Scilit </a><a href="https://www.preprints.org/search?search1=Meng%20Zhou&field1=authors" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank"> Preprints.org </a><a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Meng%20Zhou" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank" rels="noopener noreferrer"> Google Scholar </a></div></div><sup> 1</sup><span style="display: inline; margin-left: 5px;"></span><a class="toEncode emailCaptcha visibility-hidden" data-author-id="13408093" href="/cdn-cgi/l/email-protection#26094548420b45414f094a09434b474f4a0b565449524345524f49480516161711114717401643161517401740154712441245121f1312171f17131711"><sup><i class="fa fa-envelope-o"></i></sup></a></span> </div> <div class="nrm"></div> <span style="display:block; height:6px;"></span> <div></div> <div style="margin: 5px 0 15px 0;" class="hypothesis_container"> <div class="art-affiliations"> <div class="affiliation "> <div class="affiliation-item"><sup>1</sup></div> <div class="affiliation-name ">School of Mechanical, Electronic and Control Engineering, Beijing Jiaotong University, Beijing 100044, China</div> </div> <div class="affiliation "> <div class="affiliation-item"><sup>2</sup></div> <div class="affiliation-name ">Branch of Industry, Beijing Petroleum Machinery Co., Ltd., Beijing 102206, China</div> </div> <div class="affiliation"> <div class="affiliation-item"><sup>*</sup></div> <div class="affiliation-name ">Author to whom correspondence should be addressed. </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="bib-identity" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> <em>Processes</em> <b>2024</b>, <em>12</em>(11), 2571; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12112571">https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12112571</a> </div> <div class="pubhistory" style="font-weight: bold; padding-bottom: 10px;"> <span style="display: inline-block">Submission received: 24 September 2024</span> / <span style="display: inline-block">Revised: 5 November 2024</span> / <span style="display: inline-block">Accepted: 15 November 2024</span> / <span style="display: inline-block">Published: 17 November 2024</span> </div> <div class="belongsTo" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> (This article belongs to the Section <a href="/journal/processes/sections/process_control_monitoring">Process Control and Monitoring</a>)<br/> </div> <div class="highlight-box1"> <div class="download"> <a class="button button--color-inversed button--drop-down" data-dropdown="drop-download-1522713" aria-controls="drop-supplementary-1522713" aria-expanded="false"> Download <i class="material-icons">keyboard_arrow_down</i> </a> <div id="drop-download-1522713" class="f-dropdown label__btn__dropdown label__btn__dropdown--button" data-dropdown-content aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"> <a class="UD_ArticlePDF" href="/2227-9717/12/11/2571/pdf?version=1731913633" data-name="A Model-Driven Approach to Extract Multi-Source Fault Features of a Screw Pump" data-journal="processes">Download PDF</a> <br/> <a id="js-pdf-with-cover-access-captcha" href="#" data-target="/2227-9717/12/11/2571/pdf-with-cover" class="accessCaptcha">Download PDF with Cover</a> <br/> <a id="js-xml-access-captcha" href="#" data-target="/2227-9717/12/11/2571/xml" class="accessCaptcha">Download XML</a> <br/> <a href="/2227-9717/12/11/2571/epub" id="epub_link">Download Epub</a> <br/> </div> <div class="js-browse-figures" style="display: inline-block;"> <a href="#" class="button button--color-inversed margin-bottom-10 openpopupgallery UI_BrowseArticleFigures" data-target='article-popup' data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/12/11/2571/browse" >Browse Figures</a> </div> <div id="article-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g001.png?1731913717" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>Screw pump fault diagnosis framework.</p> "> </a> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g002.png?1731913718" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>Screw pump fault data model.</p> "> </a> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g003.png?1731913719" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>Slide sampling method.</p> "> </a> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g004.png?1731913720" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>Heat map of signal correlation coefficients.</p> "> </a> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g005.png?1731913721" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>Results of comparison of Experiment I. (<b>a</b>) Clustering results of Feature Set-1; (<b>b</b>) clustering results of Feature Set-2.</p> "> </a> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g006.png?1731913721" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>CHI of different feature sets with the number of clusters.</p> "> </a> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g007.png?1731913722" title=" <strong>Figure 7</strong><br/> <p>Diagnosis results for different datasets after clustering: (<b>a</b>) average of accuracy; (<b>b</b>) RMSE.</p> "> </a> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g008.png?1731913723" title=" <strong>Figure 8</strong><br/> <p>Results of comparison of Experiment II. (<b>a</b>) Clustering results of Feature Set-3; (<b>b</b>) clustering results of Feature Set-4; (<b>c</b>) clustering results of Feature Set-5; (<b>d</b>) clustering results of Feature Set-6.</p> "> </a> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g009.png?1731913724" title=" <strong>Figure 9</strong><br/> <p>CHI of different feature sets with the number of clusters.</p> "> </a> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g010.png?1731913725" title=" <strong>Figure 10</strong><br/> <p>Diagnosis results for different datasets after clustering: (<b>a</b>) average of accuracy; (<b>b</b>) RMSE.</p> "> </a> </div> <a class="button button--color-inversed" href="/2227-9717/12/11/2571/notes">Versions Notes</a> </div> </div> <div class="responsive-moving-container small hidden" data-id="article-counters" style="margin-top: 15px;"></div> <div class="html-dynamic"> <section> <div class="art-abstract art-abstract-new in-tab hypothesis_container"> <p> <div><section class="html-abstract" id="html-abstract"> <h2 id="html-abstract-title">Abstract</h2><b>:</b> <div class="html-p">Screw pumps’ faulty working conditions affect the stability of oil production. At project sites, different sensors are used simultaneously to collect multi-dimensional signals; the data fault labels and location are not clear, and how to comprehensively use multi-source information in effective fault feature extraction has become an urgent issue. Existing diagnostic methods use a single signal or part of a signal and do not fully utilize the acquired signal, which makes it difficult to achieve the required accuracy of diagnostic results. This paper focuses on the model-driven approach to extract multi-source fault features of screw pumps. Firstly, it constructs a fault data model (FDM) by analyzing the fault mechanism of the screw pump. Secondly, it uses the FDM to select an effective data set. Thirdly, it constructs a multi-dimensional fault feature extraction model (MDFEM) to extract featured signal features and data features, for which we also comprehensively used multi-source signals in effective fault feature extraction, while other traditional methods only use one or two signals. Finally, after feature selection, unsupervised fault diagnosis was achieved by using the k-means method. After experimental verification, the method can comprehensively use multi-source information to construct an effective data set and extract multi-dimensional, effective fault features for screw pump fault diagnosis.</div> </section> <div id="html-keywords"> <div class="html-gwd-group"><div id="html-keywords-title">Keywords: </div><a href="/search?q=feature+extraction">feature extraction</a>; <a href="/search?q=model-driven">model-driven</a>; <a href="/search?q=multi-source+information">multi-source information</a>; <a href="/search?q=screw+pump">screw pump</a>; <a href="/search?q=fault+diagnosis">fault diagnosis</a></div> <div> </div> </div> </div> </p> </div> </section> </div> <div class="hypothesis_container"> <ul class="menu html-nav" data-prev-node="#html-quick-links-title"> </ul> <div class="html-body"> <section id='sec1-processes-12-02571' type='intro'><h2 data-nested='1'> 1. Introduction</h2><div class='html-p'>The screw pump has become one of the widely used oil lifting methods due to the advantages of small size of system equipment, easy maintenance and management, smooth liquid flow, and high pumping efficiency. With the development of oilfield exploration, the lifting height is increasing. The working conditions of the screw pump are affected by various factors when it works in a complex environment, and the faults, such as rod and pipe breakage, pump leakage, sand jamming, and waxing of tubing, occur from time to time [<a href="#B1-processes-12-02571" class="html-bibr">1</a>,<a href="#B2-processes-12-02571" class="html-bibr">2</a>], which seriously restricts the production efficiency of the oil wells. Therefore, screw pump fault diagnosis is of great significance. The traditional screw pump fault diagnosis methods require a lot of expert experience, and using single current or torque and other signals for diagnosis is ineffective.</div><div class='html-p'>In recent years, scholars from various countries have conducted extensive research on the fault diagnosis of screw pumps. Aiming at the screw pump fault diagnosis problems of inefficiency and lack of precision, one proposal to improve the wavelet packet transform is by introducing the idea of power spectrum refinement combined with cuckoo search (CS) to optimize the diagnosis method of the back propagation (BP) neural network [<a href="#B3-processes-12-02571" class="html-bibr">3</a>]. Based on the statistical process control, extended discriminant criterion, and the multi-parameter rule, the field fault diagnosis model of electric submersible screw pump unit is constructed, and a multi-parameter process control fault diagnosis method is proposed [<a href="#B4-processes-12-02571" class="html-bibr">4</a>]. A supervised neural network was established using Bayes classification decision theory to build a PNN model for fault classification of a certain type of screw pump [<a href="#B5-processes-12-02571" class="html-bibr">5</a>]. Scholars proposed that the current method and holding pressure method can be used to comprehensively diagnose the pumping condition of screw pump wells, combined with production, liquid level, and other parameters to synthesize the research and judgment, in order to accurately determine the specific operation of downhole pumps [<a href="#B6-processes-12-02571" class="html-bibr">6</a>]. One study selected rod torque and axial force as parameters for comparing working condition status, stating that using a diagnosis model to calculate the reasonable area of two parameters and comparing them with the actual test data can diagnose the various situations, determine whether there is a fault and analyzing failure [<a href="#B7-processes-12-02571" class="html-bibr">7</a>]. Another paper proposed an unsupervised fault diagnosis methodology to leverage readily available dynamometer cards (DCs) to diagnose collected unlabeled MPCs, and a mathematical model of the SRPS was presented to convert actual DCs to MPCs [<a href="#B8-processes-12-02571" class="html-bibr">8</a>]. Ren Weijian proposed using a wavelet packet to filter and eliminate noise from an active power signal and decomposed fault signal, then they used an Elman neural network to identify the decomposed fault feature [<a href="#B9-processes-12-02571" class="html-bibr">9</a>]. Wavelet packet theory was used to decompose and reconstruct the active power signal of a submersible screw pump, extracted the main fault information contained in the power signal, and constructed the fault feature vector of a submersible screw pump combined with parameters such as output, oil pressure, casing pressure, and dynamic liquid level [<a href="#B10-processes-12-02571" class="html-bibr">10</a>]. A thesis aimed to accurately and efficiently identify the fault forms of a submersible screw pump, and proposed a fault diagnosis method of the submersible screw pump based on random forest. An HDFS storage system and MapReduce processing system were established based on the Hadoop big data processing platform [<a href="#B11-processes-12-02571" class="html-bibr">11</a>]. Xu Jun developed a screw pump condition-monitoring system based on dual micro-controllers, which uses real-time drive electrical parameters to calculate the rod torque and speed and to make a comparative analysis, and achieved the fault diagnosis of the screw pump [<a href="#B12-processes-12-02571" class="html-bibr">12</a>]. Min Li established a screw pump fault diagnosis expert system based on fuzzy neural network. The test results showed that the diagnosis of this fault diagnosis expert system is operable, and the fuzzy neural network is reliable, which enriched the diagnosis method of the screw pump well [<a href="#B13-processes-12-02571" class="html-bibr">13</a>]. Xue Jianquan proposed a screw pump diagnosis method based on the BP neural network and expert system, and developed the fault diagnosis software with Basic and Matlab nnet toolbox, and the test results of the well plant data proved the feasibility of the diagnosis method [<a href="#B14-processes-12-02571" class="html-bibr">14</a>]. Qu Wentao used the node system method to establish a relationship model between active power and pump energy consumption and analyzed the influence of different faults on the screw operating performance [<a href="#B15-processes-12-02571" class="html-bibr">15</a>]. Chen Shiwen calculated and analyzed the force of the screw pump and rod and proposed the method of dividing the fault feature into different thresholds and diagnosing screw pump working conditions by means of the support vector machine algorithm [<a href="#B16-processes-12-02571" class="html-bibr">16</a>]. Zheng Chunfeng studied the system and operation performance of an electric submersible screw pump, analyzed the correspondence between operation parameters and fault types, and used a BP neural network to diagnose faults of electric submersible screw pump [<a href="#B17-processes-12-02571" class="html-bibr">17</a>].</div><div class='html-p'>However, the project site data are multi-dimensional signals collected simultaneously by multiple sensors, including current, voltage, power, torque, rotation speed, load, oil pressure, and casing pressure, and the data type is complex, and the collection period is long. Additionally, the fault label of the data is not clear, and the position of the fault information in the whole signal data is not clear as well, which will lead to a low diagnostic accuracy if using this kind of signal data to carry out the fault diagnosis. Traditional screw pump fault diagnosis methods rely on a large number of expert experiences, and diagnosis accuracy using a single signal is low [<a href="#B18-processes-12-02571" class="html-bibr">18</a>,<a href="#B19-processes-12-02571" class="html-bibr">19</a>]. The current method is affected by the combination of all parts of the system [<a href="#B20-processes-12-02571" class="html-bibr">20</a>]; the torque method has an error between the calculated result and the actual torque; the fluid production method does not directly reflect the type of fault; the pressure method involves holding the wellhead to a higher pressure, which must be used on specific conditions. In the field of fault diagnosis, multi-source information technology comprehensively collects equipment fault state information by using multiple sensors, taps the coupled complementary information between multi-source sensor data, takes multi-dimensional feature fusion analysis as a way to greatly improve the reliability and accuracy of fault diagnosis, and overcomes the shortcomings such as limited fault information contained in a single segmentation and large uncertainty [<a href="#B21-processes-12-02571" class="html-bibr">21</a>,<a href="#B22-processes-12-02571" class="html-bibr">22</a>,<a href="#B23-processes-12-02571" class="html-bibr">23</a>,<a href="#B24-processes-12-02571" class="html-bibr">24</a>,<a href="#B25-processes-12-02571" class="html-bibr">25</a>,<a href="#B26-processes-12-02571" class="html-bibr">26</a>].</div><div class='html-p'>The main contributions of the paper are described as follows:</div><div class='html-p'><dl class='html-order'><dt id=''>(1)</dt><dd><div class='html-p'>The fault data model (FDM) is proposed and applied to select an effective data set from the original data with no fault labels and unclear fault locations.</div></dd><dt id=''>(2)</dt><dd><div class='html-p'>A multi-dimensional fault feature extraction model (MDFEM) is proposed and applied to extract featured signal feature and data feature from multi-source information.</div></dd></dl></div><div class='html-p'>Therefore, this paper proposes a multi-source fault feature extraction method for a screw pump based on model-driven data. The chapters of the paper are as follows: <a href="#sec2-processes-12-02571" class="html-sec">Section 2</a> analyzes the screw pump fault mechanism and constructs the FDM; <a href="#sec3-processes-12-02571" class="html-sec">Section 3</a> uses the FDM to select the fault data and construct an effective data set, then constructs a MDFEM, and extracts multi-dimensional fault features; <a href="#sec4-processes-12-02571" class="html-sec">Section 4</a> verifies the validity and accuracy of the proposed method; and <a href="#sec5-processes-12-02571" class="html-sec">Section 5</a> is the conclusion.</div></section><section id='sec2-processes-12-02571' type=''><h2 data-nested='1'> 2. Fault Model Construction</h2><section id='sec2dot1-processes-12-02571' type=''><h4 class='html-italic' data-nested='2'> 2.1. Methodological Framework</h4><div class='html-p'>The flow of the multi-source fault feature extraction method for a screw pump based on model-driven data is shown in <a href="#processes-12-02571-f001" class="html-fig">Figure 1</a>. The process is described as follows: (1) analyzing the fault mechanism and establishing the current, load, rotational speed, and oil pressure fault mechanism; (2) revealing the mechanism characterization and establishing the FDM; (3) analyzing the original data and carrying out data pre-processing, including data cleaning, normalization, and slice enhancement; (4) using the FDM to select fault data and constructing an effective data set; (5) studying the multi-dimensional feature extraction method, extracting signal and data features, and obtaining effective multi-dimensional features; (6) using the k-means unsupervised clustering method to carry out experimental validation to realize the diagnosis of screw pump faults.</div></section><section id='sec2dot2-processes-12-02571' type=''><h4 class='html-italic' data-nested='2'> 2.2. Fault Mechanism Model</h4><dl class='html-order'><dt id=''>(1)</dt><dd><div class='html-p'>Current Fault Model</div></dd></dl><div class='html-p'>The current method is the quantitative long-time measurement of parameters such as operating current, voltage, and power of the drive motor using specialized instruments. The motor input current is deduced based on the motor output power:<div class='html-disp-formula-info' id='FD1-processes-12-02571'> <div class='f'> <math display='block'><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>I</mi> <mn>1</mn> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <msqrt> <mrow> <mstyle scriptlevel="0" displaystyle="true"> <mfrac> <mrow> <msubsup> <mi>N</mi> <mn>1</mn> <mn>2</mn> </msubsup> </mrow> <mrow> <msubsup> <mi>N</mi> <mi>e</mi> <mn>2</mn> </msubsup> </mrow> </mfrac> </mstyle> <mo>×</mo> <mfenced> <mrow> <msubsup> <mi>I</mi> <mi>N</mi> <mn>2</mn> </msubsup> <mo>−</mo> <msubsup> <mi>I</mi> <mn>0</mn> <mn>2</mn> </msubsup> </mrow> </mfenced> <mo>+</mo> <msubsup> <mi>I</mi> <mn>0</mn> <mn>2</mn> </msubsup> </mrow> </msqrt> <mo>=</mo> <msqrt> <mrow> <mstyle scriptlevel="0" displaystyle="true"> <mfrac> <mrow> <msubsup> <mi>M</mi> <mi>g</mi> <mn>2</mn> </msubsup> <msubsup> <mi>n</mi> <mi>g</mi> <mn>2</mn> </msubsup> </mrow> <mrow> <msup> <mrow> <mn>9549</mn> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> </msup> <mo>×</mo> <msubsup> <mi>η</mi> <mi>t</mi> <mn>2</mn> </msubsup> <msubsup> <mi>N</mi> <mi>e</mi> <mn>2</mn> </msubsup> </mrow> </mfrac> </mstyle> <mo>×</mo> <mfenced> <mrow> <msubsup> <mi>I</mi> <mi>N</mi> <mn>2</mn> </msubsup> <mo>−</mo> <msubsup> <mi>I</mi> <mn>0</mn> <mn>2</mn> </msubsup> </mrow> </mfenced> <mo>+</mo> <msubsup> <mi>I</mi> <mn>0</mn> <mn>2</mn> </msubsup> </mrow> </msqrt> </mrow> </semantics></math> </div> <div class='l'> <label >(1)</label> </div> </div> where <span class='html-italic'>I</span><sub>1</sub> is the motor input current, A; <span class='html-italic'>N<sub>e</sub></span> is the power under a rated load, kW; <span class='html-italic'>I<sub>N</sub></span> is the stator current of the motor under a rated load, A; <span class='html-italic'>I</span><sub>0</sub> is the no-load current of the motor, A. <span class='html-italic'>N</span><sub>1</sub> is the output shaft power of the motor, kW; <span class='html-italic'>M<sub>g</sub></span> is the driving torque of the rod, N⋅m; <span class='html-italic'>n<sub>g</sub></span> is the rotational speed of the rod, r/min; and <span class='html-italic'>η<sub>t</sub></span> is the total transmission efficiency of the motor, %.</div><div class='html-p'>After analysis, the relationship between electrical parameters and torque can be obtained as shown below:<div class='html-disp-formula-info' id='FD2-processes-12-02571'> <div class='f'> <math display='block'><semantics> <mrow> <msubsup> <mi>I</mi> <mn>1</mn> <mn>2</mn> </msubsup> <mo>∝</mo> <msubsup> <mi>M</mi> <mi>g</mi> <mn>2</mn> </msubsup> </mrow> </semantics></math> </div> <div class='l'> <label >(2)</label> </div> </div></div><div class='html-p'>The analysis shows that the square of the motor input current is proportional to the square of the rod torque.</div><div class='html-p'>According to Equation (2), it can be deduced that when the current drops to the no-load current, which means the rod torque drops to the no-load torque, the oil rod or oil pipe may break off; when the current is smaller than the lower limit of the reasonable range and higher than the lower limit of the limit range, the pump may leak or the oil pipe may leak; when the current fluctuates in the upper limit of the limit range, the oil pipe may be waxed; when the current increases to the outside of the limit range, the stator may be dissolved or the parameters may be high; when the current is smaller than the lower limit of the reasonable range and fluctuates, the stator may be waxed. When the current fluctuates, the stator may be degumming.</div><dl class='html-order'><dt id=''>(2)</dt><dd><div class='html-p'>Load Fault Model</div></dd></dl><div class='html-p'>The axial load F on the screw pump rod can be expressed by the following formula:<div class='html-disp-formula-info' id='FD3-processes-12-02571'> <div class='f'> <math display='block'><semantics> <mrow> <mi>F</mi> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>F</mi> <mn>1</mn> </msub> <mo>+</mo> <msub> <mi>F</mi> <mn>2</mn> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>F</mi> <mn>3</mn> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>F</mi> <mn>4</mn> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math> </div> <div class='l'> <label >(3)</label> </div> </div> where <span class='html-italic'>F</span><sub>1</sub> is the rod’s own gravity, N; <span class='html-italic'>F</span><sub>2</sub> is the axial load generated by the pressure difference between the inlet and outlet of the pump, N; <span class='html-italic'>F</span><sub>3</sub> is the friction force between the well fluid and the rod when it flows upward in the pipe, N; and <span class='html-italic'>F</span><sub>4</sub> is the upward buoyancy force that the rod receives in the well fluid, N.</div><div class='html-p'>The gravity of the pumping rod can be expressed by the following equation:<div class='html-disp-formula-info' id='FD4-processes-12-02571'> <div class='f'> <math display='block'><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>F</mi> <mn>1</mn> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mi>G</mi> <mi>L</mi> </mrow> </semantics></math> </div> <div class='l'> <label >(4)</label> </div> </div> where <span class='html-italic'>G</span> is the linear density of the rod, N/m; <span class='html-italic'>L</span> is the total length of the pumping rod, m.</div><div class='html-p'>The axial load generated by the pressure difference between the inlet and outlet of the pump can be expressed by the following equation:<div class='html-disp-formula-info' id='FD5-processes-12-02571'> <div class='f'> <math display='block'><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>F</mi> <mn>2</mn> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mfenced> <mrow> <mi>π</mi> <msup> <mi>R</mi> <mn>2</mn> </msup> <mo>+</mo> <mn>16</mn> <mi>e</mi> <mi>R</mi> </mrow> </mfenced> <mi mathvariant="sans-serif">Δ</mi> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> </semantics></math> </div> <div class='l'> <label >(5)</label> </div> </div> where <math display='inline'><semantics> <mi>e</mi> </semantics></math> is the eccentric moment of the screw pump, m; <span class='html-italic'>R</span> is the rotor radius of the screw pump, m; <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="sans-serif">Δ</mi> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> </semantics></math> is the differential pressure between the inlet and outlet of the pump, MPa.</div><div class='html-p'>The friction force between the well fluid and the rod can be expressed by the following equation:<div class='html-disp-formula-info' id='FD6-processes-12-02571'> <div class='f'> <math display='block'><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>F</mi> <mn>3</mn> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mi>π</mi> <msub> <mi>μ</mi> <mi>l</mi> </msub> <msub> <mi>e</mi> <mi>l</mi> </msub> <mi>ν</mi> <mi mathvariant="sans-serif">Δ</mi> <mi>L</mi> </mrow> </semantics></math> </div> <div class='l'> <label >(6)</label> </div> </div> where <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>e</mi> <mi>l</mi> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mstyle scriptlevel="0" displaystyle="true"> <mfrac> <mrow> <msup> <mi>m</mi> <mn>2</mn> </msup> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> <mrow> <mfenced> <mrow> <msup> <mi>m</mi> <mn>2</mn> </msup> <mo>+</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </mfenced> <mi>ln</mi> <mi>m</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mfenced> <mrow> <msup> <mi>m</mi> <mn>2</mn> </msup> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </mfenced> </mrow> </mfrac> </mstyle> <mo>,</mo> <mo> </mo> <mi>m</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mstyle scriptlevel="0" displaystyle="true"> <mfrac> <mrow> <msub> <mi>d</mi> <mi>t</mi> </msub> </mrow> <mrow> <msub> <mi>d</mi> <mi>r</mi> </msub> </mrow> </mfrac> </mstyle> </mrow> </semantics></math>, <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="sans-serif">Δ</mi> <mi>L</mi> </mrow> </semantics></math> is the length of the section, m; <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>μ</mi> <mi>l</mi> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math> is the average viscosity of the well fluid, mPa⋅s; <math display='inline'><semantics> <mi>ν</mi> </semantics></math> is the average flow speed of the well fluid in the section, m/s.</div><div class='html-p'>The buoyancy of the rod generated by well fluid can be expressed by the following equation:<div class='html-disp-formula-info' id='FD7-processes-12-02571'> <div class='f'> <math display='block'><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>F</mi> <mn>4</mn> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>ρ</mi> <mi>l</mi> </msub> <mi>g</mi> <mi>π</mi> <msup> <mrow> <mfenced> <mrow> <mstyle scriptlevel="0" displaystyle="true"> <mfrac> <mi>d</mi> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mstyle> </mrow> </mfenced> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> </msup> <mi>L</mi> </mrow> </semantics></math> </div> <div class='l'> <label >(7)</label> </div> </div> where <math display='inline'><semantics> <mi>g</mi> </semantics></math> is the acceleration of gravity, N/kg; <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>ρ</mi> <mi>l</mi> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math> is the density of the fluid in the wellbore, kg/m<sup>3</sup>.</div><div class='html-p'>After analyzing, it can be obtained that when <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>F</mi> <mn>2</mn> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math> decreases, it means the liquid in the screw pump decreases; when <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>F</mi> <mn>3</mn> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math> increases, it means the oil velocity increases, i.e., the oil production increases. According to Equations (3)–(7), we can conclude that when <span class='html-italic'>F</span> is zero, there may be a rod break; when <span class='html-italic'>F</span> is reduced, there may be an oil pipe leakage, a broken oil pipe, or pump leakage, etc.; when <span class='html-italic'>F</span> is increased, there may be waxing of the oil pipe or high parameters.</div><dl class='html-order'><dt id=''>(3)</dt><dd><div class='html-p'>Rotation Speed Fault Model</div></dd></dl><div class='html-p'>The rotate speed of a screw pump is closely related to the oil production, as shown in the following equation:<div class='html-disp-formula-info' id='FD8-processes-12-02571'> <div class='f'> <math display='block'><semantics> <mrow> <mi>Q</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1440</mn> <mo>×</mo> <mn>4</mn> <mi>n</mi> <mi>E</mi> <mi>D</mi> <mi>T</mi> </mrow> </semantics></math> </div> <div class='l'> <label >(8)</label> </div> </div> where <span class='html-italic'>Q</span> is the theoretical oil production, m<sup>3</sup>/d; <span class='html-italic'>n</span> is the rotor speed, r/min; <span class='html-italic'>E</span> is the eccentricity of the rotor, m; <span class='html-italic'>D</span> is the truncated circle diameter of the rotor, m; <span class='html-italic'>T</span> is the stator lead, m.</div><div class='html-p'>The actual oil production of a screw pump can be expressed by the following equation:<div class='html-disp-formula-info' id='FD9-processes-12-02571'> <div class='f'> <math display='block'><semantics> <mrow> <msup> <mi>Q</mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> <mo>=</mo> <mi>Q</mi> <msub> <mi>η</mi> <mi>v</mi> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>η</mi> <mi>v</mi> </msub> <mn>1440</mn> <mo>×</mo> <mn>4</mn> <mi>E</mi> <mi>D</mi> <mi>T</mi> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </semantics></math> </div> <div class='l'> <label >(9)</label> </div> </div> where <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>η</mi> <mi>v</mi> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math> is the volumetric efficiency of the screw pump; <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mi>Q</mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> </semantics></math> is the actual oil production, m<sup>3</sup>/d.</div><div class='html-p'>It can be seen that after the structural parameters <span class='html-italic'>E</span>, <span class='html-italic'>D</span>, and <span class='html-italic'>T</span> of the screw pump are determined, the oil production is only related to the rotational speed n and the volumetric efficiency <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>η</mi> <mi>v</mi> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math>, and the rotational speed needs to be increased in order to achieve higher oil production.</div><div class='html-p'>Increasing the rotational speed of the screw pump can improve oil production, but extremely high rotational speed will lead to an increase in the centrifugal force of the rod, which will cause vibration and decrease the oil lifting height. At the same time, high speed rotation will also accelerate the wear of stator rubber.</div><div class='html-p'>After analyzing, it can be concluded from Equation (9) that when <span class='html-italic'>n</span> is zero, the pump may be jammed; when <span class='html-italic'>n</span> is reduced, the rod and pipe may show biased wear, or the oil pipe may be waxed, etc.; when <span class='html-italic'>n</span> increases, there may be an oil rod break, oil pipe breakage, oil pipe leakage, or pump leakage, and so on.</div><dl class='html-order'><dt id=''>(4)</dt><dd><div class='html-p'>Oil Pressure Fault Model</div></dd></dl><div class='html-p'>Letting the oil pressure be <span class='html-italic'>P</span> at the moment of starting pumping <span class='html-italic'>t</span>, the relationship between pressure and volume is:<div class='html-disp-formula-info' id='FD10-processes-12-02571'> <div class='f'> <math display='block'><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>β</mi> <mi>m</mi> </msub> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mi>t</mi> </msub> <mi mathvariant="sans-serif">Δ</mi> <mi>P</mi> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mi>p</mi> </msub> <mi mathvariant="sans-serif">Δ</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </semantics></math> </div> <div class='l'> <label >(10)</label> </div> </div> where <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>β</mi> <mi>m</mi> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math> is the compression coefficient of the gas–liquid mixture in the oil pipe; <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>Δ</mo> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </semantics></math> is the amount of time change, s; <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mo>Δ</mo> <mi>P</mi> </mrow> </semantics></math> is the amount of pressure change, MPa; and <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mi>t</mi> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math> is the pumping volume flow rate m<sup>3</sup>/s.</div><div class='html-p'>When pipe leakage occurs, the relationship between the leakage flow rate and the pressure difference between the inside and outside of the oil pipe at the leaking place is:<div class='html-disp-formula-info' id='FD11-processes-12-02571'> <div class='f'> <math display='block'><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow> <mi>l</mi> <mi>e</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mi>ε</mi> <mi>φ</mi> <mi>A</mi> <msqrt> <mrow> <mn>2</mn> <mi>g</mi> <mi>h</mi> </mrow> </msqrt> </mrow> </semantics></math> </div> <div class='l'> <label >(11)</label> </div> </div> where <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow> <mi>l</mi> <mi>e</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math> is the leakage flow rate, m<sup>3</sup>/s; <span class='html-italic'>ε</span> is the shrinkage coefficient of the leakage section due to the inertia of the liquid; <math display='inline'><semantics> <mi>φ</mi> </semantics></math> is the flow coefficient associated with the liquid; <span class='html-italic'>A</span> is the size of the cross-sectional area at the orifice of the liquid leakage, m<sup>2</sup>; <span class='html-italic'>g</span> is the acceleration of gravity, m/s<sup>2</sup>; <span class='html-italic'>h</span> is the difference in liquid pressure between the inside of the tubing at the location of the leakage and the outside of the tubing, m.</div><div class='html-p'>Since the leakage flow rate <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow> <mi>l</mi> <mi>e</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math> is a function of pressure <span class='html-italic'>P</span>, and increases nonlinearly with <span class='html-italic'>P</span>, the relationship between pressure and time is broken when leakage occurs, resulting in a slower rate of pressure increase.</div></section><section id='sec2dot3-processes-12-02571' type=''><h4 class='html-italic' data-nested='2'> 2.3. Fault Data Model</h4><div class='html-p'>After the mechanism analysis, a FDM can be established to reveal the mechanism characterization from various aspects, as shown in <a href="#processes-12-02571-f002" class="html-fig">Figure 2</a>.</div><div class='html-p'>The screw pump FDM uses the mechanism analysis of the screw pump and historical data to hierarchically reveal the mechanistic characterization of the faults, such as pump jamming, stator swelling, and pipe waxing, to classify faults and obtain the corresponding fault labels.</div></section></section><section id='sec3-processes-12-02571' type=''><h2 data-nested='1'> 3. Effective Data and Feature</h2><section id='sec3dot1-processes-12-02571' type=''><h4 class='html-italic' data-nested='2'> 3.1. Data Preprocessing</h4><div class='html-p'>By analyzing the actual working data for pump wells of an oil field in Xinjiang province, China, it can be concluded that the actual signals are collected by a variety of sensors simultaneously, the data types are complex, and the collection cycle is long, with a collection length of about 1150 sampling points. The signals start from about the 100th sampling point, showing a gradual upward trend, and continue to about the 300th sampling point, and fault data are concentrated in the area between about the 100th and 500th sampling points; the abnormal data of the oil pressure signals are also found in the area between about the 100th and 400th sampling points. From the above analysis, it can be seen that most of the signal fault data are concentrated in a small range, and do not cover the entire signal collection length. If the original data are used for fault diagnosis, the diagnostic accuracy will be adversely affected.</div><dl class='html-order'><dt id=''>(1)</dt><dd><div class='html-p'>Data cleaning</div></dd></dl><div class='html-p'>Voltage and current signals contain noise because of the non-stationarity of the system; and pressure and load signals contain random fluctuation caused by the oil pump and environment. This may lead to inaccurate features because some features are sensitive to small fluctuations, while others are the opposite.</div><div class='html-p'>The actual data collected from the sensors contain abnormal values. The 3<math display='inline'><semantics> <mi>σ</mi> </semantics></math> method is considered according to the data characteristics.</div><div class='html-p'>The 3<math display='inline'><semantics> <mi>σ</mi> </semantics></math> method default is that data obey normal distribution, the probability of data distributed within the interval <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mi mathvariant="sans-serif">μ</mi> <mo>-</mo> <mn>3</mn> <mi mathvariant="sans-serif">σ</mi> <mo>,</mo> <mtext> </mtext> <mi mathvariant="sans-serif">μ</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mn>3</mn> <mi mathvariant="sans-serif">σ</mi> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </mrow> </semantics></math> is 99.73%, and data distributed outside the interval is considered outlier data. In this section, the sliding window method is used for outlier determination. The standard deviation of the data within the sliding window is calculated as follows:<div class='html-disp-formula-info' id='FD12-processes-12-02571'> <div class='f'> <math display='block'><semantics> <mrow> <mi>a</mi> <mi>ν</mi> <mi>g</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mstyle scriptlevel="0" displaystyle="true"> <mfrac> <mrow> <msub> <mi>x</mi> <mn>1</mn> </msub> <mo>+</mo> <msub> <mi>x</mi> <mn>2</mn> </msub> <mo>+</mo> <msub> <mi>x</mi> <mn>3</mn> </msub> <mo>+</mo> <mo>⋯</mo> <mo>+</mo> <msub> <mi>x</mi> <mi>l</mi> </msub> </mrow> <mi>l</mi> </mfrac> </mstyle> </mrow> </semantics></math> </div> <div class='l'> <label >(12)</label> </div> </div><div class='html-disp-formula-info' id='FD13-processes-12-02571'> <div class='f'> <math display='block'><semantics> <mrow> <mi>σ</mi> <mo>=</mo> <msqrt> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mi>l</mi> </mfrac> <mstyle displaystyle="true"> <munderover> <mo>∑</mo> <mrow> <mi>i</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> <mi>l</mi> </munderover> </mstyle> <msup> <mrow> <msub> <mi>x</mi> <mi>i</mi> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <mrow> <mi>a</mi> <mi>ν</mi> <mi>g</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> </msup> </msqrt> </mrow> </semantics></math> </div> <div class='l'> <label >(13)</label> </div> </div> where <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mi>a</mi> <mi>ν</mi> <mi>g</mi> </mrow> </semantics></math> is the mean value of each parameter within the sliding window; <math display='inline'><semantics> <mi>σ</mi> </semantics></math> is the standard deviation of the group of data.</div><div class='html-p'>According to Equations (12) and (13), if the distance between a data value and the <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mi>a</mi> <mi>ν</mi> <mi>g</mi> </mrow> </semantics></math> is greater than 3<math display='inline'><semantics> <mi>σ</mi> </semantics></math>, the data will be rounded off, and the rounded data will be filled in using the mean of the neighbouring numbers.</div><dl class='html-order'><dt id=''>(2)</dt><dd><div class='html-p'>Data normalization</div></dd></dl><div class='html-p'>There are different unit dimension features that cannot provide an evaluation in such a multidimensional system. The purpose of normalization is to make data be limited to a certain range (e.g., [0, 1] or [−1, 1]), thus eliminating the adverse effects caused by singular sample data. As the sample data does not involve distance measures or covariance calculation, and the data does not meet the normal distribution, the maximum–minimum normalization (min-max normalization) can be used, and the linear function will convert the original data to the range of [0 1]. The equation is as follows:<div class='html-disp-formula-info' id='FD133-processes-12-02571'> <div class='f'> <math display='block'><semantics> <mrow> <msup> <mi>x</mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> <mo>=</mo> <mstyle scriptlevel="0" displaystyle="true"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>x</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mi>min</mi> <mfenced> <mi>x</mi> </mfenced> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>max</mi> <mfenced> <mi>x</mi> </mfenced> <mo>−</mo> <mi>min</mi> <mfenced> <mi>x</mi> </mfenced> </mrow> </mfrac> </mstyle> </mrow> </semantics></math> </div> <div class='l'> <label >(14)</label> </div> </div> where <math display='inline'><semantics> <msup> <mi>x</mi> <mo>′</mo> </msup> </semantics></math> is the data after normalization; <math display='inline'><semantics> <mi>x</mi> </semantics></math> is the data before normalization.</div><dl class='html-order'><dt id=''>(3)</dt><dd><div class='html-p'>Data slicing enhancements</div></dd></dl><div class='html-p'>Using the proposed FDM, the collected signals with unequal lengths are cut into signal segments with a length of 500 sampling points. Data slicing can reduce the data volume of a piece of input signal and improve the model computation efficiency; and the data segments containing fault information can be intercepted, so that the fault information features are more obvious, which is conducive to improving the accuracy of the results.</div><div class='html-p'>Due to the limited number of actual fault data samples at the site, the data set needs to be enhanced in order to increase the generalization ability of the model. Since the collected samples involving fault data are generally longer than the required input signal, the data enhancement method proposed in this paper is the sliding window sampling (SWS) method. Sliding window sampling takes a time window of the same size as the standard sample, with a step size smaller than the standard sample. The sampling method is shown in <a href="#processes-12-02571-f003" class="html-fig">Figure 3</a>. The blue irregular curve represents the timing signal. The green rectangular box represents the time window with a width of “sample length”. After the first window captures the signal fragment, it moves a distance of “sliding step” to the right and become the second window. And so on, after moving to the right for n − 1 “sliding steps”, the nth time window is obtained. In this way, a total of n signal segments are obtained. The data set after data enhancement contains a total of 13,000 samples.</div></section><section id='sec3dot2-processes-12-02571' type=''><h4 class='html-italic' data-nested='2'> 3.2. Effective Data Set</h4><div class='html-p'>After data pre-processing, the effective data set can be constructed by using FDM to select data containing fault information from original signals.</div><div class='html-p'>The FDM provides rules and principles for selecting effective data from a long-period signal. FDM describes the change modality of current, load, rotate speed, oil pressure, etc. on the fault working conditions, including average value, fluctuation, increase or decrease, and so on. Taking oil pipe waxing as an example, when it happens, the current exceeds the maximum limit and wildly fluctuates; the load increases from a low limit to a nearly maximum limit, and wildly fluctuates; the rotate speed steadily stays below the normal range and larger than the minimum limit; the oil pressure increases stably, with small fluctuations.</div><div class='html-p'>It is important for the improvement of the accuracy and efficiency of the screw pump fault diagnosis. <a href="#processes-12-02571-t001" class="html-table">Table 1</a> shows some fault data.</div></section><section id='sec3dot3-processes-12-02571' type=''><h4 class='html-italic' data-nested='2'> 3.3. Multidimensional Fault Feature Extraction</h4><div class='html-p'>According to the fluctuation of the featured signal we can extract data features that reflect the changes in the featured signal, that is, reflecting the changes in the production data, and then we can judge the fault types.</div><section id='sec3dot3dot1-processes-12-02571' type=''><h4 class='' data-nested='3'> 3.3.1. Extraction of Signal Feature</h4><div class='html-p'>Since the collected original signals contain 17-dimensional signals such as voltage, current, power, load, torque, and oil pressure, which are a large amount of data and have considerable redundancy, the 17-dimensional data will be analyzed by correlation.</div><div class='html-p'>The Pearson correlation coefficient method is defined as the covariance product of two continuously distributed parameters x and y divided by their standard deviation, as in the following equation:<div class='html-disp-formula-info' id='FD14-processes-12-02571'> <div class='f'> <math display='block'><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>ρ</mi> <mrow> <mi>x</mi> <mo>,</mo> <mi>y</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mstyle scriptlevel="0" displaystyle="true"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>cov</mi> <mfenced> <mrow> <mi>x</mi> <mo>,</mo> <mi>y</mi> </mrow> </mfenced> </mrow> <mrow> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mi>x</mi> </msub> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mi>y</mi> </msub> </mrow> </mfrac> </mstyle> </mrow> </semantics></math> </div> <div class='l'> <label >(15)</label> </div> </div> where <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mi>x</mi> </msub> <mo> </mo> <msub> <mi>σ</mi> <mi>y</mi> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math> is the standard deviation of variables x and y, respectively, and <math display='inline'><semantics> <mrow> <mi>cov</mi> <mfenced> <mrow> <mi>x</mi> <mo>,</mo> <mi>y</mi> </mrow> </mfenced> </mrow> </semantics></math> denotes the covariance of the two variables. The covariance formula is provided in the following equation: <div class='html-disp-formula-info' id='FD16-processes-12-02571'> <div class='f'> <math display='block'><semantics> <mrow> <mi>cov</mi> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo>,</mo> <mi>y</mi> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mfrac> <mrow> <mstyle displaystyle="true"> <msubsup> <mo>∑</mo> <mrow> <mi>i</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> <mi>n</mi> </msubsup> </mstyle> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <msub> <mi>x</mi> <mi>i</mi> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <mover> <mi>x</mi> <mo>−</mo> </mover> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <msub> <mi>y</mi> <mi>i</mi> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <mover> <mi>y</mi> <mo>−</mo> </mover> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>n</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </semantics></math> </div> <div class='l'> <label >(16)</label> </div> </div></div><div class='html-p'>The correlation coefficient reflects the strength and direction of correlation between variables. <a href="#processes-12-02571-t002" class="html-table">Table 2</a> shows the general pattern of correlation coefficients and strength of correlation [<a href="#B27-processes-12-02571" class="html-bibr">27</a>,<a href="#B28-processes-12-02571" class="html-bibr">28</a>,<a href="#B29-processes-12-02571" class="html-bibr">29</a>,<a href="#B30-processes-12-02571" class="html-bibr">30</a>].</div><div class='html-p'>A heat map of correlation coefficients using data from the normal operating conditions of well number z70-01-3060601 in a certain oil field is shown in <a href="#processes-12-02571-f004" class="html-fig">Figure 4</a>. According to the correlation coefficient, it can be seen that the voltage, current, and power correlation is higher than 0.91, and the correlation of current and torque is 0.95, so the voltage, power, and torque signals are discarded; the correlation of current and load is 0.20; the correlation of current and oil pressure is 0.49; and the correlation of load and speed is 0.44. In the case that voltage, power, torque, and oil pressure are discarded, the correlation of current, load, speed, and oil pressure is the lowest, that is, 3.48. It can be concluded that the 4-dimensional signals of current, load, speed, and oil pressure can be used as the signal feature.</div></section><section id='sec3dot3dot2-processes-12-02571' type=''><h4 class='' data-nested='3'> 3.3.2. Extraction Data Feature</h4><div class='html-p'>Statistical features can comprehensively describe the original signal state from different perspectives, which can quantitatively reflect the degree of signal dispersion, change, and asymmetry, and play an important role in fault diagnosis research.</div><div class='html-p'>Based on the fault mechanistic analysis, we chose the mean, variance, and peak-to-peak value (as shown in <a href="#processes-12-02571-t003" class="html-table">Table 3</a>) as data features:</div><dl class='html-order'><dt id=''>(1)</dt><dd><div class='html-p'>The mean monitors the signal center trend, which can be the most intuitive representation of the signal changes. For example, an extremely low load mean value could mean oil rod break off; an extremely high value could mean pump jamming.</div></dd><dt id=''>(2)</dt><dd><div class='html-p'>The variance monitors the distribution trend of the signal around the mean value, which can help us better understand the fluctuation of the parameters and trend changes. For example, a high variance could mean waxing of oil pipes.</div></dd><dt id=''>(3)</dt><dd><div class='html-p'>The peak-to-peak value can be used to describe the magnitude of change of a parameter over a period of time, and can better reflect the fluctuation of the parameter. For example, a high peak-to-peak could mean stator degumming.</div></dd></dl><div class='html-p'>The effective features extracted by the multidimensional feature extraction model are shown in <a href="#processes-12-02571-t004" class="html-table">Table 4</a>.</div></section></section></section><section id='sec4-processes-12-02571' type=''><h2 data-nested='1'> 4. Experiments</h2><div class='html-p'>We chose 10 common types of faults, shown in <a href="#processes-12-02571-t005" class="html-table">Table 5</a>, and we set the number of clusters to 10.</div><dl class='html-order'><dt id=''>(1)</dt><dd><div class='html-p'>Comparative experiment I</div></dd></dl><div class='html-p'>In order to verify the effectiveness of the effective feature, comparison experiments are conducted using the extracted features (Feature Set-1, <a href="#processes-12-02571-t006" class="html-table">Table 6</a>) and remaining features (Feature Set-2, <a href="#processes-12-02571-t007" class="html-table">Table 7</a>) except for the extracted features, respectively. First, the dimensions of the two feature sets are reduced to 2 dimensions using principal component analysis (PCA), and then the K-means algorithm is used to cluster.</div><div class='html-p'>K-means is computationally efficient, especially when the number of clusters and dimensions are not too large. This makes it suitable for large datasets. The output of K-means, i.e., the cluster centroids, is straightforward to interpret. Each centroid represents the average of all points in that cluster, which can help explain the result of each cluster.</div><div class='html-p'>The clustering results are shown in <a href="#processes-12-02571-f005" class="html-fig">Figure 5</a>. It shows that using the Feature Set-1, the data can be effectively classified into 10 classes. Points clustered into one category represent data for one type of fault. The smaller the intra-class distance and the larger the inter-class distance, the better the clustering is, and accordingly, the clearer the distinction among different faults. Different colors correspond to different types of faults. The pump leakage (green cluster) and the oil pipe leakage (light-blue cluster) are similar, so they are closer in the clustering results. However, using Feature Set-2, the data can be classified into only 5 classes, and the intra-class spacing is large and the inter-class spacing is small, so that the clustering results are not effective. Therefore, it can be concluded that the effective features can be extracted using the proposed multidimensional feature extraction model.</div><div class='html-p'>The Calinski–Harabasz Index (CHI) measures how good the clustering is by the ratio of interclass scatter to intraclass scatter. A higher CHI represents better clustering, as it means that there is more variability between classes as well as more compactness within classes. <a href="#processes-12-02571-f006" class="html-fig">Figure 6</a> shows the CHI of different feature sets with the number of clusters ranging from 4 to 10. It can be seen that Feature Set-1 determined the right cluster number, which means Feature Set-1 is effective for fault diagnosis.</div><div class='html-p'>In order to further verify the validity of the model, we reran k-means with 8 different initial random seeds, SVM with 8 different ε-SVR values, and (DBSCAN) with 8 different bandwidths and summarized the results with the test results of K-means, and the average of accuracy and root-mean-square error (RMSE) for different datasets after clustering are shown in <a href="#processes-12-02571-f007" class="html-fig">Figure 7</a> and <a href="#processes-12-02571-t008" class="html-table">Table 8</a>. It can be seen that, for Feature Set-1, all three methods have high average accuracy and low RMSE for diagnosis results. Therefore, using FDM and MDFEM, we can select effective fault data and extract effective fault features, which have high-quality clustering performance for fault diagnosis.</div><dl class='html-order'><dt id=''>(2)</dt><dd><div class='html-p'>Comparative experiment II</div></dd></dl><div class='html-p'>In order to verify the validity of multi-source signals, this section uses a single signal to extract features for experiments. The mean, variance, and peak-to-peak value of current, load, rotational speed, and oil pressure are extracted, respectively, constituting Feature Set-3 to Feature Set-6 (<a href="#processes-12-02571-t009" class="html-table">Table 9</a>, <a href="#processes-12-02571-t010" class="html-table">Table 10</a>, <a href="#processes-12-02571-t011" class="html-table">Table 11</a> and <a href="#processes-12-02571-t012" class="html-table">Table 12</a>), and then the dimensions of the four feature sets are reduced to 2 dimensions using principal component analysis (PCA); then clustering analysis is carried out using the K-means algorithm, and the clustering results are shown in <a href="#processes-12-02571-f008" class="html-fig">Figure 8</a>.</div><div class='html-p'>Different colors correspond to different types of faults. It shows that the data can only be classified into 4 classes using current or rotational speed signals, respectively, and the intraclass spacing is large, the interclass spacing is small; using a load or oil pressure signal can only divide the data into 3 classes and 2 classes, respectively, and the clustering is not effective. Therefore, it can be concluded that the clustering effect of the features extracted by using a single signal is not effective, and there is a considerable gap with the clustering effect of the effective features extracted in this paper.</div><div class='html-p'><a href="#processes-12-02571-f009" class="html-fig">Figure 9</a> shows the CHI of different feature sets with the number of clusters ranging from 4 to 10. We already set the number of clusters to 10. It can be seen that none of these 4 datasets determined the right cluster number, which means using a single signal to extract fault features has low quality for diagnosis.</div><div class='html-p'>The averages of accuracy and RMSE for different datasets after clustering using different methods are shown in <a href="#processes-12-02571-f010" class="html-fig">Figure 10</a> and <a href="#processes-12-02571-t013" class="html-table">Table 13</a>. It can be seen that when we use a single signal to select an effective fault and extract fault features for diagnosis, we will get a low average of accuracy and a high RMSE, which means we will get a low quality of fault diagnosis.</div></section><section id='sec5-processes-12-02571' type='conclusions'><h2 data-nested='1'> 5. Conclusions</h2><div class='html-p'>This paper proposed a model-driven approach to extract multi-source fault features of a screw pump. Firstly, the screw pump fault mechanism model and the FDM were constructed; then the original multi-dimensional data were cleaned, normalized, sliced, and enhanced, and the FDM was used for data selection to establish an effective data set; then the multi-dimensional fault feature extraction model (MDFEM) was constructed to extract the 4-dimensional featured signal and the 3-dimensional data feature, and the 12-dimensional effective fault features were extracted; finally, experiments were carried out to verify the effectiveness and accuracy of the proposed method.</div><div class='html-p'>We draw the following conclusions: (1) By analyzing the different fault mechanisms of the screw pump, the FDM can be constructed to select the effective data and solve the problem of unclear fault labels and locations; (2) By using MDFEM, we can determine that the 4-dimensional featured signals of the original multi-source signals, such as current, load, rotational speed, and oil pressure, are fault-related, and the 3-dimensional statistic feature of the mean, variance, and peak-to-peak are fault-related; (3) The method proposed in this paper can be used to extract 12-dimensional effective fault features and can achieve a multi-source informational fault diagnosis of a screw pump. After experimental verification, the proposed method can comprehensively use the multi-source information collected at the project site and can accurately and efficiently identify the types of screw pump faults, which has high application value. Due to the limited fault sample data collected in this paper, the next step is to obtain more comprehensive fault sample data as much as possible to improve the accuracy of the method.</div></section> </div> <div class="html-back"> <section class='html-notes'><h2 >Author Contributions</h2><div class='html-p'>Conceptualization, W.W. and J.Q.; methodology, W.W. and J.Q.; software, J.Q.; validation, W.W. and J.Q.; formal analysis, W.W., J.Q., X.X. and M.Z.; investigation, W.W. and J.Q.; resources, W.W., X.X. and K.M.; data curation, J.Q.; writing original draft preparation, J.Q.; writing review and editing, W.W.; visualization, J.Q. and M.Z. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.</div></section><section class='html-notes'><h2>Funding</h2><div class='html-p'>This research received no external funding.</div></section><section class='html-notes'><h2 >Data Availability Statement</h2><div class='html-p'>The data and materials supporting the results are included within the article.</div></section><section id='html-ack' class='html-ack'><h2 >Acknowledgments</h2><div class='html-p'>We are very grateful to the reviewers and editors for their contributions to improving this manuscript.</div></section><section class='html-notes'><h2 >Conflicts of Interest</h2><div class='html-p'>Author Xiangru Xu and Kaifu Mi were employed by the company Beijing Petroleum Machinery Co., Ltd. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.</div></section><section id='html-references_list'><h2>References</h2><ol class='html-xx'><li id='B1-processes-12-02571' class='html-x' data-content='1.'>Li, M.; Xue, J. A review of diagnostic methods for oil recovery system conditions in screw pump wells. <span class='html-italic'>Neijiang Sci. Technol.</span> <b>2013</b>, <span class='html-italic'>4</span>, 47–48. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=A+review+of+diagnostic+methods+for+oil+recovery+system+conditions+in+screw+pump+wells&author=Li,+M.&author=Xue,+J.&publication_year=2013&journal=Neijiang+Sci.+Technol.&volume=4&pages=47%E2%80%9348" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>]</li><li id='B2-processes-12-02571' class='html-x' data-content='2.'>Zu, S.; Bai, J.; Wang, Y.; Li, Z. Analysis of the working conditions of surface-driven screw pumps. <span class='html-italic'>Oil Drill. Process</span> <b>2006</b>, <span class='html-italic'>1</span>, 28–31+86–87. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Analysis+of+the+working+conditions+of+surface-driven+screw+pumps&author=Zu,+S.&author=Bai,+J.&author=Wang,+Y.&author=Li,+Z.&publication_year=2006&journal=Oil+Drill.+Process&volume=1&pages=28%E2%80%9331+86%E2%80%9387" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>]</li><li id='B3-processes-12-02571' class='html-x' data-content='3.'>Li, B.; Song, W.; Xu, J.; Zhang, B. Ground-driven screw pump fault diagnosis based on improved wavelet packet combined with CS-BP. <span class='html-italic'>Sci. Technol. Eng.</span> <b>2023</b>, <span class='html-italic'>23</span>, 5641–5646. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Ground-driven+screw+pump+fault+diagnosis+based+on+improved+wavelet+packet+combined+with+CS-BP&author=Li,+B.&author=Song,+W.&author=Xu,+J.&author=Zhang,+B.&publication_year=2023&journal=Sci.+Technol.+Eng.&volume=23&pages=5641%E2%80%935646" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>]</li><li id='B4-processes-12-02571' class='html-x' data-content='4.'>Xie, J.; Cheng, H.; Chu, Y. Process control fault model and intelligent diagnosis method of electric submersible screw pump. <span class='html-italic'>Pet. Mach.</span> <b>2023</b>, <span class='html-italic'>51</span>, 116–121. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Process+control+fault+model+and+intelligent+diagnosis+method+of+electric+submersible+screw+pump&author=Xie,+J.&author=Cheng,+H.&author=Chu,+Y.&publication_year=2023&journal=Pet.+Mach.&volume=51&pages=116%E2%80%93121" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>]</li><li id='B5-processes-12-02571' class='html-x' data-content='5.'>Wu, J.; Zhang, Q.; Liu, M. Research on fault diagnosis of screw pump by PNN network method. <span class='html-italic'>Neijiang Sci. Technol.</span> <b>2020</b>, <span class='html-italic'>41</span>, 39–40. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Research+on+fault+diagnosis+of+screw+pump+by+PNN+network+method&author=Wu,+J.&author=Zhang,+Q.&author=Liu,+M.&publication_year=2020&journal=Neijiang+Sci.+Technol.&volume=41&pages=39%E2%80%9340" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>]</li><li id='B6-processes-12-02571' class='html-x' data-content='6.'>Han, Y. Comprehensive diagnosis method and application of pumping condition in screw pump wells. <span class='html-italic'>Chem. Eng. Equip.</span> <b>2023</b>, <span class='html-italic'>02</span>, 96–98. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Comprehensive+diagnosis+method+and+application+of+pumping+condition+in+screw+pump+wells&author=Han,+Y.&publication_year=2023&journal=Chem.+Eng.+Equip.&volume=02&pages=96%E2%80%9398" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>]</li><li id='B7-processes-12-02571' class='html-x' data-content='7.'>Liang, H.Z.; Qi, M.; Li, W.; Li, W.H. Reseach and application of diagnostic intelligence technology for working conditions in screw pump wells. In Proceedings of the 2011 International Conference on Electrical and Control Engineering, Yichang, China, 16–18 September 2011; pp. 1161–1164. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Reseach+and+application+of+diagnostic+intelligence+technology+for+working+conditions+in+screw+pump+wells&conference=Proceedings+of+the+2011+International+Conference+on+Electrical+and+Control+Engineering&author=Liang,+H.Z.&author=Qi,+M.&author=Li,+W.&author=Li,+W.H.&publication_year=2011&pages=1161%E2%80%931164" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>]</li><li id='B8-processes-12-02571' class='html-x' data-content='8.'>Hao, D.; Gao, X. Multi-Weighted Partial Domain Adaptation for Sucker Rod Pump Fault Diagnosis Using Motor Power Data. <span class='html-italic'>Mathematics</span> <b>2022</b>, <span class='html-italic'>10</span>, 1519. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Multi-Weighted+Partial+Domain+Adaptation+for+Sucker+Rod+Pump+Fault+Diagnosis+Using+Motor+Power+Data&author=Hao,+D.&author=Gao,+X.&publication_year=2022&journal=Mathematics&volume=10&pages=1519&doi=10.3390/math10091519" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/math10091519" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B9-processes-12-02571' class='html-x' data-content='9.'>Ren, W.J.; Lu, Y.; Xiao, K.X. Fault diagnosis of screw pump wells based on wavelet packet and Elman neural network. <span class='html-italic'>J. Syst. Simul.</span> <b>2012</b>, <span class='html-italic'>24</span>, 176–179. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Fault+diagnosis+of+screw+pump+wells+based+on+wavelet+packet+and+Elman+neural+network&author=Ren,+W.J.&author=Lu,+Y.&author=Xiao,+K.X.&publication_year=2012&journal=J.+Syst.+Simul.&volume=24&pages=176%E2%80%93179" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>]</li><li id='B10-processes-12-02571' class='html-xx' data-content='10.'>Dong, K.; Li, Q.; Zhang, Z.; Jiang, M.; Xu, S. Submersible screw pump fault diagnosis method based on a probabilistic neural network. <span class='html-italic'>J. Appl. Sci. Eng.</span> <b>2022</b>, <span class='html-italic'>25</span>, 1067–1075. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Submersible+screw+pump+fault+diagnosis+method+based+on+a+probabilistic+neural+network&author=Dong,+K.&author=Li,+Q.&author=Zhang,+Z.&author=Jiang,+M.&author=Xu,+S.&publication_year=2022&journal=J.+Appl.+Sci.+Eng.&volume=25&pages=1067%E2%80%931075" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>]</li><li id='B11-processes-12-02571' class='html-xx' data-content='11.'>Jiang, M.; Cheng, T.; Dong, K.; Xu, S.; Geng, Y. Fault diagnosis method of submersible screw pump based on random forest. <span class='html-italic'>PLoS ONE</span> <b>2020</b>, <span class='html-italic'>15</span>, e0242458. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Fault+diagnosis+method+of+submersible+screw+pump+based+on+random+forest&author=Jiang,+M.&author=Cheng,+T.&author=Dong,+K.&author=Xu,+S.&author=Geng,+Y.&publication_year=2020&journal=PLoS+ONE&volume=15&pages=e0242458&doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0242458" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0242458" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B12-processes-12-02571' class='html-xx' data-content='12.'>Xu, J.; Zhao, X.F.; Zhang, F.J.; Wang, H.J. Embedded progressive cavity pump condition monitoring system. <span class='html-italic'>Control Eng.</span> <b>2010</b>, <span class='html-italic'>17</span>, 557–560. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Embedded+progressive+cavity+pump+condition+monitoring+system&author=Xu,+J.&author=Zhao,+X.F.&author=Zhang,+F.J.&author=Wang,+H.J.&publication_year=2010&journal=Control+Eng.&volume=17&pages=557%E2%80%93560" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>]</li><li id='B13-processes-12-02571' class='html-xx' data-content='13.'>Li, M.; He, P.; Meng, C. Research on intelligent integrated fault diagnosis expert system for screw pump well. <span class='html-italic'>Electr. Appl.</span> <b>2011</b>, <span class='html-italic'>30</span>, 72–74. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Research+on+intelligent+integrated+fault+diagnosis+expert+system+for+screw+pump+well&author=Li,+M.&author=He,+P.&author=Meng,+C.&publication_year=2011&journal=Electr.+Appl.&volume=30&pages=72%E2%80%9374" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>]</li><li id='B14-processes-12-02571' class='html-xx' data-content='14.'>Xue, J.Q.; Li, M.H.; Zhang, G.D. Research on screw pump well fault diagnosis technology based on BP neural network. <span class='html-italic'>J. Xi’an Pet. Univ.</span> <b>2013</b>, <span class='html-italic'>28</span>, 74–76. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Research+on+screw+pump+well+fault+diagnosis+technology+based+on+BP+neural+network&author=Xue,+J.Q.&author=Li,+M.H.&author=Zhang,+G.D.&publication_year=2013&journal=J.+Xi%E2%80%99an+Pet.+Univ.&volume=28&pages=74%E2%80%9376" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>]</li><li id='B15-processes-12-02571' class='html-xx' data-content='15.'>Zou, W.; Qu, W.T.; Huang, W. Screw pump well fault diagnosis based on RBF neural network. <span class='html-italic'>China Pet. Chem. Stand. Qual.</span> <b>2014</b>, <span class='html-italic'>24</span>, 43. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Screw+pump+well+fault+diagnosis+based+on+RBF+neural+network&author=Zou,+W.&author=Qu,+W.T.&author=Huang,+W.&publication_year=2014&journal=China+Pet.+Chem.+Stand.+Qual.&volume=24&pages=43" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>]</li><li id='B16-processes-12-02571' class='html-xx' data-content='16.'>Chen, S.W. Research on a New Method of Diagnosing the Working Condition of Oil Extraction Wells with Surface-Driven Progressive Cavity Pump. Master’s Thesis, China University of Petroleum (Beijing), Beijing, China, 2016. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Research+on+a+New+Method+of+Diagnosing+the+Working+Condition+of+Oil+Extraction+Wells+with+Surface-Driven+Progressive+Cavity+Pump&author=Chen,+S.W.&publication_year=2016" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>]</li><li id='B17-processes-12-02571' class='html-xx' data-content='17.'>Zheng, C.F.; Wu, X.; Xu, H.Y. Diagnosis of pumping condition of electric submersible screw pump based on BP neural network. <span class='html-italic'>Digit. Des.</span> <b>2018</b>, <span class='html-italic'>7</span>, 56–58. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Diagnosis+of+pumping+condition+of+electric+submersible+screw+pump+based+on+BP+neural+network&author=Zheng,+C.F.&author=Wu,+X.&author=Xu,+H.Y.&publication_year=2018&journal=Digit.+Des.&volume=7&pages=56%E2%80%9358" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>]</li><li id='B18-processes-12-02571' class='html-xx' data-content='18.'>Mei, J.; Wen, T. Fault diagnosis system with natural repair function for screw oil pump based on radial basic function network. In Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Electronic Measurement and Instruments, Melbourne, Australia, 6–8 May 2024. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Fault+diagnosis+system+with+natural+repair+function+for+screw+oil+pump+based+on+radial+basic+function+network&conference=Proceedings+of+the+8th+International+Conference+on+Electronic+Measurement+and+Instruments&author=Mei,+J.&author=Wen,+T.&publication_year=2024" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>]</li><li id='B19-processes-12-02571' class='html-xx' data-content='19.'>Lv, X.X.; Wang, H.X.; Xin, Z.; Liu, Y.X.; Zhao, P.C. Adaptive fault diagnosis of sucker rod pump systems based on optimal perceptron and simulation data. <span class='html-italic'>Pet. Sci.</span> <b>2022</b>, <span class='html-italic'>19</span>, 743–760. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Adaptive+fault+diagnosis+of+sucker+rod+pump+systems+based+on+optimal+perceptron+and+simulation+data&author=Lv,+X.X.&author=Wang,+H.X.&author=Xin,+Z.&author=Liu,+Y.X.&author=Zhao,+P.C.&publication_year=2022&journal=Pet.+Sci.&volume=19&pages=743%E2%80%93760&doi=10.1016/j.petsci.2021.09.012" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.petsci.2021.09.012" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B20-processes-12-02571' class='html-xx' data-content='20.'>Pang, T.Z. Investigation on the application of screw pump oil recovery technology in thick oil development. <span class='html-italic'>Pet. Ind.</span> <b>2015</b>, <span class='html-italic'>7</span>, 136. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Investigation+on+the+application+of+screw+pump+oil+recovery+technology+in+thick+oil+development&author=Pang,+T.Z.&publication_year=2015&journal=Pet.+Ind.&volume=7&pages=136" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>]</li><li id='B21-processes-12-02571' class='html-xx' data-content='21.'>Wei, J.; Gao, X. Fault Diagnosis of Sucker Rod Pump Based on Deep-Broad Learning Using Motor Data. <span class='html-italic'>IEEE Access</span> <b>2020</b>, <span class='html-italic'>8</span>, 222562–222571. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Fault+Diagnosis+of+Sucker+Rod+Pump+Based+on+Deep-Broad+Learning+Using+Motor+Data&author=Wei,+J.&author=Gao,+X.&publication_year=2020&journal=IEEE+Access&volume=8&pages=222562%E2%80%93222571&doi=10.1109/ACCESS.2020.3036078" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2020.3036078" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B22-processes-12-02571' class='html-xx' data-content='22.'>Guo, L.B. Analysis of oil recovery technology and utilization of screw pump in thick oil development. <span class='html-italic'>Petrochem. Technol.</span> <b>2018</b>, <span class='html-italic'>4</span>, 16–18. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Analysis+of+oil+recovery+technology+and+utilization+of+screw+pump+in+thick+oil+development&author=Guo,+L.B.&publication_year=2018&journal=Petrochem.+Technol.&volume=4&pages=16%E2%80%9318" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>]</li><li id='B23-processes-12-02571' class='html-xx' data-content='23.'>Lu, C.; Xian, W.; Xiang, Y. Using the motor power and XGBoost to diagnose working states of a sucker rod pump. <span class='html-italic'>J. Pet. Sci. Eng.</span> <b>2021</b>, <span class='html-italic'>199</span>, 108329. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Using+the+motor+power+and+XGBoost+to+diagnose+working+states+of+a+sucker+rod+pump&author=Lu,+C.&author=Xian,+W.&author=Xiang,+Y.&publication_year=2021&journal=J.+Pet.+Sci.+Eng.&volume=199&pages=108329" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>]</li><li id='B24-processes-12-02571' class='html-xx' data-content='24.'>Nojavanasghari, B.; Gopinath, D.; Koushik, J.; Baltrušaitis, T.; Morency, L.P. Deep multimodal fusion for persuasiveness prediction. In Proceedings of the 18th ACM International Conference on Multimodal Interaction, Tokyo, Japan, 12–16 November 2016. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Deep+multimodal+fusion+for+persuasiveness+prediction&conference=Proceedings+of+the+18th+ACM+International+Conference+on+Multimodal+Interaction&author=Nojavanasghari,+B.&author=Gopinath,+D.&author=Koushik,+J.&author=Baltru%C5%A1aitis,+T.&author=Morency,+L.P.&publication_year=2016" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>]</li><li id='B25-processes-12-02571' class='html-xx' data-content='25.'>Zheng, B.; Gao, X.; Pan, R. Sucker rod pump working state diagnosis using motor data and hidden conditional random fields. <span class='html-italic'>IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron.</span> <b>2019</b>, <span class='html-italic'>67</span>, 7919–7928. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Sucker+rod+pump+working+state+diagnosis+using+motor+data+and+hidden+conditional+random+fields&author=Zheng,+B.&author=Gao,+X.&author=Pan,+R.&publication_year=2019&journal=IEEE+Trans.+Ind.+Electron.&volume=67&pages=7919%E2%80%937928&doi=10.1109/TIE.2019.2944081" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1109/TIE.2019.2944081" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B26-processes-12-02571' class='html-xx' data-content='26.'>Han, Y.; Li, K.; Ge, F.; Wang, Y.; Xu, W. Online fault diagnosis for sucker rod pumping well by optimized density peak clustering. <span class='html-italic'>ISA Trans.</span> <b>2021</b>, <span class='html-italic'>120</span>, 222–234. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Online+fault+diagnosis+for+sucker+rod+pumping+well+by+optimized+density+peak+clustering&author=Han,+Y.&author=Li,+K.&author=Ge,+F.&author=Wang,+Y.&author=Xu,+W.&publication_year=2021&journal=ISA+Trans.&volume=120&pages=222%E2%80%93234&doi=10.1016/j.isatra.2021.03.022" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>] [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isatra.2021.03.022" class='cross-ref' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>CrossRef</a>]</li><li id='B27-processes-12-02571' class='html-xx' data-content='27.'>Li, L.M.; Wen, Z.Z.; Song, Y.Q. Application research of optimized K-means clustering in redundant feature elimination. <span class='html-italic'>Comput. Digit. Eng.</span> <b>2019</b>, <span class='html-italic'>47</span>, 2836–2840. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Application+research+of+optimized+K-means+clustering+in+redundant+feature+elimination&author=Li,+L.M.&author=Wen,+Z.Z.&author=Song,+Y.Q.&publication_year=2019&journal=Comput.+Digit.+Eng.&volume=47&pages=2836%E2%80%932840" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>]</li><li id='B28-processes-12-02571' class='html-xx' data-content='28.'>Wang, X.F.; Qiu, J.; Liu, G.J. Research on feature selection of mechanical failure based on feature correlation and redundancy analysis. <span class='html-italic'>Chin. J. Mech. Eng.</span> <b>2006</b>, <span class='html-italic'>17</span>, 379–382. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Research+on+feature+selection+of+mechanical+failure+based+on+feature+correlation+and+redundancy+analysis&author=Wang,+X.F.&author=Qiu,+J.&author=Liu,+G.J.&publication_year=2006&journal=Chin.+J.+Mech.+Eng.&volume=17&pages=379%E2%80%93382" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>]</li><li id='B29-processes-12-02571' class='html-xx' data-content='29.'>Yi, L.Z.; Liu, Z.L.; Long, X. Neural network wind power prediction based on mutual information redundancy analysis. <span class='html-italic'>Nat. Sci. J. Xiangtan Univ.</span> <b>2016</b>, <span class='html-italic'>38</span>, 5. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Neural+network+wind+power+prediction+based+on+mutual+information+redundancy+analysis&author=Yi,+L.Z.&author=Liu,+Z.L.&author=Long,+X.&publication_year=2016&journal=Nat.+Sci.+J.+Xiangtan+Univ.&volume=38&pages=5" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>]</li><li id='B30-processes-12-02571' class='html-xx' data-content='30.'>Zhao, J.Y.; Zhang, Z.L. Feature selection method based on maximum mutual information and maximum correlation entropy. <span class='html-italic'>Comput. Appl. Res.</span> <b>2009</b>, <span class='html-italic'>26</span>, 4. [<a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Feature+selection+method+based+on+maximum+mutual+information+and+maximum+correlation+entropy&author=Zhao,+J.Y.&author=Zhang,+Z.L.&publication_year=2009&journal=Comput.+Appl.+Res.&volume=26&pages=4" class='google-scholar' target='_blank' rel='noopener noreferrer'>Google Scholar</a>]</li></ol></section><section id='FiguresandTables' type='display-objects'><div class="html-fig-wrap" id="processes-12-02571-f001"> <div class='html-fig_img'> <div class="html-figpopup html-figpopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/12/11/2571/display" href="#fig_body_display_processes-12-02571-f001"> <img data-large="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g001.png" data-original="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g001.png" alt="Processes 12 02571 g001" data-lsrc="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g001-550.jpg" /> <a class="html-expand html-figpopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/12/11/2571/display" href="#fig_body_display_processes-12-02571-f001"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_description"> <b>Figure 1.</b> Screw pump fault diagnosis framework.  </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_show mfp-hide" id="fig_body_display_processes-12-02571-f001"> <div class="html-caption"> <b>Figure 1.</b> Screw pump fault diagnosis framework.</div> <div class="html-img"><img data-large="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g001.png" data-original="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g001.png" alt="Processes 12 02571 g001" data-lsrc="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g001.png" /></div> </div> <div class="html-fig-wrap" id="processes-12-02571-f002"> <div class='html-fig_img'> <div class="html-figpopup html-figpopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/12/11/2571/display" href="#fig_body_display_processes-12-02571-f002"> <img data-large="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g002.png" data-original="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g002.png" alt="Processes 12 02571 g002" data-lsrc="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g002-550.jpg" /> <a class="html-expand html-figpopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/12/11/2571/display" href="#fig_body_display_processes-12-02571-f002"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_description"> <b>Figure 2.</b> Screw pump fault data model.  </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_show mfp-hide" id="fig_body_display_processes-12-02571-f002"> <div class="html-caption"> <b>Figure 2.</b> Screw pump fault data model.</div> <div class="html-img"><img data-large="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g002.png" data-original="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g002.png" alt="Processes 12 02571 g002" data-lsrc="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g002.png" /></div> </div> <div class="html-fig-wrap" id="processes-12-02571-f003"> <div class='html-fig_img'> <div class="html-figpopup html-figpopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/12/11/2571/display" href="#fig_body_display_processes-12-02571-f003"> <img data-large="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g003.png" data-original="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g003.png" alt="Processes 12 02571 g003" data-lsrc="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g003-550.jpg" /> <a class="html-expand html-figpopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/12/11/2571/display" href="#fig_body_display_processes-12-02571-f003"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_description"> <b>Figure 3.</b> Slide sampling method.  </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_show mfp-hide" id="fig_body_display_processes-12-02571-f003"> <div class="html-caption"> <b>Figure 3.</b> Slide sampling method.</div> <div class="html-img"><img data-large="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g003.png" data-original="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g003.png" alt="Processes 12 02571 g003" data-lsrc="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g003.png" /></div> </div> <div class="html-fig-wrap" id="processes-12-02571-f004"> <div class='html-fig_img'> <div class="html-figpopup html-figpopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/12/11/2571/display" href="#fig_body_display_processes-12-02571-f004"> <img data-large="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g004.png" data-original="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g004.png" alt="Processes 12 02571 g004" data-lsrc="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g004-550.jpg" /> <a class="html-expand html-figpopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/12/11/2571/display" href="#fig_body_display_processes-12-02571-f004"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_description"> <b>Figure 4.</b> Heat map of signal correlation coefficients.  </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_show mfp-hide" id="fig_body_display_processes-12-02571-f004"> <div class="html-caption"> <b>Figure 4.</b> Heat map of signal correlation coefficients.</div> <div class="html-img"><img data-large="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g004.png" data-original="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g004.png" alt="Processes 12 02571 g004" data-lsrc="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g004.png" /></div> </div> <div class="html-fig-wrap" id="processes-12-02571-f005"> <div class='html-fig_img'> <div class="html-figpopup html-figpopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/12/11/2571/display" href="#fig_body_display_processes-12-02571-f005"> <img data-large="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g005.png" data-original="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g005.png" alt="Processes 12 02571 g005" data-lsrc="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g005-550.jpg" /> <a class="html-expand html-figpopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/12/11/2571/display" href="#fig_body_display_processes-12-02571-f005"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_description"> <b>Figure 5.</b> Results of comparison of Experiment I. (<b>a</b>) Clustering results of Feature Set-1; (<b>b</b>) clustering results of Feature Set-2.  </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_show mfp-hide" id="fig_body_display_processes-12-02571-f005"> <div class="html-caption"> <b>Figure 5.</b> Results of comparison of Experiment I. (<b>a</b>) Clustering results of Feature Set-1; (<b>b</b>) clustering results of Feature Set-2.</div> <div class="html-img"><img data-large="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g005.png" data-original="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g005.png" alt="Processes 12 02571 g005" data-lsrc="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g005.png" /></div> </div> <div class="html-fig-wrap" id="processes-12-02571-f006"> <div class='html-fig_img'> <div class="html-figpopup html-figpopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/12/11/2571/display" href="#fig_body_display_processes-12-02571-f006"> <img data-large="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g006.png" data-original="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g006.png" alt="Processes 12 02571 g006" data-lsrc="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g006-550.jpg" /> <a class="html-expand html-figpopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/12/11/2571/display" href="#fig_body_display_processes-12-02571-f006"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_description"> <b>Figure 6.</b> CHI of different feature sets with the number of clusters.  </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_show mfp-hide" id="fig_body_display_processes-12-02571-f006"> <div class="html-caption"> <b>Figure 6.</b> CHI of different feature sets with the number of clusters.</div> <div class="html-img"><img data-large="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g006.png" data-original="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g006.png" alt="Processes 12 02571 g006" data-lsrc="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g006.png" /></div> </div> <div class="html-fig-wrap" id="processes-12-02571-f007"> <div class='html-fig_img'> <div class="html-figpopup html-figpopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/12/11/2571/display" href="#fig_body_display_processes-12-02571-f007"> <img data-large="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g007.png" data-original="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g007.png" alt="Processes 12 02571 g007" data-lsrc="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g007-550.jpg" /> <a class="html-expand html-figpopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/12/11/2571/display" href="#fig_body_display_processes-12-02571-f007"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_description"> <b>Figure 7.</b> Diagnosis results for different datasets after clustering: (<b>a</b>) average of accuracy; (<b>b</b>) RMSE.  </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_show mfp-hide" id="fig_body_display_processes-12-02571-f007"> <div class="html-caption"> <b>Figure 7.</b> Diagnosis results for different datasets after clustering: (<b>a</b>) average of accuracy; (<b>b</b>) RMSE.</div> <div class="html-img"><img data-large="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g007.png" data-original="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g007.png" alt="Processes 12 02571 g007" data-lsrc="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g007.png" /></div> </div> <div class="html-fig-wrap" id="processes-12-02571-f008"> <div class='html-fig_img'> <div class="html-figpopup html-figpopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/12/11/2571/display" href="#fig_body_display_processes-12-02571-f008"> <img data-large="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g008.png" data-original="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g008.png" alt="Processes 12 02571 g008" data-lsrc="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g008-550.jpg" /> <a class="html-expand html-figpopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/12/11/2571/display" href="#fig_body_display_processes-12-02571-f008"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_description"> <b>Figure 8.</b> Results of comparison of Experiment II. (<b>a</b>) Clustering results of Feature Set-3; (<b>b</b>) clustering results of Feature Set-4; (<b>c</b>) clustering results of Feature Set-5; (<b>d</b>) clustering results of Feature Set-6.  </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_show mfp-hide" id="fig_body_display_processes-12-02571-f008"> <div class="html-caption"> <b>Figure 8.</b> Results of comparison of Experiment II. (<b>a</b>) Clustering results of Feature Set-3; (<b>b</b>) clustering results of Feature Set-4; (<b>c</b>) clustering results of Feature Set-5; (<b>d</b>) clustering results of Feature Set-6.</div> <div class="html-img"><img data-large="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g008.png" data-original="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g008.png" alt="Processes 12 02571 g008" data-lsrc="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g008.png" /></div> </div> <div class="html-fig-wrap" id="processes-12-02571-f009"> <div class='html-fig_img'> <div class="html-figpopup html-figpopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/12/11/2571/display" href="#fig_body_display_processes-12-02571-f009"> <img data-large="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g009.png" data-original="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g009.png" alt="Processes 12 02571 g009" data-lsrc="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g009-550.jpg" /> <a class="html-expand html-figpopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/12/11/2571/display" href="#fig_body_display_processes-12-02571-f009"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_description"> <b>Figure 9.</b> CHI of different feature sets with the number of clusters.  </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_show mfp-hide" id="fig_body_display_processes-12-02571-f009"> <div class="html-caption"> <b>Figure 9.</b> CHI of different feature sets with the number of clusters.</div> <div class="html-img"><img data-large="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g009.png" data-original="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g009.png" alt="Processes 12 02571 g009" data-lsrc="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g009.png" /></div> </div> <div class="html-fig-wrap" id="processes-12-02571-f010"> <div class='html-fig_img'> <div class="html-figpopup html-figpopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/12/11/2571/display" href="#fig_body_display_processes-12-02571-f010"> <img data-large="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g010.png" data-original="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g010.png" alt="Processes 12 02571 g010" data-lsrc="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g010-550.jpg" /> <a class="html-expand html-figpopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/12/11/2571/display" href="#fig_body_display_processes-12-02571-f010"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_description"> <b>Figure 10.</b> Diagnosis results for different datasets after clustering: (<b>a</b>) average of accuracy; (<b>b</b>) RMSE.  </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_show mfp-hide" id="fig_body_display_processes-12-02571-f010"> <div class="html-caption"> <b>Figure 10.</b> Diagnosis results for different datasets after clustering: (<b>a</b>) average of accuracy; (<b>b</b>) RMSE.</div> <div class="html-img"><img data-large="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g010.png" data-original="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g010.png" alt="Processes 12 02571 g010" data-lsrc="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-g010.png" /></div> </div> <div class="html-table-wrap" id="processes-12-02571-t001"> <div class="html-table_wrap_td"> <div class="html-tablepopup html-tablepopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/12/11/2571/display" href='#table_body_display_processes-12-02571-t001'> <img data-lsrc="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/table.png" /> <a class="html-expand html-tablepopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/12/11/2571/display" href="#table_body_display_processes-12-02571-t001"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-table_wrap_discription"> <b>Table 1.</b> Some fault data. </div> </div> <div class="html-table_show mfp-hide " id="table_body_display_processes-12-02571-t001"> <div class="html-caption"><b>Table 1.</b> Some fault data.</div> <table > <thead ><tr ><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' > </th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Waxing of Oil Pipe</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Stator Degumming</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Pump Leakage</th></tr></thead><tbody ><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Current-time diagram</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' ><span class='html-fig-inline' id='processes-12-02571-i001'><img alt="Processes 12 02571 i001" data-lsrc="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-i001.png" /></span></td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' ><span class='html-fig-inline' id='processes-12-02571-i002'><img alt="Processes 12 02571 i002" data-lsrc="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-i002.png" /></span></td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' ><span class='html-fig-inline' id='processes-12-02571-i003'><img alt="Processes 12 02571 i003" data-lsrc="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-i003.png" /></span></td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Load-time diagram</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' ><span class='html-fig-inline' id='processes-12-02571-i004'><img alt="Processes 12 02571 i004" data-lsrc="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-i004.png" /></span></td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' ><span class='html-fig-inline' id='processes-12-02571-i005'><img alt="Processes 12 02571 i005" data-lsrc="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-i005.png" /></span></td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' ><span class='html-fig-inline' id='processes-12-02571-i006'><img alt="Processes 12 02571 i006" data-lsrc="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-i006.png" /></span></td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Rotate speed-time diagram</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' ><span class='html-fig-inline' id='processes-12-02571-i007'><img alt="Processes 12 02571 i007" data-lsrc="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-i007.png" /></span></td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' ><span class='html-fig-inline' id='processes-12-02571-i008'><img alt="Processes 12 02571 i008" data-lsrc="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-i008.png" /></span></td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' ><span class='html-fig-inline' id='processes-12-02571-i009'><img alt="Processes 12 02571 i009" data-lsrc="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-i009.png" /></span></td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Oil pressure-time diagram</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><span class='html-fig-inline' id='processes-12-02571-i010'><img alt="Processes 12 02571 i010" data-lsrc="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-i010.png" /></span></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><span class='html-fig-inline' id='processes-12-02571-i011'><img alt="Processes 12 02571 i011" data-lsrc="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-i011.png" /></span></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><span class='html-fig-inline' id='processes-12-02571-i012'><img alt="Processes 12 02571 i012" data-lsrc="/processes/processes-12-02571/article_deploy/html/images/processes-12-02571-i012.png" /></span></td></tr></tbody> </table> </div> <div class="html-table-wrap" id="processes-12-02571-t002"> <div class="html-table_wrap_td"> <div class="html-tablepopup html-tablepopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/12/11/2571/display" href='#table_body_display_processes-12-02571-t002'> <img data-lsrc="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/table.png" /> <a class="html-expand html-tablepopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/12/11/2571/display" href="#table_body_display_processes-12-02571-t002"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-table_wrap_discription"> <b>Table 2.</b> Correlation table. </div> </div> <div class="html-table_show mfp-hide " id="table_body_display_processes-12-02571-t002"> <div class="html-caption"><b>Table 2.</b> Correlation table.</div> <table > <thead ><tr ><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Relevance</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Negative Value</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Positive Value</th></tr></thead><tbody ><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Irrelevant</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >−0.09~0.00</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.00~0.09</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Low relevance</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >−0.50~0.10</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.10~0.50</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >High relevance</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >−0.80~−0.50</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.50~0.80</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Significant relevance</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >−0.90~−10</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >0.9~1</td></tr></tbody> </table> </div> <div class="html-table-wrap" id="processes-12-02571-t003"> <div class="html-table_wrap_td"> <div class="html-tablepopup html-tablepopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/12/11/2571/display" href='#table_body_display_processes-12-02571-t003'> <img data-lsrc="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/table.png" /> <a class="html-expand html-tablepopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/12/11/2571/display" href="#table_body_display_processes-12-02571-t003"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-table_wrap_discription"> <b>Table 3.</b> Characteristics of statistics. </div> </div> <div class="html-table_show mfp-hide " id="table_body_display_processes-12-02571-t003"> <div class="html-caption"><b>Table 3.</b> Characteristics of statistics.</div> <table > <thead ><tr ><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Feature Name</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Formula</th></tr></thead><tbody ><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Mean</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'> <semantics> <mrow> <mover> <mi mathvariant="normal">x</mi> <mo>−</mo> </mover> <mo>=</mo> <mstyle scriptlevel="0" displaystyle="true"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mrow> <msub> <mi>N</mi> <mi>s</mi> </msub> </mrow> </mfrac> </mstyle> <msubsup> <mstyle mathsize="140%" displaystyle="true"> <mo>∑</mo> </mstyle> <mrow> <mi>i</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> <mrow> <msub> <mi>N</mi> <mi>s</mi> </msub> </mrow> </msubsup> <mi>x</mi> <mfenced> <mi>i</mi> </mfenced> </mrow> </semantics> </math></td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Variance</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'> <semantics> <mrow> <mstyle scriptlevel="0" displaystyle="true"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mrow> <msub> <mi>N</mi> <mi>s</mi> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </mfrac> </mstyle> <msubsup> <mstyle mathsize="140%" displaystyle="true"> <mo>∑</mo> </mstyle> <mrow> <mi>i</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> <mrow> <msub> <mi>N</mi> <mi>s</mi> </msub> </mrow> </msubsup> <msup> <mrow> <mfenced> <mrow> <mi>x</mi> <mfenced> <mi>i</mi> </mfenced> <mo>−</mo> <mover> <mi mathvariant="normal">x</mi> <mo>−</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mfenced> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> </msup> </mrow> </semantics> </math></td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Peak-to-peak value</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' ><math display='inline'> <semantics> <mrow> <mi>max</mi> <mfenced> <mrow> <mi>x</mi> <mfenced> <mi>i</mi> </mfenced> </mrow> </mfenced> <mo>−</mo> <mi>min</mi> <mfenced> <mrow> <mi>x</mi> <mfenced> <mi>i</mi> </mfenced> </mrow> </mfenced> </mrow> </semantics> </math></td></tr></tbody> </table> </div> <div class="html-table-wrap" id="processes-12-02571-t004"> <div class="html-table_wrap_td"> <div class="html-tablepopup html-tablepopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/12/11/2571/display" href='#table_body_display_processes-12-02571-t004'> <img data-lsrc="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/table.png" /> <a class="html-expand html-tablepopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/12/11/2571/display" href="#table_body_display_processes-12-02571-t004"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-table_wrap_discription"> <b>Table 4.</b> Effective characteristics. </div> </div> <div class="html-table_show mfp-hide " id="table_body_display_processes-12-02571-t004"> <div class="html-caption"><b>Table 4.</b> Effective characteristics.</div> <table > <thead ><tr ><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Current</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Load</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Rotate Speed</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Oil Pressure</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' > </th></tr></thead><tbody ><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Mean</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Cm</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Lm</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Sm</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Pm</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Variance</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Cv</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Lv</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Sv</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Pv</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Peak-to-peak value</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Cp</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Lp</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Sp</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Pp</td></tr></tbody> </table> </div> <div class="html-table-wrap" id="processes-12-02571-t005"> <div class="html-table_wrap_td"> <div class="html-tablepopup html-tablepopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/12/11/2571/display" href='#table_body_display_processes-12-02571-t005'> <img data-lsrc="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/table.png" /> <a class="html-expand html-tablepopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/12/11/2571/display" href="#table_body_display_processes-12-02571-t005"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-table_wrap_discription"> <b>Table 5.</b> Common types of faults. </div> </div> <div class="html-table_show mfp-hide " id="table_body_display_processes-12-02571-t005"> <div class="html-caption"><b>Table 5.</b> Common types of faults.</div> <table > <thead ><tr ><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Fault Number</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Type of Fault</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Reason</th></tr></thead><tbody ><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Oil rod break-off</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Excessive torque/tension</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >1</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Oil pipe leakage</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Oil pipe corrosion</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >2</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Oil pipe break-off</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Anti-rotation anchor damage</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >3</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Waxing of oil pipe</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >High wax content in oil wells</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >4</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Stator swelling</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Liquid-absorbing, expanding</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >5</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Stator Degumming</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Low bonding strength</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >6</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Pump leakage</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Stator wear and aging</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >7</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Pump jamming</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Excessive surplus</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >8</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >High parameters</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Displacement is greater than the fluid supply capacity</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >9</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Low parameters</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Insufficient liquid supply capacity</td></tr></tbody> </table> </div> <div class="html-table-wrap" id="processes-12-02571-t006"> <div class="html-table_wrap_td"> <div class="html-tablepopup html-tablepopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/12/11/2571/display" href='#table_body_display_processes-12-02571-t006'> <img data-lsrc="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/table.png" /> <a class="html-expand html-tablepopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/12/11/2571/display" href="#table_body_display_processes-12-02571-t006"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-table_wrap_discription"> <b>Table 6.</b> Feature Set-1. </div> </div> <div class="html-table_show mfp-hide " id="table_body_display_processes-12-02571-t006"> <div class="html-caption"><b>Table 6.</b> Feature Set-1.</div> <table > <thead ><tr ><th rowspan='2' align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Value Features</th><th colspan='4' align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Signal Features</th></tr><tr ><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Current</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Load</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Rotate Speed</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Oil Pressure</th></tr></thead><tbody ><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Mean</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Cm</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Lm</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Sm</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Pm</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Variance</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Cv</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Lv</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Sv</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Pv</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Peak-to-peak value</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Cp</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Lp</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Sp</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Pp</td></tr></tbody> </table> </div> <div class="html-table-wrap" id="processes-12-02571-t007"> <div class="html-table_wrap_td"> <div class="html-tablepopup html-tablepopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/12/11/2571/display" href='#table_body_display_processes-12-02571-t007'> <img data-lsrc="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/table.png" /> <a class="html-expand html-tablepopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/12/11/2571/display" href="#table_body_display_processes-12-02571-t007"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-table_wrap_discription"> <b>Table 7.</b> Feature Set-2. </div> </div> <div class="html-table_show mfp-hide " id="table_body_display_processes-12-02571-t007"> <div class="html-caption"><b>Table 7.</b> Feature Set-2.</div> <table > <thead ><tr ><th rowspan='2' align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Value Features</th><th colspan='4' align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Signal Features</th></tr><tr ><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Current</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Load</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Rotate Speed</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Oil Pressure</th></tr></thead><tbody ><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Kurtosis</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Ck</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Lk</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Sk</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Pk</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Impulse</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Ci</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Li</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Si</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Pi</td></tr></tbody> </table> </div> <div class="html-table-wrap" id="processes-12-02571-t008"> <div class="html-table_wrap_td"> <div class="html-tablepopup html-tablepopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/12/11/2571/display" href='#table_body_display_processes-12-02571-t008'> <img data-lsrc="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/table.png" /> <a class="html-expand html-tablepopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/12/11/2571/display" href="#table_body_display_processes-12-02571-t008"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-table_wrap_discription"> <b>Table 8.</b> The average of accuracy and RMSE for different datasets. </div> </div> <div class="html-table_show mfp-hide " id="table_body_display_processes-12-02571-t008"> <div class="html-caption"><b>Table 8.</b> The average of accuracy and RMSE for different datasets.</div> <table > <thead ><tr ><th rowspan='2' align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Datasets</th><th colspan='2' align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >K-Means</th><th colspan='2' align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >SVM</th><th colspan='2' align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >DBSCAN</th></tr><tr ><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Average of Accuracy (%)</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >RMSE</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Average of Accuracy (%)</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >RMSE</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Average of Accuracy (%)</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >RMSE</th></tr></thead><tbody ><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Feature Set-1</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >95.3</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.002</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >91.2</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.012</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >92.6</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.005</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Feature Set-2</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >75.7</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >0.091</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >64.5</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >0.156</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >71.9</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >0.076</td></tr></tbody> </table> </div> <div class="html-table-wrap" id="processes-12-02571-t009"> <div class="html-table_wrap_td"> <div class="html-tablepopup html-tablepopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/12/11/2571/display" href='#table_body_display_processes-12-02571-t009'> <img data-lsrc="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/table.png" /> <a class="html-expand html-tablepopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/12/11/2571/display" href="#table_body_display_processes-12-02571-t009"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-table_wrap_discription"> <b>Table 9.</b> Feature Set-3. </div> </div> <div class="html-table_show mfp-hide " id="table_body_display_processes-12-02571-t009"> <div class="html-caption"><b>Table 9.</b> Feature Set-3.</div> <table > <thead ><tr ><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Value Features</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Current</th></tr></thead><tbody ><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Mean</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Cm</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Variance</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Cv</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Peak-to-peak value</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Cp</td></tr></tbody> </table> </div> <div class="html-table-wrap" id="processes-12-02571-t010"> <div class="html-table_wrap_td"> <div class="html-tablepopup html-tablepopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/12/11/2571/display" href='#table_body_display_processes-12-02571-t010'> <img data-lsrc="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/table.png" /> <a class="html-expand html-tablepopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/12/11/2571/display" href="#table_body_display_processes-12-02571-t010"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-table_wrap_discription"> <b>Table 10.</b> Feature Set-4. </div> </div> <div class="html-table_show mfp-hide " id="table_body_display_processes-12-02571-t010"> <div class="html-caption"><b>Table 10.</b> Feature Set-4.</div> <table > <thead ><tr ><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Value Features</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Load</th></tr></thead><tbody ><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Mean</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Lm</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Variance</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Lv</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Peak-to-peak value</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Lp</td></tr></tbody> </table> </div> <div class="html-table-wrap" id="processes-12-02571-t011"> <div class="html-table_wrap_td"> <div class="html-tablepopup html-tablepopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/12/11/2571/display" href='#table_body_display_processes-12-02571-t011'> <img data-lsrc="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/table.png" /> <a class="html-expand html-tablepopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/12/11/2571/display" href="#table_body_display_processes-12-02571-t011"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-table_wrap_discription"> <b>Table 11.</b> Feature Set-5. </div> </div> <div class="html-table_show mfp-hide " id="table_body_display_processes-12-02571-t011"> <div class="html-caption"><b>Table 11.</b> Feature Set-5.</div> <table > <thead ><tr ><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Value Features</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Rotate Speed</th></tr></thead><tbody ><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Mean</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Sm</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Variance</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Sv</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Peak-to-peak value</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Sp</td></tr></tbody> </table> </div> <div class="html-table-wrap" id="processes-12-02571-t012"> <div class="html-table_wrap_td"> <div class="html-tablepopup html-tablepopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/12/11/2571/display" href='#table_body_display_processes-12-02571-t012'> <img data-lsrc="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/table.png" /> <a class="html-expand html-tablepopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/12/11/2571/display" href="#table_body_display_processes-12-02571-t012"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-table_wrap_discription"> <b>Table 12.</b> Feature Set-6. </div> </div> <div class="html-table_show mfp-hide " id="table_body_display_processes-12-02571-t012"> <div class="html-caption"><b>Table 12.</b> Feature Set-6.</div> <table > <thead ><tr ><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Value Features</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Oil Pressure</th></tr></thead><tbody ><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Mean</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Pm</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Variance</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Pv</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Peak-to-peak value</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Pp</td></tr></tbody> </table> </div> <div class="html-table-wrap" id="processes-12-02571-t013"> <div class="html-table_wrap_td"> <div class="html-tablepopup html-tablepopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/12/11/2571/display" href='#table_body_display_processes-12-02571-t013'> <img data-lsrc="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/table.png" /> <a class="html-expand html-tablepopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9717/12/11/2571/display" href="#table_body_display_processes-12-02571-t013"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-table_wrap_discription"> <b>Table 13.</b> The average of accuracy and RMSE for different datasets. </div> </div> <div class="html-table_show mfp-hide " id="table_body_display_processes-12-02571-t013"> <div class="html-caption"><b>Table 13.</b> The average of accuracy and RMSE for different datasets.</div> <table > <thead ><tr ><th rowspan='2' align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Datasets</th><th colspan='2' align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >K-Means</th><th colspan='2' align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >SVM</th><th colspan='2' align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >DBSCAN</th></tr><tr ><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Average of Accuracy (%)</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >RMSE</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Average of Accuracy (%)</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >RMSE</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Average of Accuracy (%)</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >RMSE</th></tr></thead><tbody ><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Feature Set-3</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >74.3</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.123</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >68.3</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.097</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >72.6</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.135</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Feature Set-4</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >71.8</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.098</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >64.5</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.165</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >71.9</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.145</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Feature Set-5</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >69.5</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.134</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >70.2</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.126</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >68.5</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.140</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Feature Set-6</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >75.6</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >0.153</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >71.8</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >0.103</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >64.3</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >0.147</td></tr></tbody> </table> </div> </section><section class='html-fn_group'><table><tr id=''><td></td><td><div class='html-p'><b>Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note:</b> The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.</div></td></tr></table></section> <section id="html-copyright"><br>© 2024 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (<a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/</a>).</section> </div> </div> <div class="additional-content"> <h2><a name="cite"></a>Share and Cite</h2> <div class="social-media-links" style="text-align: left;"> <a href="/cdn-cgi/l/email-protection#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" title="Email"> <i class="fa fa-envelope-square" style="font-size: 30px;"></i> </a> <a href="https://twitter.com/intent/tweet?text=A+Model-Driven+Approach+to+Extract+Multi-Source+Fault+Features+of+a+Screw+Pump&hashtags=mdpiprocesses&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mdpi.com%2F3045426&via=Processes_MDPI" onclick="windowOpen(this.href,600,800); return false" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> <i class="fa fa-twitter-x-square" style="font-size: 30px;"></i> </a> <a href=" http://www.linkedin.com/shareArticle?mini=true&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mdpi.com%2F3045426&title=A%20Model-Driven%20Approach%20to%20Extract%20Multi-Source%20Fault%20Features%20of%20a%20Screw%20Pump%26source%3Dhttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.mdpi.com%26summary%3DScrew%20pumps%E2%80%99%20faulty%20working%20conditions%20affect%20the%20stability%20of%20oil%20production.%20At%20project%20sites%2C%20different%20sensors%20are%20used%20simultaneously%20to%20collect%20multi-dimensional%20signals%3B%20the%20data%20fault%20labels%20and%20location%20are%20not%20clear%2C%20and%20how%20to%20%5B...%5D" onclick="windowOpen(this.href,600,800); return false" title="LinkedIn" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> <i class="fa fa-linkedin-square" style="font-size: 30px;"></i> </a> <a href="https://www.facebook.com/sharer.php?u=https://www.mdpi.com/3045426" title="facebook" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> <i class="fa fa-facebook-square" style="font-size: 30px;"></i> </a> <a href="javascript:void(0);" title="Wechat" data-reveal-id="weixin-share-modal"> <i class="fa fa-weixin-square" style="font-size: 26px;"></i> </a> <a href="http://www.reddit.com/submit?url=https://www.mdpi.com/3045426" title="Reddit" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> <i class="fa fa-reddit-square" style="font-size: 30px;"></i> </a> <a href="http://www.mendeley.com/import/?url=https://www.mdpi.com/3045426" title="Mendeley" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> <i class="fa fa-mendeley-square" style="font-size: 30px;"></i> </a> </div> <div class="in-tab" style="padding-top: 0px!important; margin-top: 15px;"> <div><b>MDPI and ACS Style</b></div> <p> Wen, W.; Qin, J.; Xu, X.; Mi, K.; Zhou, M. A Model-Driven Approach to Extract Multi-Source Fault Features of a Screw Pump. <em>Processes</em> <b>2024</b>, <em>12</em>, 2571. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12112571 </p> <div style="display: block"> <b>AMA Style</b><br> <p> Wen W, Qin J, Xu X, Mi K, Zhou M. A Model-Driven Approach to Extract Multi-Source Fault Features of a Screw Pump. <em>Processes</em>. 2024; 12(11):2571. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12112571 </p> <b>Chicago/Turabian Style</b><br> <p> Wen, Weigang, Jingqi Qin, Xiangru Xu, Kaifu Mi, and Meng Zhou. 2024. "A Model-Driven Approach to Extract Multi-Source Fault Features of a Screw Pump" <em>Processes</em> 12, no. 11: 2571. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12112571 </p> <b>APA Style</b><br> <p> Wen, W., Qin, J., Xu, X., Mi, K., & Zhou, M. (2024). A Model-Driven Approach to Extract Multi-Source Fault Features of a Screw Pump. <em>Processes</em>, <em>12</em>(11), 2571. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12112571 </p> </div> </div> <div class="info-box no-margin"> Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details <a target="_blank" href="https://www.mdpi.com/about/announcements/784">here</a>. </div> <h2><a name="metrics"></a>Article Metrics</h2> <div class="row"> <div class="small-12 columns"> <div id="loaded_cite_count" style="display:none">No</div> <div id="framed_div_cited_count" class="in-tab" style="display: none; overflow: auto;"></div> <div id="loaded" style="display:none">No</div> <div id="framed_div" class="in-tab" style="display: none; margin-top: 10px;"></div> </div> <div class="small-12 columns"> <div id="article_stats_div" style="display: none; margin-bottom: 1em;"> <h3>Article Access Statistics</h3> <div id="article_stats_swf" ></div> For more information on the journal statistics, click <a href="/journal/processes/stats">here</a>. <div class="info-box"> Multiple requests from the same IP address are counted as one view. </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </article> </div> </div></div> <div class="webpymol-controls webpymol-controls-template" style="margin-top: 10px; display: none;"> <a class="bzoom">Zoom</a> <span style="display: inline-block; margin-left: 5px; margin-right: 5px;">|</span> <a class="borient"> Orient </a> <span style="display: inline-block; margin-left: 5px; margin-right: 5px;">|</span> <a class="blines"> As Lines </a> <span style="display: inline-block; margin-left: 5px; margin-right: 5px;">|</span> <a class="bsticks"> As Sticks </a> <span style="display: inline-block; margin-left: 5px; margin-right: 5px;">|</span> <a class="bcartoon"> As Cartoon </a> <span style="display: inline-block; margin-left: 5px; margin-right: 5px;">|</span> <a class="bsurface"> As Surface </a> <span style="display: inline-block; margin-left: 5px; margin-right: 5px;">|</span> <a class="bprevscene">Previous Scene</a> <span style="display: inline-block; margin-left: 5px; margin-right: 5px;">|</span> <a class="bnextscene">Next Scene</a> </div> <div id="scifeed-modal" class="reveal-modal reveal-modal-new" data-reveal aria-labelledby="modalTitle" aria-hidden="true" role="dialog"> </div> <div id="recommended-articles-modal" class="reveal-modal reveal-modal-new" data-reveal aria-labelledby="modalTitle" aria-hidden="true" role="dialog"> </div> <div id="author-biographies-modal" class="reveal-modal reveal-modal-new" data-reveal aria-labelledby="modalTitle" aria-hidden="true" role="dialog"> </div> <div id="cite-modal" class="reveal-modal reveal-modal-new" data-reveal aria-labelledby="Captcha" aria-hidden="true" role="dialog"> <div class="row"> <div class="small-12 columns"> <h2 style="margin: 0;">Cite</h2> </div> <div class="small-12 columns">  <form style="margin:0; padding:0; display:inline;" name="export-bibtex" method="POST" action="/export"> <input type="hidden" name="articles_ids[]" value="1522713"> <input type="hidden" name="export_format_top" value="bibtex"> <input type="hidden" name="export_submit_top" value=""> </form>  <form style="margin:0; padding:0; display:inline;" name="export-endnote" method="POST" action="/export"> <input type="hidden" name="articles_ids[]" value="1522713"> <input type="hidden" name="export_format_top" value="endnote_no_abstract"> <input type="hidden" name="export_submit_top" value=""> </form>  <form style="margin:0; padding:0; display:inline;" name="export-ris" method="POST" action="/export"> <input type="hidden" name="articles_ids[]" value="1522713"> <input type="hidden" name="export_format_top" value="ris"> <input type="hidden" name="export_submit_top" value=""> </form> <div> Export citation file: <a href="javascript:window.document.forms['export-bibtex'].submit()">BibTeX</a> | <a href="javascript:window.document.forms['export-endnote'].submit()">EndNote</a> | <a href="javascript:window.document.forms['export-ris'].submit()">RIS</a> </div> </div> <div class="small-12 columns"> <div class="in-tab"> <div><b>MDPI and ACS Style</b></div> <p> Wen, W.; Qin, J.; Xu, X.; Mi, K.; Zhou, M. A Model-Driven Approach to Extract Multi-Source Fault Features of a Screw Pump. <em>Processes</em> <b>2024</b>, <em>12</em>, 2571. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12112571 </p> <div style="display: block"> <b>AMA Style</b><br> <p> Wen W, Qin J, Xu X, Mi K, Zhou M. A Model-Driven Approach to Extract Multi-Source Fault Features of a Screw Pump. <em>Processes</em>. 2024; 12(11):2571. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12112571 </p> <b>Chicago/Turabian Style</b><br> <p> Wen, Weigang, Jingqi Qin, Xiangru Xu, Kaifu Mi, and Meng Zhou. 2024. "A Model-Driven Approach to Extract Multi-Source Fault Features of a Screw Pump" <em>Processes</em> 12, no. 11: 2571. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12112571 </p> <b>APA Style</b><br> <p> Wen, W., Qin, J., Xu, X., Mi, K., & Zhou, M. (2024). A Model-Driven Approach to Extract Multi-Source Fault Features of a Screw Pump. <em>Processes</em>, <em>12</em>(11), 2571. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12112571 </p> </div> </div> <div class="info-box no-margin"> Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details <a target="_blank" href="https://www.mdpi.com/about/announcements/784">here</a>. </div> </div> </div> <a class="close-reveal-modal" aria-label="Close"> <i class="material-icons">clear</i> </a> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </section> <div id="footer"> <div class="journal-info"> <span> <em><a class="Var_JournalInfo" href="/journal/processes">Processes</a></em>, EISSN 2227-9717, Published by MDPI </span> <div class="large-right"> <span> <a href="/rss/journal/processes" class="rss-link">RSS</a> </span> <span> <a href="/journal/processes/toc-alert">Content Alert</a> </span> </div> </div> <div class="row full-width footer-links" data-equalizer="footer" data-equalizer-mq="small"> <div class="large-2 large-push-4 medium-3 small-6 columns" data-equalizer-watch="footer"> <h3> Further Information </h3> <a href="/apc"> Article Processing Charges </a> <a href="/about/payment"> Pay an Invoice </a> <a href="/openaccess"> Open Access Policy </a> <a href="/about/contact"> Contact MDPI </a> <a href="https://careers.mdpi.com" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> Jobs at MDPI </a> </div> <div class="large-2 large-push-4 medium-3 small-6 columns" data-equalizer-watch="footer"> <h3> Guidelines </h3> <a href="/authors"> For Authors </a> <a href="/reviewers"> For Reviewers </a> <a href="/editors"> For Editors </a> <a href="/librarians"> For Librarians </a> <a href="/publishing_services"> For Publishers </a> <a href="/societies"> For Societies </a> <a href="/conference_organizers"> For Conference Organizers </a> </div> <div class="large-2 large-push-4 medium-3 small-6 columns"> <h3> MDPI Initiatives </h3> <a href="https://sciforum.net" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> Sciforum </a> <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/books" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> MDPI Books </a> <a href="https://www.preprints.org" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> Preprints.org </a> <a href="https://www.scilit.net" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> Scilit </a> <a href="https://sciprofiles.com?utm_source=mpdi.com&utm_medium=bottom_menu&utm_campaign=initiative" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> SciProfiles </a> <a href="https://encyclopedia.pub" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> Encyclopedia </a> <a href="https://jams.pub" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> JAMS </a> <a href="/about/proceedings"> Proceedings Series </a> </div> <div class="large-2 large-push-4 medium-3 small-6 right-border-large-without columns UA_FooterFollowMDPI"> <h3> Follow MDPI </h3> <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/company/mdpi" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> LinkedIn </a> <a href="https://www.facebook.com/MDPIOpenAccessPublishing" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> Facebook </a> <a href="https://twitter.com/MDPIOpenAccess" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> Twitter </a> </div> <div id="footer-subscribe" class="large-4 large-pull-8 medium-12 small-12 left-border-large columns"> <div class="footer-subscribe__container"> <img class="show-for-large-up" src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/design/mdpi-pub-logo-white-small.png?71d18e5f805839ab?1732615622" alt="MDPI" title="MDPI Open Access Journals" style="height: 50px; margin-bottom: 10px;"> <form id="newsletter" method="POST" action="/subscribe"> <p> Subscribe to receive issue release notifications and newsletters from MDPI journals </p> <select multiple id="newsletter-journal" class="foundation-select" name="journals[]"> <option value="acoustics">Acoustics</option> <option value="amh">Acta Microbiologica Hellenica</option> <option value="actuators">Actuators</option> <option value="admsci">Administrative Sciences</option> <option value="adolescents">Adolescents</option> <option value="arm">Advances in Respiratory Medicine</option> <option value="aerobiology">Aerobiology</option> <option value="aerospace">Aerospace</option> <option value="agriculture">Agriculture</option> <option value="agriengineering">AgriEngineering</option> <option value="agrochemicals">Agrochemicals</option> <option value="agronomy">Agronomy</option> <option value="ai">AI</option> <option value="air">Air</option> <option value="algorithms">Algorithms</option> <option value="allergies">Allergies</option> <option value="alloys">Alloys</option> <option value="analytica">Analytica</option> <option value="analytics">Analytics</option> <option value="anatomia">Anatomia</option> <option value="anesthres">Anesthesia Research</option> <option value="animals">Animals</option> <option value="antibiotics">Antibiotics</option> <option value="antibodies">Antibodies</option> <option value="antioxidants">Antioxidants</option> <option value="applbiosci">Applied Biosciences</option> <option value="applmech">Applied Mechanics</option> <option value="applmicrobiol">Applied Microbiology</option> <option value="applnano">Applied Nano</option> <option value="applsci">Applied Sciences</option> <option value="asi">Applied System Innovation</option> <option value="appliedchem">AppliedChem</option> <option value="appliedmath">AppliedMath</option> <option value="aquacj">Aquaculture Journal</option> <option value="architecture">Architecture</option> <option value="arthropoda">Arthropoda</option> <option value="arts">Arts</option> <option value="astronomy">Astronomy</option> <option value="atmosphere">Atmosphere</option> <option value="atoms">Atoms</option> <option value="audiolres">Audiology Research</option> <option value="automation">Automation</option> <option value="axioms">Axioms</option> <option value="bacteria">Bacteria</option> <option value="batteries">Batteries</option> <option value="behavsci">Behavioral Sciences</option> <option value="beverages">Beverages</option> <option value="BDCC">Big Data and Cognitive Computing</option> <option value="biochem">BioChem</option> <option value="bioengineering">Bioengineering</option> <option value="biologics">Biologics</option> <option value="biology">Biology</option> <option value="blsf">Biology and Life Sciences Forum</option> <option value="biomass">Biomass</option> <option value="biomechanics">Biomechanics</option> <option value="biomed">BioMed</option> <option value="biomedicines">Biomedicines</option> <option value="biomedinformatics">BioMedInformatics</option> <option value="biomimetics">Biomimetics</option> <option value="biomolecules">Biomolecules</option> <option value="biophysica">Biophysica</option> <option value="biosensors">Biosensors</option> <option value="biotech">BioTech</option> <option value="birds">Birds</option> <option value="blockchains">Blockchains</option> <option value="brainsci">Brain Sciences</option> <option value="buildings">Buildings</option> <option value="businesses">Businesses</option> <option value="carbon">C</option> <option value="cancers">Cancers</option> <option value="cardiogenetics">Cardiogenetics</option> <option value="catalysts">Catalysts</option> <option value="cells">Cells</option> <option value="ceramics">Ceramics</option> <option value="challenges">Challenges</option> <option value="ChemEngineering">ChemEngineering</option> <option value="chemistry">Chemistry</option> <option value="chemproc">Chemistry Proceedings</option> <option value="chemosensors">Chemosensors</option> <option value="children">Children</option> <option value="chips">Chips</option> <option value="civileng">CivilEng</option> <option value="cleantechnol">Clean Technologies</option> <option value="climate">Climate</option> <option value="ctn">Clinical and Translational Neuroscience</option> <option value="clinbioenerg">Clinical Bioenergetics</option> <option value="clinpract">Clinics and Practice</option> <option value="clockssleep">Clocks & Sleep</option> <option value="coasts">Coasts</option> <option value="coatings">Coatings</option> <option value="colloids">Colloids and Interfaces</option> <option value="colorants">Colorants</option> <option value="commodities">Commodities</option> <option value="complications">Complications</option> <option value="compounds">Compounds</option> <option value="computation">Computation</option> <option value="csmf">Computer Sciences & Mathematics Forum</option> <option value="computers">Computers</option> <option value="condensedmatter">Condensed Matter</option> <option value="conservation">Conservation</option> <option value="constrmater">Construction Materials</option> <option value="cmd">Corrosion and Materials Degradation</option> <option value="cosmetics">Cosmetics</option> <option value="covid">COVID</option> <option value="crops">Crops</option> <option value="cryo">Cryo</option> <option value="cryptography">Cryptography</option> <option value="crystals">Crystals</option> <option value="cimb">Current Issues in Molecular Biology</option> <option value="curroncol">Current Oncology</option> <option value="dairy">Dairy</option> <option value="data">Data</option> <option value="dentistry">Dentistry Journal</option> <option value="dermato">Dermato</option> <option value="dermatopathology">Dermatopathology</option> <option value="designs">Designs</option> <option value="diabetology">Diabetology</option> <option value="diagnostics">Diagnostics</option> <option value="dietetics">Dietetics</option> <option value="digital">Digital</option> <option value="disabilities">Disabilities</option> <option value="diseases">Diseases</option> <option value="diversity">Diversity</option> <option value="dna">DNA</option> <option value="drones">Drones</option> <option value="ddc">Drugs and Drug Candidates</option> <option value="dynamics">Dynamics</option> <option value="earth">Earth</option> <option value="ecologies">Ecologies</option> <option value="econometrics">Econometrics</option> <option value="economies">Economies</option> <option value="education">Education Sciences</option> <option value="electricity">Electricity</option> <option value="electrochem">Electrochem</option> <option value="electronicmat">Electronic Materials</option> <option value="electronics">Electronics</option> <option value="ecm">Emergency Care and Medicine</option> <option value="encyclopedia">Encyclopedia</option> <option value="endocrines">Endocrines</option> <option value="energies">Energies</option> <option value="esa">Energy Storage and Applications</option> <option value="eng">Eng</option> <option value="engproc">Engineering Proceedings</option> <option value="entropy">Entropy</option> <option value="environsciproc">Environmental Sciences Proceedings</option> <option value="environments">Environments</option> <option value="epidemiologia">Epidemiologia</option> <option value="epigenomes">Epigenomes</option> <option value="ebj">European Burn Journal</option> <option value="ejihpe">European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education</option> <option value="fermentation">Fermentation</option> <option value="fibers">Fibers</option> <option value="fintech">FinTech</option> <option value="fire">Fire</option> <option value="fishes">Fishes</option> <option value="fluids">Fluids</option> <option value="foods">Foods</option> <option value="forecasting">Forecasting</option> <option value="forensicsci">Forensic Sciences</option> <option value="forests">Forests</option> <option value="fossstud">Fossil Studies</option> <option value="foundations">Foundations</option> <option value="fractalfract">Fractal and Fractional</option> <option value="fuels">Fuels</option> <option value="future">Future</option> <option value="futureinternet">Future Internet</option> <option value="futurepharmacol">Future Pharmacology</option> <option value="futuretransp">Future Transportation</option> <option value="galaxies">Galaxies</option> <option value="games">Games</option> <option value="gases">Gases</option> <option value="gastroent">Gastroenterology Insights</option> <option value="gastrointestdisord">Gastrointestinal Disorders</option> <option value="gastronomy">Gastronomy</option> <option value="gels">Gels</option> <option value="genealogy">Genealogy</option> <option value="genes">Genes</option> <option value="geographies">Geographies</option> <option value="geohazards">GeoHazards</option> <option value="geomatics">Geomatics</option> <option value="geometry">Geometry</option> <option value="geosciences">Geosciences</option> <option value="geotechnics">Geotechnics</option> <option value="geriatrics">Geriatrics</option> <option value="glacies">Glacies</option> <option value="gucdd">Gout, Urate, and Crystal Deposition Disease</option> <option value="grasses">Grasses</option> <option value="hardware">Hardware</option> <option value="healthcare">Healthcare</option> <option value="hearts">Hearts</option> <option value="hemato">Hemato</option> <option value="hematolrep">Hematology Reports</option> <option value="heritage">Heritage</option> <option value="histories">Histories</option> <option value="horticulturae">Horticulturae</option> <option value="hospitals">Hospitals</option> <option value="humanities">Humanities</option> <option value="humans">Humans</option> <option value="hydrobiology">Hydrobiology</option> <option value="hydrogen">Hydrogen</option> <option value="hydrology">Hydrology</option> <option value="hygiene">Hygiene</option> <option value="immuno">Immuno</option> <option value="idr">Infectious Disease Reports</option> <option value="informatics">Informatics</option> <option value="information">Information</option> <option value="infrastructures">Infrastructures</option> <option value="inorganics">Inorganics</option> <option value="insects">Insects</option> <option value="instruments">Instruments</option> <option value="iic">Intelligent Infrastructure and Construction</option> <option value="ijerph">International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health</option> <option value="ijfs">International Journal of Financial Studies</option> <option value="ijms">International Journal of Molecular Sciences</option> <option value="IJNS">International Journal of Neonatal Screening</option> <option value="ijpb">International Journal of Plant Biology</option> <option value="ijt">International Journal of Topology</option> <option value="ijtm">International Journal of Translational Medicine</option> <option value="ijtpp">International Journal of Turbomachinery, Propulsion and Power</option> <option value="ime">International Medical Education</option> <option value="inventions">Inventions</option> <option value="IoT">IoT</option> <option value="ijgi">ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information</option> <option value="J">J</option> <option value="jal">Journal of Ageing and Longevity</option> <option value="jcdd">Journal of Cardiovascular Development and Disease</option> <option value="jcto">Journal of Clinical & Translational Ophthalmology</option> <option value="jcm">Journal of Clinical Medicine</option> <option value="jcs">Journal of Composites Science</option> <option value="jcp">Journal of Cybersecurity and Privacy</option> <option value="jdad">Journal of Dementia and Alzheimer's Disease</option> <option value="jdb">Journal of Developmental Biology</option> <option value="jeta">Journal of Experimental and Theoretical Analyses</option> <option value="jfb">Journal of Functional Biomaterials</option> <option value="jfmk">Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology</option> <option value="jof">Journal of Fungi</option> <option value="jimaging">Journal of Imaging</option> <option value="jintelligence">Journal of Intelligence</option> <option value="jlpea">Journal of Low Power Electronics and Applications</option> <option value="jmmp">Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing</option> <option value="jmse">Journal of Marine Science and Engineering</option> <option value="jmahp">Journal of Market Access & Health Policy</option> <option value="jmp">Journal of Molecular Pathology</option> <option value="jnt">Journal of Nanotheranostics</option> <option value="jne">Journal of Nuclear Engineering</option> <option value="ohbm">Journal of Otorhinolaryngology, Hearing and Balance Medicine</option> <option value="jop">Journal of Parks</option> <option value="jpm">Journal of Personalized Medicine</option> <option value="jpbi">Journal of Pharmaceutical and BioTech Industry</option> <option value="jor">Journal of Respiration</option> <option value="jrfm">Journal of Risk and Financial Management</option> <option value="jsan">Journal of Sensor and Actuator Networks</option> <option value="joma">Journal of the Oman Medical Association</option> <option value="jtaer">Journal of Theoretical and Applied Electronic Commerce Research</option> <option value="jvd">Journal of Vascular Diseases</option> <option value="jox">Journal of Xenobiotics</option> <option value="jzbg">Journal of Zoological and Botanical Gardens</option> <option value="journalmedia">Journalism and Media</option> <option value="kidneydial">Kidney and Dialysis</option> <option value="kinasesphosphatases">Kinases and Phosphatases</option> <option value="knowledge">Knowledge</option> <option value="labmed">LabMed</option> <option value="laboratories">Laboratories</option> <option value="land">Land</option> <option value="languages">Languages</option> <option value="laws">Laws</option> <option value="life">Life</option> <option value="limnolrev">Limnological Review</option> <option value="lipidology">Lipidology</option> <option value="liquids">Liquids</option> <option value="literature">Literature</option> <option value="livers">Livers</option> <option value="logics">Logics</option> <option value="logistics">Logistics</option> <option value="lubricants">Lubricants</option> <option value="lymphatics">Lymphatics</option> <option value="make">Machine Learning and Knowledge Extraction</option> <option value="machines">Machines</option> <option value="macromol">Macromol</option> <option value="magnetism">Magnetism</option> <option value="magnetochemistry">Magnetochemistry</option> <option value="marinedrugs">Marine Drugs</option> <option value="materials">Materials</option> <option value="materproc">Materials Proceedings</option> <option value="mca">Mathematical and Computational Applications</option> <option value="mathematics">Mathematics</option> <option value="medsci">Medical Sciences</option> <option value="msf">Medical Sciences Forum</option> <option value="medicina">Medicina</option> <option value="medicines">Medicines</option> <option value="membranes">Membranes</option> <option value="merits">Merits</option> <option value="metabolites">Metabolites</option> <option value="metals">Metals</option> <option value="meteorology">Meteorology</option> <option value="methane">Methane</option> <option value="mps">Methods and Protocols</option> <option value="metrics">Metrics</option> <option value="metrology">Metrology</option> <option value="micro">Micro</option> <option value="microbiolres">Microbiology Research</option> <option value="micromachines">Micromachines</option> <option value="microorganisms">Microorganisms</option> <option value="microplastics">Microplastics</option> <option value="minerals">Minerals</option> <option value="mining">Mining</option> <option value="modelling">Modelling</option> <option value="mmphys">Modern Mathematical Physics</option> <option value="molbank">Molbank</option> <option value="molecules">Molecules</option> <option value="mti">Multimodal Technologies and Interaction</option> <option value="muscles">Muscles</option> <option value="nanoenergyadv">Nanoenergy Advances</option> <option value="nanomanufacturing">Nanomanufacturing</option> <option value="nanomaterials">Nanomaterials</option> <option value="ndt">NDT</option> <option value="network">Network</option> <option value="neuroglia">Neuroglia</option> <option value="neurolint">Neurology International</option> <option value="neurosci">NeuroSci</option> <option value="nitrogen">Nitrogen</option> <option value="ncrna">Non-Coding RNA</option> <option value="nursrep">Nursing Reports</option> <option value="nutraceuticals">Nutraceuticals</option> <option value="nutrients">Nutrients</option> <option value="obesities">Obesities</option> <option value="oceans">Oceans</option> <option value="onco">Onco</option> <option value="optics">Optics</option> <option value="oral">Oral</option> <option value="organics">Organics</option> <option value="organoids">Organoids</option> <option value="osteology">Osteology</option> <option value="oxygen">Oxygen</option> <option value="parasitologia">Parasitologia</option> <option value="particles">Particles</option> <option value="pathogens">Pathogens</option> <option value="pathophysiology">Pathophysiology</option> <option value="pediatrrep">Pediatric Reports</option> <option value="pets">Pets</option> <option value="pharmaceuticals">Pharmaceuticals</option> <option value="pharmaceutics">Pharmaceutics</option> <option value="pharmacoepidemiology">Pharmacoepidemiology</option> <option value="pharmacy">Pharmacy</option> <option value="philosophies">Philosophies</option> <option value="photochem">Photochem</option> <option value="photonics">Photonics</option> <option value="phycology">Phycology</option> <option value="physchem">Physchem</option> <option value="psf">Physical Sciences Forum</option> <option value="physics">Physics</option> <option value="physiologia">Physiologia</option> <option value="plants">Plants</option> <option value="plasma">Plasma</option> <option value="platforms">Platforms</option> <option value="pollutants">Pollutants</option> <option value="polymers">Polymers</option> <option value="polysaccharides">Polysaccharides</option> <option value="populations">Populations</option> <option value="poultry">Poultry</option> <option value="powders">Powders</option> <option value="proceedings">Proceedings</option> <option value="processes">Processes</option> <option value="prosthesis">Prosthesis</option> <option value="proteomes">Proteomes</option> <option value="psychiatryint">Psychiatry International</option> <option value="psychoactives">Psychoactives</option> <option value="psycholint">Psychology International</option> <option value="publications">Publications</option> <option value="qubs">Quantum Beam Science</option> <option value="quantumrep">Quantum Reports</option> <option value="quaternary">Quaternary</option> <option value="radiation">Radiation</option> <option value="reactions">Reactions</option> <option value="realestate">Real Estate</option> <option value="receptors">Receptors</option> <option value="recycling">Recycling</option> <option value="rsee">Regional Science and Environmental Economics</option> <option value="religions">Religions</option> <option value="remotesensing">Remote Sensing</option> <option value="reports">Reports</option> <option value="reprodmed">Reproductive Medicine</option> <option value="resources">Resources</option> <option value="rheumato">Rheumato</option> <option value="risks">Risks</option> <option value="robotics">Robotics</option> <option value="ruminants">Ruminants</option> <option value="safety">Safety</option> <option value="sci">Sci</option> <option value="scipharm">Scientia Pharmaceutica</option> <option value="sclerosis">Sclerosis</option> <option value="seeds">Seeds</option> <option value="sensors">Sensors</option> <option value="separations">Separations</option> <option value="sexes">Sexes</option> <option value="signals">Signals</option> <option value="sinusitis">Sinusitis</option> <option value="smartcities">Smart Cities</option> <option value="socsci">Social Sciences</option> <option value="siuj">Société Internationale d’Urologie Journal</option> <option value="societies">Societies</option> <option value="software">Software</option> <option value="soilsystems">Soil Systems</option> <option value="solar">Solar</option> <option value="solids">Solids</option> <option value="spectroscj">Spectroscopy Journal</option> <option value="sports">Sports</option> <option value="standards">Standards</option> <option value="stats">Stats</option> <option value="stresses">Stresses</option> <option value="surfaces">Surfaces</option> <option value="surgeries">Surgeries</option> <option value="std">Surgical Techniques Development</option> <option value="sustainability">Sustainability</option> <option value="suschem">Sustainable Chemistry</option> <option value="symmetry">Symmetry</option> <option value="synbio">SynBio</option> <option value="systems">Systems</option> <option value="targets">Targets</option> <option value="taxonomy">Taxonomy</option> <option value="technologies">Technologies</option> <option value="telecom">Telecom</option> <option value="textiles">Textiles</option> <option value="thalassrep">Thalassemia Reports</option> <option value="therapeutics">Therapeutics</option> <option value="thermo">Thermo</option> <option value="timespace">Time and Space</option> <option value="tomography">Tomography</option> <option value="tourismhosp">Tourism and Hospitality</option> <option value="toxics">Toxics</option> <option value="toxins">Toxins</option> <option value="transplantology">Transplantology</option> <option value="traumacare">Trauma Care</option> <option value="higheredu">Trends in Higher Education</option> <option value="tropicalmed">Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease</option> <option value="universe">Universe</option> <option value="urbansci">Urban Science</option> <option value="uro">Uro</option> <option value="vaccines">Vaccines</option> <option value="vehicles">Vehicles</option> <option value="venereology">Venereology</option> <option value="vetsci">Veterinary Sciences</option> <option value="vibration">Vibration</option> <option value="virtualworlds">Virtual Worlds</option> <option value="viruses">Viruses</option> <option value="vision">Vision</option> <option value="waste">Waste</option> <option value="water">Water</option> <option value="wild">Wild</option> <option value="wind">Wind</option> <option value="women">Women</option> <option value="world">World</option> <option value="wevj">World Electric Vehicle Journal</option> <option value="youth">Youth</option> <option value="zoonoticdis">Zoonotic Diseases</option> </select> <input name="email" type="email" placeholder="Enter your email address..." required="required" /> <button class="genericCaptcha button button--dark UA_FooterNewsletterSubscribeButton" type="submit">Subscribe</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <div id="footer-copyright"> <div class="row"> <div class="columns large-6 medium-6 small-12 text-left"> © 1996-2024 MDPI (Basel, Switzerland) unless otherwise stated </div> <div class="columns large-6 medium-6 small-12 small-text-left medium-text-right large-text-right"> <a data-dropdown="drop-view-disclaimer" aria-controls="drop-view-disclaimer" aria-expanded="false" data-options="align:top; is_hover:true; hover_timeout:2000;"> Disclaimer </a> <div id="drop-view-disclaimer" class="f-dropdown label__btn__dropdown label__btn__dropdown--wide text-left" data-dropdown-content aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"> Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. </div> <a href="/about/terms-and-conditions"> Terms and Conditions </a> <a href="/about/privacy"> Privacy Policy </a> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div id="cookie-notification" class="js-allow-cookies" style="display: none;"> <div class="columns large-10 medium-10 small-12"> We use cookies on our website to ensure you get the best experience.<br class="show-for-medium-up"/> Read more about our cookies <a href="/about/privacy">here</a>. </div> <div class="columns large-2 medium-2 small-12 small-only-text-left text-right"> <a class="button button--default" href="/accept_cookies">Accept</a> </div> </div> </div> <div id="main-share-modal" class="reveal-modal reveal-modal-new reveal-modal-new--small" data-reveal aria-labelledby="modalTitle" aria-hidden="true" role="dialog"> <div class="row"> <div class="small-12 columns"> <h2 style="margin: 0;">Share Link</h2> </div> <div class="small-12 columns"> <div class="social-media-links UA_ShareModalLinks" style="text-align: left;"> <a href="/cdn-cgi/l/email-protection#98a7bef9f5e8a3ebedfaf2fdfbeca5deeaf7f5bdaaa8d5dcc8d1bdabd9bdaaa8bdaaaad9bdaaa8d5f7fcfdf4b5dceaf1eefdf6bdaaa8d9e8e8eaf7f9fbf0bdaaa8ecf7bdaaa8dde0eceaf9fbecbdaaa8d5edf4ecf1b5cbf7edeafbfdbdaaa8def9edf4ecbdaaa8defdf9ecedeafdebbdaaa8f7febdaaa8f9bdaaa8cbfbeafdefbdaaa8c8edf5e8bee9edf7eca3bef9f5e8a3faf7fce1a5f0ecece8eba2b7b7efefefb6f5fce8f1b6fbf7f5b7aba8acadacaaaebdabd9bda8d9bda8d9d9bdaaa8d5f7fcfdf4b5dceaf1eefdf6bdaaa8d9e8e8eaf7f9fbf0bdaaa8ecf7bdaaa8dde0eceaf9fbecbdaaa8d5edf4ecf1b5cbf7edeafbfdbdaaa8def9edf4ecbdaaa8defdf9ecedeafdebbdaaa8f7febdaaa8f9bdaaa8cbfbeafdefbdaaa8c8edf5e89292cbfbeafdefbdaaa8e8edf5e8ebbdddaabda0a8bda1a1bdaaa8fef9edf4ece1bdaaa8eff7eaf3f1f6ffbdaaa8fbf7f6fcf1ecf1f7f6ebbdaaa8f9fefefdfbecbdaaa8ecf0fdbdaaa8ebecf9faf1f4f1ece1bdaaa8f7febdaaa8f7f1f4bdaaa8e8eaf7fcedfbecf1f7f6b6bdaaa8d9ecbdaaa8e8eaf7f2fdfbecbdaaa8ebf1ecfdebbdaadbbdaaa8fcf1fefefdeafdf6ecbdaaa8ebfdf6ebf7eaebbdaaa8f9eafdbdaaa8edebfdfcbdaaa8ebf1f5edf4ecf9f6fdf7edebf4e1bdaaa8ecf7bdaaa8fbf7f4f4fdfbecbdaaa8f5edf4ecf1b5fcf1f5fdf6ebf1f7f6f9f4bdaaa8ebf1fff6f9f4ebbdabdabdaaa8ecf0fdbdaaa8fcf9ecf9bdaaa8fef9edf4ecbdaaa8f4f9fafdf4ebbdaaa8f9f6fcbdaaa8f4f7fbf9ecf1f7f6bdaaa8f9eafdbdaaa8f6f7ecbdaaa8fbf4fdf9eabdaadbbdaaa8f9f6fcbdaaa8f0f7efbdaaa8ecf7bdaaa8fbf7f5e8eafdf0fdf6ebf1eefdf4e1bdaaa8edebfdbdaaa8f5edf4ecf1b5ebf7edeafbfdbdaaa8f1f6fef7eaf5f9ecf1f7f6bdaaa8f1f6bdaaa8fdfefefdfbecf1eefdbdaaa8fef9edf4ecbdaaa8fefdf9ecedeafdbdaaa8fde0eceaf9fbecf1f7f6bdaaa8f0f9ebbdaaa8fafdfbf7f5fdbdaaa8f9f6bdaaa8edeafffdf6ecbdaaa8f1ebebedfdb6bdaaa8dde0f1ebecf1f6ffbdaaa8fcf1f9fff6f7ebecf1fbbdaaa8f5fdecf0f7fcebbdaaa8edebfdbdaaa8f9bdaaa8ebf1f6fff4fdbdaaa8ebf1fff6f9f4bdaaa8f7eabdaaa8e8f9eaecbdaaa8f7febdaaa8f9bdaaa8ebf1fff6f9f4bdaaa8f9f6fcbdaaa8fcf7bdaaa8f6f7ecbdaaa8feedf4f4e1bdaaa8edecf1f4f1e2fdbdaaa8ecf0fdbdaaa8f9fbe9edf1eafdfcbdaaa8ebf1fff6f9f4bdaadbbdaaa8eff0f1fbf0bdaaa8f5f9f3fdebbdaaa8f1ecbdaaa8fcf1fefef1fbedf4ecbdaaa8ecf7bdaaa8f9fbf0f1fdeefdbdaaa8ecf0fdbdaaa8eafde9edf1eafdfcbdaaa8f9fbfbedeaf9fbe1bdaaa8f7febdaaa8fcf1f9fff6f7ebecf1fbbdaaa8eafdebedf4ecebb6bdaaa8ccf0f1ebbdaaa8e8f9e8fdeabdaaa8fef7fbedebfdebbdaaa8f7f6bdaaa8ecf0fdbdaaa8f5f7fcfdf4b5fceaf1eefdf6bdaaa8f9e8e8eaf7f9fbf0bdaaa8ecf7bdaaa8fde0eceaf9fbecbdaaa8f5edf4ecf1b5ebf7edeafbfdbdaaa8fef9edf4ecbdaaa8fefdf9ecedeafdebbdaaa8f7febdaaa8ebfbeafdefbdaaa8e8edf5e8ebb6bdaaa8def1eaebecf4e1bdaadbbdaaa8f1ecbdaaa8fbf7f6ebeceaedfbecebbdaaa8f9bdaaa8fef9edf4ecbdaaa8fcf9ecf9bdaaa8f5f7fcfdf4bdaaa8bdaaa0dedcd5bdaaa1bdaaa8fae1bdaaa8f9f6f9f4e1e2f1f6ffbdaaa8ecf0fdbdaaa8fef9edf4ecbdaaa8f5fdfbf0f9f6f1ebf5bdaaa8f7febdaaa8ecf0fdbdaaa8ebfbeafdefbdaaa8e8edf5e8b6bdaaa8cbfdfbf7f6fcf4e1bdaadbbdaaa8f1ecbdaaa8edebfdebbdaaa8ecf0fdbdaaa8dedcd5bdaaa8ecf7bdaaa8ebfdf4fdfbecbdaaa8f9f6bdaaa8fdfefefdfbecf1eefdbdaaa8fcf9ecf9bdaaa8ebfdecb6bdaaa8ccf0f1eafcf4e1bdaadbbdaaa8f1ecbdaaa8fbf7f6ebeceaedfbecebbdaaa8f9bdaaa8f5edf4ecf1b5fcf1f5fdf6ebf1f7f6f9f4bdaaa8fef9edf4ecbdaaa8fefdf9ecedeafdbdaaa8fde0eceaf9fbecf1f7f6bdaaa8f5f7fcfdf4bdaaa8bdaaa0d5dcdeddd5bdaaa1bdaaa8ecf7bdaaa8fde0eceaf9fbecbdaaa8fefdf9ecedeafdfcbdaaa8ebf1fff6f9f4bdaaa8fefdf9ecedeafdebbdaaa8f9f6fcbdaaa8fcf9ecf9bdaaa8fefdf9ecedeafdebbdaadbbdaaa8fef7eabdaaa8eff0f1fbf0bdaaa8effdbdaaa8f9f4ebf7bdaaa8fbf7f5e8eafdf0fdf6ebf1eefdf4e1bdaaa8edebfdfcbdaaa8f5edf4ecf1b5ebf7edeafbfdbdaaa8ebf1fff6f9f4ebbdaaa8f1f6bdaaa8fdfefefdfbecf1eefdbdaaa8fef9edf4ecbdaaa8fefdf9ecedeafdbdaaa8fde0eceaf9fbecf1f7f6bdaadbbdaaa8eff0f1f4fdbdaaa8f7ecf0fdeabdaaa8eceaf9fcf1ecf1f7f6f9f4bdaaa8f5fdecf0f7fcebbdaaa8f7f6f4e1bdaaa8edebfdbdaaa8f7f6fdbdaaa8f7eabdaaa8eceff7bdaaa8ebf1fff6f9f4ebb6bdaaa8def1f6f9f4f4e1bdaadbbdaaa8f9feecfdeabdaaa8fefdf9ecedeafdbdaaa8ebfdf4fdfbecf1f7f6bdaadbbdaaa8edf6ebede8fdeaeef1ebfdfcbdaaa8fef9edf4ecbdaaa8fcf1f9fff6f7ebf1ebbdaaa8eff9ebbdaaa8f9fbf0f1fdeefdfcbdaaa8fae1bdaaa8edebf1f6ffbdaaa8ecf0fdbdaaa8f3b5f5fdf9f6ebbdaaa8f5fdecf0f7fcb6bdaaa8d9feecfdeabdaaa8fde0e8fdeaf1f5fdf6ecf9f4bdaaa8eefdeaf1fef1fbf9ecf1f7f6bdaadbbdaaa8ecf0fdbdaaa8f5fdecf0f7fcc3b6b6b6c5" title="Email"> <i class="fa fa-envelope-square" style="font-size: 30px;"></i> </a> <a href="https://twitter.com/intent/tweet?text=A+Model-Driven+Approach+to+Extract+Multi-Source+Fault+Features+of+a+Screw+Pump&hashtags=mdpiprocesses&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mdpi.com%2F3045426&via=Processes_MDPI" onclick="windowOpen(this.href,600,800); return false" title="Twitter" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> <i class="fa fa-twitter-x-square" style="font-size: 30px;"></i> </a> <a href=" http://www.linkedin.com/shareArticle?mini=true&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mdpi.com%2F3045426&title=A%20Model-Driven%20Approach%20to%20Extract%20Multi-Source%20Fault%20Features%20of%20a%20Screw%20Pump%26source%3Dhttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.mdpi.com%26summary%3DScrew%20pumps%E2%80%99%20faulty%20working%20conditions%20affect%20the%20stability%20of%20oil%20production.%20At%20project%20sites%2C%20different%20sensors%20are%20used%20simultaneously%20to%20collect%20multi-dimensional%20signals%3B%20the%20data%20fault%20labels%20and%20location%20are%20not%20clear%2C%20and%20how%20to%20%5B...%5D" onclick="windowOpen(this.href,600,800); return false" title="LinkedIn" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> <i class="fa fa-linkedin-square" style="font-size: 30px;"></i> </a> <a href="https://www.facebook.com/sharer.php?u=https://www.mdpi.com/3045426" title="facebook" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> <i class="fa fa-facebook-square" style="font-size: 30px;"></i> </a> <a href="javascript:void(0);" title="Wechat" data-reveal-id="weixin-share-modal"> <i class="fa fa-weixin-square" style="font-size: 26px;"></i> </a> <a href="http://www.reddit.com/submit?url=https://www.mdpi.com/3045426" title="Reddit" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> <i class="fa fa-reddit-square" style="font-size: 30px;"></i> </a> <a href="http://www.mendeley.com/import/?url=https://www.mdpi.com/3045426" title="Mendeley" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> <i class="fa fa-mendeley-square" style="font-size: 30px;"></i> </a> <a href="http://www.citeulike.org/posturl?url=https://www.mdpi.com/3045426" title="CiteULike" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"> <i class="fa fa-citeulike-square" style="font-size: 30px;"></i> </a> </div> </div> <div class="small-9 columns"> <input id="js-clipboard-text" type="text" readonly value="https://www.mdpi.com/3045426" /> </div> <div class="small-3 columns text-left"> <a class="button button--color js-clipboard-copy" data-clipboard-target="#js-clipboard-text">Copy</a> </div> </div> <a class="close-reveal-modal" aria-label="Close"> <i class="material-icons">clear</i> </a> </div> <div id="weixin-share-modal" class="reveal-modal reveal-modal-new" data-reveal aria-labelledby="weixin-share-modal-title" aria-hidden="true" role="dialog"> <div class="row"> <div class="small-12 columns"> <h2 id="weixin-share-modal-title" style="margin: 0;">Share</h2> </div> <div class="small-12 columns"> <div class="weixin-qr-code-section"> <?xml version="1.0" standalone="no"?> <!DOCTYPE svg PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD SVG 1.1//EN" "http://www.w3.org/Graphics/SVG/1.1/DTD/svg11.dtd"> <svg width="300" height="300" version="1.1" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"> <desc>https://www.mdpi.com/3045426</desc> <g id="elements" fill="black" stroke="none"> <rect x="0" y="0" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="12" y="0" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="24" y="0" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="36" y="0" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="48" y="0" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="60" y="0" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="72" y="0" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="108" y="0" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="120" y="0" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="132" y="0" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="156" y="0" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="168" y="0" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="216" y="0" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="228" y="0" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="240" y="0" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="252" y="0" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="264" y="0" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="276" y="0" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="288" y="0" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="0" y="12" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="72" y="12" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="132" y="12" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="144" y="12" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="156" y="12" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="216" y="12" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="288" y="12" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="0" y="24" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="24" y="24" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="36" y="24" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="48" y="24" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="72" y="24" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="108" y="24" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="120" y="24" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="132" y="24" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="168" y="24" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="192" y="24" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="216" y="24" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="240" y="24" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="252" y="24" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="264" y="24" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="288" y="24" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="0" y="36" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="24" y="36" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="36" y="36" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="48" y="36" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="72" y="36" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="96" y="36" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="120" y="36" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="132" y="36" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="144" y="36" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="156" y="36" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="180" y="36" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="192" y="36" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="216" y="36" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="240" y="36" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="252" y="36" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="264" y="36" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="288" y="36" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="0" y="48" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="24" y="48" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="36" y="48" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="48" y="48" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="72" y="48" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="96" y="48" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="120" y="48" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="144" y="48" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="156" y="48" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="216" y="48" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="240" y="48" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="252" y="48" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="264" y="48" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="288" y="48" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="0" y="60" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="72" y="60" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="108" y="60" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="120" y="60" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="144" y="60" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="156" y="60" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="168" y="60" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="192" y="60" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="216" y="60" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="288" y="60" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="0" y="72" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="12" y="72" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="24" y="72" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="36" y="72" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="48" y="72" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="60" y="72" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="72" y="72" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="96" y="72" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="120" y="72" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="144" y="72" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="168" y="72" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="192" y="72" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="216" y="72" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="228" y="72" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="240" y="72" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="252" y="72" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="264" y="72" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="276" y="72" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="288" y="72" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="108" y="84" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="144" y="84" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="168" y="84" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="0" y="96" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="12" y="96" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="60" y="96" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="72" y="96" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="84" y="96" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="108" y="96" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="120" y="96" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="144" y="96" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="156" y="96" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="168" y="96" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="240" y="96" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="252" y="96" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="12" y="108" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="24" y="108" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="48" y="108" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="84" y="108" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="120" y="108" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="144" y="108" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="156" y="108" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="168" y="108" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="180" y="108" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="204" y="108" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="228" y="108" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="240" y="108" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="252" y="108" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="264" y="108" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="276" y="108" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="36" y="120" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="48" y="120" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="60" y="120" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="72" y="120" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="84" y="120" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="96" y="120" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="108" y="120" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="144" y="120" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="168" y="120" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="180" y="120" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="204" y="120" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="216" y="120" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="228" y="120" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="240" y="120" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="252" y="120" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="276" y="120" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="288" y="120" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="0" y="132" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="12" y="132" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="36" y="132" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="48" y="132" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="84" y="132" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="96" y="132" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="120" y="132" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="144" y="132" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="168" y="132" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="204" y="132" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="228" y="132" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="252" y="132" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="288" y="132" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="36" y="144" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="48" y="144" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="72" y="144" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="96" y="144" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="108" y="144" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="120" y="144" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="132" y="144" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="168" y="144" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="180" y="144" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="216" y="144" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="288" y="144" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="0" y="156" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="24" y="156" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="60" y="156" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="108" y="156" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="120" y="156" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="132" y="156" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="144" y="156" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="180" y="156" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="192" y="156" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="204" y="156" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="228" y="156" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="276" y="156" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="0" y="168" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="24" y="168" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="48" y="168" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="72" y="168" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="96" y="168" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="108" y="168" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="144" y="168" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="180" y="168" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="204" y="168" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="216" y="168" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="228" y="168" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="240" y="168" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="252" y="168" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="276" y="168" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="288" y="168" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="0" y="180" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="48" y="180" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="120" y="180" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="168" y="180" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="204" y="180" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="228" y="180" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="252" y="180" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="264" y="180" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="288" y="180" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="0" y="192" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="36" y="192" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="60" y="192" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="72" y="192" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="96" y="192" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="108" y="192" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="168" y="192" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="180" y="192" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="192" y="192" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="204" y="192" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="216" y="192" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="228" y="192" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="240" y="192" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="264" y="192" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="96" y="204" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="120" y="204" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="144" y="204" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="192" y="204" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="240" y="204" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="0" y="216" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="12" y="216" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="24" y="216" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="36" y="216" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="48" y="216" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="60" y="216" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="72" y="216" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="96" y="216" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="192" y="216" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="216" y="216" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="240" y="216" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="288" y="216" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="0" y="228" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="72" y="228" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="96" y="228" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="108" y="228" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="120" y="228" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="132" y="228" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="144" y="228" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="156" y="228" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="168" y="228" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="180" y="228" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="192" y="228" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="240" y="228" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="288" y="228" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="0" y="240" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="24" y="240" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="36" y="240" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="48" y="240" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="72" y="240" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="108" y="240" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="120" y="240" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="144" y="240" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="180" y="240" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="192" y="240" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="204" y="240" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="216" y="240" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="228" y="240" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="240" y="240" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="264" y="240" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="276" y="240" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="288" y="240" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="0" y="252" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="24" y="252" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="36" y="252" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="48" y="252" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="72" y="252" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="144" y="252" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="180" y="252" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="192" y="252" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="216" y="252" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="276" y="252" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="288" y="252" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="0" y="264" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="24" y="264" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="36" y="264" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="48" y="264" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="72" y="264" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="108" y="264" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="132" y="264" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="144" y="264" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="156" y="264" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="192" y="264" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="252" y="264" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="264" y="264" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="288" y="264" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="0" y="276" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="72" y="276" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="96" y="276" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="108" y="276" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="144" y="276" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="192" y="276" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="204" y="276" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="228" y="276" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="240" y="276" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="288" y="276" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="0" y="288" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="12" y="288" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="24" y="288" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="36" y="288" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="48" y="288" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="60" y="288" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="72" y="288" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="96" y="288" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="132" y="288" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="144" y="288" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="156" y="288" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="168" y="288" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="192" y="288" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="204" y="288" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="252" y="288" width="12" height="12" /> <rect x="288" y="288" width="12" height="12" /> </g> </svg> </div> </div> </div> <a class="close-reveal-modal" aria-label="Close"> <i class="material-icons">clear</i> </a> </div> <a href="#" class="back-to-top"><span class="show-for-medium-up">Back to Top</span><span class="show-for-small">Top</span></a> <script data-cfasync="false" src="/cdn-cgi/scripts/5c5dd728/cloudflare-static/email-decode.min.js"></script><script src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/modernizr-2.8.3.min.js?5227e0738f7f421d?1732615622"></script> <script src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/jquery-1.12.4.min.js?4f252523d4af0b47?1732615622"></script> <script src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/foundation-5.5.3.min.js?6b2ec41c18b29054?1732615622"></script> <script src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/foundation-5.5.3.equalizer.min.js?0f6c549b75ec554c?1732615622"></script> <script src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/jquery.multiselect.js?0edd3998731d1091?1732615622"></script> <script src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/jquery.cycle2.min.js?63413052928f97ee?1732615622"></script> <script> // old browser fix - this way the console log rows won't throw (silent) errors in browsers not supporting console log if (!window.console) window.console = {}; if (!window.console.log) window.console.log = function () { }; var currentJournalNameSystem = "processes"; $(document).ready(function() { $('select.foundation-select').multiselect({ search: true, minHeight: 130, maxHeight: 130, }); $(document).foundation({ orbit: { timer_speed: 4000, }, reveal: { animation: 'fadeAndPop', animation_speed: 100, } }); $(".chosen-select").each(function(element) { var maxSelected = (undefined !== $(this).data('maxselectedoptions') ? $(this).data('maxselectedoptions') : 100); $(this).on('chosen:ready', function(event, data) { var select = $(data.chosen.form_field); if (select.attr('id') === 'journal-browser-volume') { $(data.chosen.dropdown).addClass('UI_JournalBrowser_Volume_Options'); } if (select.attr('id') === 'journal-browser-issue') { $(data.chosen.dropdown).addClass('UI_JournalBrowser_Issue_Options'); } }).chosen({ display_disabled_options: false, disable_search_threshold: 7, max_selected_options: maxSelected, width: "100%" }); }); $(".toEncode").each(function(e) { var oldHref = $(this).attr("href"); var newHref = oldHref.replace('.botdefense.please.enable.javascript.','@'); $(this).attr("href", newHref); if (!$(this).hasClass("emailCaptcha")) { $(this).html(newHref.replace('mailto:', '')); } $(this).removeClass("visibility-hidden"); }); $(document).on('opened.fndtn.reveal', '[data-reveal]', function() { $(document).foundation('equalizer', 'reflow'); }); // fix the images that have tag height / width defined // otherwise the default foundation styles overwrite the tag definitions $("img").each(function() { if ($(this).attr('width') != undefined || $(this).attr('height') != undefined) { $(this).addClass("img-fixed"); } }); $("#basic_search, #advanced_search").submit(function(e) { var searchArguments = false; $(this).find("input,select").not("#search,.search-button").each(function() { if (undefined === $(this).val() || "" === $(this).val()) { $(this).attr('name', null); } else { $(this).attr('name'); searchArguments = true; } }); if (!searchArguments) { window.location = $(this).attr('action'); return false; } }); $(".hide-show-desktop-option").click(function(e) { e.preventDefault(); var parentDiv = $(this).closest("div"); $.ajax({ url: $(this).attr('href'), success: function(msg) { parentDiv.removeClass().hide(); } }); }); $(".generic-toggleable-header").click(function(e) { $(this).toggleClass("active"); $(this).next(".generic-toggleable-content").toggleClass("active"); }); /* * handle whole row as a link if the row contains only one visible link */ $("table.new tr").hover(function() { if ($(this).find("td:visible a").length == 1) { $(this).addClass("single-link"); } }, function() { $(this).removeClass("single-link"); }); $("table.new:not(.table-of-tables)").on("click", "tr.single-link", function(e) { var target = $(e.target); if (!e.ctrlKey && !target.is("a")) { $(this).find("td:visible a")[0].click(); } }); $(document).on("click", ".custom-accordion-for-small-screen-link", function(e) { if ($(this).closest("#basic_search").length > 0) { if ($(".search-container__advanced").first().is(":visible")) { openAdvanced() } } if (Foundation.utils.is_small_only()) { if ($(this).hasClass("active")) { $(this).removeClass("active"); $(this).next(".custom-accordion-for-small-screen-content").addClass("show-for-medium-up"); } else { $(this).addClass("active"); $(this).next(".custom-accordion-for-small-screen-content").removeClass("show-for-medium-up"); $(document).foundation('orbit', 'reflow'); } } if (undefined !== $(this).data("callback")) { var customCallback = $(this).data("callback"); func = window[customCallback]; func(); } }); $(document).on("click", ".js-open-small-search", function(e) { e.preventDefault(); $(this).toggleClass("active").closest(".tab-bar").toggleClass("active"); $(".search-container").toggleClass("hide-for-small-down"); }); $(document).on("click", ".js-open-menu", function(e) { $(".search-container").addClass("hide-for-small-down"); }); $(window).on('resize', function() { recalculate_main_browser_position(); recalculate_responsive_moving_containers(); }); updateSearchLabelVisibilities(); recalculate_main_browser_position(); recalculate_responsive_moving_containers(); if (window.document.documentMode == 11) { $("<link/>", { rel: "stylesheet", type: "text/css", href: "https://fonts.googleapis.com/icon?family=Material+Icons"}).appendTo("head"); } }); function recalculate_main_browser_position() { if (Foundation.utils.is_small_only()) { if ($("#js-main-top-container").parent("#js-large-main-top-container").length > 0) { $("#js-main-top-container").appendTo($("#js-small-main-top-container")); } } else { if ($("#js-main-top-container").parent("#js-small-main-top-container").length > 0) { $("#js-main-top-container").appendTo($("#js-large-main-top-container")); } } } function recalculate_responsive_moving_containers() { $(".responsive-moving-container.large").each(function() { var previousParent = $(".responsive-moving-container.active[data-id='"+$(this).data("id")+"']"); var movingContent = previousParent.html(); if (Foundation.utils.is_small_only()) { var currentParent = $(".responsive-moving-container.small[data-id='"+$(this).data("id")+"']"); } else if (Foundation.utils.is_medium_only()) { var currentParent = $(".responsive-moving-container.medium[data-id='"+$(this).data("id")+"']"); } else { var currentParent = $(".responsive-moving-container.large[data-id='"+$(this).data("id")+"']"); } if (previousParent.attr("class") !== currentParent.attr("class")) { currentParent.html(movingContent); previousParent.html(); currentParent.addClass("active"); previousParent.removeClass("active"); } }); } // cookies allowed is checked from a) local storage and b) from server separately so that the footer bar doesn't // get included in the custom page caches function checkCookiesAllowed() { var cookiesEnabled = localStorage.getItem("mdpi_cookies_enabled"); if (null === cookiesEnabled) { $.ajax({ url: "/ajax_cookie_value/mdpi_cookies_accepted", success: function(data) { if (data.value) { localStorage.setItem("mdpi_cookies_enabled", true); checkDisplaySurvey(); } else { $(".js-allow-cookies").show(); } } }); } else { checkDisplaySurvey(); } } function checkDisplaySurvey() { } window.addEventListener('CookiebotOnAccept', function (e) { var CookieDate = new Date; if (Cookiebot.consent.preferences) { CookieDate.setFullYear(CookieDate.getFullYear() + 1); document.cookie = "mdpi_layout_type_v2=mobile; path=/; expires=" + CookieDate.toUTCString() + ";"; $(".js-toggle-desktop-layout-link").css("display", "inline-block"); } }, false); window.addEventListener('CookiebotOnDecline', function (e) { if (!Cookiebot.consent.preferences) { $(".js-toggle-desktop-layout-link").hide(); if ("" === "desktop") { window.location = "/toggle_desktop_layout_cookie"; } } }, false); var hash = $(location).attr('hash'); if ("#share" === hash) { if (1 === $("#main-share-modal").length) { $('#main-share-modal').foundation('reveal', 'open'); } } </script> <script src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/lib.js?f8d3d71b3a772f9d?1732615622"></script> <script src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/mdpi.js?c267ce58392b15da?1732615622"></script> <script>var banners_url = 'https://serve.mdpi.com';</script> <script type='text/javascript' src='https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/ifvisible.min.js?c621d19ecb761212?1732615622'></script> <script src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/xmltohtml/affix.js?ac4ea55275297c15?1732615622"></script> <script src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/clipboard.min.js?3f3688138a1b9fc4?1732615622"></script> <script type="text/javascript"> $(document).ready(function() { var helpFunctions = $(".middle-column__help__fixed"); var leftColumnAffix = $(".left-column__fixed"); var middleColumn = $("#middle-column"); var clone = null; helpFunctions.affix({ offset: { top: function() { return middleColumn.offset().top - 8 - (Foundation.utils.is_medium_only() ? 30 : 0); }, bottom: function() { return $("#footer").innerHeight() + 74 + (Foundation.utils.is_medium_only() ? 0 : 0); } } }); if (leftColumnAffix.length > 0) { clone = leftColumnAffix.clone(); clone.addClass("left-column__fixed__affix"); clone.insertBefore(leftColumnAffix); clone.css('width', leftColumnAffix.outerWidth() + 50); clone.affix({ offset: { top: function() { return leftColumnAffix.offset().top - 30 - (Foundation.utils.is_medium_only() ? 50 : 0); }, bottom: function() { return $("#footer").innerHeight() + 92 + (Foundation.utils.is_medium_only() ? 0 : 0); } } }); } $(window).on("resize", function() { if (clone !== null) { clone.css('width', leftColumnAffix.outerWidth() + 50); } }); new ClipboardJS('.js-clipboard-copy'); }); </script> <script src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/jquery-ui-1.13.2.min.js?1e2047978946a1d2?1732615622"></script> <script src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/slick.min.js?d5a61c749e44e471?1732615622"></script> <script> $(document).ready(function() { $(".link-article-menu").click(function(e) { e.preventDefault(); $(this).find('span').toggle(); $(this).next("div").toggleClass("active"); }); $(".js-similarity-related-articles").click(function(e) { e.preventDefault(); if ('' !== $('#recommended-articles-modal').attr('data-url')) { $('#recommended-articles-modal').foundation('reveal', 'open', $('#recommended-articles-modal').attr('data-url')); } }); $.ajax({ url: "/article/1522713/similarity-related/show-link", success: function(result) { if (result.show) { $('#recommended-articles-modal').attr('data-url', result.link); $('.js-article-similarity-container').show(); } } }); $(document).on('opened.fndtn.reveal', '[data-reveal]', function() { var modal = $(this); if (modal.attr('id') === "author-biographies-modal") { modal.find('.multiple-items').slick({ slidesToShow: 1, nextArrow: '<a class="slick-next" href="#"><i class="material-icons">chevron_right</i></a>', prevArrow: '<a class="slick-prev" href="#"><i class="material-icons">chevron_left</i></a>', slidesToScroll: 1, draggable: false, }); modal.find('.multiple-items').slick('refresh'); } }); }); </script> <script> $(document).ready(function() { $(document).on('keyup', function (e) { if (e.keyCode == 27) { var hElem = $(this).find(".annotator-adder"); if (hElem.length){ hElem.css({'visibility':'hidden'}); } else { document.querySelector("hypothesis-adder").shadowRoot.querySelector(".annotator-adder").style.visibility = "hidden"; } } }); }); </script> <script> window.hypothesisConfig = function () { return { sidebarAppUrl: 'https://commenting.mdpi.com/app.html', showHighlights: 'whenSidebarOpen' , openSidebar: false , assetRoot: 'https://commentingres.mdpi.com/hypothesis', services: [{ apiUrl: 'https://commenting.mdpi.com/api/', authority: 'mdpi', grantToken: '', doi: '10.3390/pr12112571' }], }; }; </script> <script async id="hypothesis_frame"></script> <script type="text/javascript"> if (-1 !== window.location.href.indexOf("?src=")) { window.history.replaceState({}, '', `${location.pathname}`); } $(document).ready(function() { var scifeedCounter = 0; var search = window.location.search; var mathjaxReady = false; // late image file loading $("img[data-lsrc]").each(function() { $(this).attr("src", $(this).data("lsrc")); }); // late mathjax initialization var head = document.getElementsByTagName("head")[0]; var script = document.createElement("script"); script.type = "text/x-mathjax-config"; script[(window.opera ? "innerHTML" : "text")] = "MathJax.Hub.processSectionDelay = 0;\n" + "MathJax.Hub.Config({\n" + " \"menuSettings\": {\n" + " CHTMLpreview: false\n" + " },\n" + " \"CHTML-preview\":{\n" + " disabled: true\n" + " },\n" + " \"HTML-CSS\": {\n" + " scale: 90,\n" + " availableFonts: [],\n" + " preferredFont: null,\n" + " preferredFonts: null,\n" + " webFont:\"Gyre-Pagella\",\n" + " imageFont:'TeX',\n" + " undefinedFamily:\"'Arial Unicode MS',serif\",\n" + " linebreaks: { automatic: false }\n" + " },\n" + " \"TeX\": {\n" + " extensions: ['noErrors.js'],\n" + " noErrors: {\n" + " inlineDelimiters: [\"\",\"\"],\n" + " multiLine: true,\n" + " style: {\n" + " 'font-size': '90%',\n" + " 'text-align': 'left',\n" + " 'color': 'black',\n" + " 'padding': '1px 3px',\n" + " 'border': '1px solid'\n" + " }\n" + " }\n" + " }\n" + "});\n" + "MathJax.Hub.Register.StartupHook('End', function() {\n" + " refreshMathjaxWidths();\n" + " mathjaxReady = true;\n" + "});\n" + "MathJax.Hub.Startup.signal.Interest(function (message) {\n" + " if (message == 'End') {\n" + " var hypoLink = document.getElementById('hypothesis_frame');\n" + " if (null !== hypoLink) {\n" + " hypoLink.setAttribute('src', 'https://commenting.mdpi.com/embed.js');\n" + " }\n" + " }\n" + "});"; head.appendChild(script); script = document.createElement("script"); script.type = "text/javascript"; script.src = "https://pub.mdpi-res.com/bundles/mathjax/MathJax.js?config=TeX-AMS-MML_HTMLorMML"; head.appendChild(script); // article version checker if (0 === search.indexOf('?type=check_update&version=')) { $.ajax({ url: "/2227-9717/12/11/2571" + "/versioncheck" + search, success: function(result) { $(".js-check-update-container").html(result); } }); } $('#feed_option').click(function() { // tracker if ($('#scifeed_clicked').length<1) { $(this).append('<span style="display:none" id="scifeed_clicked">done</span>'); } $('#feed_data').toggle('slide', { direction: 'up'}, '1000'); // slideToggle(700); OR toggle(700) $("#scifeed_error_msg").html('').hide(); $("#scifeed_notice_msg").html('').hide(); }); $('#feed_option').click(function(event) { setTimeout(function(){ var captchaSection = $("#captchaSection"); captchaSection.removeClass('ui-helper-hidden').find('input').prop('disabled', false); // var img = captchaSection.find('img'); // img.attr('src', img.data('url') + "?" + (new Date()).getTime()); // $(".captcha_reload").trigger("click"); var img = document.getElementById('gregwar_captcha_scifeed'); img.src = '/generate-captcha/gcb_captcha?n=' + (new Date()).getTime(); },800); }); $(document).on('click', '.split_feeds', function() { var name = $( this ).attr('name'); var flag = 1 - ($(this).is(":checked")*1); $('.split_feeds').each(function (index) { if ($( this ).attr('name') !== name) { $(this)[0].checked = flag; } }); }); $(document).on('click', '#scifeed_submit, #scifeed_submit1', function(event) { event.preventDefault(); $(".captcha_reload").trigger("click"); $("#scifeed_error_msg").html(""); $("#scifeed_error_msg").hide(); }); $(document).on('click', '.subscription_toggle', function(event) { if ($(this).val() === 'Create SciFeed' && $('#scifeed_hidden_flag').length>0) { event.preventDefault(); // alert('Here there would be a captcha because user is not logged in'); var captchaSection = $("#captchaSection"); if (captchaSection.hasClass('ui-helper-hidden')) { captchaSection.removeClass('ui-helper-hidden').find('input').prop('disabled', false); var img = captchaSection.find('img'); img.attr('src', img.data('url') + "?" + (new Date()).getTime()); $("#reloadCaptcha").trigger("click"); } } }); $(document).on('click', '.scifeed_msg', function(){ $(this).hide(); }); $(document).on('click', '.article-scilit-search', function(e) { e.preventDefault(); var data = $(".article-scilit-search-data").val(); var dataArray = data.split(';').map(function(keyword) { return "(\"" + keyword.trim() + "\")"; }); var searchQuery = dataArray.join(" OR "); var searchUrl = encodeURI("https://www.scilit.net/articles/search?q="+ searchQuery + "&advanced=1&highlight=1"); var win = window.open(searchUrl, '_blank'); if (win) { win.focus(); } else { window.location(searchUrl); } }); display_stats(); citedCount(); follow_goto(); // Select the node that will be observed for mutations const targetNodes = document.getElementsByClassName('hypothesis-count-container'); // Options for the observer (which mutations to observe) const config = { attributes: false, childList: true, subtree: false }; // Callback function to execute when mutations are observed const callback = function(mutationList, observer) { for(const mutation of mutationList) { if (mutation.type === 'childList') { let node = $(mutation.target); if (parseInt(node.html()) > 0) { node.show(); } } } }; // Create an observer instance linked to the callback function const observer = new MutationObserver(callback); // Start observing the target node for configured mutations for(const targetNode of targetNodes) { observer.observe(targetNode, config); } // Select the node that will be observed for mutations const mathjaxTargetNode = document.getElementById('middle-column'); // Callback function to execute when mutations are observed const mathjaxCallback = function(mutationList, observer) { if (mathjaxReady && typeof(MathJax) !== 'undefined') { refreshMathjaxWidths(); } }; // Create an observer instance linked to the callback function const mathjaxObserver = new ResizeObserver(mathjaxCallback); // Start observing the target node for configured mutations mathjaxObserver.observe(mathjaxTargetNode); }); /* END $(document).ready */ function refreshMathjaxWidths() { let width = ($('.html-body').width()*0.9) + "px"; $('.MathJax_Display').css('max-width', width); $('.MJXc-display').css('max-width', width); } function sendScifeedFrom(form) { if (!$('#scifeed_email').val().trim()) { // empty email alert('Please, provide an email for subscribe to this scifeed'); return false; } else if (!$('#captchaSection').hasClass('ui-helper-hidden') && !$('#captchaSection').find('input').val().trim()) { // empty captcha alert('Please, fill the captcha field.'); return false; } else if( ((($('#scifeed_form').find('input:checkbox:checked').length)-($('#split_feeds:checked').length))<1) || ($('#scifeed_kwd_txt').length < 0 && !$('#scifeed_kwd_txt').val().trim()) || ($('#scifeed_author_txt').length<0 &&!$('#scifeed_author_txt').val().trim()) ) { alert('You did not select anything to subscribe'); return false; } else if(($('#scifeed_form').find('input:checkbox:checked').length)-($('#split_feeds2:checked').length)<1){ alert("You did not select anything to subscribe"); return false; } else { var url = $('#scifeed_subscribe_url').html(); var formData = $(form).serializeArray(); $.post(url, formData).done(function (data) { if (JSON.parse(data)) { $('.scifeed_msg').hide(); var res = JSON.parse(data); var successFeeds = 0; var errorFeeds = 0; if (res) { $('.scifeed_msg').html(''); $.each(res, function (index, val) { if (val) { if (val.error) { errorFeeds++; $("#scifeed_error_msg").append(index+' - '+val.error+'<br>'); } if (val.notice) // for successful feed creation { successFeeds++; // $("#scifeed_notice_msg").append(index+' - '+val.notice+'<br>'); $("#scifeed_notice_msg").append('<li>'+index+'</li>'); } } }); if (successFeeds>0) { text = $('#scifeed_notice_msg').html(); text = 'The following feed'+(successFeeds>1?'s have':' has')+ ' been sucessfully created:<br><ul>'+ text + '</ul>' +($('#scifeed_hidden_flag').length>0 ? 'You are not logged in, so you probably need to validate '+ (successFeeds>1?'them':' it')+'.<br>' :'' ) +'Please check your email'+(successFeeds>1?'s':'')+' for more details.'; //(successFeeds>1?' for each of them':'')+'.<br>'; $("#scifeed_notice_msg").html(text); $("#scifeed_notice_msg").show(); } if (errorFeeds>0) { $("#scifeed_error_msg").show();; } } $("#feed_data").hide(); } }); } } function follow_goto() { var hashStr = location.hash.replace("#",""); if(typeof hashStr !== 'undefined') { if( hashStr == 'supplementary') { document.getElementById('suppl_id').scrollIntoView(); } if( hashStr == 'citedby') { document.getElementById('cited_id').scrollIntoView(); } } } function cited() { $("#framed_div").toggle('fast', function(){ if ($(this).css('display') != 'none') { var loaded = document.getElementById("loaded"); if(loaded.innerHTML == "No") { // Load Xref result var container = document.getElementById("framed_div"); // This replace the content container.innerHTML = "<img src=\"https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/loading_circle.gif?9a82694213036313?1732615622\" height=\"20\" width=\"20\" alt=\"Processing...\" style=\"vertical-align:middle; margin-right:0.6em;\">"; var url = "/citedby/10.3390%252Fpr12112571/164"; $.post(url, function(result) { if (result.success) { container.innerHTML = result.view; } loaded.innerHTML = "Yes"; }); } } return true; // for not going at the beginning of the page... }) return true; // for not going at the beginning of the page... } function detect_device() { // Added by Bastien (18/08/2014): based on the http://detectmobilebrowsers.com/ detector var check = false; (function(a){if(/(android|bb\d+|meego).+mobile|avantgo|bada\/|blackberry|blazer|compal|elaine|fennec|hiptop|iemobile|ip(hone|od)|iris|kindle|lge |maemo|midp|mmp|mobile.+firefox|netfront|opera m(ob|in)i|palm( os)?|phone|p(ixi|re)\/|plucker|pocket|psp|series(4|6)0|symbian|treo|up\.(browser|link)|vodafone|wap|windows (ce|phone)|xda|xiino/i.test(a)||/1207|6310|6590|3gso|4thp|50[1-6]i|770s|802s|a wa|abac|ac(er|oo|s\-)|ai(ko|rn)|al(av|ca|co)|amoi|an(ex|ny|yw)|aptu|ar(ch|go)|as(te|us)|attw|au(di|\-m|r |s )|avan|be(ck|ll|nq)|bi(lb|rd)|bl(ac|az)|br(e|v)w|bumb|bw\-(n|u)|c55\/|capi|ccwa|cdm\-|cell|chtm|cldc|cmd\-|co(mp|nd)|craw|da(it|ll|ng)|dbte|dc\-s|devi|dica|dmob|do(c|p)o|ds(12|\-d)|el(49|ai)|em(l2|ul)|er(ic|k0)|esl8|ez([4-7]0|os|wa|ze)|fetc|fly(\-|_)|g1 u|g560|gene|gf\-5|g\-mo|go(\.w|od)|gr(ad|un)|haie|hcit|hd\-(m|p|t)|hei\-|hi(pt|ta)|hp( i|ip)|hs\-c|ht(c(\-| |_|a|g|p|s|t)|tp)|hu(aw|tc)|i\-(20|go|ma)|i230|iac( |\-|\/)|ibro|idea|ig01|ikom|im1k|inno|ipaq|iris|ja(t|v)a|jbro|jemu|jigs|kddi|keji|kgt( |\/)|klon|kpt |kwc\-|kyo(c|k)|le(no|xi)|lg( g|\/(k|l|u)|50|54|\-[a-w])|libw|lynx|m1\-w|m3ga|m50\/|ma(te|ui|xo)|mc(01|21|ca)|m\-cr|me(rc|ri)|mi(o8|oa|ts)|mmef|mo(01|02|bi|de|do|t(\-| |o|v)|zz)|mt(50|p1|v )|mwbp|mywa|n10[0-2]|n20[2-3]|n30(0|2)|n50(0|2|5)|n7(0(0|1)|10)|ne((c|m)\-|on|tf|wf|wg|wt)|nok(6|i)|nzph|o2im|op(ti|wv)|oran|owg1|p800|pan(a|d|t)|pdxg|pg(13|\-([1-8]|c))|phil|pire|pl(ay|uc)|pn\-2|po(ck|rt|se)|prox|psio|pt\-g|qa\-a|qc(07|12|21|32|60|\-[2-7]|i\-)|qtek|r380|r600|raks|rim9|ro(ve|zo)|s55\/|sa(ge|ma|mm|ms|ny|va)|sc(01|h\-|oo|p\-)|sdk\/|se(c(\-|0|1)|47|mc|nd|ri)|sgh\-|shar|sie(\-|m)|sk\-0|sl(45|id)|sm(al|ar|b3|it|t5)|so(ft|ny)|sp(01|h\-|v\-|v )|sy(01|mb)|t2(18|50)|t6(00|10|18)|ta(gt|lk)|tcl\-|tdg\-|tel(i|m)|tim\-|t\-mo|to(pl|sh)|ts(70|m\-|m3|m5)|tx\-9|up(\.b|g1|si)|utst|v400|v750|veri|vi(rg|te)|vk(40|5[0-3]|\-v)|vm40|voda|vulc|vx(52|53|60|61|70|80|81|83|85|98)|w3c(\-| )|webc|whit|wi(g |nc|nw)|wmlb|wonu|x700|yas\-|your|zeto|zte\-/i.test(a.substr(0,4)))check = true})(navigator.userAgent||navigator.vendor||window.opera); return check; } function display_stats(){ $("#article_stats_div").toggle(); return false; } /* * Cited By Scopus */ function citedCount(){ $("#framed_div_cited_count").toggle('fast', function(){ if ($(this).css('display') != 'none') { var loaded = document.getElementById("loaded_cite_count"); // to load only once the result! if(loaded.innerHTML == "No") { // Load Xref result var d = document.getElementById("framed_div_cited_count"); // This replace the content d.innerHTML = "<img src=\"https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/loading_circle.gif?9a82694213036313?1732615622\" height=\"20\" width=\"20\" alt=\"Processing...\" style=\"vertical-align:middle; margin-right:0.6em;\">"; $.ajax({ method : "POST", url : "/cite-count/10.3390%252Fpr12112571", success : function(data) { if (data.succ) { d.innerHTML = data.view; loaded.innerHTML = "Yes"; follow_goto(); } } }); } } // end else return true; // for not going at the beginning of the page... }) return true; // for not going at the beginning of the page... } </script><script type="text/javascript" src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/third-party/highcharts/highcharts.js?bdd06f45e34c33df?1732615622"></script><script type="text/javascript" src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/third-party/highcharts/modules/exporting.js?944dc938d06de3a8?1732615622"></script><script type="text/javascript" defer="defer"> var advancedStatsData; var selectedStatsType = "abstract"; $(function(){ var countWrapper = $('#counts-wrapper'); $('#author_stats_id #type_links a').on('click', function(e) { e.preventDefault(); selectedStatsType = $(this).data('type'); $('#article_advanced_stats').vectorMap('set', 'values', advancedStatsData[selectedStatsType]); $('#advanced_stats_max').html(advancedStatsData[selectedStatsType].max); $('#type_links a').removeClass('active'); $(this).addClass('active'); }); $.get('/2227-9717/12/11/2571/stats', function (result) { if (!result.success) { return; } // process article metrics part in left column var viewNumber = countWrapper.find(".view-number"); viewNumber.html(result.metrics.views); viewNumber.parent().toggleClass("count-div--grey", result.metrics.views == 0); var downloadNumber = countWrapper.find(".download-number"); downloadNumber.html(result.metrics.downloads); downloadNumber.parent().toggleClass("count-div--grey", result.metrics.downloads == 0); var citationsNumber = countWrapper.find(".citations-number"); citationsNumber.html(result.metrics.citations); citationsNumber.parent().toggleClass("count-div--grey", result.metrics.citations == 0); if (result.metrics.views > 0 || result.metrics.downloads > 0 || result.metrics.citations > 0) { countWrapper.find("#js-counts-wrapper__views, #js-counts-wrapper__downloads").addClass("visible").show(); if (result.metrics.citations > 0) { countWrapper.find('.citations-number').html(result.metrics.citations).show(); countWrapper.find("#js-counts-wrapper__citations").addClass("visible").show(); } else { countWrapper.find("#js-counts-wrapper__citations").remove(); } $("[data-id='article-counters']").removeClass("hidden"); } if (result.metrics.altmetrics_score > 0) { $("#js-altmetrics-donut").show(); } // process view chart in main column var jsondata = result.chart; var series = new Array(); $.each(jsondata.elements, function(i, element) { var dataValues = new Array(); $.each(element.values, function(i, value) { dataValues.push(new Array(value.tip, value.value)); }); series[i] = {name: element.text, data:dataValues}; }); Highcharts.setOptions({ chart: { style: { fontFamily: 'Arial,sans-serif' } } }); $('#article_stats_swf').highcharts({ chart: { type: 'line', width: $("#tabs").width() //* 0.91 }, credits: { enabled: false }, exporting: { enabled: true }, title: { text: jsondata.title.text, x: -20 //center }, xAxis: { categories: jsondata.x_axis.labels.labels, offset: jsondata.x_axis.offset, labels:{ step: jsondata.x_axis.labels.steps, rotation: 30 } }, yAxis: { max: jsondata.y_axis.max, min: jsondata.y_axis.min, offset: jsondata.y_axis.offset, labels: { steps: jsondata.y_axis.steps }, title: { enabled: false } }, tooltip: { formatter: function (){ return this.key.replace("#val#", this.y); } }, legend: { align: 'top', itemDistance: 50 }, series: series }); }); $('#supplement_link').click(function() { document.getElementById('suppl_id').scrollIntoView(); }); $('#stats_link').click(function() { document.getElementById('stats_id').scrollIntoView(); }); // open mol viewer for molbank special supplementary files $('.showJmol').click(function(e) { e.preventDefault(); var jmolModal = $("#jmolModal"); var url = "/article/1522713/jsmol_viewer/__supplementary_id__"; url = url.replace(/__supplementary_id__/g, $(this).data('index')); $('#jsmol-content').attr('src', url); jmolModal.find(".content").html($(this).data('description')); jmolModal.foundation("reveal", "open"); }); }); !function() { "use strict"; function e(e) { try { if ("undefined" == typeof console) return; "error"in console ? console.error(e) : console.log(e) } catch (e) {} } function t(e) { return d.innerHTML = '<a href="' + e.replace(/"/g, """) + '"></a>', d.childNodes[0].getAttribute("href") || "" } function n(n, c) { var o = ""; var k = parseInt(n.substr(c + 4, 2), 16); for (var i = c; i < n.length; i += 2) { if (i != c + 4) { var s = parseInt(n.substr(i, 2), 16) ^ k; o += String.fromCharCode(s); } } try { o = decodeURIComponent(escape(o)); } catch (error) { console.error(error); } return t(o); } function c(t) { for (var r = t.querySelectorAll("a"), c = 0; c < r.length; c++) try { var o = r[c] , a = o.href.indexOf(l); a > -1 && (o.href = "mailto:" + n(o.href, a + l.length)) } catch (i) { e(i) } } function o(t) { for (var r = t.querySelectorAll(u), c = 0; c < r.length; c++) try { var o = r[c] , a = o.parentNode , i = o.getAttribute(f); if (i) { var l = n(i, 0) , d = document.createTextNode(l); a.replaceChild(d, o) } } catch (h) { e(h) } } function a(t) { for (var r = t.querySelectorAll("template"), n = 0; n < r.length; n++) try { i(r[n].content) } catch (c) { e(c) } } function i(t) { try { c(t), o(t), a(t) } catch (r) { e(r) } } var l = "/cnd-cgi/l/email-protection#" , u = ".__cf_email__" , f = "data-cfemail" , d = document.createElement("div"); i(document), function() { var e = document.currentScript || document.scripts[document.scripts.length - 1]; e.parentNode.removeChild(e) }() }(); </script><script type="text/javascript"> function setCookie(cname, cvalue, ctime) { ctime = (typeof ctime === 'undefined') ? 10*365*24*60*60*1000 : ctime; // default => 10 years var d = new Date(); d.setTime(d.getTime() + ctime); // ==> 1 hour = 60*60*1000 var expires = "expires="+d.toUTCString(); document.cookie = cname + "=" + cvalue + "; " + expires +"; path=/"; } function getCookie(cname) { var name = cname + "="; var ca = document.cookie.split(';'); for(var i=0; i<ca.length; i++) { var c = ca[i]; while (c.charAt(0)==' ') c = c.substring(1); if (c.indexOf(name) == 0) return c.substring(name.length, c.length); } return ""; } </script><script type="text/javascript" src="https://d1bxh8uas1mnw7.cloudfront.net/assets/embed.js"></script><script> $(document).ready(function() { if ($("#js-similarity-related-data").length > 0) { $.ajax({ url: '/article/1522713/similarity-related', success: function(response) { $("#js-similarity-related-data").html(response); $("#js-related-articles-menu").show(); $(document).foundation('tab', 'reflow'); MathJax.Hub.Queue(["Typeset", MathJax.Hub]); } }); } }); </script><link rel="stylesheet" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/css/jquery-ui-1.10.4.custom.min.css?80647d88647bf347?1732615622"><link rel="stylesheet" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/css/magnific-popup.min.css?04d343e036f8eecd?1732615622"><script type="text/javascript" src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/magnific-popup.min.js?2be3d9e7dc569146?1732615622"></script><script> $(function() { $(".js-show-more-academic-editors").on("click", function(e) { e.preventDefault(); $(this).hide(); $(".academic-editor-container").removeClass("hidden"); }); }); </script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/css/vmap/jqvmap.min.css?126a06688aa11c13?1732615622"> <script src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/vmap/jquery.vmap.min.js?935f68d33bdd88a1?1732615622"></script> <script src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/vmap/jquery.vmap.world.js?16677403c0e1bef1?1732615622"></script> <script> function updateSlick() { $('.multiple-items').slick('setPosition'); } $(document).ready(function() { $('.multiple-items').slick({ slidesToShow: 1, nextArrow: '<a class="slick-next" href="#"><i class="material-icons">chevron_right</i></a>', prevArrow: '<a class="slick-prev" href="#"><i class="material-icons">chevron_left</i></a>', slidesToScroll: 1, responsive: [ { breakpoint: 1024, settings: { slidesToShow: 1, slidesToScroll: 1, } }, { breakpoint: 600, settings: { slidesToShow: 1, slidesToScroll: 1, } }, { breakpoint: 480, settings: { slidesToShow: 1, slidesToScroll: 1, } } ] }); $('.multiple-items').show(); $(document).on('click', '.reviewReportSelector', function(e) { let path = $(this).attr('data-path'); handleReviews(path, $(this)); }); $(document).on('click', '.viewReviewReports', function(e) { let versionOne = $('#versionTab_1'); if (!versionOne.hasClass('activeTab')) { let path = $(this).attr('data-path'); handleReviews(path, versionOne); } location.href = "#reviewReports"; }); $(document).on('click', '.reviewersResponse, .authorResponse', function(e) { let version = $(this).attr('data-version'); let targetVersion = $('#versionTab_' + version); if (!targetVersion.hasClass('activeTab')) { let path = targetVersion.attr('data-path'); handleReviews(path, targetVersion); } location.href = $(this).attr('data-link'); }); $(document).on('click', '.tab', function (e) { e.preventDefault(); $('.tab').removeClass('activeTab'); $(this).addClass('activeTab') $('.tab').each(function() { $(this).closest('.tab-title').removeClass('active'); }); $(this).closest('.tab-title').addClass('active') }); }); function handleReviews(path, target) { $.ajax({ url: path, context: this, success: function (data) { $('.activeTab').removeClass('activeTab'); target.addClass('activeTab'); $('#reviewSection').html(data.view); }, error: function (xhr, ajaxOptions, thrownError) { console.log(xhr.status); console.log(thrownError); } }); } </script> <script src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/xmltohtml/affix.js?v1?1732615622"></script> <script src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/xmltohtml/storage.js?e9b262d3a3476d25?1732615622"></script> <script src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/xmltohtml/jquery-scrollspy.js?09cbaec0dbb35a67?1732615622"></script> <script src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/xmltohtml/magnific-popup.js?4a09c18460afb26c?1732615622"></script> <script src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/xmltohtml/underscore.js?f893e294cde60c24?1732615622"></script> <script type="text/javascript"> $('document').ready(function(){ $("#left-column").addClass("show-for-large-up"); $("#middle-column").removeClass("medium-9").removeClass("left-bordered").addClass("medium-12"); $(window).on('resize scroll', function() { /* if ($('.button--drop-down').isInViewport($(".top-bar").outerHeight())) { */ if ($('.button--drop-down').isInViewport()) { $("#js-button-download").hide(); } else { $("#js-button-download").show(); } }); }); $(document).on('DOMNodeInserted', function(e) { var element = $(e.target); if (element.hasClass('menu') && element.hasClass('html-nav') ) { element.addClass("side-menu-ul"); } }); </script> <script src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/js/xmltohtml/articles.js?5118449d9ad8913a?1732615622"></script> <script> repositionOpenSideBar = function() { $('#left-column').addClass("show-for-large-up show-for-medium-up").show(); $('#middle-column').removeClass('large-12').removeClass('medium-12'); $('#middle-column').addClass('large-9'); } repositionCloseSideBar = function() { $('#left-column').removeClass("show-for-large-up show-for-medium-up").hide(); $('#middle-column').removeClass('large-9'); $('#middle-column').addClass('large-12').addClass('medium-12'); } </script>   <script type="text/plain" data-cookieconsent="marketing"> !function(e,t,n,s,u,a){e.twq||(s=e.twq=function(){s.exe?s.exe.apply(s,arguments):s.queue.push(arguments); },s.version='1.1',s.queue=[],u=t.createElement(n),u.async=!0,u.src='//static.ads-twitter.com/uwt.js', a=t.getElementsByTagName(n)[0],a.parentNode.insertBefore(u,a))}(window,document,'script'); // Insert Twitter Pixel ID and Standard Event data below twq('init','o2pip'); twq('track','PageView'); </script>  <script>(function(){function c(){var b=a.contentDocument||a.contentWindow.document;if(b){var d=b.createElement('script');d.innerHTML="window.__CF$cv$params={r:'8e8ead6de95bce0d',t:'MTczMjY3NDQyOS4wMDAwMDA='};var a=document.createElement('script');a.nonce='';a.src='/cdn-cgi/challenge-platform/scripts/jsd/main.js';document.getElementsByTagName('head')[0].appendChild(a);";b.getElementsByTagName('head')[0].appendChild(d)}}if(document.body){var a=document.createElement('iframe');a.height=1;a.width=1;a.style.position='absolute';a.style.top=0;a.style.left=0;a.style.border='none';a.style.visibility='hidden';document.body.appendChild(a);if('loading'!==document.readyState)c();else if(window.addEventListener)document.addEventListener('DOMContentLoaded',c);else{var e=document.onreadystatechange||function(){};document.onreadystatechange=function(b){e(b);'loading'!==document.readyState&&(document.onreadystatechange=e,c())}}}})();</script></body> </html>

CINXE.COM

A Model-Driven Approach to Extract Multi-Source Fault Features of a Screw Pump