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id="toc-Emergence_of_Solidarity_in_Poland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emergence_of_Solidarity_in_Poland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Emergence of Solidarity in Poland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emergence_of_Solidarity_in_Poland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mikhail_Gorbachev" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mikhail_Gorbachev"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Mikhail Gorbachev</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mikhail_Gorbachev-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Soviet_republics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Soviet_republics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Soviet republics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Soviet_republics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Impact_of_Solidarity_grows" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Impact_of_Solidarity_grows"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Impact of Solidarity grows</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Impact_of_Solidarity_grows-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Protests_and_revolutions_in_the_Western_Bloc" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Protests_and_revolutions_in_the_Western_Bloc"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Protests and revolutions in the Western Bloc</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Protests_and_revolutions_in_the_Western_Bloc-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-National_political_movements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#National_political_movements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>National political movements</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-National_political_movements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Poland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Poland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1</span> <span>Poland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Poland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hungary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hungary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.2</span> <span>Hungary</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hungary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-East_Germany" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#East_Germany"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.3</span> <span>East Germany</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-East_Germany-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Czechoslovakia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Czechoslovakia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.4</span> <span>Czechoslovakia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Czechoslovakia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bulgaria" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bulgaria"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.5</span> <span>Bulgaria</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bulgaria-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Romania" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Romania"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.6</span> <span>Romania</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Romania-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Yugoslavia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Yugoslavia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.7</span> <span>Yugoslavia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Yugoslavia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Albania" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Albania"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.8</span> <span>Albania</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Albania-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mongolia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mongolia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.9</span> <span>Mongolia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mongolia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.10</span> <span>China</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Malta_summit" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Malta_summit"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Malta summit</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Malta_summit-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Election_chronology_in_Central_and_Eastern_Europe,_and_Central_Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Election_chronology_in_Central_and_Eastern_Europe,_and_Central_Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Election chronology in Central and Eastern Europe, and Central Asia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Election_chronology_in_Central_and_Eastern_Europe,_and_Central_Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Dissolution of the Soviet Union</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Baltic_states" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Baltic_states"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.1</span> <span>Baltic states</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Baltic_states-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Belarus,_Ukraine_and_Moldova" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Belarus,_Ukraine_and_Moldova"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.2</span> <span>Belarus, Ukraine and Moldova</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Belarus,_Ukraine_and_Moldova-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transcaucasia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transcaucasia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.3</span> <span>Transcaucasia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transcaucasia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Chechnya" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chechnya"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.3.1</span> <span>Chechnya</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chechnya-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Central_Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Central_Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.4</span> <span>Central Asia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Central_Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-Soviet_conflicts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-Soviet_conflicts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.5</span> <span>Post-Soviet conflicts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post-Soviet_conflicts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_events" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_events"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Other events</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_events-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Communist_and_socialist_countries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Communist_and_socialist_countries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.1</span> <span>Communist and socialist countries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Communist_and_socialist_countries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.1.1</span> <span>Africa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Middle_East" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Middle_East"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.1.2</span> <span>Middle East</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Middle_East-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.1.3</span> <span>Asia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Latin_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Latin_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.1.4</span> <span>Latin America</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Latin_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Oceania" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oceania"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.1.5</span> <span>Oceania</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oceania-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_countries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_countries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.2</span> <span>Other countries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_countries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Countries_that_emerged_into_socialist-styled_governments_beyond_1991" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Countries_that_emerged_into_socialist-styled_governments_beyond_1991"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.2.1</span> <span>Countries that emerged into socialist-styled governments beyond 1991</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Countries_that_emerged_into_socialist-styled_governments_beyond_1991-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_impacts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_impacts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.2.2</span> <span>Other impacts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_impacts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_reforms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_reforms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Political reforms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_reforms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic_reforms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_reforms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Economic reforms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_reforms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ideological_continuation_of_communism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ideological_continuation_of_communism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Ideological continuation of communism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ideological_continuation_of_communism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interpretations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interpretations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Interpretations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interpretations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Remembrance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Remembrance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Remembrance</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Remembrance-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Remembrance subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Remembrance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Organizations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Organizations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Organizations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Organizations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Events" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Events"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Events</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Events-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Places" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Places"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Places</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Places-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Other</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" 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Available in 60 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-60" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">60 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AB%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA_1989" title="ثورات 1989 – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="ثورات 1989" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revoluciones_de_1989" title="Revoluciones de 1989 – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Revoluciones de 1989" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/1989_%D0%B9%D1%8B%D0%BB%D2%93%D1%8B_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80" title="1989 йылғы революциялар – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="1989 йылғы революциялар" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%8C_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%9E" title="Восень народаў – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Восень народаў" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%8C_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%9E" title="Восень народаў – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Восень народаў" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8_%D0%B2_%D0%98%D0%B7%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%95%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B0" title="Падане на комунистическите режими в Източна Европа – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Падане на комунистическите режими в Източна Европа" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolucije_1989." title="Revolucije 1989. – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Revolucije 1989." data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolucions_de_1989" title="Revolucions de 1989 – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Revolucions de 1989" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%A1d_komunismu_v_Evrop%C4%9B" title="Pád komunismu v Evropě – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Pád komunismu v Evropě" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolutionerne_i_%C3%98steuropa_1989" title="Revolutionerne i Østeuropa 1989 – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Revolutionerne i Østeuropa 1989" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolutionen_im_Jahr_1989" title="Revolutionen im Jahr 1989 – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Revolutionen im Jahr 1989" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/1989._aasta_N%C3%B5ukogude_re%C5%BEiimi_vastased_revolutsioonid" title="1989. aasta Nõukogude režiimi vastased revolutsioonid – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="1989. aasta Nõukogude režiimi vastased revolutsioonid" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CF%80%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B1%CF%83%CF%84%CE%AC%CF%83%CE%B5%CE%B9%CF%82_%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85_1989" title="Επαναστάσεις του 1989 – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Επαναστάσεις του 1989" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revoluciones_de_1989" title="Revoluciones de 1989 – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Revoluciones de 1989" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolucioj_de_1989" title="Revolucioj de 1989 – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Revolucioj de 1989" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/1989ko_iraultzak" title="1989ko iraultzak – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="1989ko iraultzak" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%82%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%DB%B1%DB%B9%DB%B8%DB%B9" title="انقلاب‌های ۱۹۸۹ – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="انقلاب‌های ۱۹۸۹" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chute_des_r%C3%A9gimes_communistes_en_Europe" title="Chute des régimes communistes en Europe – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Chute des régimes communistes en Europe" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/1989%EB%85%84_%ED%98%81%EB%AA%85" title="1989년 혁명 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="1989년 혁명" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/1989_%D5%A9%D5%BE%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%AB_%D5%B0%D5%A5%D5%B2%D5%A1%D6%83%D5%B8%D5%AD%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="1989 թվականի հեղափոխություններ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="1989 թվականի հեղափոխություններ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%AF%E0%A5%AE%E0%A5%AF_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%81" title="१९८९ की क्रांतियाँ – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="१९८९ की क्रांतियाँ" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pad_komunizma" title="Pad komunizma – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Pad komunizma" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolusi_1989" title="Revolusi 1989 – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Revolusi 1989" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rivoluzioni_del_1989" title="Rivoluzioni del 1989 – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Rivoluzioni del 1989" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A1%D7%AA%D7%99%D7%95_%D7%94%D7%A2%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%9D" title="סתיו העמים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="סתיו העמים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/1989_%E1%83%AC%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%95%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A3%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="1989 წლის რევოლუციები – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="1989 წლის რევოლუციები" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chout_di_s%C3%A9_r%C3%A9jim_kominis_an_%C3%89r%C3%B2p" title="Chout di sé réjim kominis an Éròp – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Chout di sé réjim kominis an Éròp" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Res_novae_anni_1989" title="Res novae anni 1989 – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Res novae anni 1989" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/1989._gada_revol%C5%ABcijas" title="1989. gada revolūcijas – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="1989. gada revolūcijas" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%90szi_forradalmak" title="Őszi forradalmak – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Őszi forradalmak" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B8_%D0%BE%D0%B4_1989_%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Револуции од 1989 година – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Револуции од 1989 година" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AB%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA_1989" title="ثورات 1989 – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="ثورات 1989" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Era_kejatuhan_Komunisme" title="Era kejatuhan Komunisme – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Era kejatuhan Komunisme" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Val_van_het_communisme" title="Val van het communisme – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Val van het communisme" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9D%B1%E6%AC%A7%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD" title="東欧革命 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="東欧革命" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/1989_%D1%88%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%88" title="1989 шеран революцеш – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="1989 шеран революцеш" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolucions_de_1988-1989" title="Revolucions de 1988-1989 – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Revolucions de 1988-1989" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/1989_%E0%A8%A6%E0%A9%87_%E0%A8%87%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%AC" title="1989 ਦੇ ਇਨਕਲਾਬ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="1989 ਦੇ ਇਨਕਲਾਬ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%B1%DB%B9%DB%B8%DB%B9_%D8%AF%DB%92_%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%82%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="۱۹۸۹ دے انقلابات – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="۱۹۸۹ دے انقلابات" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%DB%B1%DB%B9%DB%B8%DB%B9_%D8%B2_%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%84_%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%82%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%86%D9%87" title="د ۱۹۸۹ ز کال انقلابونه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د ۱۹۸۹ ز کال انقلابونه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesie%C5%84_Lud%C3%B3w" title="Jesień Ludów – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Jesień Ludów" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolu%C3%A7%C3%B5es_de_1989" title="Revoluções de 1989 – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Revoluções de 1989" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolu%C8%9Biile_de_la_1989" title="Revoluțiile de la 1989 – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Revoluțiile de la 1989" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B8_1989_%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="Революции 1989 года – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Революции 1989 года" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-st mw-list-item"><a href="https://st.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liphetoho_tsa_1989" title="Liphetoho tsa 1989 – Southern Sotho" lang="st" hreflang="st" data-title="Liphetoho tsa 1989" data-language-autonym="Sesotho" data-language-local-name="Southern Sotho" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sesotho</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolutions_of_1989" title="Revolutions of 1989 – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Revolutions of 1989" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Padec_komunizma" title="Padec komunizma – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Padec komunizma" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B5_1989." title="Револуције 1989. – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Револуције 1989." data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolucije_1989." title="Revolucije 1989. – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Revolucije 1989." data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/It%C3%A4-Euroopan_vallankumoukset_1989" title="Itä-Euroopan vallankumoukset 1989 – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Itä-Euroopan vallankumoukset 1989" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolutionerna_i_%C3%96steuropa_1989" title="Revolutionerna i Östeuropa 1989 – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Revolutionerna i Östeuropa 1989" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mga_Himagsikan_ng_1989" title="Mga Himagsikan ng 1989 – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Mga Himagsikan ng 1989" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%8F%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B4_%E0%B8%84.%E0%B8%A8._1989" title="การปฏิวัติ ค.ศ. 1989 – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การปฏิวัติ ค.ศ. 1989" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/1989_Devrimleri" title="1989 Devrimleri – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="1989 Devrimleri" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%81%D1%96%D0%BD%D1%8C_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%96%D0%B2" title="Осінь народів – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Осінь народів" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/1989_%DA%A9%DB%92_%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%82%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="1989 کے انقلابات – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="1989 کے انقلابات" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a 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.infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing: 2px;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above summary" style="background-color:#CEE0F2;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Revolutions of 1989</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="background-color:#eeeeee;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Part of the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> (until 1991)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="text-align: center; border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa; line-height: 1.5em;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti 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0.25em;line-height:1.25em;"><b>Clockwise from top-left</b>:<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Berlin_Wall" title="Fall of the Berlin Wall">Fall of the Berlin Wall</a>, November 1989</li> <li>Demonstration in <a href="/wiki/Prague" title="Prague">Prague</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Velvet_Revolution" title="Velvet Revolution">Velvet Revolution</a>, November 1989</li> <li>Tanks and <a href="/wiki/Mili%C8%9Bia_(Romania)" title="Miliția (Romania)">Miliția</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bucharest" title="Bucharest">Bucharest</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Romanian_revolution" title="Romanian revolution">Romanian revolution</a>, December 1989</li> <li>Tanks in <a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a> during the <a href="/wiki/1991_Soviet_coup_attempt" title="1991 Soviet coup attempt">Soviet coup attempt</a>, August 1991</li></ul> </div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Date</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">16 December 1986 – 28 June 1996<br />(9 years, 6 months, 1 week and 5 days)<br /><b>Main phase:</b><br />12 May 1988 – 26 December 1991<br />(3 years, 7 months and 2 weeks)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Location</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="display:inline;" class="location"><a href="/wiki/Central_and_Eastern_Europe" title="Central and Eastern Europe">Central and Eastern Europe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latin_America" title="Latin America">Latin America</a>, <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Caused by</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_repression" title="Political repression">Political repression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratization" title="Democratization">Democratization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_persecution" title="Religious persecution">Religious persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austerity" title="Austerity">Austerity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_crises" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic crises">Economic crises</a> and <a href="/wiki/Consumerism" title="Consumerism">consumerist</a> pressure<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-communism" title="Anti-communism">Anti-communism</a></li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Methods</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reform" title="Reform">Reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_protest" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass protest">Mass protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_unrest" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil unrest">Civil unrest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riot" title="Riot">Riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War" title="War">War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Resulted in</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">End of most <a href="/wiki/Communist_state" title="Communist state">communist states</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/End_of_the_Cold_War" class="mw-redirect" title="End of the Cold War">End of the Cold War</a></li> <li>Spread of <a href="/wiki/Liberal_democracy" title="Liberal democracy">liberal democracy</a></li> <li>End of the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> as a <a href="/wiki/Superpower" title="Superpower">superpower</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">its dissolution</a> on 26 December 1991</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Societal_collapse" title="Societal collapse">Collapse</a> of the <a href="/wiki/One-party_state" title="One-party state">one-party state regimes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Democratic_centralism" title="Democratic centralism">democratic centralism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Planned_economy" title="Planned economy">planned economy</a></li> <li>Socio-economic reforms in China, Laos, and Vietnam</li> <li>Dissolution of the <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a>, <a href="/wiki/Comecon" title="Comecon">Comecon</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a></li> <li>Formation of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Federation" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian Federation">Russian Federation</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Independence" title="Independence">independence</a> of <a href="/wiki/Post-Soviet_states" title="Post-Soviet states">15 states</a> from the former Soviet Union</li> <li>Transfer of power to <a href="/wiki/Multi-party" class="mw-redirect" title="Multi-party">multi-party</a> governments in <a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_(1945%E2%80%931989)#Politics_of_the_last_years_of_the_People's_Republic_and_the_transition_period" title="History of Poland (1945–1989)">Poland</a>, <a href="/wiki/End_of_Communism_in_Hungary_(1989)" class="mw-redirect" title="End of Communism in Hungary (1989)">Hungary</a>, <a href="/wiki/Die_Wende" class="mw-redirect" title="Die Wende">East Germany</a>, <a href="/wiki/Velvet_Revolution" title="Velvet Revolution">Czechoslovakia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Romanian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanian Revolution">Romania</a>, <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Bulgaria#End_of_the_People's_Republic" title="People's Republic of Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mongolian_Revolution_of_1990" title="Mongolian Revolution of 1990">Mongolia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_communism_in_Albania" title="Fall of communism in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li>Fall of old system of <a href="/wiki/Economy" title="Economy">economy</a> in other communist countries, transition from a state-run economic model to a private one in the former Eastern Bloc countries; dismantling of the <a href="/wiki/Command_economies" class="mw-redirect" title="Command economies">command economies</a> and <a href="/wiki/Privatization" title="Privatization">privatization</a> of <a href="/wiki/State-owned_enterprise" title="State-owned enterprise">state-owned enterprise</a>; the spread of capitalist and free-market economy system after economic crises in former communist countries</li> <li>Establishment of a non-<a href="/wiki/Communist" class="mw-redirect" title="Communist">communist</a> <a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">government</a> in <a href="/wiki/Cambodia" title="Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li>Many <a href="/wiki/Communist_party" title="Communist party">communist parties</a> and their politicians recast themselves into adherents of <a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">social democracy</a> or <a href="/wiki/Democratic_socialism" title="Democratic socialism">democratic socialism</a></li> <li>The rise of <a href="/wiki/Populism" title="Populism">populism</a> and neutral forces</li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_reunification" title="German reunification">German reunification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemeni_unification" title="Yemeni unification">Yemeni unification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Dissolution of Czechoslovakia">Dissolution of Czechoslovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breakup_of_Yugoslavia" title="Breakup of Yugoslavia">Breakup of Yugoslavia</a> and start of the <a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_Wars" title="Yugoslav Wars">Yugoslav Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-communism" title="Anti-communism">Skepticism about communism</a> all over the world associated with decreasing support for various communist and left-wing parties, especially in <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a>, the collapse of <a href="/wiki/Communist_state" title="Communist state">communist</a>-dominated <a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">governments</a> in <a href="/wiki/War_in_Afghanistan_(1978%E2%80%93present)#Fall_of_communism" class="mw-redirect" title="War in Afghanistan (1978–present)">Afghanistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Angola" title="People's Republic of Angola">Angola</a>, <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Benin#Overturning_of_the_revolution" title="People's Republic of Benin">Benin</a>, <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_the_Congo#Transition" title="People's Republic of the Congo">Congo-Brazzaville</a>, <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Democratic_Republic_of_Ethiopia#Failures_and_collapse" title="People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a>, <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Mozambique" title="People's Republic of Mozambique">Mozambique</a>, <a href="/wiki/Somali_Democratic_Republic" title="Somali Democratic Republic">Somalia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/South_Yemen" title="South Yemen">South Yemen</a></li> <li>The spread of <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Western culture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalism</a> to previously sealed-off communist countries, including <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern Europe</a></li> <li>Expansion of Western media and <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a> in former socialist and communist countries</li> <li>Failure of Soviet forces in <a href="/wiki/Soviet-Afghan_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet-Afghan War">Afghanistan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Afghan_Civil_War_(1989-1992)" class="mw-redirect" title="Afghan Civil War (1989-1992)">fall</a> of communist Afghan state</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1990s_post-Soviet_aliyah" title="1990s post-Soviet aliyah">Emigration of Soviet</a> and Eastern Bloc Jews to <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiananmen_Square_protests_of_1989" class="mw-redirect" title="Tiananmen Square protests of 1989">Suppression</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_democracy_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese democracy movement">Chinese democracy movement</a> and the rise of <a href="/wiki/Anti-Western_sentiment_in_China" title="Anti-Western sentiment in China">China's anti-Western sentiments</a></li> <li>Start of the <a href="/wiki/Special_Period" title="Special Period">Special Period</a> in <a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li>Attenuation of the <a href="/wiki/Socio-economy" class="mw-redirect" title="Socio-economy">socio-economy</a> of <a href="/wiki/North_Korea" title="North Korea">North Korea</a> and abandonment of Marxism–Leninism in favor of <a href="/wiki/Juche" title="Juche">Juche</a></li> <li>Weakening of communist movements and increase in <a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Marxism" title="Criticism of Marxism">criticism of Marxism</a></li> <li>More improvement in conflicts in international relations</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maastricht_Treaty" title="Maastricht Treaty">Creation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Enlargement_of_the_European_Union" title="Enlargement of the European Union">expansion</a> of the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a></li> <li>Former Soviet Bloc countries in Eastern Europe <a href="/wiki/Expansion_of_NATO" class="mw-redirect" title="Expansion of NATO">join NATO</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> becomes the world's sole superpower</li> <li>The rise of <a href="/wiki/Islamic_extremism" title="Islamic extremism">Islamic extremism</a> and its <a href="/wiki/Islamic_terrorism" title="Islamic terrorism">attacks</a> all over the world</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Cold_War" title="Second Cold War">Renewed tensions</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States-Russia_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="United States-Russia relations">between</a> the <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western world</a> and Russia in the 21st century</li></ul> </td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Revolutions" title="Category:Revolutions">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Revolution" title="Revolution">Political revolution</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:La_Libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple_-_Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_Mus%C3%A9e_du_Louvre_Peintures_RF_129_-_apr%C3%A8s_restauration_2024.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="French Revolution"><img alt="French Revolution" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/La_Libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple_-_Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_Mus%C3%A9e_du_Louvre_Peintures_RF_129_-_apr%C3%A8s_restauration_2024.jpg/200px-La_Libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple_-_Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_Mus%C3%A9e_du_Louvre_Peintures_RF_129_-_apr%C3%A8s_restauration_2024.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/La_Libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple_-_Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_Mus%C3%A9e_du_Louvre_Peintures_RF_129_-_apr%C3%A8s_restauration_2024.jpg/300px-La_Libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple_-_Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_Mus%C3%A9e_du_Louvre_Peintures_RF_129_-_apr%C3%A8s_restauration_2024.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/La_Libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple_-_Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_Mus%C3%A9e_du_Louvre_Peintures_RF_129_-_apr%C3%A8s_restauration_2024.jpg/400px-La_Libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple_-_Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_Mus%C3%A9e_du_Louvre_Peintures_RF_129_-_apr%C3%A8s_restauration_2024.jpg 2x" data-file-width="10128" data-file-height="8103" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">By class</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bourgeois_revolution" title="Bourgeois revolution">Bourgeois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_revolution" title="Communist revolution">Communist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-revolutionary" title="Counter-revolutionary">Counter-revolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_revolution" title="Democratic revolution">Democratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proletarian_revolution" title="Proletarian revolution">Proletarian</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">By other characteristic</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colour_revolution" title="Colour revolution">Colour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolution_from_above" title="Revolution from above">From above</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonviolent_revolution" title="Nonviolent revolution">Nonviolent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive_revolution" title="Passive revolution">Passive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permanent_revolution" title="Permanent revolution">Permanent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_revolution" title="Social revolution">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_wave" title="Revolutionary wave">Wave</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Methods</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boycott" title="Boycott">Boycott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_disorder" title="Civil disorder">Civil disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_war" title="Civil war">Civil war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_conflict" title="Class conflict">Class conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contentious_politics" title="Contentious politics">Contentious politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="Coup d'état">Coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_demonstration" title="Political demonstration">Demonstration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_chain_(politics)" title="Human chain (politics)">Human chain</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_action" title="Direct action">Direct action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare" title="Guerrilla warfare">Guerrilla warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurgency" title="Insurgency">Insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_mobilization" title="Mass mobilization">Mass mobilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutiny" title="Mutiny">Mutiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protest" title="Protest">Protest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebellion" title="Rebellion">Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistance_movement" title="Resistance movement">Resistance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nonviolent_resistance" title="Nonviolent resistance">Nonviolent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_resistance" title="Civil resistance">Civil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_disobedience" title="Civil disobedience">Disobedience</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riot" title="Riot">Riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samizdat" title="Samizdat">Samizdat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strike_action" title="Strike action">Strike action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_resistance" title="Tax resistance">Tax resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_terror" title="Revolutionary terror">Terror</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Examples</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_Revolution" title="English Revolution">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Revolutions" title="Atlantic Revolutions">Atlantic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brabant_Revolution" title="Brabant Revolution">Brabant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li%C3%A8ge_Revolution" title="Liège Revolution">Liège</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_Revolution" title="Haitian Revolution">Haitian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_American_wars_of_independence" title="Spanish American wars of independence">Spanish American</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Revolution" title="Serbian Revolution">Serbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_War_of_Independence" title="Greek War of Independence">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1820" class="mw-redirect" title="Revolutions of 1820">1820</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1830" title="Revolutions of 1830">1830</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/July_Revolution" title="July Revolution">July</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_Revolution" title="Belgian Revolution">Belgian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas_Revolution" title="Texas Revolution">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">1848</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848_in_the_Italian_states" title="Revolutions of 1848 in the Italian states">Italian states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution_of_1848" title="French Revolution of 1848">February</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848_in_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Revolutions of 1848 in Germany">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1848" title="Hungarian Revolution of 1848">Hungarian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eureka_Rebellion" title="Eureka Rebellion">Eureka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_unification" title="Bulgarian unification">Bulgarian unification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_Revolution" title="Philippine Revolution">Philippine</a></li> <li>Iranian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Constitutional_Revolution" title="Persian Constitutional Revolution">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Revolution">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Young_Turk_Revolution" title="Young Turk Revolution">Young Turk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_Revolution" title="Mexican Revolution">Mexican</a></li> <li>Chinese <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1911_Revolution" title="1911 Revolution">Xinhai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Revolution" title="Chinese Communist Revolution">Communist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1917%E2%80%931923" title="Revolutions of 1917–1923">1917–1923</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Revolution_of_1918%E2%80%931919" class="mw-redirect" title="German Revolution of 1918–1919">German</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siamese_Revolution_of_1932" class="mw-redirect" title="Siamese Revolution of 1932">Siamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Revolution_of_1936" title="Spanish Revolution of 1936">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/August_Revolution" title="August Revolution">August</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guatemalan_Revolution" title="Guatemalan Revolution">Guatemalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1956" title="Hungarian Revolution of 1956">Hungarian (1956)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_Revolution" title="Cuban Revolution">Cuban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rwandan_Revolution" title="Rwandan Revolution">Rwandan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicaraguan_Revolution" title="Nicaraguan Revolution">Nicaraguan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argentine_Revolution" title="Argentine Revolution">Argentine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnation_Revolution" title="Carnation Revolution">Carnation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saur_Revolution" title="Saur Revolution">Saur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_Power_Revolution" title="People Power Revolution">People Power</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">1989</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-bureaucratic_revolution" title="Anti-bureaucratic revolution">Yogurt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velvet_Revolution" title="Velvet Revolution">Velvet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanian Revolution">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singing_Revolution" title="Singing Revolution">Singing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bolivarian_Revolution" title="Bolivarian Revolution">Bolivarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overthrow_of_Slobodan_Milo%C5%A1evi%C4%87" title="Overthrow of Slobodan Milošević">Bulldozer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rose_Revolution" title="Rose Revolution">Rose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orange_Revolution" title="Orange Revolution">Orange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulip_Revolution" title="Tulip Revolution">Tulip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_Revolution_of_2010" class="mw-redirect" title="Kyrgyz Revolution of 2010">Kyrgyz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Spring" title="Arab Spring">Arab Spring</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_revolution" title="Tunisian revolution">Tunisian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_revolution_of_2011" class="mw-redirect" title="Egyptian revolution of 2011">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemeni_revolution" title="Yemeni revolution">Yemeni</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euromaidan" title="Euromaidan">Euromaidan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Arab_Spring" title="Second Arab Spring">Second Arab Spring</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sudanese_revolution" title="Sudanese revolution">Sudanese</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/16px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/24px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/32px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="border-spacing:0.2em 0;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Category:History of the Soviet Union">a series</a> on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="History of the Soviet Union">History of the Soviet Union</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding-top:0.35em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_arms_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1956%E2%80%931991).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="State Emblem of the Soviet Union"><img alt="State Emblem of the Soviet Union" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281956%E2%80%931991%29.svg/70px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281956%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="70" height="72" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281956%E2%80%931991%29.svg/105px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281956%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281956%E2%80%931991%29.svg/140px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281956%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="587" data-file-height="605" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Background</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bolshevism" title="Bolshevism">Bolshevism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_revolution" title="World revolution">World revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Social_Democratic_Labour_Party" title="Russian Social Democratic Labour Party">Russian Social Democratic Labour Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2nd_Congress_of_the_Russian_Social_Democratic_Labour_Party" title="2nd Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party">Bolshevik split</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Bolshevik Party</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/February_Revolution" title="February Revolution">February Revolution</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Soviet_Russia_and_the_Soviet_Union_(1917%E2%80%931927)" title="History of Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union (1917–1927)">1917–1927</a>: Establishment</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Civil_War" title="Russian Civil War">Russian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Brest-Litovsk" title="Treaty of Brest-Litovsk">Treaty of Brest-Litovsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Terror" title="Red Terror">Red Terror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_communism" title="War communism">War communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Economic_Policy" title="New Economic Policy">New Economic Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Creation_of_the_USSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty on the Creation of the USSR">Treaty on the Creation of the USSR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_delimitation_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="National delimitation in the Soviet Union">National delimitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_and_state_funeral_of_Vladimir_Lenin" title="Death and state funeral of Vladimir Lenin">Death and funeral of Lenin</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1927%E2%80%931953)" title="History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953)">1927–1953</a>: Stalinism</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Socialism_in_one_country" title="Socialism in one country">Socialism in one country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivization_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Collectivization in the Soviet Union">Collectivization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_famine_of_1932%E2%80%9333" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet famine of 1932–33">Soviet famine of 1932–1933</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holodomor" title="Holodomor">Holodomor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazakh_famine_of_1932%E2%80%9333" class="mw-redirect" title="Kazakh famine of 1932–33">Kazakhstan famine of 1932–1933</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrialization_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Industrialization in the Soviet Union">Industrialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution_in_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural Revolution in the Soviet Union">Cultural Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Purge" title="Great Purge">Great Purge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moscow_trials" title="Moscow trials">Moscow trials</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union_in_World_War_II" title="Soviet Union in World War II">World War II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Molotov%E2%80%93Ribbentrop_Pact" title="Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact">Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">Great Patriotic War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">Operation Barbarossa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Baltic_states" title="Occupation of the Baltic states">Occupation of the Baltic states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_occupation_of_Bessarabia_and_Northern_Bukovina" title="Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina">Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Berlin" title="Battle of Berlin">Battle of Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Soviet invasion of Manchuria">Soviet invasion of Manchuria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_transfer_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Population transfer in the Soviet Union">Soviet deportations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_famine_of_1946%E2%80%9347" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet famine of 1946–47">Soviet famine of 1946–1947</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Blockade" title="Berlin Blockade">Berlin Blockade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Indochina_War" title="First Indochina War">First Indochina War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_and_state_funeral_of_Joseph_Stalin" title="Death and state funeral of Joseph Stalin">Death and funeral of Stalin</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1953%E2%80%931964)" title="History of the Soviet Union (1953–1964)">1953–1964</a>: Khrushchev Thaw</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_German_uprising_of_1953" title="East German uprising of 1953">East German uprising of 1953</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virgin_Lands_campaign" title="Virgin Lands campaign">Virgin Lands campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1954_transfer_of_Crimea" class="mw-redirect" title="1954 transfer of Crimea">1954 transfer of Crimea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khrushchev_Thaw" title="Khrushchev Thaw">Khrushchev Thaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De-Stalinization" title="De-Stalinization">De-Stalinization</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/On_the_Cult_of_Personality_and_Its_Consequences" title="On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences">"On the Cult of Personality</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/We_will_bury_you" title="We will bury you">We will bury you</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1956_Georgian_demonstrations" title="1956 Georgian demonstrations">1956 Georgian demonstrations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1956" title="Hungarian Revolution of 1956">Hungarian Revolution of 1956</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wage_reform_in_the_Soviet_Union,_1956%E2%80%931962" title="Wage reform in the Soviet Union, 1956–1962">Wage reforms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peaceful_coexistence" title="Peaceful coexistence">Peaceful coexistence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consolidation_of_the_Cuban_Revolution" title="Consolidation of the Cuban Revolution">Consolidation of the Cuban Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_split" title="Sino-Soviet split">Sino-Soviet split</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_space_program" title="Soviet space program">Space program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis" title="Cuban Missile Crisis">Cuban Missile Crisis</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1964%E2%80%931982)" title="History of the Soviet Union (1964–1982)">1964–1982</a>: Era of Stagnation</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brezhnev_Doctrine" title="Brezhnev Doctrine">Brezhnev Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Era_of_Stagnation" title="Era of Stagnation">Era of Stagnation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1965_Yerevan_demonstrations" title="1965 Yerevan demonstrations">50th anniversary of the Armenian Genocide protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Six-Day_War" title="Six-Day War">Six-Day War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9tente" title="Détente">Détente</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Laotian_Civil_War" title="Laotian Civil War">Laotian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Menu" title="Operation Menu">Operation Menu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_Civil_War" title="Cambodian Civil War">Cambodian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Saigon" title="Fall of Saigon">Fall of Saigon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yom_Kippur_War" title="Yom Kippur War">Yom Kippur War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prague_Spring" title="Prague Spring">Prague Spring</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia">Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_conflicts_in_Africa" title="List of conflicts in Africa">Wars in Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angolan_War_of_Independence" title="Angolan War of Independence">Angolan War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angolan_Civil_War" title="Angolan Civil War">Angolan Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozambican_War_of_Independence" title="Mozambican War of Independence">Mozambican War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozambican_Civil_War" title="Mozambican Civil War">Mozambican Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Border_War" title="South African Border War">South African Border War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhodesian_Bush_War" title="Rhodesian Bush War">Rhodesian Bush War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian%E2%80%93Vietnamese_War" title="Cambodian–Vietnamese War">Cambodian–Vietnamese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">Soviet–Afghan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1980_Summer_Olympics" title="1980 Summer Olympics">1980 Summer Olympics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Olympic_Games_boycotts" title="List of Olympic Games boycotts">Olympic boycotts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1980_Summer_Olympics_boycott" title="1980 Summer Olympics boycott">1980 Olympic boycott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1984_Summer_Olympics_boycott" title="1984 Summer Olympics boycott">1984 Olympic boycott</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_reaction_to_the_Polish_crisis_of_1980%E2%80%931981" title="Soviet reaction to the Polish crisis of 1980–1981">Polish strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_and_state_funeral_of_Leonid_Brezhnev" title="Death and state funeral of Leonid Brezhnev">Death and funeral of Brezhnev</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1982%E2%80%931991)" title="History of the Soviet Union (1982–1991)">1982–1991</a>: Decline and collapse</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Grenada" title="United States invasion of Grenada">Invasion of Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glasnost" title="Glasnost">Glasnost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perestroika" title="Perestroika">Perestroika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster" title="Chernobyl disaster">Chernobyl disaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_withdrawal_from_Afghanistan" title="Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan">Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singing_Revolution" title="Singing Revolution">Singing Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estonian_Sovereignty_Declaration" title="Estonian Sovereignty Declaration">Estonian Sovereignty Declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_Way" title="Baltic Way">Baltic Way</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Act_of_the_Re-Establishment_of_the_State_of_Lithuania" title="Act of the Re-Establishment of the State of Lithuania">Lithuanian independence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_economic_blockade_of_Lithuania" title="Soviet economic blockade of Lithuania">Economic blockade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Restoration_of_Independence_of_the_Republic_of_Latvia" title="On the Restoration of Independence of the Republic of Latvia">Latvian independence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Revolutions of 1989</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pan-European_Picnic" title="Pan-European Picnic">Pan-European Picnic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peaceful_Revolution" title="Peaceful Revolution">Peaceful Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Berlin_Wall" title="Fall of the Berlin Wall">Fall of the Berlin Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velvet_Revolution" title="Velvet Revolution">Velvet Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/End_of_communism_in_Hungary_(1989)" class="mw-redirect" title="End of communism in Hungary (1989)">End of communist rule in Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanian Revolution">Romanian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_reunification" title="German reunification">German reunification</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">Dissolution of the Soviet Union</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jeltoqsan" title="Jeltoqsan">Jeltoqsan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Nagorno-Karabakh_War" title="First Nagorno-Karabakh War">First Nagorno-Karabakh War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/April_9_tragedy" title="April 9 tragedy">April 9 tragedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_January" title="Black January">Black January</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osh_riots_(1990)" class="mw-redirect" title="Osh riots (1990)">Osh riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Laws" title="War of Laws">War of Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1990_Dushanbe_riots" title="1990 Dushanbe riots">Dushanbe riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/January_Events_(Lithuania)" class="mw-redirect" title="January Events (Lithuania)">January Events</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Barricades" title="The Barricades">The Barricades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Soviet_Union_referendum" title="1991 Soviet Union referendum">Referendum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Union_Treaty" title="New Union Treaty">New Union Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Soviet_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_attempt" class="mw-redirect" title="1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt">August Coup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1989%E2%80%931991_Ukrainian_revolution" title="1989–1991 Ukrainian revolution">Ukrainian revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_Independence_of_Ukraine" title="Declaration of Independence of Ukraine">independence declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Ukrainian_independence_referendum" title="1991 Ukrainian independence referendum">referendum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belovezha_Accords" title="Belovezha Accords">Belovezha Accords</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alma-Ata_Protocol" title="Alma-Ata Protocol">Alma-Ata Protocol</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Soviet leadership</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Lenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Stalin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgy_Malenkov" title="Georgy Malenkov">Malenkov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev" title="Nikita Khrushchev">Khrushchev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonid_Brezhnev" title="Leonid Brezhnev">Brezhnev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuri_Andropov" title="Yuri Andropov">Andropov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Chernenko" title="Konstantin Chernenko">Chernenko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Gorbachev</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Soviet_leaders#List_of_troikas" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Soviet leaders">List of <i>troikas</i></a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Culture of the Soviet Union">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Economy of the Soviet Union">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Education in the Soviet Union">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Geography of the Soviet Union">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="History of the Soviet Union">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_leaders_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of leaders of the Soviet Union">Leadership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Politics of the Soviet Union">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Empire">Soviet Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia" title="History of Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republics_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Republics of the Soviet Union">Soviet republics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Soviet_states" title="Post-Soviet states">Post-Soviet states</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="padding:0.3em 0.3em 0.5em;border-bottom:1px solid #707070;"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/16px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/24px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Soviet_Union" title="Portal:Soviet Union">Soviet Union portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Template:History of the Soviet Union"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Template talk:History of the Soviet Union"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of the Soviet Union"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Anti-communism" title="Category:Anti-communism">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="padding-bottom:0; font-size:200%; font-weight:medium;"><a href="/wiki/Anti-communism" title="Anti-communism">Anti-communism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Anticommunist_Logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Anticommunist_Logo.svg/100px-Anticommunist_Logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Anticommunist_Logo.svg/150px-Anticommunist_Logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Anticommunist_Logo.svg/200px-Anticommunist_Logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">History</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/White_movement" title="White movement">White movement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_Civil_War" title="Finnish Civil War">Finnish Civil War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_Civil_War_prison_camps" title="Finnish Civil War prison camps">Prison camps</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Red_Scare" title="First Red Scare">First Red Scare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Palmer_Raids" title="Palmer Raids">Palmer Raids</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shanghai_massacre" title="Shanghai massacre">Shanghai massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axis_powers" title="Axis powers">Axis powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-communist_resistance_in_Poland_(1944%E2%80%931989)" title="Anti-communist resistance in Poland (1944–1989)">Resistance in Poland (1944–1989)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany_(1945%E2%80%931990)" title="History of Germany (1945–1990)">Post-war period in Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McCarthyism" title="McCarthyism">McCarthyism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guatemalan_genocide" title="Guatemalan genocide">Guatemalan genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_mass_killings_of_1965%E2%80%9366" title="Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66">Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Condor" title="Operation Condor">Operation Condor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Timor_genocide" title="East Timor genocide">East Timor genocide</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Revolutions of 1989</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Ideologies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-imperialism" title="Anti-imperialism">Anti-imperialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Sovietism" title="Anti-Sovietism">Anti-Sovietism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Marxism" title="Criticism of Marxism">Anti-Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Stalinist_Left" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Stalinist Left">Anti-Stalinist Left</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_socialism" title="Liberal socialism">Liberal socialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Christian democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_collaboration" title="Class collaboration">Class collaboration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_liberal" title="Cold War liberal">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoliberalism" title="Neoliberalism">Neo</a></li></ul></li></ul> <p>Personal ideologies </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chiangism" title="Chiangism">Chiangism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fujimorism" title="Fujimorism">Fujimorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilminism" title="Ilminism">Ilminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Peronism" title="Orthodox Peronism">Orthodox Peronism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinochetism" title="Pinochetism">Pinochetism</a></li></ul> <p>Nationalisms </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_nationalism" title="Hong Kong nationalism">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_nationalism" title="Polish nationalism">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_nationalism" title="Taiwanese nationalism">Taiwanese</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Huadu_(Taiwan)" title="Huadu (Taiwan)">Huadu</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_nationalism" title="Ukrainian nationalism">Ukrainian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Democracy_(Ukraine)" title="National Democracy (Ukraine)">Natsdems</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Prominent figures</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Konrad_Adenauer" title="Konrad Adenauer">Adenauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jair_Bolsonaro" title="Jair Bolsonaro">Bolsonaro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Chiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Churchill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allen_Dulles" title="Allen Dulles">Dulles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Franco" title="Francisco Franco">Franco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alberto_Fujimori" title="Alberto Fujimori">Fujimori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Hitler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Edgar_Hoover" title="J. Edgar Hoover">Hoover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikl%C3%B3s_Horthy" title="Miklós Horthy">Horthy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobusuke_Kishi" title="Nobusuke Kishi">Kishi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Douglas_MacArthur" title="Douglas MacArthur">MacArthur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Gustaf_Emil_Mannerheim" title="Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim">Mannerheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Marcos" title="Ferdinand Marcos">Marcos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_McCarthy" title="Joseph McCarthy">McCarthy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Efra%C3%ADn_R%C3%ADos_Montt" title="Efraín Ríos Montt">Montt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini">Mussolini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ngo_Dinh_Diem" title="Ngo Dinh Diem">Ngo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Reza_Pahlavi" title="Mohammad Reza Pahlavi">Palevi II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._Mitchell_Palmer" title="A. Mitchell Palmer">Palmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Park_Chung_Hee" title="Park Chung Hee">Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augusto_Pinochet" title="Augusto Pinochet">Pinochet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Reagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syngman_Rhee" title="Syngman Rhee">Rhee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_de_Oliveira_Salazar" title="António de Oliveira Salazar">Salazar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ian_Smith" title="Ian Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfredo_Stroessner" title="Alfredo Stroessner">Stroessner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suharto" title="Suharto">Suharto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Thatcher" title="Margaret Thatcher">Thatcher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Trump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jorge_Rafael_Videla" title="Jorge Rafael Videla">Videla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_W._Welch_Jr." title="Robert W. Welch Jr.">Welch</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Political parties</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Croatian_Democratic_Union" title="Croatian Democratic Union">Croatian Democratic Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Progressive_Party" title="Democratic Progressive Party">Democratic Progressive Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republican_Party_(South_Korea)" title="Democratic Republican Party (South Korea)">Democratic Republican Party of South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FET_y_de_las_JONS" title="FET y de las JONS">FET y de las JONS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golkar" title="Golkar">Golkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Japan_Patriotic_Party" title="Greater Japan Patriotic Party">Greater Japan Patriotic Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Rule_Assistance_Association" title="Imperial Rule Assistance Association">Imperial Rule Assistance Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_Anti-Communist_Party_of_the_West" title="Independent Anti-Communist Party of the West">Independent Anti-Communist Party of the West</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kataeb_Party" title="Kataeb Party">Kataeb Party</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">Kuomintang</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(historical, now factions)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_Justice" title="Law and Justice">Law and Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_Democratic_Party_(Japan)" title="Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)">Liberal Democratic Party of Japan</a></li> <li>Liberal Party <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_Party_(Brazil,_2006)" title="Liberal Party (Brazil, 2006)">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_Party_(South_Korea)" title="Liberal Party (South Korea)">South Korea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty_Korea_Party" title="Liberty Korea Party">Liberty Korea Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Party" title="Nazi Party">Nazi Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Fascist_Party" title="National Fascist Party">National Fascist Party</a></li> <li>Republican Party <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(Chile,_2019)" title="Republican Party (Chile, 2019)">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">United States</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(factions)</span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VMRO-DPMNE" title="VMRO-DPMNE">VMRO-DPMNE</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Organisations</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Communist_Action" title="Anti-Communist Action">Anti-Communist Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argentine_Anticommunist_Alliance" title="Argentine Anticommunist Alliance">Argentine Anticommunist Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">CIA activities</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/CIA_activities_in_Indonesia" title="CIA activities in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CIA_activities_in_Italy" title="CIA activities in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CIA_activities_in_Japan" title="CIA activities in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CIA_activities_in_Vietnam" title="CIA activities in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contras" title="Contras">Contras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falun_Gong" title="Falun Gong">Falun Gong</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Epoch_Times" title="The Epoch Times">The Epoch Times</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Freikorps" title="Freikorps">Freikorps</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Front" title="Iron Front">Iron Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Birch_Society" title="John Birch Society">John Birch Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Revolutionary_Army" title="National Revolutionary Army">National Revolutionary Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_Due" title="Propaganda Due">Propaganda Due</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Insurgent_Army" title="Ukrainian Insurgent Army">Ukrainian Insurgent Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unification_Church" title="Unification Church">Unification Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victims_of_Communism_Memorial_Foundation" title="Victims of Communism Memorial Foundation">Victims of Communism Memorial Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_League_for_Freedom_and_Democracy" title="World League for Freedom and Democracy">World League for Freedom and Democracy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">By region</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-communism_in_China" title="Anti-communism in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-communist_insurgencies_in_Central_and_Eastern_Europe" title="Anti-communist insurgencies in Central and Eastern Europe">Central and Eastern Europe</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">See also</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-communist_mass_killings" title="Anti-communist mass killings">Anti-communist mass killings</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap">Anti-national sentiments</span> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment" title="Anti-Chinese sentiment">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Anti-People's Republic of China">PRC</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Russian_sentiment" title="Anti-Russian sentiment">Russian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti_anti-communism" title="Anti anti-communism">Anti anti-communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93Cold_War_era" title="Post–Cold War era">Post</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Cold_War" title="Second Cold War">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_Nazism_and_Stalinism" title="Comparison of Nazism and Stalinism">Comparison of Nazism and Stalinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crucial_Communism_Teaching_Act" title="Crucial Communism Teaching Act">Crucial Communism Teaching Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pro-Americanism" title="Pro-Americanism">Pro-Americanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pro-Republic_of_China" title="Pro-Republic of China">Pro-Republic of China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Scare" title="Red Scare">Red Scare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._policy_toward_authoritarian_governments" title="U.S. policy toward authoritarian governments">U.S. policy toward authoritarian governments</a></li> <li>White Terror <ul><li><a href="/wiki/White_Terror_(Greece)" title="White Terror (Greece)">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Terror_(Hungary)" title="White Terror (Hungary)">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Terror_(Russia)" title="White Terror (Russia)">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Terror_(Spain)" title="White Terror (Spain)">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Terror_(Taiwan)" title="White Terror (Taiwan)">Taiwan</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Symbol-hammer-and-sickle.svg/16px-Symbol-hammer-and-sickle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Symbol-hammer-and-sickle.svg/24px-Symbol-hammer-and-sickle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Symbol-hammer-and-sickle.svg/32px-Symbol-hammer-and-sickle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Communism" title="Portal:Communism">Communism portal</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/16px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/24px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/32px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Anti-communism" title="Template:Anti-communism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Anti-communism" title="Template talk:Anti-communism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Anti-communism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Anti-communism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Revolutions of 1989</b>, also known as the <b>Fall of Communism</b>,<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> were a revolutionary wave of <a href="/wiki/Liberal_democracy" title="Liberal democracy">liberal democracy</a> movements that resulted in the collapse of most <a href="/wiki/Communist_state" title="Communist state">Marxist–Leninist governments</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a> and other parts of the world. This revolutionary wave is sometimes referred to as the <b>Autumn of Nations</b>,<sup id="cite_ref-NedelmannSztompka1993_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NedelmannSztompka1993-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-BernhardSzlajfer2010_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BernhardSzlajfer2010-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Luciano2008_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Luciano2008-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Grofman2001_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grofman2001-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SadurskiCzarnota2006_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SadurskiCzarnota2006-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a play on the term <a href="/wiki/Spring_of_Nations" class="mw-redirect" title="Spring of Nations">Spring of Nations</a> that is sometimes used to describe the <a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Revolutions of 1848</a> in <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>. The Revolutions of 1989 were a key factor in the <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">dissolution of the Soviet Union</a>—one of the two global <a href="/wiki/Superpower" title="Superpower">superpowers</a>—and in the abandonment of communist regimes in many parts of the world, some of which were violently overthrown. These events drastically altered the world's <a href="/wiki/Balance_of_power_(international_relations)" title="Balance of power (international relations)">balance of power</a>, marking the end of the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> and the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Post-Cold_War_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-Cold War era">post-Cold War era</a>. </p><p>The earliest recorded protests to be part of the Revolutions of 1989 began in <a href="/wiki/Kazakh_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic">Kazakhstan</a>, then part of the Soviet Union, in 1986, with <a href="/wiki/Jeltoqsan" title="Jeltoqsan">student demonstrations</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the last chapter of the revolutions ended in 1996, when <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a> abolished the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_republic" title="Soviet republic">Soviet political system</a> of government, adopting <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Ukraine" title="Constitution of Ukraine">a new constitution</a> which replaced <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic">the Soviet-era constitution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The main region of these revolutions was <a href="/wiki/Central_Europe" title="Central Europe">Central Europe</a>, starting in <a href="/wiki/Polish_People%27s_Republic" title="Polish People's Republic">Poland</a><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-lead_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lead-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with the <a href="/wiki/1988_Polish_strikes" title="1988 Polish strikes">Polish workers' mass-strike movement in 1988</a>, and the revolutionary trend continued in <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Hungary" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of Hungary">Hungary</a>, <a href="/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany">East Germany</a>, <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Bulgaria" title="People's Republic of Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Czechoslovak_Socialist_Republic" title="Czechoslovak Socialist Republic">Czechoslovakia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Socialist_Republic_of_Romania" title="Socialist Republic of Romania">Romania</a>. On 4 June 1989, Poland's <a href="/wiki/Solidarity_(Polish_trade_union)" title="Solidarity (Polish trade union)">Solidarity</a> trade union won an overwhelming victory in <a href="/wiki/1989_Polish_legislative_election" class="mw-redirect" title="1989 Polish legislative election">partially free elections</a>, leading to the peaceful <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_communism_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Fall of communism in Poland">fall of communism in Poland</a>. Also in June 1989, <a href="/wiki/Hungary" title="Hungary">Hungary</a> began <a href="/wiki/Removal_of_Hungary%27s_border_fence_with_Austria" title="Removal of Hungary's border fence with Austria">dismantling its section</a> of the physical <a href="/wiki/Iron_Curtain" title="Iron Curtain">Iron Curtain</a>. In August 1989, over a quarter of the <a href="/wiki/Baltic_republics" class="mw-redirect" title="Baltic republics">Baltic republics</a> total population physically <a href="/wiki/Human_chain_(politics)" title="Human chain (politics)">chained</a> for 675 kilometres (419 mi) <a href="/wiki/Baltic_Way" title="Baltic Way">Baltic Way</a> openly protesting the <a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Baltic_states" title="Occupation of the Baltic states">countries' occupation by the Soviet Union</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while the opening of a border gate between <a href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austria</a> and Hungary set in motion a peaceful chain reaction, in which the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a> disintegrated. This led to <a href="/wiki/Monday_demonstrations_in_East_Germany" title="Monday demonstrations in East Germany">mass demonstrations</a> in cities of East Germany such as <a href="/wiki/Leipzig" title="Leipzig">Leipzig</a> and subsequently to the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Berlin_Wall" title="Fall of the Berlin Wall">fall of the Berlin Wall</a> in November 1989, which served as the symbolic gateway to <a href="/wiki/German_reunification" title="German reunification">German reunification</a> in 1990. One feature common to most of these developments was the extensive use of <a href="/wiki/Political_campaign" title="Political campaign">campaigns</a> of <a href="/wiki/Civil_resistance" title="Civil resistance">civil resistance</a>, demonstrating popular opposition to the continuation of <a href="/wiki/One-party_rule" class="mw-redirect" title="One-party rule">one-party rule</a> and contributing to pressure for change.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Romania was the only country in which <a href="/wiki/Romanian_revolution" title="Romanian revolution">citizens and opposition forces used violence to overthrow its communist regime</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although Romania was politically isolated from the rest of the Eastern Bloc. </p><p>The Soviet Union itself became a multi-party semi-presidential republic from March 1990 and held <a href="/wiki/1990_Soviet_Union_presidential_election" title="1990 Soviet Union presidential election">its first presidential election</a>, marking a drastic change as part of <a href="/wiki/Perestroika" title="Perestroika">its reform program</a>. The Soviet Union dissolved in December 1991, resulting in seven new countries which had declared their <a href="/wiki/Independence" title="Independence">independence</a> from the Soviet Union over the course of the year, while the <a href="/wiki/Baltic_states" title="Baltic states">Baltic states</a> <a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Baltic_states" title="Occupation of the Baltic states">regained</a> their independence in September 1991 along with <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(country)" title="Georgia (country)">Georgia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan" title="Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a>. The rest of the Soviet Union, which constituted the bulk of the area, continued with the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Federation" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian Federation">Russian Federation</a>. <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Socialist_Republic_of_Albania" title="People's Socialist Republic of Albania">Albania</a> and <a href="/wiki/Socialist_Federal_Republic_of_Yugoslavia" title="Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a> abandoned communism between 1990 and 1992, by which time Yugoslavia had <a href="/wiki/Breakup_of_Yugoslavia" title="Breakup of Yugoslavia">split into five new countries</a>. <a href="/wiki/Czechoslovakia" title="Czechoslovakia">Czechoslovakia</a> dissolved three years after the <a href="/wiki/Velvet_Revolution" title="Velvet Revolution">end of communist rule</a>, splitting peacefully into the <a href="/wiki/Czech_Republic" title="Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slovakia" title="Slovakia">Slovakia</a> on 1 January 1993.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/North_Korea" title="North Korea">North Korea</a> abandoned Marxism–Leninism in 1992.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Cold War is considered to have "officially" ended on 3 December 1989 during the <a href="/wiki/Malta_Summit" title="Malta Summit">Malta Summit</a> between the Soviet and American leaders.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, many historians argue that the dissolution of the Soviet Union on 26 December 1991 was the end of the Cold War.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The impact of these events were felt in many <a href="/wiki/Third_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Third world">third world</a> <a href="/wiki/Socialist_states" class="mw-redirect" title="Socialist states">socialist states</a> throughout the world. Concurrently with events in Poland, <a href="/wiki/1989_Tiananmen_Square_protests_and_massacre" title="1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre">protests in Tiananmen Square</a> (April–June 1989) failed to stimulate major political changes in <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">Mainland China</a>, but <a href="/wiki/Tank_Man" title="Tank Man">influential images</a> of resistance during that protest helped to precipitate events in other parts of the globe. Three Asian countries, namely <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan" title="Democratic Republic of Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Kampuchea#Transition_and_State_of_Cambodia_(1989–1993)" title="People's Republic of Kampuchea">Cambodia</a><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Mongolia" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of Mongolia">Mongolia</a>, had abandoned communism by 1992–1993, either through reform or conflict. Eight countries in Africa or its environs also abandoned it, namely <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Democratic_Republic_of_Ethiopia" title="People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a>, <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Angola" title="People's Republic of Angola">Angola</a>, <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Benin#Overturning_of_the_revolution" title="People's Republic of Benin">Benin</a>, <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_the_Congo#Transition" title="People's Republic of the Congo">Congo-Brazzaville</a>, <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Mozambique" title="People's Republic of Mozambique">Mozambique</a>, <a href="/wiki/Somali_Democratic_Republic" title="Somali Democratic Republic">Somalia</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/South_Yemen" title="South Yemen">South Yemen</a>, which unified with <a href="/wiki/Yemen_Arab_Republic" title="Yemen Arab Republic">North Yemen</a> to form the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Yemen" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of Yemen">Republic of Yemen</a>. Political <a href="/wiki/Reforms" class="mw-redirect" title="Reforms">reforms</a> varied, but in only five countries were Marxist-Leninist <a href="/wiki/Communist_parties" class="mw-redirect" title="Communist parties">communist parties</a> able to retain a monopoly on <a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">power</a>; namely <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a>, <a href="/wiki/Laos" title="Laos">Laos</a>, <a href="/wiki/North_Korea" title="North Korea">North Korea</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a>. Vietnam, Laos, and China made economic reforms in the following years to adopt some forms of <a href="/wiki/Market_economy" title="Market economy">market economy</a> under <a href="/wiki/Market_socialism" title="Market socialism">market socialism</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Europe" title="Politics of Europe">European political landscape</a> changed drastically, with several former Eastern Bloc countries joining <a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a> and the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a>, resulting in stronger <a href="/wiki/Economic_integration" title="Economic integration">economic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Social_integration" title="Social integration">social integration</a> with <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a> and North America. Many communist and socialist <a href="/wiki/Organisations" class="mw-redirect" title="Organisations">organisations</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">West</a> turned their guiding principles over to <a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">social democracy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Democratic_socialism" title="Democratic socialism">democratic socialism</a>. In contrast, and somewhat later, in South America, a <a href="/wiki/Pink_tide" title="Pink tide">pink tide</a> began in <a href="/wiki/Venezuela" title="Venezuela">Venezuela</a> in 1999 and shaped politics in the other parts of the continent through the early 2000s. Meanwhile, in certain countries the aftermath of these revolutions resulted in conflict and wars, including various <a href="/wiki/Post-Soviet_conflicts" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-Soviet conflicts">post-Soviet conflicts</a> that remain frozen to this day as well as large-scale wars, most notably the <a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_Wars" title="Yugoslav Wars">Yugoslav Wars</a> which led to the <a href="/wiki/Bosnian_genocide" title="Bosnian genocide">Bosnian genocide</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bosnian_War" title="Bosnian War">1995</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Emergence_of_Solidarity_in_Poland">Emergence of Solidarity in Poland</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Solidarity_(Polish_trade_union)" title="Solidarity (Polish trade union)">Solidarity (Polish trade union)</a></div> <p>Labour turmoil in Poland during 1980 led to the formation of the independent <a href="/wiki/Trade_union" title="Trade union">trade union</a> <a href="/wiki/Solidarity_(Polish_trade_union)" title="Solidarity (Polish trade union)">Solidarity</a>, led by <a href="/wiki/Lech_Wa%C5%82%C4%99sa" title="Lech Wałęsa">Lech Wałęsa</a>, which over time became a political force, nevertheless, on 13 December 1981, Polish prime minister <a href="/wiki/Wojciech_Jaruzelski" title="Wojciech Jaruzelski">Wojciech Jaruzelski</a> started a crackdown on Solidarity by declaring <a href="/wiki/Martial_law_in_Poland" title="Martial law in Poland">martial law in Poland</a>, suspending the union, and temporarily imprisoning all of its leaders.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mikhail_Gorbachev">Mikhail Gorbachev</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RIAN_archive_644463_First_stage_in_the_Soviet_troop_withdrawal_from_Afghanistan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/RIAN_archive_644463_First_stage_in_the_Soviet_troop_withdrawal_from_Afghanistan.jpg/220px-RIAN_archive_644463_First_stage_in_the_Soviet_troop_withdrawal_from_Afghanistan.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/RIAN_archive_644463_First_stage_in_the_Soviet_troop_withdrawal_from_Afghanistan.jpg/330px-RIAN_archive_644463_First_stage_in_the_Soviet_troop_withdrawal_from_Afghanistan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/RIAN_archive_644463_First_stage_in_the_Soviet_troop_withdrawal_from_Afghanistan.jpg/440px-RIAN_archive_644463_First_stage_in_the_Soviet_troop_withdrawal_from_Afghanistan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="728" /></a><figcaption>The first stage of <a href="/wiki/Soviet_forces" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet forces">Soviet forces</a> withdrawing from <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan" title="Democratic Republic of Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>, 20 October 1986</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Mikhail Gorbachev</a>, <a href="/wiki/Perestroika" title="Perestroika">Perestroika</a>, <a href="/wiki/Glasnost" title="Glasnost">Glasnost</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Democratization_(Soviet_Union)" class="mw-redirect" title="Democratization (Soviet Union)">Democratization (Soviet Union)</a></div> <p>Although several Eastern Bloc countries had attempted some abortive, limited economic and political reform since the 1950s (e.g. the <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1956" title="Hungarian Revolution of 1956">Hungarian Revolution of 1956</a> and <a href="/wiki/Prague_Spring" title="Prague Spring">Prague Spring</a> of 1968), the ascension of reform-minded Soviet leader <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Mikhail Gorbachev</a> in 1985 signaled the trend toward greater <a href="/wiki/Liberalization" title="Liberalization">liberalization</a>. During the mid-1980s, a younger generation of Soviet <a href="/wiki/Apparatchiks" class="mw-redirect" title="Apparatchiks">apparatchiks</a>, led by Gorbachev, began advocating fundamental reform in order to reverse years of <a href="/wiki/Brezhnev_stagnation" class="mw-redirect" title="Brezhnev stagnation">Brezhnev stagnation</a>. After decades of growth, the Soviet Union was now facing a period of severe economic decline and needed Western technology and credits<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (March 2017)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> to make up for its increasing backwardness. The costs of maintaining its military, the <a href="/wiki/KGB" title="KGB">KGB</a>, and subsidies to foreign client states further strained the moribund <a href="/wiki/Soviet_economy" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet economy">Soviet economy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:President_Ronald_Reagan_greets_a_young_boy_while_touring_Red_Square_during_the_Moscow_Summit_in_the_USSR.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/President_Ronald_Reagan_greets_a_young_boy_while_touring_Red_Square_during_the_Moscow_Summit_in_the_USSR.jpg/220px-President_Ronald_Reagan_greets_a_young_boy_while_touring_Red_Square_during_the_Moscow_Summit_in_the_USSR.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/President_Ronald_Reagan_greets_a_young_boy_while_touring_Red_Square_during_the_Moscow_Summit_in_the_USSR.jpg/330px-President_Ronald_Reagan_greets_a_young_boy_while_touring_Red_Square_during_the_Moscow_Summit_in_the_USSR.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/President_Ronald_Reagan_greets_a_young_boy_while_touring_Red_Square_during_the_Moscow_Summit_in_the_USSR.jpg/440px-President_Ronald_Reagan_greets_a_young_boy_while_touring_Red_Square_during_the_Moscow_Summit_in_the_USSR.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="2643" /></a><figcaption>US President <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a> and Mikhail Gorbachev in <a href="/wiki/Red_Square" title="Red Square">Red Square</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a>, 31 May 1988</figcaption></figure> <p>Mikhail Gorbachev succeeded to the <a href="/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union</a> and came to power in 1985. The first signs of major reform came in 1986 when Gorbachev launched a policy of <i><a href="/wiki/Glasnost" title="Glasnost">glasnost</a></i> (openness) in the Soviet Union, and emphasized the need for <i><a href="/wiki/Perestroika" title="Perestroika">perestroika</a></i> (economic restructuring). By the spring of 1989, the Soviet Union had not only experienced lively media debate but had also held its first multi-candidate elections in the newly established <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_People%27s_Deputies_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Congress of People's Deputies of the Soviet Union">Congress of People's Deputies</a>. While glasnost ostensibly advocated openness and political criticism, these were only permitted within a narrow spectrum dictated by the state. The general public in the Eastern Bloc was still subject to <a href="/wiki/Secret_police" title="Secret police">secret police</a> and <a href="/wiki/Political_repression" title="Political repression">political repression</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Gorbachev urged his Central and Southeast European counterparts to imitate <i>perestroika</i> and <i>glasnost</i> in their own countries. However, while reformists in Hungary and Poland were emboldened by the force of liberalization spreading from the east, other Eastern Bloc countries remained openly skeptical and demonstrated aversion to reform. Believing Gorbachev's reform initiatives would be short-lived, hardline communist rulers like <a href="/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany">East Germany</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Erich_Honecker" title="Erich Honecker">Erich Honecker</a>, <a href="/wiki/Communist_Bulgaria" class="mw-redirect" title="Communist Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Todor_Zhivkov" title="Todor Zhivkov">Todor Zhivkov</a>, <a href="/wiki/Communist_Czechoslovakia" class="mw-redirect" title="Communist Czechoslovakia">Czechoslovakia</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Gust%C3%A1v_Hus%C3%A1k" title="Gustáv Husák">Gustáv Husák</a> and <a href="/wiki/Communist_Romania" class="mw-redirect" title="Communist Romania">Romania</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Nicolae_Ceau%C8%99escu" title="Nicolae Ceaușescu">Nicolae Ceaușescu</a> obstinately ignored the calls for change.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "When your neighbor puts up new wallpaper, it doesn't mean you have to too," declared one East German <a href="/wiki/Politburo" title="Politburo">politburo</a> member.<sup id="cite_ref-steele_1994_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-steele_1994-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Soviet_republics">Soviet republics</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:USSR_Map_timeline.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/USSR_Map_timeline.gif/220px-USSR_Map_timeline.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/USSR_Map_timeline.gif/330px-USSR_Map_timeline.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/USSR_Map_timeline.gif/440px-USSR_Map_timeline.gif 2x" data-file-width="958" data-file-height="667" /></a><figcaption>An animated series of maps showing the fall of the communist regimes in Eastern Europe and the <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">dissolution of the Soviet Union</a>, which later led to conflicts in the post-Soviet space</figcaption></figure> <p>By the late 1980s, people in the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Baltic_states" title="Baltic states">Baltic states</a> were demanding more autonomy from <a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a>, and the Kremlin was losing some of its control over certain regions and elements in the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>. Cracks in the Soviet system had begun in December 1986 in <a href="/wiki/Kazakh_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic">Kazakhstan</a> when its citizens <a href="/wiki/Jeltoqsan" title="Jeltoqsan">protested</a> over an ethnic Russian who had been appointed as the secretary of the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Kazakhstan" title="Communist Party of Kazakhstan">CPSU's Kazakh republican branch</a>. These protests were put down after three days. </p><p>In November 1988, the <a href="/wiki/Estonian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic">Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic</a> issued a <a href="/wiki/Estonian_Sovereignty_Declaration" title="Estonian Sovereignty Declaration">declaration of sovereignty</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which would eventually lead to other states making similar declarations of autonomy. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster" title="Chernobyl disaster">Chernobyl disaster</a> in April 1986 had major political and social effects that catalyzed or at least partially caused the Revolutions of 1989. One political result of the disaster was the greatly increased significance of the new Soviet policy of glasnost.<sup id="cite_ref-ShlyGlasnost_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ShlyGlasnost-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-PetrynaSarc_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PetrynaSarc-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is difficult to establish the total economic cost of the disaster. According to Gorbachev, the Soviet Union spent 18 billion <a href="/wiki/Soviet_rouble" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet rouble">roubles</a> (the equivalent of US$18 billion at that time) on containment and decontamination, virtually bankrupting itself.<sup id="cite_ref-GorbachevBoC_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GorbachevBoC-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Impact_of_Solidarity_grows">Impact of Solidarity grows</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Solidarity_(Polish_trade_union)" title="Solidarity (Polish trade union)">Solidarity (Polish trade union)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:WieczorWroclawia20marca1981.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/WieczorWroclawia20marca1981.jpg/220px-WieczorWroclawia20marca1981.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/WieczorWroclawia20marca1981.jpg/330px-WieczorWroclawia20marca1981.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/WieczorWroclawia20marca1981.jpg/440px-WieczorWroclawia20marca1981.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2450" data-file-height="1700" /></a><figcaption>The 20–21 March 1981 issue of <i>Wieczór Wrocławia</i> (<i>This Evening in <a href="/wiki/Wroc%C5%82aw" title="Wrocław">Wrocław</a></i>) shows blank spaces remaining after the government censor pulled articles from page 1 (right, "What happened at <a href="/wiki/Bydgoszcz" title="Bydgoszcz">Bydgoszcz</a>?") and from the last page (left, "Country-wide strike alert"), leaving only their titles as the printers—<a href="/wiki/Solidarity_(Polish_trade_union)" title="Solidarity (Polish trade union)">Solidarity-trade-union</a> members—decided to run the newspaper with blank spaces intact. The bottom of page 1 of this master copy bears the hand-written Solidarity confirmation of that decision.</figcaption></figure> <p>Throughout the mid-1980s, <a href="/wiki/Solidarity_(Polish_trade_union)" title="Solidarity (Polish trade union)">Solidarity</a> persisted solely as an underground organization, supported by the Catholic Church. However, by the late 1980s, Solidarity became sufficiently strong to frustrate <a href="/wiki/Wojciech_Jaruzelski" title="Wojciech Jaruzelski">Jaruzelski's</a> attempts at reform, and <a href="/wiki/1988_Polish_strikes" title="1988 Polish strikes">nationwide strikes in 1988</a> forced the government to open dialogue with Solidarity. On 9 March 1989, both sides agreed to a <a href="/wiki/Bicameral_legislature" class="mw-redirect" title="Bicameral legislature">bicameral legislature</a> called the <a href="/wiki/National_Assembly_(Poland)" class="mw-redirect" title="National Assembly (Poland)">National Assembly</a>. The already existing <a href="/wiki/Sejm" title="Sejm">Sejm</a> would become the lower house. The Senate would be elected by the people. Traditionally a ceremonial office, the presidency was given more powers<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (<a href="/wiki/Polish_Round_Table_Agreement" title="Polish Round Table Agreement">Polish Round Table Agreement</a>). </p><p>On 7 July 1989, General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev implicitly renounced the use of force against other Soviet-bloc nations. Speaking to members of the 23-nation Council of Europe, Mr. Gorbachev made no direct reference to the so-called <a href="/wiki/Brezhnev_Doctrine" title="Brezhnev Doctrine">Brezhnev Doctrine</a>, under which Moscow had asserted the right to use force to prevent a Warsaw Pact member from leaving the communist fold. He stated, "Any interference in domestic affairs and any attempts to restrict the sovereignty of states—friends, allies or any others—are inadmissible".<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The policy was termed the <a href="/wiki/Sinatra_Doctrine" title="Sinatra Doctrine">Sinatra Doctrine</a>, in a joking reference to the <a href="/wiki/Frank_Sinatra" title="Frank Sinatra">Frank Sinatra</a> song "<a href="/wiki/My_Way" title="My Way">My Way</a>". Poland became the first Warsaw Pact country to break free of Soviet domination. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Protests_and_revolutions_in_the_Western_Bloc">Protests and revolutions in the Western Bloc</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Third_Wave_Democracy" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Wave Democracy">Third Wave Democracy</a></div> <p>The 1980's revolutions occurred in <a href="/wiki/Western_Bloc" title="Western Bloc">Western Bloc</a> regimes as well. </p><p>In February 1986, the <a href="/wiki/People_Power_Revolution" title="People Power Revolution">People Power Revolution</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Martial_law_under_Ferdinand_Marcos" title="Martial law under Ferdinand Marcos">Philippines</a> peacefully overthrew dictator <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Marcos" title="Ferdinand Marcos">Ferdinand Marcos</a> and inaugurated <a href="/wiki/Corazon_Aquino" title="Corazon Aquino">Corazon "Cory" Aquino</a> as the <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_Philippines" title="President of the Philippines">president</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1987, the <a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korean</a> <a href="/wiki/June_Democratic_Struggle" title="June Democratic Struggle">June Democratic Struggle</a> against the <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Republic_of_Korea" title="Fifth Republic of Korea">military dictatorship</a> of <a href="/wiki/Chun_Doo-hwan" title="Chun Doo-hwan">Chun Doo-hwan</a> occurred after <a href="/wiki/Roh_Tae-woo" title="Roh Tae-woo">Roh Tae-woo</a> was designated as Chun's successor without a direct election. Not wanting to escalate violence before the <a href="/wiki/1988_Summer_Olympics" title="1988 Summer Olympics">1988 Summer Olympics</a> being hosted in <a href="/wiki/Seoul" title="Seoul">Seoul</a> next year, the government made <a href="/wiki/June_29_Declaration" title="June 29 Declaration">concessions with the protestors demands</a>, including free elections, amnesty to political prisoners, restoring <a href="/wiki/Press_freedom" class="mw-redirect" title="Press freedom">press freedom</a> and revisions to the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_South_Korea" title="Constitution of South Korea">constitution</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South African</a> <a href="/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">apartheid</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Military_dictatorship_of_Chile_(1973%E2%80%931990)" class="mw-redirect" title="Military dictatorship of Chile (1973–1990)">Pinochet military dictatorship in Chile</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/New_Order_(Indonesia)" title="New Order (Indonesia)">Suharto regime in Indonesia</a> were gradually declining during the 1990s as the West withdrew their funding and diplomatic support. The <a href="/wiki/First_Intifada" title="First Intifada">First Intifada</a> against <a href="/wiki/Israeli-occupied_territories" title="Israeli-occupied territories">Israeli occupation</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Palestinian_territories" class="mw-redirect" title="Palestinian territories">Palestinian territories</a> occurred, giving rise of militant movement <a href="/wiki/Hamas" title="Hamas">Hamas</a>. Dictatorships such as <a href="/wiki/Proceso_de_Reorganizaci%C3%B3n_Nacional" class="mw-redirect" title="Proceso de Reorganización Nacional">Argentina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Third_Republic_of_Ghana" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Republic of Ghana">Ghana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dictatorship_of_Alfredo_Stroessner" title="Dictatorship of Alfredo Stroessner">Paraguay</a>, <a href="/wiki/National_Military_Council_(Suriname)" title="National Military Council (Suriname)">Suriname</a>, <a href="/wiki/Temporary_Provisions_against_the_Communist_Rebellion" title="Temporary Provisions against the Communist Rebellion">Republic of China</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yemen_Arab_Republic" title="Yemen Arab Republic">North</a>-<a href="/wiki/South_Yemen" title="South Yemen">South Yemen</a>, among others, elected democratic governments. </p><p>Exact tallies of the number of democracies vary depending on the criteria used for assessment, but by some measures by the late 1990s there were well over 100 democracies in the world, a marked increase in just a few decades.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="National_political_movements">National political movements</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Poland">Poland</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_(1945%E2%80%931989)#Final_decade_of_the_Polish_People's_Republic_(1980–1989)" title="History of Poland (1945–1989)">History of Poland (1945–1989) § Final decade of the Polish People's Republic (1980–1989)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kolejka.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Kolejka.jpeg/220px-Kolejka.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Kolejka.jpeg/330px-Kolejka.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Kolejka.jpeg/440px-Kolejka.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="669" data-file-height="365" /></a><figcaption>People queue waiting to enter a store, a typical view in <a href="/wiki/Polish_People%27s_Republic" title="Polish People's Republic">Poland in the 1980s</a></figcaption></figure> <p>A <a href="/wiki/1988_Polish_strikes" title="1988 Polish strikes">wave of strikes</a> hit Poland from 21 April then this continued in May 1988. A second wave began on 15 August, when a strike broke out at the <a href="/wiki/July_Manifesto" class="mw-redirect" title="July Manifesto">July Manifesto</a> coal mine in <a href="/wiki/Jastrz%C4%99bie-Zdr%C3%B3j" title="Jastrzębie-Zdrój">Jastrzębie-Zdrój</a>, with the workers demanding the re-legalisation of the Solidarity trade union. Over the next few days, sixteen other mines went on strike followed by a number of shipyards, including on 22 August the <a href="/wiki/Gdansk_Shipyard" class="mw-redirect" title="Gdansk Shipyard">Gdansk Shipyard</a>, famous as the epicentre of the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Solidarity" title="History of Solidarity">1980 industrial unrest</a> that spawned Solidarity.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 31 August 1988 <a href="/wiki/Lech_Wa%C5%82%C4%99sa" title="Lech Wałęsa">Lech Wałęsa</a>, the leader of Solidarity, was invited to Warsaw by the communist authorities, who had finally agreed to talks.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWałęsa1991157_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWałęsa1991157-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 18 January 1989, at a stormy session of the Tenth Plenary Session of the ruling <a href="/wiki/Polish_United_Workers%27_Party" title="Polish United Workers' Party">United Workers' Party</a>, General <a href="/wiki/Wojciech_Jaruzelski" title="Wojciech Jaruzelski">Wojciech Jaruzelski</a>, the First Secretary, managed to get party backing for formal negotiations with Solidarity leading to its future legalisation, although this was achieved only by threatening the resignation of the entire party leadership if thwarted.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWałęsa1991174_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWałęsa1991174-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 6 February 1989 formal Round Table discussions began in the Hall of Columns in Warsaw. On 4 April 1989 the historic <a href="/wiki/Polish_Round_Table_Agreement" title="Polish Round Table Agreement">Round Table Agreement</a> was signed legalising Solidarity and setting up partly free <a href="/wiki/1989_Polish_legislative_election" class="mw-redirect" title="1989 Polish legislative election">parliamentary elections</a> to be held on 4 June 1989, incidentally, the day following the midnight massacre of Chinese protesters in Tiananmen Square. </p><p>A political earthquake followed as the victory of Solidarity surpassed all predictions. Solidarity candidates captured all the seats they were allowed to compete for in the <a href="/wiki/Sejm" title="Sejm">Sejm</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Senate_of_Poland" title="Senate of Poland">the Senate</a> they captured 99 out of the 100 available seats, with the one remaining seat taken by an independent candidate. At the same time, many prominent communist candidates failed to gain even the minimum number of votes required to capture the seats that were reserved for them. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lech_Walesa_George_H_Bush.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0c/Lech_Walesa_George_H_Bush.PNG" decoding="async" width="215" height="156" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="215" data-file-height="156" /></a><figcaption>Solidarity Chairman <a href="/wiki/Lech_Wa%C5%82%C4%99sa" title="Lech Wałęsa">Lech Wałęsa</a> (center) with President <a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">George H. W. Bush</a> (right) and Barbara Bush (left) in Warsaw, July 1989</figcaption></figure> <p>On 15 August 1989, the communists' two longtime coalition partners, the <a href="/wiki/United_People%27s_Party_(Poland)" title="United People's Party (Poland)">United People's Party</a> (ZSL) and the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(Poland)" class="mw-redirect" title="Democratic Party (Poland)">Democratic Party</a> (SD), broke their alliance with the PZPR and announced their support for Solidarity. The last communist Prime Minister of Poland, General <a href="/wiki/Czes%C5%82aw_Kiszczak" title="Czesław Kiszczak">Czesław Kiszczak</a>, said he would resign to allow a non-communist to form an administration.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As Solidarity was the only other political grouping that could possibly form a government, it was virtually assured that a Solidarity member would become prime minister.<sup id="cite_ref-apple_1989_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-apple_1989-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 19 August 1989, in a stunning watershed moment, <a href="/wiki/Tadeusz_Mazowiecki" title="Tadeusz Mazowiecki">Tadeusz Mazowiecki</a>, an anti-communist editor, Solidarity supporter, and devout Catholic, was nominated as Prime Minister of Poland and the Soviet Union voiced no protest.<sup id="cite_ref-apple_1989_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-apple_1989-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Five days later, on 24 August 1989, Poland's Parliament ended more than 40 years of one-party rule by making Mazowiecki the country's first non-communist Prime Minister since the early postwar years. In a tense Parliament, Mazowiecki received 378 votes, with 4 against and 41 abstentions.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 13 September 1989, a new non-communist government was approved by parliament, the first of its kind in the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 17 November 1989, the statue of <a href="/wiki/Felix_Dzerzhinsky" title="Felix Dzerzhinsky">Felix Dzerzhinsky</a>, Polish founder of the <a href="/wiki/Cheka" title="Cheka">Cheka</a> and symbol of communist oppression, was torn down in <a href="/wiki/Bank_Square,_Warsaw" title="Bank Square, Warsaw">Bank Square, Warsaw</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 29 December 1989 the Sejm amended the constitution to change the official name of the country from the People's Republic of Poland to the Republic of Poland. The communist Polish United Workers' Party dissolved itself on 29 January 1990 and transformed itself into the <a href="/wiki/Social_Democracy_of_the_Republic_of_Poland" title="Social Democracy of the Republic of Poland">Social Democracy of the Republic of Poland</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-PWN_historia_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PWN_historia-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1990, Jaruzelski resigned as Poland's president and was succeeded by Wałęsa, who won the <a href="/wiki/1990_Polish_presidential_election" title="1990 Polish presidential election">1990 presidential elections</a><sup id="cite_ref-PWN_historia_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PWN_historia-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> held in two rounds on 25 November and 9 December. Wałęsa's inauguration as president on 21 December 1990 is considered by many as the formal end of the communist <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of Poland">People's Republic of Poland</a> and the start of the modern <a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Republic of Poland</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a> was dissolved on 1 July 1991. On 27 October 1991 the <a href="/wiki/1991_Polish_parliamentary_election" title="1991 Polish parliamentary election">first entirely free Polish parliamentary elections</a> since 1945 took place. This completed Poland's transition from communist Party rule to a Western-style liberal democratic political system. The last Russian troops left Poland on 18 September 1993.<sup id="cite_ref-PWN_historia_45-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PWN_historia-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hungary">Hungary</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/End_of_Communism_in_Hungary_(1989)" class="mw-redirect" title="End of Communism in Hungary (1989)">End of Communism in Hungary (1989)</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Removal_of_Hungary%27s_border_fence" class="mw-redirect" title="Removal of Hungary's border fence">Removal of Hungary's border fence</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pan-European_Picnic" title="Pan-European Picnic">Pan-European Picnic</a></div> <p>Following Poland's lead, Hungary was next to switch to a non-communist government. Although Hungary had achieved some lasting economic reforms and limited political liberalization during the 1980s, major reforms only occurred following the replacement of <a href="/wiki/J%C3%A1nos_K%C3%A1d%C3%A1r" title="János Kádár">János Kádár</a> as General Secretary of the communist Party on 23 May 1988 with <a href="/wiki/K%C3%A1roly_Gr%C3%B3sz" title="Károly Grósz">Károly Grósz</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 24 November 1988 <a href="/wiki/Mikl%C3%B3s_N%C3%A9meth" title="Miklós Németh">Miklós Németh</a> was appointed prime minister. On 12 January 1989, the Parliament adopted a "democracy package", which included trade union pluralism; freedom of association, assembly, and the press; a new electoral law; and a radical revision of the constitution, among other provisions.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 29 January 1989, contradicting the official view of history held for more than 30 years, a member of the ruling Politburo, <a href="/wiki/Imre_Pozsgay" title="Imre Pozsgay">Imre Pozsgay</a>, declared that Hungary's 1956 rebellion was a popular uprising rather than a foreign-instigated attempt at counterrevolution.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nemzeti_%C3%9Cnnep_-_Szabads%C3%A1g_t%C3%A9r_1989.03.15_(4).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Nemzeti_%C3%9Cnnep_-_Szabads%C3%A1g_t%C3%A9r_1989.03.15_%284%29.jpg/220px-Nemzeti_%C3%9Cnnep_-_Szabads%C3%A1g_t%C3%A9r_1989.03.15_%284%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Nemzeti_%C3%9Cnnep_-_Szabads%C3%A1g_t%C3%A9r_1989.03.15_%284%29.jpg/330px-Nemzeti_%C3%9Cnnep_-_Szabads%C3%A1g_t%C3%A9r_1989.03.15_%284%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Nemzeti_%C3%9Cnnep_-_Szabads%C3%A1g_t%C3%A9r_1989.03.15_%284%29.jpg/440px-Nemzeti_%C3%9Cnnep_-_Szabads%C3%A1g_t%C3%A9r_1989.03.15_%284%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4561" data-file-height="3024" /></a><figcaption>Hungarians demonstrate at state TV headquarters, 15 March 1989</figcaption></figure> <p>Mass demonstrations on 15 March, the National Day, persuaded the regime to begin negotiations with the emergent non-communist political forces. <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Round_Table_Talks" title="Hungarian Round Table Talks">Round Table talks</a> began on 22 April and continued until the Round Table agreement was signed on 18 September. The talks involved the communists (MSzMP) and the newly emerging independent political forces <a href="/wiki/Fidesz_%E2%80%93_Hungarian_Civic_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Fidesz – Hungarian Civic Union">Fidesz</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Alliance_of_Free_Democrats" title="Alliance of Free Democrats">Alliance of Free Democrats</a> (SzDSz), the <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Democratic_Forum" title="Hungarian Democratic Forum">Hungarian Democratic Forum</a> (MDF), the <a href="/wiki/Independent_Smallholders,_Agrarian_Workers_and_Civic_Party" title="Independent Smallholders, Agrarian Workers and Civic Party">Independent Smallholders' Party</a>, the <a href="/wiki/National_Peasant_Party_(Hungary)" title="National Peasant Party (Hungary)">Hungarian People's Party</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Endre_Bajcsy-Zsilinszky" title="Endre Bajcsy-Zsilinszky">Endre Bajcsy-Zsilinszky</a> Society, and the Democratic Trade Union of Scientific Workers. At a later stage the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Confederation_of_Free_Trade_Unions" title="Democratic Confederation of Free Trade Unions">Democratic Confederation of Free Trade Unions</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Christian_Democratic_People%27s_Party_(Hungary)" title="Christian Democratic People's Party (Hungary)">Christian Democratic People's Party</a> (KDNP) were invited.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At these talks a number of Hungary's future political leaders emerged, including <a href="/wiki/L%C3%A1szl%C3%B3_S%C3%B3lyom" title="László Sólyom">László Sólyom</a>, <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zsef_Antall" title="József Antall">József Antall</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Szabad" title="György Szabad">György Szabad</a>, Péter Tölgyessy and <a href="/wiki/Viktor_Orb%C3%A1n" title="Viktor Orbán">Viktor Orbán</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 2 May 1989, the first visible cracks in the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Curtain" title="Iron Curtain">Iron Curtain</a> appeared when <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Hungary" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of Hungary">Hungary</a> began <a href="/wiki/Removal_of_Hungary%27s_border_fence_with_Austria" title="Removal of Hungary's border fence with Austria">dismantling its 240-kilometre (150 mi) long border fence</a> with Austria.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This increasingly destabilized East Germany and <a href="/wiki/Czechoslovakia" title="Czechoslovakia">Czechoslovakia</a> over the summer and autumn, as thousands of their citizens illegally crossed over to the West through the Hungarian-Austrian border. On 1 June 1989 the Communist Party admitted that former prime minister <a href="/wiki/Imre_Nagy" title="Imre Nagy">Imre Nagy</a>, hanged for treason for his role in the 1956 Hungarian uprising, was executed illegally after a show trial.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 16 June 1989 Nagy was given a solemn funeral on Budapest's largest square in front of crowds of at least 100,000, followed by a hero's burial.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The initially inconspicuous opening of a border gate of the Iron Curtain between Austria and Hungary in August 1989 then triggered a chain reaction, at the end of which the GDR no longer existed and the Eastern Bloc had disintegrated. It was the largest escape movement from East Germany since the Berlin Wall was built in 1961. The idea of opening the border came from <a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Habsburg" title="Otto von Habsburg">Otto von Habsburg</a> and was brought up by him to <a href="/wiki/Mikl%C3%B3s_N%C3%A9meth" title="Miklós Németh">Miklós Németh</a>, who promoted the idea.<sup id="cite_ref-miklós_2019_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-miklós_2019-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The local organization in Sopron took over the Hungarian Democratic Forum, the other contacts were made via Habsburg and <a href="/wiki/Imre_Pozsgay" title="Imre Pozsgay">Imre Pozsgay</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-szabo_otmar_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-szabo_otmar-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ludwig_2014_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ludwig_2014-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Extensive advertising for the planned picnic was made by posters and flyers among the GDR holidaymakers in Hungary. The Austrian branch of the <a href="/wiki/Paneuropean_Union" title="Paneuropean Union">Paneuropean Union</a>, which was then headed by <a href="/wiki/Karl_von_Habsburg" title="Karl von Habsburg">Karl von Habsburg</a>, distributed thousands of brochures inviting them to a picnic near the border at Sopron.<sup id="cite_ref-szabo_otmar_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-szabo_otmar-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ludwig_2014_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ludwig_2014-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the pan-European picnic, <a href="/wiki/Erich_Honecker" title="Erich Honecker">Erich Honecker</a> dictated the <i>Daily Mirror</i> of 19 August 1989: "Habsburg distributed leaflets far into Poland, on which the East German holidaymakers were invited to a picnic. When they came to the picnic, they were given gifts, food and Deutsche Mark, and then they were persuaded to come to the West."<sup id="cite_ref-frank_2010_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-frank_2010-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rödder_2009_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rödder_2009-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With the mass exodus at the Pan-European Picnic, the subsequent hesitant behavior of the Socialist Unity Party of East Germany and the non-intervention of the Soviet Union broke the dams. Now tens of thousands of the media-informed East Germans made their way to Hungary, which was no longer ready to keep its borders completely closed or to oblige its border troops to use force of arms. In particular, the leadership of the GDR in East Berlin no longer dared to completely block the borders of their own country.<sup id="cite_ref-frank_2010_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-frank_2010-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rödder_2009_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rödder_2009-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Round_Table_Talks" title="Hungarian Round Table Talks">Round Table agreement</a> of 18 September encompassed six draft laws that covered an overhaul of the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Hungary" title="Constitution of Hungary">Constitution</a>, establishment of a <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Court_of_Hungary" title="Constitutional Court of Hungary">Constitutional Court</a>, the functioning and management of political parties, multiparty elections for National Assembly deputies, the penal code and the law on penal procedures. The last two changes represented an additional separation of the Party from the state apparatus.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The electoral system was a compromise: about half of the deputies would be elected proportionally and half by the majoritarian system.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A weak presidency was agreed upon. No consensus was attained on who should elect the president, the parliament or the people, and when this election should occur, before or after parliamentary elections.<sup id="cite_ref-kamm_1989_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kamm_1989-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 7 October 1989, the Communist Party, at its last congress, re-established itself as the <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Socialist_Party" title="Hungarian Socialist Party">Hungarian Socialist Party</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-kamm_1989_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kamm_1989-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a historic session from 16 to 20 October, the parliament adopted legislation providing for <a href="/wiki/1990_Hungarian_parliamentary_election" title="1990 Hungarian parliamentary election">a multi-party parliamentary election</a> and a direct presidential election, which took place on 24 March 1990.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The legislation transformed Hungary from a <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic">People's Republic</a> into the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Hungary" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of Hungary">Republic of Hungary</a>, guaranteed human and civil rights, and created an institutional structure that ensured separation of powers among the judicial, legislative, and executive branches of government.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 23 October 1989, on the 33rd anniversary of the 1956 Revolution, the communist regime in Hungary was formally abolished. The <a href="/wiki/Soviet_occupation_of_Hungary" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet occupation of Hungary">Soviet military occupation of Hungary</a>, which had persisted since World War II, ended on 19 June 1991. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="East_Germany">East Germany</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany_(1945-1990)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Germany (1945-1990)">History of Germany (1945-1990)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peaceful_Revolution" title="Peaceful Revolution">Peaceful Revolution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Berlin_Wall" title="Fall of the Berlin Wall">Fall of the Berlin Wall</a>, and <a href="/wiki/German_reunification" title="German reunification">German reunification</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1990-0922-002,_Leipzig,_Montagsdemonstration.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1990-0922-002%2C_Leipzig%2C_Montagsdemonstration.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1990-0922-002%2C_Leipzig%2C_Montagsdemonstration.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1990-0922-002%2C_Leipzig%2C_Montagsdemonstration.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1990-0922-002%2C_Leipzig%2C_Montagsdemonstration.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1990-0922-002%2C_Leipzig%2C_Montagsdemonstration.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1990-0922-002%2C_Leipzig%2C_Montagsdemonstration.jpg 2x" data-file-width="788" data-file-height="498" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Monday_demonstrations_in_East_Germany" title="Monday demonstrations in East Germany">Monday demonstration</a> against the government in <a href="/wiki/Leipzig" title="Leipzig">Leipzig</a> on 16 October 1989</figcaption></figure> <p>On 2 May 1989, <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_People%27s_Republic" title="Hungarian People's Republic">Hungary</a> <a href="/wiki/Removal_of_Hungary%27s_border_fence_with_Austria" title="Removal of Hungary's border fence with Austria">started dismantling its barbed-wire border</a> with <a href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austria</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Border" title="Border">border</a> was still heavily guarded, but it was a political sign. The <a href="/wiki/Pan-European_Picnic" title="Pan-European Picnic">Pan-European Picnic</a> in August 1989 finally started a movement that could not be stopped by the rulers in the Eastern Bloc. It was the largest escape movement from East Germany since the Berlin Wall was built in 1961. The patrons of the picnic, <a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Habsburg" title="Otto von Habsburg">Otto von Habsburg</a> and the Hungarian Minister of State <a href="/wiki/Imre_Pozsgay" title="Imre Pozsgay">Imre Pozsgay</a> saw the planned event as an opportunity to test the reaction of Mikhail Gorbachev and the Eastern Bloc countries to a large opening of the border including flight.<sup id="cite_ref-Rödder_2009_58-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rödder_2009-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-roser_2018_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-roser_2018-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-miklós_2019_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-miklós_2019-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-lahodynsky_2014_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lahodynsky_2014-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-faz_2009_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-faz_2009-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-hilde_1999_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hilde_1999-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the pan-European picnic, Erich Honecker dictated the Daily Mirror of 19 August 1989: "Habsburg distributed leaflets far into Poland, on which the East German holidaymakers were invited to a picnic. When they came to the picnic, they were given gifts, food, and Deutsche Mark, and then they were persuaded to come to the West." But with the mass exodus at the Pan-European Picnic, the subsequent hesitant behavior of the Socialist Unity Party of East Germany and the non-intervention of the Soviet Union broke the dams. Now tens of thousands of the media-informed East Germans made their way to Hungary, which was no longer ready to keep its borders completely closed or to oblige its border troops to use force of arms.<sup id="cite_ref-Rödder_2009_58-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rödder_2009-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-roser_2018_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-roser_2018-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-miklós_2019_54-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-miklós_2019-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-lahodynsky_2014_66-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lahodynsky_2014-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-faz_2009_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-faz_2009-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-hilde_1999_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hilde_1999-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R0518-182,_Erich_Honecker.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R0518-182%2C_Erich_Honecker.jpg/170px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R0518-182%2C_Erich_Honecker.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="231" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R0518-182%2C_Erich_Honecker.jpg/255px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R0518-182%2C_Erich_Honecker.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R0518-182%2C_Erich_Honecker.jpg/340px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R0518-182%2C_Erich_Honecker.jpg 2x" data-file-width="590" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Erich_Honecker" title="Erich Honecker">Erich Honecker</a>, <a href="/wiki/East_German" class="mw-redirect" title="East German">East German</a> communist leader</figcaption></figure> <p>By the end of September 1989, more than 30,000 East Germans had escaped to the West before the <a href="/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany">GDR</a> denied travel to Hungary, leaving <a href="/wiki/Czechoslovakia" title="Czechoslovakia">Czechoslovakia</a> as the only neighboring state to which East Germans could escape. Thousands of East Germans tried to reach the West by occupying the West German diplomatic facilities in other Central and Eastern European capitals, notably the <a href="/wiki/Prague_Embassy" class="mw-redirect" title="Prague Embassy">Prague Embassy</a> and the Hungarian Embassy, where thousands camped in the muddy garden from August to November waiting for German political reform. The GDR closed the border to Czechoslovakia on 3 October, thereby isolating itself from all its neighbors. Having been shut off from their last chance for escape, an increasing number of East Germans participated in the <a href="/wiki/Monday_demonstrations_in_East_Germany" title="Monday demonstrations in East Germany">Monday demonstrations</a> in Leipzig on 4, 11, and 18 September, each attracting 1,200 to 1,500 demonstrators. Many were arrested and beaten, but the people refused to be intimidated. On 25 September, the protests attracted 8,000 demonstrators.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the fifth successive Monday demonstration in <a href="/wiki/Leipzig" title="Leipzig">Leipzig</a> on 2 October attracted 10,000 protesters, <a href="/wiki/Socialist_Unity_Party_of_Germany" title="Socialist Unity Party of Germany">Socialist Unity Party</a> (SED) leader <a href="/wiki/Erich_Honecker" title="Erich Honecker">Erich Honecker</a> issued a <i>shoot and kill</i> order to the military.<sup id="cite_ref-Pritchard_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pritchard-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Communists prepared a huge police, militia, <a href="/wiki/Stasi" title="Stasi">Stasi</a>, and work-combat troop presence, and there were rumors a Tiananmen Square-style massacre was being planned for the following Monday's demonstration on 9 October.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 6 and 7 October, <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Mikhail Gorbachev</a> visited East Germany to mark the 40th anniversary of the German Democratic Republic, and urged the East German leadership to accept reform. A famous quote of his is rendered in German as "Wer zu spät kommt, den bestraft das Leben" ("The one who comes too late is punished by life."). However, Honecker remained opposed to internal reform, with his regime going so far as forbidding the circulation of Soviet publications that it viewed as subversive. </p><p>In spite of rumors that the communists were planning a massacre on 9 October, 70,000 citizens demonstrated in Leipzig that Monday and the authorities on the ground refused to open fire. The following Monday, 16 October 120,000 people demonstrated on the streets of Leipzig. </p><p>Erich Honecker had hoped that the <a href="/wiki/Group_of_Soviet_Forces_in_Germany" title="Group of Soviet Forces in Germany">Soviet troops</a> stationed in the GDR by the <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a> would restore the communist government and suppress the civilian protests. By 1989, the Soviet government deemed it impractical for the Soviet Union to <a href="/wiki/Sinatra_Doctrine" title="Sinatra Doctrine">continue asserting its control</a> over the Eastern Bloc, so it took a neutral stance regarding the events happening in East Germany. Soviet troops stationed in eastern Europe were under strict instructions from the Soviet leadership not to intervene in the political affairs of the Eastern Bloc nations, and remained in their barracks. Faced with ongoing civil unrest, the SED deposed Honecker on 18 October and replaced him with the number-two-man in the regime, <a href="/wiki/Egon_Krenz" title="Egon Krenz">Egon Krenz</a>. However, the demonstrations kept growing. On Monday, 23 October, the Leipzig protesters numbered 300,000, and remained as large the following week. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BerlinWall-BrandenburgGate.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/BerlinWall-BrandenburgGate.jpg/220px-BerlinWall-BrandenburgGate.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="327" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/BerlinWall-BrandenburgGate.jpg/330px-BerlinWall-BrandenburgGate.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/BerlinWall-BrandenburgGate.jpg/440px-BerlinWall-BrandenburgGate.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1119" data-file-height="1663" /></a><figcaption>People on the <a href="/wiki/Berlin_Wall" title="Berlin Wall">Berlin Wall</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Brandenburg_Gate" title="Brandenburg Gate">Brandenburg Gate</a>, 10 November 1989</figcaption></figure> <p>The border to Czechoslovakia was opened again on 1 November, and the Czechoslovak authorities soon let all East Germans travel directly to West Germany without further bureaucratic ado, thus lifting their part of the Iron Curtain on 3 November. On 4 November the authorities decided to authorize a demonstration in Berlin and were faced with the <a href="/wiki/Alexanderplatz_demonstration" title="Alexanderplatz demonstration">Alexanderplatz demonstration</a>, where half a million citizens converged on the capital demanding freedom in the biggest protest the GDR ever witnessed. </p><p>Unable to stem the ensuing flow of refugees to the West through Czechoslovakia, the East German authorities eventually caved in to public pressure by allowing East German citizens to enter West Berlin and West Germany directly, via existing border points, on 9 November 1989, without having properly briefed the border guards. Triggered by the erratic words of regime spokesman <a href="/wiki/G%C3%BCnter_Schabowski" title="Günter Schabowski">Günter Schabowski</a> in a TV press conference, stating that the planned changes were in effect "immediately, without delay," hundreds of thousands of people took advantage of the opportunity. </p><p>The guards were quickly overwhelmed by the growing crowds of people demanding to be let out into West Berlin. After receiving no feedback from their superiors, the guards, unwilling to use force, relented and <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Berlin_Wall" title="Fall of the Berlin Wall">opened the gates</a> to West Berlin. Soon new crossing points were forced open in the <a href="/wiki/Berlin_Wall" title="Berlin Wall">Berlin Wall</a> by the people, and sections of the wall were literally torn down. The guards were unaware of what was happening and stood by as the East Germans took to the wall with hammers and chisels. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RIAN_archive_428452_Germany_becomes_one_country.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/RIAN_archive_428452_Germany_becomes_one_country.jpg/220px-RIAN_archive_428452_Germany_becomes_one_country.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/RIAN_archive_428452_Germany_becomes_one_country.jpg/330px-RIAN_archive_428452_Germany_becomes_one_country.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/RIAN_archive_428452_Germany_becomes_one_country.jpg/440px-RIAN_archive_428452_Germany_becomes_one_country.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="647" /></a><figcaption>The Berlin Wall, October 1990, saying <i>Thank You, <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Gorbi</a></i></figcaption></figure> <p>On 7 November, the entire <i>Ministerrat der DDR</i> (<a href="/wiki/State_Council_of_East_Germany" title="State Council of East Germany">State Council of East Germany</a>), including its chairman <a href="/wiki/Willi_Stoph" title="Willi Stoph">Willi Stoph</a>, resigned.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A new government was formed under a considerably more liberal communist, <a href="/wiki/Hans_Modrow" title="Hans Modrow">Hans Modrow</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 1 December, the <a href="/wiki/Volkskammer" title="Volkskammer">Volkskammer</a> removed the SED's leading role from the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_East_Germany#1968_constitution" title="Constitution of East Germany">constitution of the GDR</a>. On 3 December Krenz resigned as leader of the SED; he resigned as head of state three days later. On 7 December, Round Table talks opened between the SED and other political parties. On 16 December 1989, the SED was dissolved and refounded as the <a href="/wiki/Party_of_Democratic_Socialism_(Germany)" title="Party of Democratic Socialism (Germany)">SED-PDS</a>, abandoning Marxism–Leninism and becoming a mainstream democratic socialist party. </p><p>On 15 January 1990, the Stasi's headquarters was stormed by protesters. Modrow became the de facto leader of <a href="/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany">East Germany</a> until <a href="/wiki/1990_East_German_general_election" title="1990 East German general election">free elections were held on 18 March 1990</a>—the first <a href="/wiki/November_1932_German_federal_election" title="November 1932 German federal election">since November 1932</a>. The SED, renamed the <a href="/wiki/Party_of_Democratic_Socialism_(Germany)" title="Party of Democratic Socialism (Germany)">Party of Democratic Socialism</a>, was heavily defeated. <a href="/wiki/Lothar_de_Maizi%C3%A8re" title="Lothar de Maizière">Lothar de Maizière</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Christian_Democratic_Union_(East_Germany)" title="Christian Democratic Union (East Germany)">East German Christian Democratic Union</a> became prime minister on 4 April 1990 on a platform of speedy reunification with the West. </p><p>On 15 March 1990, <a href="/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Final_Settlement_with_Respect_to_Germany" title="Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany">a peace treaty</a> was signed between the two countries of Germany and the four Allies, to replace the <a href="/wiki/Potsdam_Agreement" title="Potsdam Agreement">Potsdam Agreement</a> of 1 August 1945 after <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> to return full sovereignty to Germany, which facilitated the reunification. The two German countries <a href="/wiki/German_reunification" title="German reunification">were reunified</a> into present-day <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a> on 3 October 1990, solving the German problem of two states status, which had existed since 7 October 1949. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Government of the Soviet Union">Kremlin's</a> willingness to abandon such a strategically vital ally marked a dramatic change by the Soviet superpower and a fundamental <a href="/wiki/Paradigm_shift" title="Paradigm shift">paradigm shift</a> in <a href="/wiki/International_relations" title="International relations">international relations</a>, which until 1989 had been dominated by the East–West divide running through Berlin itself. The last <a href="/wiki/Group_of_Soviet_Forces_in_Germany" title="Group of Soviet Forces in Germany">Russian troops</a> left the territory of the former GDR, now part of a <a href="/wiki/Reunited_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Reunited Germany">Federal Republic of Germany</a>, on 1 September 1994. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Czechoslovakia">Czechoslovakia</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Velvet_Revolution" title="Velvet Revolution">Velvet Revolution</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Prague_November89_-_Wenceslas_Monument.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Prague_November89_-_Wenceslas_Monument.jpg/220px-Prague_November89_-_Wenceslas_Monument.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Prague_November89_-_Wenceslas_Monument.jpg/330px-Prague_November89_-_Wenceslas_Monument.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Prague_November89_-_Wenceslas_Monument.jpg/440px-Prague_November89_-_Wenceslas_Monument.jpg 2x" data-file-width="727" data-file-height="399" /></a><figcaption>Protests beneath the monument in <a href="/wiki/Wenceslas_Square" title="Wenceslas Square">Wenceslas Square</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Prague" title="Prague">Prague</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bratislava_Slovakia_213.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Bratislava_Slovakia_213.JPG/170px-Bratislava_Slovakia_213.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Bratislava_Slovakia_213.JPG/255px-Bratislava_Slovakia_213.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Bratislava_Slovakia_213.JPG/340px-Bratislava_Slovakia_213.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption>A memorial to the <a href="/wiki/Velvet_Revolution" title="Velvet Revolution">Velvet Revolution</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bratislava" title="Bratislava">Bratislava</a> (<a href="/wiki/SNP_Square_(Bratislava)" title="SNP Square (Bratislava)">Námestie SNP</a>), <a href="/wiki/Slovakia" title="Slovakia">Slovakia</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The "Velvet Revolution" was a non-violent transition of power in Czechoslovakia from the communist government to a parliamentary republic. On 17 November 1989, riot police suppressed a peaceful student demonstration in Prague, a day after a similar demonstration passed without incident in Bratislava. Although controversy continues over whether anyone died that night, that event sparked a series of popular demonstrations from 19 November to late December. By 20 November the number of peaceful protesters assembled in Prague had swelled from 200,000 the previous day to an estimated half-million. Five days later, the Letná Square protest held 800,000 people.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 24 November, the entire Communist Party leadership, including general secretary <a href="/wiki/Milo%C5%A1_Jake%C5%A1" title="Miloš Jakeš">Miloš Jakeš</a>, resigned. A two-hour general strike, involving all citizens of Czechoslovakia, was successfully held on 27 November. </p><p>With the collapse of other communist governments, and increasing street protests, the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia announced on 28 November 1989 that it would relinquish power and dismantle the single-party state. Barbed wire and other obstructions were removed from the border with West Germany and Austria in early December. On 10 December, President <a href="/wiki/Gust%C3%A1v_Hus%C3%A1k" title="Gustáv Husák">Gustáv Husák</a> appointed the first largely non-communist government in Czechoslovakia since 1948 and resigned. <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Dub%C4%8Dek" title="Alexander Dubček">Alexander Dubček</a> was elected speaker of the federal parliament on 28 December and <a href="/wiki/V%C3%A1clav_Havel" title="Václav Havel">Václav Havel</a> the President of Czechoslovakia on 29 December 1989. In June 1990 Czechoslovakia held its first democratic elections since 1946. On 27 June 1991 the last Soviet troops were withdrawn from Czechoslovakia.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bulgaria">Bulgaria</h4></div> <p>In October and November 1989, demonstrations on ecological issues were staged in Sofia, where demands for political reform were also voiced. The demonstrations were suppressed, but on 10 November 1989, the day after the Berlin Wall was breached, Bulgaria's long-serving leader <a href="/wiki/Todor_Zhivkov" title="Todor Zhivkov">Todor Zhivkov</a> was ousted by his Politburo. He was succeeded by a considerably more liberal communist, former foreign minister <a href="/wiki/Petar_Mladenov" title="Petar Mladenov">Petar Mladenov</a>. Moscow apparently approved the leadership change, as Zhivkov had been opposed to Gorbachev's policies. The new regime immediately repealed restrictions on free speech and assembly, which led to the first mass demonstration on 17 November, as well as the formation of anti-communist movements. Nine of them united as the <a href="/wiki/Union_of_Democratic_Forces_(Bulgaria)" title="Union of Democratic Forces (Bulgaria)">Union of Democratic Forces</a> (UDF) on 7 December.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The UDF was not satisfied with Zhivkov's ouster, and demanded additional democratic reforms, most importantly the removal of the constitutionally mandated leading role of the <a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_Communist_Party" title="Bulgarian Communist Party">Bulgarian Communist Party</a>. </p><p>Mladenov announced on 11 December 1989 that the Communist Party would abandon its monopoly on power, and that multiparty elections would be held the following year. In February 1990, the Bulgarian legislature deleted the portion of the constitution about the "leading role" of the Communist Party. Eventually, it was decided that a round table on the Polish model would be held in 1990 and elections held by June 1990. The round table took place from 3 January to 14 May 1990, at which an agreement was reached on the transition to democracy. The Communist Party abandoned Marxism–Leninism on 3 April 1990 and renamed itself as the <a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_Socialist_Party" title="Bulgarian Socialist Party">Bulgarian Socialist Party</a>. In June 1990 the first free elections since 1931 were held, won by the Bulgarian Socialist Party.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Romania">Romania</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Romanian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanian Revolution">Romanian Revolution</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Civilian_with_PM_Md._1963_during_the_Romanian_Revolution_of_1989.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Civilian_with_PM_Md._1963_during_the_Romanian_Revolution_of_1989.jpg/170px-Civilian_with_PM_Md._1963_during_the_Romanian_Revolution_of_1989.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Civilian_with_PM_Md._1963_during_the_Romanian_Revolution_of_1989.jpg/255px-Civilian_with_PM_Md._1963_during_the_Romanian_Revolution_of_1989.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Civilian_with_PM_Md._1963_during_the_Romanian_Revolution_of_1989.jpg/340px-Civilian_with_PM_Md._1963_during_the_Romanian_Revolution_of_1989.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Armed civilians during the <a href="/wiki/Romanian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanian Revolution">Romanian Revolution</a>. The revolution was the only violent overthrow of a <a href="/wiki/Communist_state" title="Communist state">communist state</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Czechoslovak_Socialist_Republic" title="Czechoslovak Socialist Republic">Czechoslovak</a> President <a href="/wiki/Gust%C3%A1v_Hus%C3%A1k" title="Gustáv Husák">Gustáv Husák</a>'s resignation on 10 December 1989 amounted to the fall of the communist regime in Czechoslovakia, leaving Ceaușescu's Romania as the only remaining hard-line communist regime in the Warsaw Pact.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After having suppressed the <a href="/wiki/Bra%C8%99ov_rebellion" title="Brașov rebellion">Brașov rebellion</a> in 1987, <a href="/wiki/Nicolae_Ceau%C8%99escu" title="Nicolae Ceaușescu">Nicolae Ceaușescu</a> was re-elected for another five years as leader of the <a href="/wiki/Romanian_Communist_Party" title="Romanian Communist Party">Romanian Communist Party</a> (PCR) in November 1989, signalling that he intended to ride out the anti-communist uprisings sweeping the rest of Europe. As Ceaușescu prepared to go on a state visit to Iran, his <a href="/wiki/Securitate" title="Securitate">Securitate</a> ordered the arrest and exile of a local Hungarian <a href="/wiki/Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinism">Calvinist</a> minister, <a href="/wiki/L%C3%A1szl%C3%B3_T%C5%91k%C3%A9s" title="László Tőkés">László Tőkés</a>, on 16 December, for sermons offending the regime. Tőkés was seized, but only after serious rioting erupted. <a href="/wiki/Timi%C8%99oara" title="Timișoara">Timișoara</a> was the first city to react on 16 December and civil unrest continued for five days. </p><p>Returning from Iran, Ceaușescu ordered a mass rally in his support outside Communist Party headquarters in Bucharest on 21 December. To his shock, the crowd booed and jeered him as he spoke. Years of repressed dissatisfaction boiled to the surface throughout the Romanian populace and even among elements in Ceaușescu's own government, and the demonstrations spread throughout the country. </p><p>At first, the security forces obeyed Ceaușescu's orders to shoot protesters. On the morning of 22 December, the Romanian military suddenly changed sides. This came after it was announced that defense minister <a href="/wiki/Vasile_Milea" title="Vasile Milea">Vasile Milea</a> had committed suicide after being unmasked as a traitor. It was suggested that he only tried to incapacitate himself in order to be relieved from office, but the bullet hit an artery and he died soon afterwards.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Believing Milea had actually been murdered, the rank-and-file soldiers went over virtually <i>en masse</i> to the revolution.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Army tanks began moving towards the Central Committee building, with crowds swarming alongside them. The rioters forced open the doors of the Central Committee building in an attempt to capture Ceaușescu and his wife, <a href="/wiki/Elena_Ceau%C8%99escu" title="Elena Ceaușescu">Elena</a>, coming within a few meters of the couple. They managed to escape via a helicopter waiting for them on the roof of the building. </p><p>Although elation followed the flight of the Ceaușescus, uncertainty surrounded their fate. On Christmas Day, Romanian television showed the Ceaușescus facing a hasty trial, and then being executed by firing squad. An interim <a href="/wiki/National_Salvation_Front_(Romania)" title="National Salvation Front (Romania)">National Salvation Front</a> Council led by <a href="/wiki/Ion_Iliescu" title="Ion Iliescu">Ion Iliescu</a> took over and announced elections for April 1990, the first free elections held in Romania since 1937. These were postponed until 20 May 1990. The Romanian Revolution was the bloodiest of the revolutions of 1989: over 1,000 people died,<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> one hundred of which were children, the youngest only one month old. </p><p>Unlike its kindred parties in the Warsaw Pact, the PCR simply melted away. No present-day Romanian party claiming to be its successor has ever been elected to the legislature since the change of system. However, former PCR members have played significant roles in post-1989 Romanian politics. Every <a href="/wiki/Romanian_President" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanian President">Romanian President</a> until the election of <a href="/wiki/Klaus_Iohannis" title="Klaus Iohannis">Klaus Iohannis</a> in <a href="/wiki/2014_Romanian_presidential_election" title="2014 Romanian presidential election">2014</a> was a former Communist Party member. </p><p>The years following the disposal of Ceaușescu were not free of conflict, and a series of "<a href="/wiki/Mineriad" title="Mineriad">Mineriads</a>" organized by dissatisfied <a href="/wiki/Jiu_Valley" title="Jiu Valley">Jiu Valley</a> miners occurred. The <a href="/wiki/June_1990_Mineriad" title="June 1990 Mineriad">June 1990 Mineriad</a> turned deadly after university students, the "<a href="/wiki/Golaniad" title="Golaniad">Golaniads</a>", held a months long protest against the participation of ex-PCR and <a href="/wiki/Securitate" title="Securitate">Securitate</a> members in the <a href="/wiki/1990_Romanian_general_election" title="1990 Romanian general election">1990 Romanian general election</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Deletant_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Deletant-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> President <a href="/wiki/Ion_Iliescu" title="Ion Iliescu">Ion Iliescu</a> branded the protesters "hooligans" and called the miners to "defend Romanian democracy". Viorel Ene, president of the Association of Victims of the Mineriads, asserted that:<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>There are documents, testimonies of doctors, of people from Domnești and Străulești cemeteries. Although we have said all along that the real number of dead is over 100, no one contradicted so far and there was no official position against.</p></blockquote> <p>Over 10,000 miners were transported to <a href="/wiki/Bucharest" title="Bucharest">Bucharest</a> and in the ensuing clashes, seven protesters died and hundreds more were injured, although media estimates on the casualty figures were much higher. The opposition newspaper <i><a href="/wiki/Rom%C3%A2nia_Liber%C4%83" class="mw-redirect" title="România Liberă">România Liberă</a></i> alleged that over 128 unidentified bodies were buried in a common grave in Străulești II cemetery, near <a href="/wiki/Bucharest" title="Bucharest">Bucharest</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A few weeks after the mineriad, several medical students conducted research in Străulești II cemetery, discovering two trenches with about 78 unmarked graves, which they claimed to contain victims of the events.<sup id="cite_ref-mineriada.net_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mineriada.net-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Breakup_of_Yugoslavia" title="Breakup of Yugoslavia">Breakup of Yugoslavia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_Wars" title="Yugoslav Wars">Yugoslav Wars</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yugoslavia_ethnic_map.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Yugoslavia_ethnic_map.jpg/300px-Yugoslavia_ethnic_map.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="313" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Yugoslavia_ethnic_map.jpg/450px-Yugoslavia_ethnic_map.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Yugoslavia_ethnic_map.jpg/600px-Yugoslavia_ethnic_map.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1643" data-file-height="1715" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Yugoslavia" title="Ethnic groups in Yugoslavia">Ethnic groups in Yugoslavia</a> in 1991</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Socialist_Federal_Republic_of_Yugoslavia" title="Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia">Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia</a> was not a part of the Warsaw Pact but pursued <a href="/wiki/Titoism" title="Titoism">its own version</a> of communism under <a href="/wiki/Josip_Broz_Tito" title="Josip Broz Tito">Josip Broz Tito</a>. It was a multi-ethnic state which Tito was able to maintain through a <a href="/wiki/Yugoslavism" title="Yugoslavism">Yugoslav patriotic doctrine</a> of "<a href="/wiki/Brotherhood_and_unity" title="Brotherhood and unity">Brotherhood and unity</a>". Tensions between ethnicities began to escalate with the <a href="/wiki/Croatian_Spring" title="Croatian Spring">Croatian Spring</a> of 1970–71, a movement for greater <a href="/wiki/Socialist_Republic_of_Croatia" title="Socialist Republic of Croatia">Croatian</a> autonomy, which was suppressed. Constitutional changes were instituted in 1974, and the <a href="/wiki/1974_Yugoslav_Constitution" title="1974 Yugoslav Constitution">1974 Yugoslav Constitution</a> devolved some federal powers to the constituent republics and provinces. After Tito's death in 1980 ethnic tensions grew, first in Albanian-majority <a href="/wiki/Socialist_Autonomous_Province_of_Kosovo" title="Socialist Autonomous Province of Kosovo">SAP Kosovo</a> with the <a href="/wiki/1981_protests_in_Kosovo" title="1981 protests in Kosovo">1981 protests in Kosovo</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Parallel to the same process, <a href="/wiki/Socialist_Republic_of_Slovenia" title="Socialist Republic of Slovenia">Slovenia</a> initiated a policy of gradual liberalization in 1984, somewhat similar to the Soviet Perestroika. This provoked tensions between the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Communists_of_Slovenia" title="League of Communists of Slovenia">League of Communists of Slovenia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Communists_of_Yugoslavia" title="League of Communists of Yugoslavia">central Yugoslav Party</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_People%27s_Army" title="Yugoslav People's Army">federal army</a>. In 1984, the decade long ban to build the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_Saint_Sava" title="Church of Saint Sava">Saint Sava Cathedral</a> in <a href="/wiki/Belgrade" title="Belgrade">Belgrade</a> was lifted. The backdown of the communist elite and a popular gathering of 100,000 believers on 12 May 1985 to celebrate liturgy inside the walls of the ruins marked the return of religion in postwar Yugoslavia.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the late 1980s, many civil society groups were pushing towards <a href="/wiki/Democratization" title="Democratization">democratization</a>, while widening the space for cultural plurality.<sup id="cite_ref-bibic_1993_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bibic_1993-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1987 and 1988, a series of clashes between the emerging civil society and the communist regime culminated with the so-called <a href="/wiki/Slovene_Spring" class="mw-redirect" title="Slovene Spring">Slovene Spring</a>, a mass movement for democratic reforms. The <a href="/wiki/Committee_for_the_Defence_of_Human_Rights" title="Committee for the Defence of Human Rights">Committee for the Defence of Human Rights</a> was established as the platform of all major non-Communist political movements. By early 1989, several anti-communist political parties were already openly functioning, challenging the hegemony of the Slovenian Communists. Soon, the Slovenian Communists, pressured by their own civil society, came into conflict with the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Communists_of_Serbia" title="League of Communists of Serbia">Serbian Communist</a> leadership.<sup id="cite_ref-bibic_1993_90-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bibic_1993-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In January 1990, an extraordinary Congress of the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Communists_of_Yugoslavia" title="League of Communists of Yugoslavia">League of Communists of Yugoslavia</a> was called in order to settle the disputes among its constituent parties. Faced with being completely outnumbered, the Slovenian and <a href="/wiki/League_of_Communists_of_Croatia" title="League of Communists of Croatia">Croatian</a> communists walked out of the Congress on 23 January 1990, effectively bringing to an end to Yugoslavia's communist party. Both parties of the two western republics negotiated free multi-party elections with their own opposition movements. </p><p>On 8 April 1990, the democratic and anti-Yugoslav <a href="/wiki/DEMOS_coalition" class="mw-redirect" title="DEMOS coalition">DEMOS coalition</a> won the <a href="/wiki/1990_Slovenian_parliamentary_election" title="1990 Slovenian parliamentary election">elections in Slovenia</a>, while on 22 April 1990 the <a href="/wiki/1990_Croatian_parliamentary_election" title="1990 Croatian parliamentary election">Croatian elections</a> resulted in a landslide victory for the nationalist <a href="/wiki/Croatian_Democratic_Union" title="Croatian Democratic Union">Croatian Democratic Union</a> (HDZ) led by <a href="/wiki/Franjo_Tu%C4%91man" title="Franjo Tuđman">Franjo Tuđman</a>. The results were much more balanced in <a href="/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a> and <a href="/wiki/1990_Macedonian_parliamentary_election" title="1990 Macedonian parliamentary election">in Macedonia</a> in November 1990, while the <a href="/wiki/Parliamentary" class="mw-redirect" title="Parliamentary">parliamentary</a> and <a href="/wiki/President_(government_title)" title="President (government title)">presidential</a> elections of December 1990 in Serbia and <a href="/wiki/Montenegro" title="Montenegro">Montenegro</a> consolidated the power of Milošević and his supporters. Free elections on the level of the federation were never carried out. </p><p>The Slovenian and Croatian leaderships started preparing plans for secession from the federation, while a part of the <a href="/wiki/Serbs_of_Croatia" title="Serbs of Croatia">Serbs of Croatia</a> started the so-called <a href="/wiki/Log_Revolution" title="Log Revolution">Log Revolution</a>, an insurrection organized by <a href="/wiki/Socialist_Republic_of_Serbia" title="Socialist Republic of Serbia">Serbia</a> that would lead to the creation of the breakaway region of <a href="/wiki/SAO_Krajina" title="SAO Krajina">SAO Krajina</a>. In the <a href="/wiki/1990_Slovenian_independence_referendum" title="1990 Slovenian independence referendum">Slovenian independence referendum</a> on 23 December 1990, 88.5% of residents voted for independence.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/1991_Croatian_independence_referendum" title="1991 Croatian independence referendum">Croatian independence referendum</a> on 19 May 1991, 93.24% voted for independence. </p><p>The escalating ethnic and national tensions were exacerbated by the drive for independence and led to the following <a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Yugoslav wars">Yugoslav wars</a>: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ten-Day_War" title="Ten-Day War">War in Slovenia</a> (1991)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Croatian_War_of_Independence" title="Croatian War of Independence">Croatian War of Independence</a> (1991–1995)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosnian_War" title="Bosnian War">Bosnian War</a> (1992–1995)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kosovo_War" title="Kosovo War">Kosovo War</a> (1998–1999), including the <a href="/wiki/NATO_bombing_of_Yugoslavia" title="NATO bombing of Yugoslavia">NATO bombing of Yugoslavia</a>.</li></ul> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Insurgency_in_the_Pre%C5%A1evo_Valley" title="Insurgency in the Preševo Valley">insurgency in the Preševo Valley</a> (1999–2001) and the <a href="/wiki/Insurgency_in_the_Republic_of_Macedonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Insurgency in the Republic of Macedonia">insurgency in the Republic of Macedonia</a> (2001) are often discussed in the same context.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Albania">Albania</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_communism_in_Albania" title="Fall of communism in Albania">Fall of communism in Albania</a></div> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Socialist_Republic_of_Albania" title="People's Socialist Republic of Albania">People's Socialist Republic of Albania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Enver_Hoxha" title="Enver Hoxha">Enver Hoxha</a>, who led Albania for four decades, died on 11 April 1985.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His successor, <a href="/wiki/Ramiz_Alia" title="Ramiz Alia">Ramiz Alia</a>, began to gradually open up the regime from above. In 1989, the first revolts started in <a href="/wiki/Shkodra" class="mw-redirect" title="Shkodra">Shkodra</a> and spread in other cities.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Eventually, the existing regime introduced some liberalization, including measures in 1990 providing for freedom to travel abroad. Efforts were begun to improve ties with the outside world. March 1991 elections—the first free elections in Albania since 1923, and only the third free elections in the country's history—left the former communists in power, but a general strike and urban opposition led to the formation of a coalition cabinet including non-communists. Parliamentary elections were held in <a href="/wiki/Albania" title="Albania">Albania</a> on 22 March 1992, with a second round of voting for eleven seats on 29 March,<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> amid <a href="/wiki/1997_Albanian_civil_unrest" title="1997 Albanian civil unrest">economic collapse and social unrest</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mongolia">Mongolia</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mongolian_Revolution_of_1990" title="Mongolian Revolution of 1990">Mongolian Revolution of 1990</a></div> <p>Mongolia (<a href="/wiki/Outer_Mongolia" title="Outer Mongolia">Outer Mongolia</a>) declared independence from China in 1911 during the <a href="/wiki/Xinhai_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Xinhai Revolution">fall</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Mongolian_People%27s_Party" title="Mongolian People's Party">Mongolian People's Party</a> <a href="/wiki/Outer_Mongolian_Revolution_of_1921" class="mw-redirect" title="Outer Mongolian Revolution of 1921">took power</a> in 1921, and the party renamed itself the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During these years, Mongolia was closely aligned with the Soviet Union. After <a href="/wiki/Yumjaagiin_Tsedenbal" title="Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal">Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal</a> left in 1984, the new leadership under <a href="/wiki/Jambyn_Batm%C3%B6nkh" title="Jambyn Batmönkh">Jambyn Batmönkh</a> implemented economic reforms, but failed to appeal to those who, in late 1989, wanted broader changes.<sup id="cite_ref-Kaplonski_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kaplonski-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The "<a href="/wiki/Mongolian_Revolution_of_1990" title="Mongolian Revolution of 1990">Mongolian Revolution</a>" was a democratic, <a href="/wiki/Nonviolent_revolution" title="Nonviolent revolution">peaceful</a> revolution that started with demonstrations and <a href="/wiki/Hunger_strike" title="Hunger strike">hunger strikes</a> and ended 70-years of <a href="/wiki/Marxism-Leninism" class="mw-redirect" title="Marxism-Leninism">Marxism-Leninism</a> and eventually moved towards democracy.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was spearheaded by mostly younger people demonstrating on <a href="/wiki/S%C3%BCkhbaatar_Square" title="Sükhbaatar Square">Sükhbaatar Square</a> in the capital <a href="/wiki/Ulaanbaatar" title="Ulaanbaatar">Ulaanbaatar</a>. It ended with the <a href="/wiki/Authoritarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Authoritarian">authoritarian</a> government resigning without bloodshed. Some of the main organizers were <a href="/wiki/Tsakhiagiin_Elbegdorj" title="Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj">Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sanjaas%C3%BCrengiin_Zorig" title="Sanjaasürengiin Zorig">Sanjaasürengiin Zorig</a>, <a href="/wiki/Erdeniin_Bat-%C3%9C%C3%BCl" title="Erdeniin Bat-Üül">Erdeniin Bat-Üül</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bat-Erdeniin_Batbayar" class="mw-redirect" title="Bat-Erdeniin Batbayar">Bat-Erdeniin Batbayar</a>. </p><p>During the morning of 10 December 1989, the first public demonstration occurred in front of the Youth Cultural Center in the capital of Ulaanbaatar.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There, Elbegdorj announced the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Mongolian_Democratic_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongolian Democratic Union">Mongolian Democratic Union</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-CDMongolia_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CDMongolia-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the first pro-democracy movement in Mongolia began. The protesters called for Mongolia to adopt <a href="/wiki/Perestroika" title="Perestroika">perestroika</a> and <a href="/wiki/Glasnost" title="Glasnost">glasnost</a>. Dissident leaders demanded free elections and economic reform, but within the context of a "human democratic socialism".<sup id="cite_ref-Kaplonski_100-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kaplonski-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The protesters injected a <a href="/wiki/Pan-Mongolism" title="Pan-Mongolism">nationalist element</a> into the protests by using traditional <a href="/wiki/Mongolian_script" title="Mongolian script">Mongolian script</a>—which most Mongolians could not read—as a symbolic repudiation of the political system which had imposed the <a href="/wiki/Mongolian_Cyrillic_alphabet" title="Mongolian Cyrillic alphabet">Mongolian Cyrillic alphabet</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kaplonski_100-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kaplonski-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In late December 1989, demonstrations increased when news came of <a href="/wiki/Garry_Kasparov" title="Garry Kasparov">Garry Kasparov</a>'s interview in <i><a href="/wiki/Playboy" title="Playboy">Playboy</a></i>, suggesting that the Soviet Union could improve its economic health by selling Mongolia to China.<sup id="cite_ref-Kaplonski_100-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kaplonski-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 14 January 1990, the protesters, having grown from three hundred to some 1,000, met in a square in front of Lenin Museum in Ulaanbaatar, which has been named Freedom Square since then. A demonstration in <a href="/wiki/S%C3%BCkhbaatar_Square" title="Sükhbaatar Square">Sükhbaatar Square</a> on 21 January followed, in weather of −30 C. Protesters carried banners alluding to Chinggis Khaan, also referred to <a href="/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan">Genghis Khan</a>, rehabilitating a figure whom Soviet schooling neglected to praise.<sup id="cite_ref-Fineman_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fineman-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In subsequent months of 1990, activists continued to organize demonstrations, rallies, protests and hunger strikes, as well as teachers' and workers' strikes.<sup id="cite_ref-Politburo_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politburo-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Activists had growing support from Mongolians, both in the capital and the countryside and the union's activities led to other calls for democracy all over the country.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After numerous demonstrations of many thousands of people in the capital city as well as provincial centers, on 4 March 1990, the MDU and three other reform organizations held a joint outdoor mass meeting, inviting the government to attend. The government sent no representative to what became a demonstration of over 100,000 people demanding democratic change.<sup id="cite_ref-Amarsanaa_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Amarsanaa-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This culminated with <a href="/wiki/Jambyn_Batm%C3%B6nkh" title="Jambyn Batmönkh">Jambyn Batmönkh</a>, chairman of Politburo of MPRP's Central Committee decided to dissolve the Politburo and to resign on 9 March 1990.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mongolia's first free, multi-party elections for a bicameral parliament took place on 29 July 1990.<sup id="cite_ref-Amarsanaa_107-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Amarsanaa-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Parties ran for 430 seats in the Great Hural. Opposition parties were not able to nominate enough candidates. The opposition nominated 346 candidates for the 430 seats in the Great Hural (upper house). The <a href="/wiki/Mongolian_People%27s_Party" title="Mongolian People's Party">Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party</a> (MPRP) won 357 seats in the Great Hural and 31 out of 53 seats in the Small Hural.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The MPRP enjoyed a strong position in the countryside. The <a href="/wiki/State_Great_Khural" title="State Great Khural">State Great Khural</a> first met on 3 September 1990 and elected a president (MPRP), vice president (<a href="/wiki/Mongolian_Social_Democratic_Party" title="Mongolian Social Democratic Party">Social Democrat</a>) who was also a chairman of the Baga Hural, prime minister (MPRP), and 50 members to the Baga Hural (lower house). </p><p>In November 1991, the People's Great Hural began a discussion on a <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Mongolia" title="Constitution of Mongolia">new constitution</a>, which entered into force on 12 February 1992. The new constitution restructured the legislative branch of government, creating a unicameral legislature, the State Great Hural (SGH). The MPRP retained its majority but lost the 1996 elections. The final Russian troops, which had been stationed in Mongolia since 1966, fully withdrew in December 1992. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="China">China</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/1989_Tiananmen_Square_protests_and_massacre" title="1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre">1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre</a></div> <p>While China did not undergo a revolution resulting in a new form of government in 1989, a popular national movement led to large demonstrations in favor of democratic reforms. <a href="/wiki/Paramount_leader" title="Paramount leader">Chinese leader</a> <a href="/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping" title="Deng Xiaoping">Deng Xiaoping</a> had developed the concept of <a href="/wiki/Socialism_with_Chinese_characteristics" title="Socialism with Chinese characteristics">socialism with Chinese characteristics</a> and enacted local <a href="/wiki/Socialist_market_economy" title="Socialist market economy">market economy</a> reforms around 1984, but the policy had stalled.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first Chinese student demonstrations, which eventually led to the Beijing protests of 1989, took place in December 1986 in <a href="/wiki/Hefei" title="Hefei">Hefei</a>. The students called for campus elections, the chance to study abroad, and greater availability of Western pop culture. Their protests took advantage of the loosening political atmosphere and included rallies against the slow pace of reform. <a href="/wiki/Hu_Yaobang" title="Hu Yaobang">Hu Yaobang</a>, a protégé of Deng Xiaoping and a leading advocate of reform, was blamed for the protests and forced to resign as the <a href="/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party">CCP general secretary</a> in January 1987. In the "Anti Bourgeois Liberalization Campaign", Hu would be further denounced. </p><p>The Tiananmen Square protests were sparked by the death of Hu Yaobang on 15 April 1989. By the eve of Hu's state funeral, some 100,000 students had gathered at <a href="/wiki/Tiananmen_Square" title="Tiananmen Square">Tiananmen Square</a> to observe it; however, no leaders emerged from the <a href="/wiki/Great_Hall_of_the_People" title="Great Hall of the People">Great Hall</a>. The movement lasted for seven weeks.<sup id="cite_ref-Zhao153_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zhao153-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mikhail Gorbachev visited China on 15 May during the protests, bringing many foreign news agencies to Beijing, and their sympathetic portrayals of the protesters helped galvanize a spirit of liberation among the Central, South-East and Eastern Europeans who were watching. The Chinese leadership, particularly Communist Party general secretary <a href="/wiki/Zhao_Ziyang" title="Zhao Ziyang">Zhao Ziyang</a>, who had begun to radically reform the economy earlier than the Soviets, was open to political reform, but not at the cost of a potential return to the disorder of the <a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a>. </p><p>The movement lasted from Hu's death on 15 April until tanks and troops rolled into the Tiananmen Square protests of 4 June 1989. In Beijing, the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army_at_the_1989_Tiananmen_Square_protests_and_massacre" title="People's Liberation Army at the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre">military response</a> to the protest by the PRC government left many civilians in charge of clearing the square of the dead and severely injured. The exact number of casualties is not known and many different estimates exist. The event, however, did make some political change. The problem with the mass migration is that it has now started a deepening divide between the rural poor and the rich urban people.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Malta_summit">Malta summit</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bush_and_Gorbachev_at_the_Malta_summit_in_1989.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Bush_and_Gorbachev_at_the_Malta_summit_in_1989.gif/220px-Bush_and_Gorbachev_at_the_Malta_summit_in_1989.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Bush_and_Gorbachev_at_the_Malta_summit_in_1989.gif/330px-Bush_and_Gorbachev_at_the_Malta_summit_in_1989.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Bush_and_Gorbachev_at_the_Malta_summit_in_1989.gif/440px-Bush_and_Gorbachev_at_the_Malta_summit_in_1989.gif 2x" data-file-width="594" data-file-height="401" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Mikhail Gorbachev</a> and President <a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">George H. W. Bush</a> on board the Soviet cruise ship <i><a href="/wiki/TS_Maxim_Gorkiy" title="TS Maxim Gorkiy">Maxim Gorky</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Marsaxlokk_Harbour" class="mw-redirect" title="Marsaxlokk Harbour">Marsaxlokk Harbour</a>, December 1989</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Malta_Summit" title="Malta Summit">Malta Summit</a> took place between U.S. President George H. W. Bush and U.S.S.R. leader Mikhail Gorbachev on 2–3 December 1989, just a few weeks after the fall of the Berlin Wall, a meeting which contributed to the end of the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a><sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> partially as a result of the broader pro-democracy movement. It was their second meeting following a meeting that included then President Ronald Reagan, in New York in December 1988. News reports of the time<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> referred to the Malta Summit as the most important since 1945, when British prime minister Winston Churchill, Soviet premier Joseph Stalin and U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt agreed on a post-war plan for Europe at the <a href="/wiki/Yalta_Conference" title="Yalta Conference">Yalta Conference</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Election_chronology_in_Central_and_Eastern_Europe,_and_Central_Asia"><span id="Election_chronology_in_Central_and_Eastern_Europe.2C_and_Central_Asia"></span>Election chronology in Central and Eastern Europe, and Central Asia</h3></div> <p>Between June 1989 and April 1991, every communist or former communist country in Central and Eastern Europe and Central Asia—and in the case of the USSR and Yugoslavia, every constituent republic—held competitive parliamentary elections for the first time in many decades. Some elections were only partly free, while others were fully democratic. The chronology below gives the details of these historic elections, and the dates are the first day of voting as several elections were split over several days for run-off contests: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><span data-sort-value="Poland"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931980%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931980%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931980%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931980%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931980%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Poland_%281928%E2%80%931980%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="800" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Polish_People%27s_Republic" title="Polish People's Republic">Poland</a></span> – <a href="/wiki/1989_Polish_legislative_election" class="mw-redirect" title="1989 Polish legislative election">4 June 1989</a></li> <li><span data-sort-value="Turkmen SSR"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Flag_of_the_Turkmen_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281973%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Turkmenistan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Turkmen_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281973%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Turkmenistan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Flag_of_the_Turkmen_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281973%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Turkmenistan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Turkmen_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281973%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Turkmenistan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Flag_of_the_Turkmen_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281973%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Turkmenistan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Turkmen_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281973%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Turkmenistan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Turkmen_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic">Turkmenistan</a></span> – <a href="/wiki/1990_Turkmen_Supreme_Soviet_election" title="1990 Turkmen Supreme Soviet election">7 January 1990</a></li> <li><span data-sort-value="Uzbek SSR"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_the_Uzbek_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Uzbek_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_the_Uzbek_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Uzbek_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_the_Uzbek_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Uzbek_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Uzbek_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic">Uzbekistan</a></span> – <a href="/wiki/1990_Uzbek_Supreme_Soviet_election" title="1990 Uzbek Supreme Soviet election">18 February 1990</a></li> <li><span data-sort-value="Lithuanian SSR"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Flag_of_Lithuania_%281988%E2%80%932004%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Lithuania_%281988%E2%80%932004%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Flag_of_Lithuania_%281988%E2%80%932004%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Lithuania_%281988%E2%80%932004%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Flag_of_Lithuania_%281988%E2%80%932004%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Lithuania_%281988%E2%80%932004%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic">Lithuania</a></span> – <a href="/wiki/1990_Lithuanian_Supreme_Soviet_election" title="1990 Lithuanian Supreme Soviet election">24 February 1990</a></li> <li><span data-sort-value="Moldavian SSR"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Flag_of_the_Moldavian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931990%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Moldavian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Flag_of_the_Moldavian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931990%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Moldavian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Flag_of_the_Moldavian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931990%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Moldavian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Moldavian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic">Moldavia</a></span> – <a href="/wiki/1990_Moldavian_Supreme_Soviet_election" title="1990 Moldavian Supreme Soviet election">25 February 1990</a></li> <li><span data-sort-value="Kirghiz SSR"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Flag_of_the_Kirghiz_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Kyrgyzstan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Kirghiz_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Kyrgyzstan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Flag_of_the_Kirghiz_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Kyrgyzstan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Kirghiz_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Kyrgyzstan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Flag_of_the_Kirghiz_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Kyrgyzstan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Kirghiz_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Kyrgyzstan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Kirghiz_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic">Kirghizia</a></span> – <a href="/wiki/1990_Kirghiz_Supreme_Soviet_election" title="1990 Kirghiz Supreme Soviet election">25 February 1990</a></li> <li><span data-sort-value="Tajik SSR"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Flag_of_the_Tajik_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931991%29%2C_Flag_of_Tajikistan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Tajik_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931991%29%2C_Flag_of_Tajikistan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Flag_of_the_Tajik_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931991%29%2C_Flag_of_Tajikistan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Tajik_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931991%29%2C_Flag_of_Tajikistan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Flag_of_the_Tajik_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931991%29%2C_Flag_of_Tajikistan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Tajik_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931991%29%2C_Flag_of_Tajikistan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Tajik_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic">Tajikistan</a></span> – <a href="/wiki/1990_Tajik_Supreme_Soviet_election" title="1990 Tajik Supreme Soviet election">25 February 1990</a></li> <li><span data-sort-value="Byelorussian SSR"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Flag_of_the_Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281951%E2%80%931991%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281951%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Flag_of_the_Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281951%E2%80%931991%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281951%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Flag_of_the_Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281951%E2%80%931991%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281951%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic">Byelorussia</a></span> – <a href="/wiki/1990_Belarusian_Supreme_Soviet_election" class="mw-redirect" title="1990 Belarusian Supreme Soviet election">4 March 1990</a></li> <li><span data-sort-value="Russian SFSR"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281954%E2%80%931991%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281954%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281954%E2%80%931991%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281954%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281954%E2%80%931991%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281954%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic" title="Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic">Russia</a></span> – <a href="/wiki/1990_Russian_Supreme_Soviet_election" title="1990 Russian Supreme Soviet election">4 March 1990</a></li> <li><span data-sort-value="Ukrainian SSR"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Flag_of_the_Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281949%E2%80%931991%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281949%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Flag_of_the_Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281949%E2%80%931991%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281949%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Flag_of_the_Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281949%E2%80%931991%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281949%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic">Ukraine</a></span> – <a href="/wiki/1990_Ukrainian_Supreme_Soviet_election" title="1990 Ukrainian Supreme Soviet election">4 March 1990</a></li> <li><span data-sort-value="East Germany"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Flag_of_East_Germany.svg/23px-Flag_of_East_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Flag_of_East_Germany.svg/35px-Flag_of_East_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Flag_of_East_Germany.svg/46px-Flag_of_East_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany">East Germany</a></span> – <a href="/wiki/1990_East_German_general_election" title="1990 East German general election">18 March 1990</a></li> <li><span data-sort-value="Estonian SSR"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Flag_of_the_Estonian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931990%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Estonian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Flag_of_the_Estonian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931990%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Estonian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Flag_of_the_Estonian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931990%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Estonian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Estonian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic">Estonia</a></span> – <a href="/wiki/1990_Estonian_Supreme_Soviet_election" title="1990 Estonian Supreme Soviet election">18 March 1990</a></li> <li><span data-sort-value="Latvian SSR"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Flag_of_Latvia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Latvia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Flag_of_Latvia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Latvia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Flag_of_Latvia.svg/46px-Flag_of_Latvia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Latvian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic">Latvia</a></span> – <a href="/wiki/1990_Latvian_Supreme_Soviet_election" title="1990 Latvian Supreme Soviet election">18 March 1990</a></li> <li><span data-sort-value="Hungary"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Flag_of_Hungary.svg/23px-Flag_of_Hungary.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Flag_of_Hungary.svg/35px-Flag_of_Hungary.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Flag_of_Hungary.svg/46px-Flag_of_Hungary.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Hungary" title="Hungary">Hungary</a></span> – <a href="/wiki/1990_Hungarian_parliamentary_election" title="1990 Hungarian parliamentary election">25 March 1990</a></li> <li><span data-sort-value="Kazakh SSR"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Flag_of_the_Kazakh_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Kazakhstan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Kazakh_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Kazakhstan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Flag_of_the_Kazakh_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Kazakhstan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Kazakh_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Kazakhstan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Flag_of_the_Kazakh_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Kazakhstan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Kazakh_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Kazakhstan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Kazakh_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic">Kazakhstan</a></span> – <a href="/wiki/1990_Kazakh_Supreme_Soviet_election" title="1990 Kazakh Supreme Soviet election">25 March 1990</a></li> <li><span data-sort-value="SR Slovenia"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Flag_of_Slovenia_%281945%E2%80%931991%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Slovenia_%281945%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Flag_of_Slovenia_%281945%E2%80%931991%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Slovenia_%281945%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Flag_of_Slovenia_%281945%E2%80%931991%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Slovenia_%281945%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Republic_of_Slovenia" title="Socialist Republic of Slovenia">Slovenia</a></span> – <a href="/wiki/1990_Slovenian_parliamentary_election" title="1990 Slovenian parliamentary election">8 April 1990</a></li> <li><span data-sort-value="SR Croatia"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Flag_of_Croatia_%281947%E2%80%931990%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Croatia_%281947%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Flag_of_Croatia_%281947%E2%80%931990%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Croatia_%281947%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Flag_of_Croatia_%281947%E2%80%931990%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Croatia_%281947%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Republic_of_Croatia" title="Socialist Republic of Croatia">Croatia</a></span> – <a href="/wiki/1990_Croatian_parliamentary_election" title="1990 Croatian parliamentary election">22 April 1990</a></li> <li><span data-sort-value="Romania"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Flag_of_Romania.svg/23px-Flag_of_Romania.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Flag_of_Romania.svg/35px-Flag_of_Romania.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Flag_of_Romania.svg/45px-Flag_of_Romania.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Romania" title="Romania">Romania</a></span> – <a href="/wiki/1990_Romanian_general_election" title="1990 Romanian general election">20 May 1990</a></li> <li><span data-sort-value="Armenian SSR"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Flag_of_the_Armenian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931990%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Armenian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Flag_of_the_Armenian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931990%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Armenian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Flag_of_the_Armenian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931990%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Armenian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Armenian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic">Armenia</a></span> – <a href="/wiki/1990_Armenian_Supreme_Soviet_election" title="1990 Armenian Supreme Soviet election">20 May 1990</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Czech_and_Slovak_Federative_Republic" title="Czech and Slovak Federative Republic">Czechoslovakia</a> – <a href="/wiki/1990_Czechoslovak_parliamentary_election" title="1990 Czechoslovak parliamentary election">8 June 1990</a></li> <li><span data-sort-value="Bulgaria"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Flag_of_Bulgaria_%281971%E2%80%931990%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Bulgaria_%281971%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Flag_of_Bulgaria_%281971%E2%80%931990%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Bulgaria_%281971%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Flag_of_Bulgaria_%281971%E2%80%931990%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Bulgaria_%281971%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Bulgaria" title="People's Republic of Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></span> – <a href="/wiki/1990_Bulgarian_Constitutional_Assembly_election" title="1990 Bulgarian Constitutional Assembly election">10 June 1990</a></li> <li><span data-sort-value="Mongolia"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Flag_of_the_Mongolian_People%27s_Republic_%281945%E2%80%931992%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Mongolian_People%27s_Republic_%281945%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Flag_of_the_Mongolian_People%27s_Republic_%281945%E2%80%931992%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Mongolian_People%27s_Republic_%281945%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Flag_of_the_Mongolian_People%27s_Republic_%281945%E2%80%931992%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Mongolian_People%27s_Republic_%281945%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_People%27s_Republic" title="Mongolian People's Republic">Mongolia</a></span> – <a href="/wiki/1990_Mongolian_legislative_election" class="mw-redirect" title="1990 Mongolian legislative election">22 June 1990</a></li> <li><span data-sort-value="Azerbaijan SSR"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Flag_of_the_Azerbaijan_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Azerbaijan_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Flag_of_the_Azerbaijan_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Azerbaijan_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Flag_of_the_Azerbaijan_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Azerbaijan_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic">Azerbaijan</a></span> – <a href="/wiki/1990_Azerbaijani_Supreme_Soviet_election" title="1990 Azerbaijani Supreme Soviet election">30 September 1990</a></li> <li><span data-sort-value="Georgian SSR"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Flag_of_the_Georgian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281951%E2%80%931990%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Georgian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281951%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Flag_of_the_Georgian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281951%E2%80%931990%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Georgian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281951%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Flag_of_the_Georgian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281951%E2%80%931990%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Georgian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281951%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Georgian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic">Georgia</a></span> – <a href="/wiki/1990_Georgian_Supreme_Soviet_election" title="1990 Georgian Supreme Soviet election">28 October 1990</a></li> <li><span data-sort-value="SR Macedonia"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Flag_of_the_Socialist_Republic_of_Macedonia_%281963%E2%80%931991%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Socialist_Republic_of_Macedonia_%281963%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Flag_of_the_Socialist_Republic_of_Macedonia_%281963%E2%80%931991%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Socialist_Republic_of_Macedonia_%281963%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Flag_of_the_Socialist_Republic_of_Macedonia_%281963%E2%80%931991%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Socialist_Republic_of_Macedonia_%281963%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Republic_of_Macedonia" title="Socialist Republic of Macedonia">Macedonia</a></span> – <a href="/wiki/1990_Macedonian_parliamentary_election" title="1990 Macedonian parliamentary election">11 November 1990</a></li> <li><span data-sort-value="Bosnia and Herzegovina"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Flag_of_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina_%281946%E2%80%931992%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina_%281946%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Flag_of_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina_%281946%E2%80%931992%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina_%281946%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Flag_of_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina_%281946%E2%80%931992%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina_%281946%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Republic_of_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Socialist Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></span> – <a href="/wiki/1990_Bosnian_general_election" title="1990 Bosnian general election">18 November 1990</a></li> <li><span data-sort-value="SR Serbia"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Flag_of_Montenegro_%281946%E2%80%931993%29%2C_Flag_of_Serbia_%281947%E2%80%931992%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Montenegro_%281946%E2%80%931993%29%2C_Flag_of_Serbia_%281947%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Flag_of_Montenegro_%281946%E2%80%931993%29%2C_Flag_of_Serbia_%281947%E2%80%931992%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Montenegro_%281946%E2%80%931993%29%2C_Flag_of_Serbia_%281947%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Flag_of_Montenegro_%281946%E2%80%931993%29%2C_Flag_of_Serbia_%281947%E2%80%931992%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Montenegro_%281946%E2%80%931993%29%2C_Flag_of_Serbia_%281947%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Republic_of_Serbia" title="Socialist Republic of Serbia">Serbia</a></span> – <a href="/wiki/1990_Serbian_general_election" title="1990 Serbian general election">9 December 1990</a></li> <li><span data-sort-value="Montenegro"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Flag_of_Montenegro_%281946%E2%80%931993%29%2C_Flag_of_Serbia_%281947%E2%80%931992%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Montenegro_%281946%E2%80%931993%29%2C_Flag_of_Serbia_%281947%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Flag_of_Montenegro_%281946%E2%80%931993%29%2C_Flag_of_Serbia_%281947%E2%80%931992%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Montenegro_%281946%E2%80%931993%29%2C_Flag_of_Serbia_%281947%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Flag_of_Montenegro_%281946%E2%80%931993%29%2C_Flag_of_Serbia_%281947%E2%80%931992%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Montenegro_%281946%E2%80%931993%29%2C_Flag_of_Serbia_%281947%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Republic_of_Montenegro" title="Socialist Republic of Montenegro">Montenegro</a></span> – <a href="/wiki/1990_Montenegrin_general_election" title="1990 Montenegrin general election">9 December 1990</a></li> <li><span data-sort-value="Albania"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Flag_of_Albania_%281946%E2%80%931992%29.svg/21px-Flag_of_Albania_%281946%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Flag_of_Albania_%281946%E2%80%931992%29.svg/32px-Flag_of_Albania_%281946%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Flag_of_Albania_%281946%E2%80%931992%29.svg/42px-Flag_of_Albania_%281946%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="980" data-file-height="700" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Socialist_Republic_of_Albania" title="People's Socialist Republic of Albania">Albania</a></span> – <a href="/wiki/1991_Albanian_Constitutional_Assembly_election" class="mw-redirect" title="1991 Albanian Constitutional Assembly election">31 March 1991</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union">Dissolution of the Soviet Union</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">Dissolution of the Soviet Union</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239334494">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="background:#db3030; color:white; padding:0; font-size:150%;"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc"><span style="color:white;">Eastern Bloc</span></a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding:.5em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Warsaw_Pact_Logo.svg/120px-Warsaw_Pact_Logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Warsaw_Pact_Logo.svg/180px-Warsaw_Pact_Logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Warsaw_Pact_Logo.svg/240px-Warsaw_Pact_Logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="721" data-file-height="860" /></span></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#db3030; color:white; padding:.1em 0 0 .4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:#FFFFFF"><a href="/wiki/Republics_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Republics of the Soviet Union"><span style="color:white;">Republics</span></a> of the <a href="/wiki/USSR" class="mw-redirect" title="USSR"><span style="color:white;">USSR</span></a></span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic">Byelorussia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estonian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazakh_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karelo-Finnish_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Karelo-Finnish Soviet Socialist Republic">Karelia-Finland</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1940–1956)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirghiz_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic">Kirghizia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latvian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moldavian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic">Moldavia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic" title="Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tajik_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkmen_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic">Turkmenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcaucasian_Socialist_Federative_Soviet_Republic" title="Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic">Transcaucasia</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1922–1936)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uzbek_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic">Uzbekistan</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#db3030; color:white; padding:.1em 0 0 .4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:#FFFFFF">Allied and satellite states</span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan" title="Democratic Republic of Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1978–1989)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Socialist_Republic_of_Albania" title="People's Socialist Republic of Albania">Albania</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(until 1961)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Angola" title="People's Republic of Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Benin" title="People's Republic of Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Bulgaria" title="People's Republic of Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(until 1961)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="People's Republic of the Congo">Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czechoslovak_Socialist_Republic" title="Czechoslovak Socialist Republic">Czechoslovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany">East Germany</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(until 1989)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Democratic_Republic_of_Ethiopia" title="People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Revolutionary_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Revolutionary Government">Grenada</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1979–1983)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_People%27s_Republic" title="Hungarian People's Republic">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Kampuchea" title="People's Republic of Kampuchea">Kampuchea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laos" title="Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_People%27s_Republic" title="Mongolian People's Republic">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Mozambique" title="People's Republic of Mozambique">Mozambique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Korea" title="North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_People%27s_Republic" title="Polish People's Republic">Poland</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(until 1989)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Republic_of_Romania" title="Socialist Republic of Romania">Romania</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(until 1989)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_Democratic_Republic" title="Somali Democratic Republic">Somalia</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(until 1977)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Yemen" title="South Yemen">South Yemen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a> (<a href="/wiki/North_Vietnam" title="North Vietnam">North Vietnam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Provisional_Revolutionary_Government_of_the_Republic_of_South_Vietnam" title="Provisional Revolutionary Government of the Republic of South Vietnam">PRG</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Federal_Republic_of_Yugoslavia" title="Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(until 1948)</span></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#db3030; color:white; padding:.1em 0 0 .4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:#FFFFFF">Related organizations</span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comecon" title="Comecon">Comecon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cominform" title="Cominform">Cominform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Federation_of_Trade_Unions" title="World Federation of Trade Unions">World Federation of Trade Unions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Federation_of_Democratic_Youth" title="World Federation of Democratic Youth">World Federation of Democratic Youth</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#db3030; color:white; padding:.1em 0 0 .4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:#FFFFFF"><a href="/wiki/Anti-communist_insurgencies_in_Central_and_Eastern_Europe" title="Anti-communist insurgencies in Central and Eastern Europe"><span style="color:white;">Opposition</span></a></span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:transparent;padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Anti-Soviet_partisans" title="Anti-Soviet partisans">Anti-Soviet partisans</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Valuable" title="Operation Valuable">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goryani" title="Goryani">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusaders_(guerrilla)" title="Crusaders (guerrilla)">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-communist_resistance_in_Poland_(1944%E2%80%931953)" title="Anti-communist resistance in Poland (1944–1953)">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_anti-communist_resistance_movement" title="Romanian anti-communist resistance movement">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chetniks" title="Chetniks">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Soviet_resistance_by_the_Ukrainian_Insurgent_Army" title="Anti-Soviet resistance by the Ukrainian Insurgent Army">Ukraine</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:transparent;padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_war_in_the_Baltic_states" title="Guerrilla war in the Baltic states">Guerrilla war in the Baltic states</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Baltic_states" title="Occupation of the Baltic states">Soviet occupation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estonian_partisans" title="Estonian partisans">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latvian_partisans" title="Latvian partisans">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_partisans" title="Lithuanian partisans">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Jungle" title="Operation Jungle">Operation Jungle</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:transparent;padding-bottom:0;"> Protests and uprisings</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-communist_resistance_in_Poland_(1944%E2%80%931989)" title="Anti-communist resistance in Poland (1944–1989)">Poland 1944–1989</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1956_Pozna%C5%84_protests" title="1956 Poznań protests">Poznań 1956</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solidarity_(Polish_trade_union)" title="Solidarity (Polish trade union)">1980–89</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1953_Plze%C5%88_uprising" title="1953 Plzeň uprising">Plzeň 1953</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_German_uprising_of_1953" title="East German uprising of 1953">East Germany 1953</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1956_Georgian_demonstrations" title="1956 Georgian demonstrations">Georgia 1956</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1956" title="Hungarian Revolution of 1956">Hungary 1956</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novocherkassk_massacre" title="Novocherkassk massacre">Novocherkassk 1962</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prague_Spring" title="Prague Spring">Prague 1968</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia">Invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_Red_Square_demonstration" title="1968 Red Square demonstration">Moscow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charter_77" title="Charter 77">Czechoslovakia 1976–1990</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiu_Valley_miners%27_strike_of_1977" title="Jiu Valley miners' strike of 1977">Romania 1977</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeltoqsan" title="Jeltoqsan">Kazakhstan 1986</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bra%C8%99ov_rebellion" title="Brașov rebellion">Brașov 1987</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/April_9_tragedy" title="April 9 tragedy">Tbilisi 1989</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1989%E2%80%931991_Ukrainian_revolution" title="1989–1991 Ukrainian revolution">Ukraine 1989–1991</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_January" title="Black January">Baku 1990</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/January_Events_(Lithuania)" class="mw-redirect" title="January Events (Lithuania)">Lithuania 1991</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Barricades" title="The Barricades">Riga 1991</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:transparent;padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Emigration_from_the_Eastern_Bloc" title="Emigration from the Eastern Bloc">Dissent</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_dissidents" title="Soviet dissidents">Soviet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissident_movement_in_the_People%27s_Republic_of_Poland" title="Dissident movement in the People's Republic of Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Escape_attempts_and_victims_of_the_inner_German_border" title="Escape attempts and victims of the inner German border">East Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refugee_wave_from_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_to_British_Hong_Kong" title="Refugee wave from the People's Republic of China to British Hong Kong">to Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Korean_defectors" title="North Korean defectors">North Korea</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#db3030; color:white; padding:.1em 0 0 .4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:#FFFFFF">Cold War events</span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Plan" title="Marshall Plan">Marshall Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Czechoslovak_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état">Czechoslovak coup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tito%E2%80%93Stalin_split" title="Tito–Stalin split">Tito–Stalin split</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Blockade" title="Berlin Blockade">Berlin Blockade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Cult_of_Personality_and_Its_Consequences" title="On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences">Secret Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_split" title="Sino-Soviet split">Sino-Soviet split</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albanian%E2%80%93Soviet_split" title="Albanian–Soviet split">Albanian–Soviet split</a></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/De-satellization_of_the_Socialist_Republic_of_Romania" title="De-satellization of the Socialist Republic of Romania">De-satellization of the Socialist Republic of Romania</a></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Wall" title="Berlin Wall">Berlin Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis" title="Cuban Missile Crisis">Cuban Missile Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_intervention_in_Angola" title="Cuban intervention in Angola">Cuban intervention in Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet invasion of Afghanistan">Afghan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1980_Summer_Olympics" title="1980 Summer Olympics">1980 Moscow Olympics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1984_Summer_Olympics" title="1984 Summer Olympics">1984 Los Angeles Olympics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#db3030; color:white; padding:.1em 0 0 .4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:#FFFFFF">Fall</span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Singing_Revolution" title="Singing Revolution">Singing Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_Round_Table_Agreement" title="Polish Round Table Agreement">Polish Round Table Agreement</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Revolutions of 1989</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Berlin_Wall" title="Fall of the Berlin Wall">Fall of the Berlin Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/January_Events_(Lithuania)" class="mw-redirect" title="January Events (Lithuania)">January Events</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Barricades" title="The Barricades">Barricades in Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breakup_of_Yugoslavia" title="Breakup of Yugoslavia">Breakup of Yugoslavia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_Wars" title="Yugoslav Wars">Yugoslav Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">End of the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Soviet_conflicts" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-Soviet conflicts">Post-Soviet conflicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_communism_in_Albania" title="Fall of communism in Albania">Fall of communism in Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Dissolution of Czechoslovakia">Dissolution of Czechoslovakia</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Eastern_Bloc_sidebar" title="Template:Eastern Bloc sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Eastern_Bloc_sidebar" title="Template talk:Eastern Bloc sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Eastern_Bloc_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Eastern Bloc sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>On 1 July 1991, the Warsaw Pact was officially dissolved at a meeting in Prague. At a summit later that same month, Gorbachev and Bush declared a US–Soviet strategic partnership, decisively marking the end of the Cold War. President Bush declared that US–Soviet cooperation during the 1990–1991 <a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a> had laid the groundwork for a partnership in resolving bilateral and world problems. </p><p>As the Soviet Union rapidly withdrew its forces from Central and Southeast Europe, the spillover from the 1989 upheavals began reverberating throughout the Soviet Union itself. Agitation for self-determination led to first Lithuania, and then Estonia, Latvia, and Armenia declaring independence. However, the Soviet central government demanded the revocation of the declarations and threatened military action and economic sanctions. The government even went as far as controversially sending <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Army" title="Soviet Army">Soviet Army</a> troops to the streets of the Lithuanian capital, <a href="/wiki/Vilnius" title="Vilnius">Vilnius</a>, to <a href="/wiki/January_Events_(Lithuania)" class="mw-redirect" title="January Events (Lithuania)">suppress the separatist movements</a> in January 1991, causing the deaths of 14 persons. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Image0_ST.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Image0_ST.jpg/220px-Image0_ST.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Image0_ST.jpg/330px-Image0_ST.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Image0_ST.jpg/440px-Image0_ST.jpg 2x" data-file-width="565" data-file-height="424" /></a><figcaption>Tanks in Moscow's <a href="/wiki/Red_Square" title="Red Square">Red Square</a> during the <a href="/wiki/1991_Soviet_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_attempt" class="mw-redirect" title="1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt">1991 coup attempt</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Disaffection in other Soviet republics, such as Georgia and Azerbaijan, was countered by promises of greater decentralization. More open elections led to the election of candidates opposed to Communist Party rule. </p><p><i>Glasnost</i> had inadvertently released the long-suppressed national sentiments of all peoples within the borders of the multinational Soviet state. These nationalist movements were further strengthened by the rapid deterioration of the Soviet economy, whose foundations were exposed with the removal of communist discipline. Gorbachev's reforms had failed to improve the economy, with the old Soviet <a href="/wiki/Planned_economy" title="Planned economy">command structure</a> completely breaking down. One by one, the constituent republics created their own economic systems and voted to subordinate Soviet laws to local laws. </p><p>In 1990, the Communist Party was forced to surrender its seven-decade monopoly of political power when the Supreme Soviet rescinded the clause in the Soviet Constitution that guaranteed its sole authority to rule. Gorbachev's policies caused the Communist Party to lose its control over the media. Details of the Soviet Union's past were quickly being declassified. This caused many to distrust the 'old system' and push for greater autonomy and independence. </p><p>After the <a href="/wiki/1991_Soviet_Union_referendum" title="1991 Soviet Union referendum">March 1991 referendum</a> confirmed the preservation of the Soviet Union but in a looser form, a group of Soviet hard-liners represented by Vice-President <a href="/wiki/Gennadi_Yanayev" class="mw-redirect" title="Gennadi Yanayev">Gennadi Yanayev</a> launched <a href="/wiki/1991_Soviet_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_attempt" class="mw-redirect" title="1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt">a coup attempting to overthrow Gorbachev</a> in August 1991. <a href="/wiki/Boris_Yeltsin" title="Boris Yeltsin">Boris Yeltsin</a>, then president of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic" title="Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic">Russian SFSR</a>, rallied the people and much of the army against the coup and the effort collapsed. Although restored to power, Gorbachev's authority had been irreparably undermined. Gorbachev resigned as General Secretary of the Communist Party following the coup, and the Supreme Soviet dissolved the Party and banned all communist activity on Soviet soil. Just a few weeks later, the government granted the Baltic states their independence on 6 September. </p><p>Over the next three months, one republic after another declared independence, mostly out of fear of another coup. Also during this time, the Soviet government was rendered useless as the new Russian government began taking over what remained of it, including the Kremlin. The penultimate step came on 1 December, when voters in the second most powerful republic, Ukraine, overwhelmingly voted to secede from the Soviet Union in a referendum. This ended any realistic chance of keeping the Soviet Union together. On 8 December, Yeltsin met with his counterparts from Ukraine and Belarus and signed the <a href="/wiki/Belavezha_Accords" class="mw-redirect" title="Belavezha Accords">Belavezha Accords</a>, declaring that the Soviet Union had ceased to exist. Gorbachev denounced this as illegal, but he had long since lost any ability to influence events outside of Moscow. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cold_War_border_changes.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Cold_War_border_changes.png/220px-Cold_War_border_changes.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Cold_War_border_changes.png/330px-Cold_War_border_changes.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Cold_War_border_changes.png/440px-Cold_War_border_changes.png 2x" data-file-width="599" data-file-height="436" /></a><figcaption>Changes in national boundaries after the end of the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Two weeks later, 11 of the remaining 12 republics—all except Georgia—signed the <a href="/wiki/Alma-Ata_Protocol" title="Alma-Ata Protocol">Alma-Ata Protocol</a>, which confirmed the Soviet Union had been effectively dissolved and replaced by a new voluntary association, the <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Independent_States" title="Commonwealth of Independent States">Commonwealth of Independent States</a>. Bowing to the inevitable, Gorbachev resigned as Soviet president on 25 December, and the Supreme Soviet ratified the Belavezha Accords the next day, legally dissolving itself and the Soviet Union as a political entity. By the end of 1991, the few Soviet institutions that hadn't been taken over by Russia had dissolved. The Soviet Union was officially disbanded, breaking up into fifteen constituent parts, thereby ending the world's largest and most influential Socialist state, and leaving to China that position. In 1993, a <a href="/wiki/1993_Russian_constitutional_crisis" title="1993 Russian constitutional crisis">constitutional crisis</a> dissolved into violence in Moscow as the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Armed_Forces" title="Russian Armed Forces">Russian Armed Forces</a> were called in to reestablish order. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Baltic_states">Baltic states</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Singing_Revolution" title="Singing Revolution">Singing Revolution</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1989_08_23_Baltijoskelias14.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/1989_08_23_Baltijoskelias14.jpg/220px-1989_08_23_Baltijoskelias14.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/1989_08_23_Baltijoskelias14.jpg/330px-1989_08_23_Baltijoskelias14.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/1989_08_23_Baltijoskelias14.jpg/440px-1989_08_23_Baltijoskelias14.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2196" data-file-height="1464" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Baltic_Way" title="Baltic Way">Baltic Way</a> was a <a href="/wiki/Human_chain_(politics)" title="Human chain (politics)">human chain</a> of approximately two million people demanding independence of the <a href="/wiki/Baltic_states" title="Baltic states">Baltic states</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania implemented democratic reforms and achieved independence from the Soviet Union. The <a href="/wiki/Singing_Revolution" title="Singing Revolution">Singing Revolution</a> is a commonly used name for events between 1987 and 1991 that led to the restoration of the independence of <a href="/wiki/Estonian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic">Estonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latvian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic">Latvia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic">Lithuania</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term was coined by an Estonian activist and artist, <a href="/wiki/Heinz_Valk" title="Heinz Valk">Heinz Valk</a>, in an article published a week after 10–11 June 1988 spontaneous mass night-singing demonstrations at the <a href="/wiki/Tallinn_Song_Festival_Grounds" title="Tallinn Song Festival Grounds">Tallinn Song Festival Grounds</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Estonia <a href="/wiki/Estonian_Sovereignty_Declaration" title="Estonian Sovereignty Declaration">declared its sovereignty</a> from the Soviet Union on 16 November 1988. Lithuania followed on 18 May 1989 and Latvia on 28 July 1989. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Act_of_the_Re-Establishment_of_the_State_of_Lithuania" title="Act of the Re-Establishment of the State of Lithuania">Lithuania declared full independence</a> on 11 March 1990 and on 30 March, Estonia announced the start of a transitional period to independence, <a href="/wiki/On_the_Restoration_of_Independence_of_the_Republic_of_Latvia" title="On the Restoration of Independence of the Republic of Latvia">followed by Latvia</a> on 4 May. These declarations were met with force from the Soviet Union in early 1991, in confrontations known as the <a href="/wiki/January_Events_(Lithuania)" class="mw-redirect" title="January Events (Lithuania)">"January Events" in Lithuania</a> and "<a href="/wiki/The_Barricades" title="The Barricades">The Barricades</a>" in Latvia. The Baltic states contended that their incorporation into the Soviet Union had been illegal under both international law and their own law, and they were reasserting an independence that still legally existed. </p><p>Soon after the launching of the August coup, Estonia and Latvia declared full independence. By the time the coup failed, the USSR was no longer unified enough to mount a forceful resistance, and it recognized the independence of the Baltic states on 6 September 1991. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Belarus,_Ukraine_and_Moldova"><span id="Belarus.2C_Ukraine_and_Moldova"></span>Belarus, Ukraine and Moldova</h4></div> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Flag_of_Belarus_%281918%2C_1991%E2%80%931995%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Belarus_%281918%2C_1991%E2%80%931995%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Flag_of_Belarus_%281918%2C_1991%E2%80%931995%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Belarus_%281918%2C_1991%E2%80%931995%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Flag_of_Belarus_%281918%2C_1991%E2%80%931995%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Belarus_%281918%2C_1991%E2%80%931995%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="256" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Belarus" title="Belarus">Belarus</a> declared full independence from the USSR on 25 August 1991. The main political changes of the early 1990s were driven by the <a href="/wiki/Belarusian_Popular_Front" title="Belarusian Popular Front">Belarusian Popular Front</a> and its fraction in the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Soviet_of_Belarus" class="mw-redirect" title="Supreme Soviet of Belarus">Supreme Soviet of Belarus</a>. A few years later, a new post-communist leader, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Lukashenko" title="Alexander Lukashenko">Alexander Lukashenko</a>, obtained power. After a short period, he increased his power as a result of two controversial referendums (1995–96) and has been criticized for <a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Belarus" title="Human rights in Belarus">repressing political opposition</a> ever since.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Flag_of_Moldova.svg/23px-Flag_of_Moldova.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Flag_of_Moldova.svg/35px-Flag_of_Moldova.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Flag_of_Moldova.svg/46px-Flag_of_Moldova.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="900" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Moldova" title="Moldova">Moldova</a> participated in the <a href="/wiki/War_of_Transnistria" class="mw-redirect" title="War of Transnistria">War of Transnistria</a> between Moldova and Russian-connected forces in the separatist region of <a href="/wiki/Transnistria" title="Transnistria">Transnistria</a>. Communists came back to power in a 2001 election under <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Voronin" title="Vladimir Voronin">Vladimir Voronin</a>, but faced <a href="/wiki/2009_Moldova_civil_unrest" class="mw-redirect" title="2009 Moldova civil unrest">civil unrest</a> in 2009 over accusations of rigged elections.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg/23px-Flag_of_Ukraine.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg/35px-Flag_of_Ukraine.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg/45px-Flag_of_Ukraine.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a> had <a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_Independence_of_Ukraine" title="Declaration of Independence of Ukraine">restored its independence</a> in August 1991, after it lost its independence, as the short-lived <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_People%27s_Republic" title="Ukrainian People's Republic">Ukrainian People's Republic</a>, in 1919. Presidencies of former communists <a href="/wiki/Leonid_Kravchuk" title="Leonid Kravchuk">Leonid Kravchuk</a> and <a href="/wiki/Leonid_Kuchma" title="Leonid Kuchma">Leonid Kuchma</a> were followed by the <a href="/wiki/Orange_Revolution" title="Orange Revolution">Orange Revolution</a> in 2004, in which Ukrainians elected <a href="/wiki/Viktor_Yushchenko" title="Viktor Yushchenko">Viktor Yushchenko</a> (also a former member of <a href="/wiki/CPSU" class="mw-redirect" title="CPSU">CPSU</a>). Kyiv, the Ukrainian capital, was the focal point of the movement's campaign of <a href="/wiki/Civil_resistance" title="Civil resistance">civil resistance</a>, with thousands of protesters demonstrating daily.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Transcaucasia">Transcaucasia</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:April9victims.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/April9victims.jpg/220px-April9victims.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/April9victims.jpg/330px-April9victims.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/April9victims.jpg/440px-April9victims.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1143" data-file-height="792" /></a><figcaption>Photos of 9 April 1989 victims of the <a href="/wiki/Tbilisi_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Tbilisi massacre">Tbilisi massacre</a> on a billboard in <a href="/wiki/Tbilisi" title="Tbilisi">Tbilisi</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Georgia,_Ossetia,_Russia_and_Abkhazia_(en).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Georgia%2C_Ossetia%2C_Russia_and_Abkhazia_%28en%29.svg/220px-Georgia%2C_Ossetia%2C_Russia_and_Abkhazia_%28en%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Georgia%2C_Ossetia%2C_Russia_and_Abkhazia_%28en%29.svg/330px-Georgia%2C_Ossetia%2C_Russia_and_Abkhazia_%28en%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Georgia%2C_Ossetia%2C_Russia_and_Abkhazia_%28en%29.svg/440px-Georgia%2C_Ossetia%2C_Russia_and_Abkhazia_%28en%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="676" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption>Following Georgia's declaration of independence in 1991, <a href="/wiki/South_Ossetia" title="South Ossetia">South Ossetia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Abkhazia" title="Abkhazia">Abkhazia</a> declared their desire to leave Georgia and remain part of the Soviet Union/Russia.<sup id="cite_ref-princeton_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-princeton-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>All countries in the region regained their independence in 1991 following the takeover by the <a href="/wiki/Red_Army" title="Red Army">Red Army</a> in 1920–21. </p> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Flag_of_Georgia_%281990%E2%80%932004%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Georgia_%281990%E2%80%932004%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Flag_of_Georgia_%281990%E2%80%932004%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Georgia_%281990%E2%80%932004%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Flag_of_Georgia_%281990%E2%80%932004%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Georgia_%281990%E2%80%932004%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Georgia_(country)" title="Georgia (country)">Georgia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/North_Caucasus" title="North Caucasus">North Caucasus</a> have been marred by <a href="/wiki/Wars_in_the_Caucasus" title="Wars in the Caucasus">ethnic and sectarian violence</a> since the collapse of the USSR. In April 1989 the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Army" title="Soviet Army">Soviet Army</a> <a href="/wiki/April_9_tragedy" title="April 9 tragedy">massacred demonstrators in Tbilisi</a>. In November 1989, the <a href="/wiki/Georgian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic">Georgian SSR</a> officially condemned the <a href="/wiki/Red_Army_invasion_of_Georgia" title="Red Army invasion of Georgia">Red Army invasion of Georgia</a>. Democracy activist <a href="/wiki/Zviad_Gamsakhurdia" title="Zviad Gamsakhurdia">Zviad Gamsakhurdia</a> served as president from 1991 to 1992.<sup id="cite_ref-princeton_124-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-princeton-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Russia aided break-away republics in wars in <a href="/w/index.php?title=1991%E2%88%921992_South_Ossetia_War&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1991−1992 South Ossetia War (page does not exist)">South Ossetia</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=War_in_Abkhazia_(1992%E2%88%921993)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="War in Abkhazia (1992−1993) (page does not exist)">Abkhazia</a> during the early 1990s, conflicts that have periodically reemerged, and Russia has accused Georgia of supporting Chechen rebels during the <a href="/wiki/First_Chechen_War" title="First Chechen War">Chechen wars</a>. A coup d'état installed former communist leader <a href="/wiki/Eduard_Shevardnadze" title="Eduard Shevardnadze">Eduard Shevardnadze</a> as President of Georgia until the <a href="/wiki/Rose_Revolution" title="Rose Revolution">Rose Revolution</a> in 2003.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_Armenia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Armenia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_Armenia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Armenia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_Armenia.svg/46px-Flag_of_Armenia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a>'s independence struggle included violence as the <a href="/wiki/First_Nagorno-Karabakh_War" title="First Nagorno-Karabakh War">First Nagorno-Karabakh War</a> was fought between Armenia and Azerbaijan. Armenia became increasingly militarized, with the ascendancy of Kocharian, a former president of <a href="/wiki/Nagorno-Karabakh" title="Nagorno-Karabakh">Nagorno-Karabakh</a>, often viewed as a milestone. Elections have since been increasingly controversial, and government corruption became rifer. After Kocharyan, notably, <a href="/wiki/Serzh_Sargsyan" title="Serzh Sargsyan">Serzh Sargsyan</a> ascended to power. Sargsyan is often noted as the "founder of the Armenian and Karabakh militaries" and was, in the past, defense minister and national security minister.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg/46px-Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan" title="Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijani_Popular_Front_Party" title="Azerbaijani Popular Front Party">Popular Front Party</a> won the first elections with the self-described pro-Western, populist nationalist Elchibey. However, Elchibey planned to end Moscow's advantage in the harvesting of Azeri oil and build much stronger links with Turkey and Europe, and as a result was overthrown by former communists in a coup backed by Russia and Iran, which viewed the new country as a compelling threat, with territorial ambitions within Iranian borders and also being a strong economic rival.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mutallibov rose to power, but he was soon destabilized and eventually ousted due to popular frustration with his perceived incompetence, corruption and improper handling of the war with Armenia. Azerbaijani KGB and Azerbaijani SSR leader <a href="/wiki/Heydar_Aliyev" title="Heydar Aliyev">Heydar Aliyev</a> captured power and remained president until he transferred the presidency to his son in 2003. The <a href="/wiki/First_Nagorno-Karabakh_War" title="First Nagorno-Karabakh War">First Nagorno-Karabakh War</a> was fought between Armenia and Azerbaijan, and has largely defined the fates of both countries. Unlike Armenia, which remains a strong Russian ally, Azerbaijan has begun, since Russia's 2008 war with Georgia, to foster better relations with Turkey and other Western nations, while lessening ties with Russia.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Chechnya">Chechnya</h5></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Evstafiev-chechnya-women-pray.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Evstafiev-chechnya-women-pray.jpg/220px-Evstafiev-chechnya-women-pray.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Evstafiev-chechnya-women-pray.jpg/330px-Evstafiev-chechnya-women-pray.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Evstafiev-chechnya-women-pray.jpg/440px-Evstafiev-chechnya-women-pray.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="489" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Chechnya" title="Chechnya">Chechen</a> women praying for Russian troops not to advance towards <a href="/wiki/Grozny" title="Grozny">Grozny</a> during the <a href="/wiki/First_Chechen_War" title="First Chechen War">First Chechen War</a>, December 1994</figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Chechnya" title="Chechnya">Chechnya</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Autonomous_republics_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Autonomous republics of the Soviet Union">autonomous republic</a> within <a href="/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic" title="Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic">Russian SFSR</a> that had a strong desire for independence, using tactics partly copied from the Baltics, anti-communist coalition forces led by former Soviet general <a href="/wiki/Dzhokhar_Dudayev" title="Dzhokhar Dudayev">Dzhokhar Dudayev</a> staged a largely bloodless revolution, and ended up forcing the resignation of the communist republican president. Dudayev was elected in a landslide in the following election. In November 1991, he proclaimed <a href="/wiki/Checheno-Ingushetia" class="mw-redirect" title="Checheno-Ingushetia">Checheno-Ingushetia</a>'s independence as the Republic of Ichkeria. Ingushetia voted to leave the union with Chechnya, and was allowed to do so, becoming the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria.<sup id="cite_ref-rbc_2017_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rbc_2017-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Due to Dudayev's desire to exclude Moscow from all oil deals, Yeltsin backed a failed coup against him in 1993. In 1994, Chechnya was invaded by Russia, spurring the <a href="/wiki/First_Chechen_War" title="First Chechen War">First Chechen War</a>. Chechnya had only marginal international recognition, from one country: Georgia, which was revoked soon after the coup landing Shevardnadze in power. The Chechens, with considerable assistance from the populations of both former-Soviet countries and from Sunni Muslim countries repelled the invasion, and a peace treaty was signed in 1997. However, Chechnya became increasingly anarchic, largely due to both the political and physical destruction of the state during the invasion, and general Shamil Basaev, having evaded all control by the central government, conducted raids into neighboring Dagestan, which Russia used as a pretext for reinvading Ichkeria. Ichkeria was then reincorporated into Russia as Chechnya again.<sup id="cite_ref-rbc_2017_127-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rbc_2017-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Central_Asia">Central Asia</h4></div> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Flag_of_the_Kazakh_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Kazakhstan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Kazakh_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Kazakhstan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Flag_of_the_Kazakh_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Kazakhstan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Kazakh_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Kazakhstan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Flag_of_the_Kazakh_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Kazakhstan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Kazakh_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Kazakhstan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Kazakhstan" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a>'s independence struggle began with the <a href="/wiki/Jeltoqsan" title="Jeltoqsan">Jeltoqsan</a> uprising in 1986. Former communist leader <a href="/wiki/Nursultan_Nazarbayev" title="Nursultan Nazarbayev">Nursultan Nazarbayev</a> has been in power from 1990<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> when he started serving as <a href="/wiki/Kazakh_SSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Kazakh SSR">President of Kazakh SSR</a> until his retirement from his position in 2019.<sup id="cite_ref-reuters_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reuters-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Flag_of_the_Kirghiz_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Kyrgyzstan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Kirghiz_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Kyrgyzstan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Flag_of_the_Kirghiz_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Kyrgyzstan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Kirghiz_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Kyrgyzstan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Flag_of_the_Kirghiz_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Kyrgyzstan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Kirghiz_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Kyrgyzstan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyzstan" title="Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Askar_Akayev" title="Askar Akayev">Askar Akayev</a> retained power until the <a href="/wiki/Tulip_Revolution" title="Tulip Revolution">Tulip Revolution</a> in 2005.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Flag_of_the_Tajik_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931991%29%2C_Flag_of_Tajikistan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Tajik_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931991%29%2C_Flag_of_Tajikistan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Flag_of_the_Tajik_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931991%29%2C_Flag_of_Tajikistan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Tajik_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931991%29%2C_Flag_of_Tajikistan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Flag_of_the_Tajik_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931991%29%2C_Flag_of_Tajikistan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Tajik_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931991%29%2C_Flag_of_Tajikistan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Tajikistan" title="Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Rahmon_Nabiyev" title="Rahmon Nabiyev">Rahmon Nabiyev</a> retained power, which led to the <a href="/wiki/Civil_war_in_Tajikistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil war in Tajikistan">civil war in Tajikistan</a>. <a href="/wiki/Emomali_Rahmon" title="Emomali Rahmon">Emomali Rahmon</a> has succeeded Nabiyev and has retained power since 1992.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Flag_of_the_Turkmen_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281973%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Turkmenistan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Turkmen_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281973%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Turkmenistan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Flag_of_the_Turkmen_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281973%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Turkmenistan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Turkmen_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281973%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Turkmenistan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Flag_of_the_Turkmen_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281973%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Turkmenistan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Turkmen_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281973%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Turkmenistan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Turkmenistan" title="Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Saparmurat_Niyazov" title="Saparmurat Niyazov">Saparmurat Niyazov</a> retained power until his death in 2006 and was criticized as one of the world's most totalitarian and repressive leaders, maintaining his own <a href="/wiki/Cult_of_personality" title="Cult of personality">cult of personality</a>. Niyazov's successor <a href="/wiki/Gurbanguly_Berdimuhamedow" title="Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedow">Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedov</a> initially eased changes made by Niyazov before starting his very own cult of personality.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Flag_of_Uzbekistan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Uzbekistan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Flag_of_Uzbekistan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Uzbekistan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Flag_of_Uzbekistan.svg/46px-Flag_of_Uzbekistan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Uzbekistan" title="Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Islam_Karimov" title="Islam Karimov">Islam Karimov</a> retained power until his death in 2016<sup id="cite_ref-:0_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and was widely criticized for repressing the political opposition throughout his tenure.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Post-Soviet_conflicts">Post-Soviet conflicts</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1993_Georgia_war1.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/1993_Georgia_war1.svg/220px-1993_Georgia_war1.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/1993_Georgia_war1.svg/330px-1993_Georgia_war1.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/1993_Georgia_war1.svg/440px-1993_Georgia_war1.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1940" data-file-height="1370" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Georgian_Civil_War" title="Georgian Civil War">Georgian Civil War</a> and the <a href="/wiki/War_in_Abkhazia_(1992%E2%80%931993)" title="War in Abkhazia (1992–1993)">War in Abkhazia</a> in August–October 1993</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nagorno-Karabakh_Map2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Nagorno-Karabakh_Map2.png/220px-Nagorno-Karabakh_Map2.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Nagorno-Karabakh_Map2.png/330px-Nagorno-Karabakh_Map2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Nagorno-Karabakh_Map2.png/440px-Nagorno-Karabakh_Map2.png 2x" data-file-width="1673" data-file-height="837" /></a><figcaption>Former (2020-2023) military situation in separatist <a href="/wiki/Nagorno-Karabakh" title="Nagorno-Karabakh">Nagorno-Karabakh</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Post-Soviet_conflicts" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-Soviet conflicts">Post-Soviet conflicts</a></div> <p>Some of the more notable post-Soviet conflicts include the <a href="/wiki/Tajikistani_Civil_War" title="Tajikistani Civil War">Tajikistani Civil War</a>, the <a href="/wiki/First_Nagorno-Karabakh_War" title="First Nagorno-Karabakh War">First Nagorno-Karabakh War</a>, the <a href="/wiki/War_of_Transnistria" class="mw-redirect" title="War of Transnistria">War of Transnistria</a>, the <a href="/wiki/1991%E2%80%931992_South_Ossetia_War" class="mw-redirect" title="1991–1992 South Ossetia War">1991–1992 South Ossetia War</a>, the <a href="/wiki/First_Chechen_War" title="First Chechen War">First Chechen War</a>, the <a href="/wiki/War_in_Abkhazia_(1992%E2%80%931993)" title="War in Abkhazia (1992–1993)">War in Abkhazia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ossetian%E2%80%93Ingush_conflict" class="mw-redirect" title="Ossetian–Ingush conflict">Ossetian–Ingush conflict</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Second_Chechen_War" title="Second Chechen War">Second Chechen War</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Georgian_War" title="Russo-Georgian War">Russo-Georgian War</a>, the <a href="/wiki/2014_Crimean_Crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="2014 Crimean Crisis">Crimea</a> and <a href="/wiki/War_in_Donbas_(2014%E2%80%932022)" class="mw-redirect" title="War in Donbas (2014–2022)">Donbas</a> conflicts, and the <a href="/wiki/2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine">2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine</a>. Ethnic conflicts in the former Soviet Union, and their potential for triggering serious interstate conflicts, posed a major threat to regional and international security for years ahead.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_events">Other events</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Communist_and_socialist_countries">Communist and socialist countries</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Socialist_states" class="mw-redirect" title="Socialist states">Socialist states</a></div> <p>Reforms in the Soviet Union and its allied countries also led to dramatic changes to communist and socialist states outside of Europe. </p><p>Countries that retained socialist-styled economies and government structures beyond 1991: </p> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> – China remained under the leadership of the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Chinese Communist Party</a>, whilst continuing far-reaching economic reforms.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Flag_of_Cuba.svg/23px-Flag_of_Cuba.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Flag_of_Cuba.svg/35px-Flag_of_Cuba.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Flag_of_Cuba.svg/46px-Flag_of_Cuba.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a> – Cuba remained under the leadership of the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Cuba" title="Communist Party of Cuba">Communist Party of Cuba</a> and retained a socialist planned economy.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/23px-Flag_of_India.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/35px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/45px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> – <a href="/wiki/Economic_liberalisation_in_India" title="Economic liberalisation in India">Indian economic reforms</a> were launched in 1991. Poverty reduced from 36 percent in 1993–94 to 24.1 percent in 1999–2000.<sup id="cite_ref-:15_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:15-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Flag_of_Laos.svg/23px-Flag_of_Laos.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Flag_of_Laos.svg/35px-Flag_of_Laos.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Flag_of_Laos.svg/45px-Flag_of_Laos.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Laos" title="Laos">Laos</a> – Laos remained under the leadership of the <a href="/wiki/Lao_People%27s_Revolutionary_Party" title="Lao People's Revolutionary Party">Lao People's Revolutionary Party</a> and retained many socialist economic policies.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Flag_of_Libya_%281977%E2%80%932011%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Libya_%281977%E2%80%932011%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Flag_of_Libya_%281977%E2%80%932011%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Libya_%281977%E2%80%932011%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Flag_of_Libya_%281977%E2%80%932011%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Libya_%281977%E2%80%932011%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="500" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/History_of_Libya_under_Muammar_Gaddafi#Great_Socialist_People's_Libyan_Arab_Jamahiriya_(1977–2011)" title="History of Libya under Muammar Gaddafi">Libya</a> – Libya remained governed according to <a href="/wiki/Muammar_Gaddafi" title="Muammar Gaddafi">Muammar Gaddafi</a>'s socialist <a href="/wiki/Third_International_Theory" title="Third International Theory">Third International Theory</a>, and retained a socialist planned economy until <a href="/wiki/First_Libyan_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First Libyan Civil War">2011</a>. It had started with the Libyan Revolution<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and ended with <a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Muammar_Gaddafi" title="Killing of Muammar Gaddafi">Gaddafi's assassination</a>.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Republic_%281958%E2%80%931971%29%2C_Flag_of_Syria_%281980%E2%80%932024%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Republic_%281958%E2%80%931971%29%2C_Flag_of_Syria_%281980%E2%80%932024%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Republic_%281958%E2%80%931971%29%2C_Flag_of_Syria_%281980%E2%80%932024%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Republic_%281958%E2%80%931971%29%2C_Flag_of_Syria_%281980%E2%80%932024%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Republic_%281958%E2%80%931971%29%2C_Flag_of_Syria_%281980%E2%80%932024%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Republic_%281958%E2%80%931971%29%2C_Flag_of_Syria_%281980%E2%80%932024%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a> – Syria remained under the leadership of the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Syria_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region">Syrian Ba'ath Party</a> and retained a socialist (<a href="/wiki/Ba%27athism" title="Ba'athism">Ba'athist</a>) planned economy.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Flag_of_Vietnam.svg/23px-Flag_of_Vietnam.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Flag_of_Vietnam.svg/35px-Flag_of_Vietnam.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Flag_of_Vietnam.svg/45px-Flag_of_Vietnam.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a> – Vietnam remained under the leadership of the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Vietnam" title="Communist Party of Vietnam">Communist Party of Vietnam</a> and pursued economic reforms that were much less far-reaching than China's and many socialist economic policies were retained.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Africa">Africa</h5></div> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Algeria.svg/23px-Flag_of_Algeria.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Algeria.svg/35px-Flag_of_Algeria.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Algeria.svg/45px-Flag_of_Algeria.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a> – <a href="/wiki/1988_October_Riots" title="1988 October Riots">1988 October Riots</a>, democratization through the <a href="/wiki/1989_Algerian_constitutional_referendum" title="1989 Algerian constitutional referendum">1989 constitutional referendum</a>, victory of, an Islamist party, the FIS in the <a href="/wiki/1990_Algerian_local_elections" title="1990 Algerian local elections">1990 local elections</a> and in the <a href="/wiki/1991_Algerian_legislative_election" class="mw-redirect" title="1991 Algerian legislative election">1991 legislative elections</a>, leading to a military coup in January 1992, sparking the <a href="/wiki/Algerian_Civil_War" title="Algerian Civil War">Algerian Civil War</a>, until 2002.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Angola" title="Angola"><img alt="Angola" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Flag_of_Angola.svg/23px-Flag_of_Angola.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Flag_of_Angola.svg/35px-Flag_of_Angola.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Flag_of_Angola.svg/45px-Flag_of_Angola.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Angola" title="People's Republic of Angola">Angola</a> – The ruling <a href="/wiki/MPLA" title="MPLA">MPLA</a> government abandoned Marxism–Leninism in 1991 and agreed to the <a href="/wiki/Bicesse_Accords" title="Bicesse Accords">Bicesse Accords</a> in the same year, however the <a href="/wiki/Angolan_Civil_War" title="Angolan Civil War">Angolan Civil War</a> between the MPLA and the conservative <a href="/wiki/UNITA" title="UNITA">UNITA</a> continued for another decade until 2002.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Benin" title="Benin"><img alt="Benin" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Flag_of_Benin_%281975%E2%80%931990%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Benin_%281975%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Flag_of_Benin_%281975%E2%80%931990%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Benin_%281975%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Flag_of_Benin_%281975%E2%80%931990%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Benin_%281975%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Benin" title="People's Republic of Benin">Benin</a> – <a href="/wiki/Mathieu_K%C3%A9r%C3%A9kou" title="Mathieu Kérékou">Mathieu Kérékou</a>'s regime was pressured to abandon Marxism–Leninism in 1989.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Flag_of_Burkina_Faso.svg/23px-Flag_of_Burkina_Faso.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Flag_of_Burkina_Faso.svg/35px-Flag_of_Burkina_Faso.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Flag_of_Burkina_Faso.svg/45px-Flag_of_Burkina_Faso.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Burkina_Faso" title="Burkina Faso">Burkina Faso</a> – <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sankara" title="Thomas Sankara">Thomas Sankara</a> was overthrown and assassinated in the <a href="/wiki/1987_Burkinab%C3%A9_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" class="mw-redirect" title="1987 Burkinabé coup d'état">1987 Burkinabé coup d'état</a>, during which power was taken by <a href="/wiki/Blaise_Compaor%C3%A9" title="Blaise Compaoré">Blaise Compaoré</a>, who reversed many of Sankara's social policies. Military rule was ended in 1989, with the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Organization_for_Popular_Democracy_%E2%80%93_Labour_Movement" title="Organization for Popular Democracy – Labour Movement">ODP-MT</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Popular_Front_(Burkina_Faso)" title="Popular Front (Burkina Faso)">Popular Front</a> coalition, beginning a process of democratization that started in <a href="/wiki/1991_Burkinab%C3%A9_presidential_election" title="1991 Burkinabé presidential election">1991</a> and finished when Compaoré was finally forced to resign by the <a href="/wiki/2014_Burkinab%C3%A9_uprising" class="mw-redirect" title="2014 Burkinabé uprising">2014 Burkinabé uprising</a>.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Flag_of_Burundi.svg/23px-Flag_of_Burundi.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Flag_of_Burundi.svg/35px-Flag_of_Burundi.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Flag_of_Burundi.svg/46px-Flag_of_Burundi.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Burundi" title="Burundi">Burundi</a> – <a href="/wiki/1996_Burundian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1996 Burundian coup d'état">1996 Burundian coup d'état</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Flag_of_Cape_Verde_%281975%E2%80%931992%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Cape_Verde_%281975%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Flag_of_Cape_Verde_%281975%E2%80%931992%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Cape_Verde_%281975%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Flag_of_Cape_Verde_%281975%E2%80%931992%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Cape_Verde_%281975%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Cape_Verde" title="Cape Verde">Cape Verde</a> – The ruling <a href="/wiki/African_Party_for_the_Independence_of_Cape_Verde" title="African Party for the Independence of Cape Verde">African Party for the Independence of Cape Verde</a> party cut down its socialist ideology and foreign donors pressured the government to allow multiparty elections in 1991.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Flag_of_the_Central_African_Republic.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Central_African_Republic.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Flag_of_the_Central_African_Republic.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Central_African_Republic.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Flag_of_the_Central_African_Republic.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Central_African_Republic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Central_African_Republic" title="Central African Republic">Central African Republic</a> – democratization in 1992.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Republic of the Congo"><img alt="Republic of the Congo" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="People's Republic of the Congo">Congo-Brazzaville</a> – <a href="/wiki/Denis_Sassou_Nguesso" title="Denis Sassou Nguesso">Denis Sassou Nguesso</a>'s regime was pressured to abandon Marxism–Leninism in 1991. The nation had elections in 1992 and <a href="/wiki/First_Republic_of_the_Congo_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First Republic of the Congo Civil War">First Republic of the Congo Civil War</a> in 1993.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Flag_of_Djibouti.svg/23px-Flag_of_Djibouti.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Flag_of_Djibouti.svg/35px-Flag_of_Djibouti.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Flag_of_Djibouti.svg/45px-Flag_of_Djibouti.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Djibouti" title="Djibouti">Djibouti</a> – <a href="/wiki/Djiboutian_Civil_War" title="Djiboutian Civil War">Djiboutian Civil War</a> in 1991 and democratization in 1992.</li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eritrean_Independence_War_Map.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Eritrean_Independence_War_Map.png/220px-Eritrean_Independence_War_Map.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="181" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Eritrean_Independence_War_Map.png/330px-Eritrean_Independence_War_Map.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Eritrean_Independence_War_Map.png/440px-Eritrean_Independence_War_Map.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1642" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Eritrean_War_of_Independence" title="Eritrean War of Independence">Eritrean War of Independence</a> against Ethiopia ended in 1991.</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia"><img alt="Ethiopia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Flag_of_Ethiopia_%281987%E2%80%931991%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Ethiopia_%281987%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Flag_of_Ethiopia_%281987%E2%80%931991%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Ethiopia_%281987%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Flag_of_Ethiopia_%281987%E2%80%931991%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Ethiopia_%281987%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Democratic_Republic_of_Ethiopia" title="People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a> – A <a href="/wiki/1987_Constitution_of_Ethiopia" title="1987 Constitution of Ethiopia">new constitution</a> was implemented in 1987 and, following the withdrawal of Soviet and Cuban assistance, the communist military junta <a href="/wiki/Derg" title="Derg">Derg</a> led by <a href="/wiki/Mengistu_Haile_Mariam" title="Mengistu Haile Mariam">Mengistu Haile Mariam</a> was defeated by the rebel <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_People%27s_Revolutionary_Democratic_Front" title="Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front">EPRDF</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Civil_War" title="Ethiopian Civil War">Ethiopian Civil War</a> and fled in 1991.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Flag_of_Ghana.svg/23px-Flag_of_Ghana.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Flag_of_Ghana.svg/35px-Flag_of_Ghana.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Flag_of_Ghana.svg/45px-Flag_of_Ghana.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Ghana" title="Ghana">Ghana</a> – The <a href="/wiki/Third_Republic_of_Ghana" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Republic of Ghana">Third Republic of Ghana</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Provisional_National_Defence_Council" title="Provisional National Defence Council">military government</a> of <a href="/wiki/Jerry_Rawlings" title="Jerry Rawlings">Jerry Rawlings</a> are dissolved following <a href="/wiki/1992_Ghanaian_presidential_election" title="1992 Ghanaian presidential election">democratization</a> in 1992, leading to the establishment a democratically elected <a href="/wiki/Rawlings_government" title="Rawlings government">government</a> under the <a href="/wiki/National_Democratic_Congress_(Ghana)" title="National Democratic Congress (Ghana)">National Democratic Congress</a>.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Flag_of_Guinea-Bissau.svg/23px-Flag_of_Guinea-Bissau.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Flag_of_Guinea-Bissau.svg/35px-Flag_of_Guinea-Bissau.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Flag_of_Guinea-Bissau.svg/46px-Flag_of_Guinea-Bissau.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Guinea-Bissau" title="Guinea-Bissau">Guinea-Bissau</a> – A process of democratization begins with the introduction of multi-party politics in May 1991 and the <a href="/wiki/1994_Guinea-Bissau_general_election" title="1994 Guinea-Bissau general election">first democratic elections</a> being held in 1994.<sup id="cite_ref-Busky_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Busky-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Flag_of_Guinea.svg/23px-Flag_of_Guinea.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Flag_of_Guinea.svg/35px-Flag_of_Guinea.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Flag_of_Guinea.svg/45px-Flag_of_Guinea.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Guinea" title="Guinea">Guinea</a> – <a href="/wiki/1984_Guinean_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1984 Guinean coup d'état">1984 Guinean coup d'état</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar"><img alt="Madagascar" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Flag_of_Madagascar.svg/23px-Flag_of_Madagascar.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Flag_of_Madagascar.svg/35px-Flag_of_Madagascar.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Flag_of_Madagascar.svg/45px-Flag_of_Madagascar.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_Madagascar" title="Democratic Republic of Madagascar">Madagascar</a> – Socialist President <a href="/wiki/Didier_Ratsiraka" title="Didier Ratsiraka">Didier Ratsiraka</a> was ousted in 1991.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Mali.svg/23px-Flag_of_Mali.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Mali.svg/35px-Flag_of_Mali.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Mali.svg/45px-Flag_of_Mali.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Mali" title="Mali">Mali</a> – <a href="/wiki/Moussa_Traor%C3%A9" title="Moussa Traoré">Moussa Traoré</a> was ousted, Mali adopted a new constitution; held multi-party elections. <a href="/wiki/Tuareg_rebellion_(1990%E2%80%9395)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tuareg rebellion (1990–95)">Rebellion</a> in 1990 and <a href="/wiki/1991_Malian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1991 Malian coup d'état">coup d'état</a> in 1991.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Mozambique" title="Mozambique"><img alt="Mozambique" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Flag_of_Mozambique.svg/23px-Flag_of_Mozambique.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Flag_of_Mozambique.svg/35px-Flag_of_Mozambique.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Flag_of_Mozambique.svg/45px-Flag_of_Mozambique.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Mozambique" title="People's Republic of Mozambique">Mozambique</a> – The <a href="/wiki/Mozambican_Civil_War" title="Mozambican Civil War">Mozambican Civil War</a> between the socialist <a href="/wiki/FRELIMO" title="FRELIMO">FRELIMO</a> and the <a href="/wiki/RENAMO" title="RENAMO">RENAMO</a> conservatives was <a href="/wiki/Rome_General_Peace_Accords" title="Rome General Peace Accords">ended via treaty in 1992</a>. FRELIMO subsequently abandoned Marxism–Leninism in favor of democratic socialism with the support of the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Operation_in_Mozambique" title="United Nations Operation in Mozambique">UN</a>, held multiparty elections.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Flag_of_S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe.svg/23px-Flag_of_S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Flag_of_S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe.svg/35px-Flag_of_S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Flag_of_S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe.svg/46px-Flag_of_S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe" title="São Tomé and Príncipe">São Tomé and Príncipe</a> – The ruling <a href="/wiki/Movement_for_the_Liberation_of_S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe/Social_Democratic_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="Movement for the Liberation of São Tomé and Príncipe/Social Democratic Party">Movement for the Liberation of São Tomé and Príncipe/Social Democratic Party</a> cut down its Socialist ideology and foreign donors pressured the government to allow multiparty elections in 1991.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Flag_of_Senegal.svg/23px-Flag_of_Senegal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Flag_of_Senegal.svg/35px-Flag_of_Senegal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Flag_of_Senegal.svg/45px-Flag_of_Senegal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Senegal" title="Senegal">Senegal</a> – <a href="/wiki/Socialist_Party_of_Senegal" title="Socialist Party of Senegal">Socialist Party of Senegal</a> formed a national unity government with the <a href="/wiki/Senegalese_Democratic_Party" title="Senegalese Democratic Party">Senegalese Democratic Party</a> in 1991.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Flag_of_Seychelles_%281977%E2%80%931996%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Seychelles_%281977%E2%80%931996%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Flag_of_Seychelles_%281977%E2%80%931996%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Seychelles_%281977%E2%80%931996%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Flag_of_Seychelles_%281977%E2%80%931996%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Seychelles_%281977%E2%80%931996%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="300" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Seychelles" title="Seychelles">Seychelles</a> – democratization in 1991.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Flag_of_Sierra_Leone.svg/23px-Flag_of_Sierra_Leone.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Flag_of_Sierra_Leone.svg/35px-Flag_of_Sierra_Leone.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Flag_of_Sierra_Leone.svg/45px-Flag_of_Sierra_Leone.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone" title="Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a> – The start of the <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Civil_War" title="Sierra Leone Civil War">Sierra Leone Civil War</a> in March 1991, followed by a <a href="/wiki/1991_Sierra_Leonean_constitutional_referendum" title="1991 Sierra Leonean constitutional referendum">constitutional referendum</a> restoring <a href="/wiki/Multi-party_system" title="Multi-party system">multi-party politics</a> in August 1991 and a <a href="/wiki/1992_Sierra_Leonean_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1992 Sierra Leonean coup d'état">coup d'état</a> finally overthrowing the <a href="/wiki/First_Republic_of_Sierra_Leone" class="mw-redirect" title="First Republic of Sierra Leone">First Republic of Sierra Leone</a> in April 1992.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia"><img alt="Somalia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Flag_of_Somalia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Somalia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Flag_of_Somalia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Somalia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Flag_of_Somalia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Somalia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Somali_Democratic_Republic" title="Somali Democratic Republic">Somalia</a> – <a href="/wiki/1988_Hargeisa-Burao_offensive" title="1988 Hargeisa-Burao offensive">1988 offensive</a> by <a href="/wiki/Somali_National_Movement" title="Somali National Movement">SNM</a> rebels during the <a href="/wiki/Somaliland_War_of_Independence" title="Somaliland War of Independence">Somaliland War of Independence</a> leads to the acceleration of the <a href="/wiki/Isaaq_genocide" title="Isaaq genocide">Isaaq genocide</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Interpeace6132_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Interpeace6132-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rebelling Somalis overthrew <a href="/wiki/Siad_Barre" title="Siad Barre">Siad Barre</a>'s communist military junta during the <a href="/wiki/Somali_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Somali Revolution">Somali Revolution</a> in January 1991,<sup id="cite_ref-2009factbook_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2009factbook-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with <a href="/wiki/Somaliland" title="Somaliland">Somaliland</a> later unilaterally <a href="/wiki/Somaliland_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Somaliland Declaration of Independence">declaring independence</a> in May 1991.<sup id="cite_ref-Interpeace613_138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Interpeace613-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Somalia has been in a constant <a href="/wiki/Somali_Civil_War" title="Somali Civil War">state of civil war</a> ever since.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan"><img alt="Sudan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Flag_of_Sudan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Sudan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Flag_of_Sudan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Sudan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Flag_of_Sudan.svg/46px-Flag_of_Sudan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/History_of_Sudan_(1986%E2%80%932011)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Sudan (1986–2011)">Sudan</a> – The <a href="/wiki/1985_Sudanese_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1985 Sudanese coup d'état">1985 Sudanese coup d'état</a> overthrows the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Sudan" class="mw-redirect" title="Democratic Republic of the Sudan">Democratic Republic of the Sudan</a>. After a brief period of <a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_democracy" class="mw-redirect" title="Parliamentary democracy">parliamentary democracy</a> during the late 1980s, the <a href="/wiki/1989_Sudanese_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1989 Sudanese coup d'état">1989 Sudanese coup d'état</a> establishes a <a href="/wiki/Right-wing_dictatorship" title="Right-wing dictatorship">right-wing dictatorship</a> under <a href="/wiki/Omar_al-Bashir" title="Omar al-Bashir">Omar al-Bashir</a>.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Flag_of_Tanzania.svg/23px-Flag_of_Tanzania.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Flag_of_Tanzania.svg/35px-Flag_of_Tanzania.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Flag_of_Tanzania.svg/45px-Flag_of_Tanzania.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Tanzania" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a> – The ruling <a href="/wiki/Chama_Cha_Mapinduzi" title="Chama Cha Mapinduzi">Chama Cha Mapinduzi</a> party cut down its Socialist ideology and foreign donors pressured the government to allow multiparty elections in 1995.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Flag_of_Tunisia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Tunisia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Flag_of_Tunisia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Tunisia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Flag_of_Tunisia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Tunisia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a> – <a href="/wiki/Habib_Bourguiba" title="Habib Bourguiba">Habib Bourguiba</a> removed from power by <a href="/wiki/Zine_El_Abidine_Ben_Ali" title="Zine El Abidine Ben Ali">Zine El Abidine Ben Ali</a> in the <a href="/wiki/1987_Tunisian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1987 Tunisian coup d'état">1987 Tunisian coup d'état</a>, reforming the <a href="/wiki/Socialist_Destourian_Party" title="Socialist Destourian Party">Socialist Destourian Party</a> into the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Constitutional_Rally" title="Democratic Constitutional Rally">Democratic Constitutional Rally</a> in 1988 and holding the <a href="/wiki/1989_Tunisian_general_election" title="1989 Tunisian general election">first multi-party election in 1989</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Communist_Party" title="Tunisian Communist Party">Tunisian Communist Party</a> abandoned communism and reformed itself as the <a href="/wiki/Ettajdid_Movement" title="Ettajdid Movement">Ettajdid Movement</a> in 1993.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Flag_of_Uganda.svg/23px-Flag_of_Uganda.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Flag_of_Uganda.svg/35px-Flag_of_Uganda.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Flag_of_Uganda.svg/45px-Flag_of_Uganda.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Uganda" title="Uganda">Uganda</a> – The government of <a href="/wiki/Milton_Obote" title="Milton Obote">Milton Obote</a> is overthrown by a coup in 1985, followed by the end of the <a href="/wiki/Ugandan_Bush_War" title="Ugandan Bush War">Ugandan Bush War</a> in 1986. With the rise of <a href="/wiki/Yoweri_Museveni" title="Yoweri Museveni">Yoweri Museveni</a> to power, the <a href="/wiki/National_Resistance_Movement" title="National Resistance Movement">National Resistance Movement</a> cut down its Socialist ideology.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Sahrawi_Arab_Democratic_Republic" title="Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic"><img alt="Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Flag_of_the_Sahrawi_Arab_Democratic_Republic.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Sahrawi_Arab_Democratic_Republic.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Flag_of_the_Sahrawi_Arab_Democratic_Republic.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Sahrawi_Arab_Democratic_Republic.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Flag_of_the_Sahrawi_Arab_Democratic_Republic.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Sahrawi_Arab_Democratic_Republic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Sahrawi_Arab_Democratic_Republic" title="Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic">Western Sahara</a> – cut down its Socialist ideology and the End of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Sahara_War" title="Western Sahara War">Western Sahara War</a> in 1991.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_Zambia_%281964%E2%80%931996%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Zambia_%281964%E2%80%931996%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_Zambia_%281964%E2%80%931996%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Zambia_%281964%E2%80%931996%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_Zambia_%281964%E2%80%931996%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Zambia_%281964%E2%80%931996%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Zambia" title="Zambia">Zambia</a> – The ruling <a href="/wiki/United_National_Independence_Party" title="United National Independence Party">United National Independence Party</a> cut down its Socialist ideology and foreign donors pressured the government to allow <a href="/wiki/1991_Zambian_general_election" title="1991 Zambian general election">multiparty elections</a> in 1991.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Middle_East">Middle East</h5></div> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq"><img alt="Iraq" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Iraq_%281963%E2%80%931991%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Iraq_%281963%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Iraq_%281963%E2%80%931991%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Iraq_%281963%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Iraq_%281963%E2%80%931991%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Iraq_%281963%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Ba%27athist_Iraq" title="Ba'athist Iraq">Iraq</a> – <a href="/wiki/1991_uprisings_in_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="1991 uprisings in Iraq">Uprisings</a> in 1991, leading to Kurdistan becoming an autonomous region.<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The rest of Iraq remained under <a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a>'s Ba'athist regime until 2003 with <a href="/wiki/2003_invasion_of_Iraq" title="2003 invasion of Iraq">American invasion</a> overthrowing his regime in 1 month.<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Kuwait" title="Kuwait"><img alt="Kuwait" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Flag_of_Kuwait.svg/23px-Flag_of_Kuwait.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Flag_of_Kuwait.svg/35px-Flag_of_Kuwait.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Flag_of_Kuwait.svg/46px-Flag_of_Kuwait.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Kuwait" title="Republic of Kuwait">Kuwait</a> – Annexed by Iraq in 1990. Then liberated in 1991 during the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a>.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Palestine" title="Palestine"><img alt="Palestine" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Flag_of_Palestine.svg/23px-Flag_of_Palestine.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Flag_of_Palestine.svg/35px-Flag_of_Palestine.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Flag_of_Palestine.svg/46px-Flag_of_Palestine.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> Palestinian Territories – The <a href="/wiki/Palestine_Liberation_Organization" title="Palestine Liberation Organization">Palestine Liberation Organization</a> lost one of its most important diplomatic patrons, due to the deterioration of the Soviet Union, Arafat's failing relationship with Moscow and loss of a one-party government, and Suspension PFLP-GC of the PLO in 1984. <a href="/wiki/First_Intifada" title="First Intifada">First Intifada</a> occurred from 1987<sup id="cite_ref-EdSaid_141-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EdSaid-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to 1991,<sup id="cite_ref-Nasrallah56_142-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nasrallah56-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> leading to the PLO recognition of Israel.<sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Flag_of_South_Yemen.svg/23px-Flag_of_South_Yemen.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Flag_of_South_Yemen.svg/35px-Flag_of_South_Yemen.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Flag_of_South_Yemen.svg/45px-Flag_of_South_Yemen.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="341" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/South_Yemen" title="South Yemen">South Yemen</a> – The <a href="/wiki/South_Yemen_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="South Yemen Civil War">South Yemen Civil War</a> began in 1986. The government abandoned Marxism–Leninism in 1990. In 1990, <a href="/wiki/Yemenite_reunification" class="mw-redirect" title="Yemenite reunification">Yemen reunified</a> with the more capitalist <a href="/wiki/Yemen_Arab_Republic" title="Yemen Arab Republic">North Yemen</a>. In 1994, this led to <a href="/wiki/1994_civil_war_in_Yemen" class="mw-redirect" title="1994 civil war in Yemen">a civil war</a>.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Republic_%281958%E2%80%931971%29%2C_Flag_of_Syria_%281980%E2%80%932024%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Republic_%281958%E2%80%931971%29%2C_Flag_of_Syria_%281980%E2%80%932024%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Republic_%281958%E2%80%931971%29%2C_Flag_of_Syria_%281980%E2%80%932024%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Republic_%281958%E2%80%931971%29%2C_Flag_of_Syria_%281980%E2%80%932024%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Republic_%281958%E2%80%931971%29%2C_Flag_of_Syria_%281980%E2%80%932024%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Republic_%281958%E2%80%931971%29%2C_Flag_of_Syria_%281980%E2%80%932024%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a> – The <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Communist_Party" title="Syrian Communist Party">Syrian Communist Party</a> was divided to two parties in 1986. Syria participated in the <a href="/wiki/Madrid_Conference_of_1991" title="Madrid Conference of 1991">Madrid Conference of 1991</a> and met its Cold War enemy Israel in peace negotiations. The <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Democratic_People%27s_Party" title="Syrian Democratic People's Party">Syrian Democratic People's Party</a> changed from Left-wing to center-left.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Asia">Asia</h5></div> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan"><img alt="Afghanistan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281987%E2%80%931992%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281987%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281987%E2%80%931992%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281987%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281987%E2%80%931992%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281987%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan" title="Democratic Republic of Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a> – The <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Democratic_Party_of_Afghanistan" title="People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan">People's Democratic Party</a> underwent <a href="/wiki/National_Reconciliation_(Afghanistan)" title="National Reconciliation (Afghanistan)">National Reconciliation</a> reforms from 1987, renaming the country to Republic of Afghanistan (from "Democratic Republic") and removing the red star of communism from the coat of arms. The <a href="/wiki/Soviet_withdrawal_from_Afghanistan" title="Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan">Soviet occupation ended</a> in 1989, and in 1990 the ruling party renamed itself, removing all references to Marxism–Leninism in the process. The Soviet-backed government <a href="/wiki/Afghan_Civil_War_(1989%E2%80%931992)" title="Afghan Civil War (1989–1992)">fell</a> in 1992 and the party was dissolved; a new <a href="/wiki/Afghan_Civil_War_(1992%E2%80%931996)" title="Afghan Civil War (1992–1996)">Civil War</a> followed.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Flag_of_Bangladesh.svg/23px-Flag_of_Bangladesh.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Flag_of_Bangladesh.svg/35px-Flag_of_Bangladesh.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Flag_of_Bangladesh.svg/46px-Flag_of_Bangladesh.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="307" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a> – In 1990, a <a href="/wiki/1990_Mass_Uprising_in_Bangladesh" class="mw-redirect" title="1990 Mass Uprising in Bangladesh">mass uprising</a> leads to the end of the country's military dictatorship and a restoration of democracy.<sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Bangladesh" title="Communist Party of Bangladesh">Communist Party of Bangladesh</a> experiences a split between an orthodox Marxist–Leninist faction and a more democratic and libertarian faction. The country experiences an <a href="/wiki/Internal_conflict_in_Bangladesh" class="mw-redirect" title="Internal conflict in Bangladesh">internal conflict</a>, driven by the rise of <a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a> since 1989.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Myanmar" title="Myanmar"><img alt="Myanmar" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Flag_of_Myanmar_%281974%E2%80%932010%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Myanmar_%281974%E2%80%932010%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Flag_of_Myanmar_%281974%E2%80%932010%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Myanmar_%281974%E2%80%932010%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Flag_of_Myanmar_%281974%E2%80%932010%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Myanmar_%281974%E2%80%932010%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="500" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Burmese_Way_to_Socialism" title="Burmese Way to Socialism">Burma</a> – The <a href="/wiki/8888_Uprising" title="8888 Uprising">8888 Uprising</a> in 1988 saw the demise of the <a href="/wiki/Burma_Socialist_Programme_Party" title="Burma Socialist Programme Party">Burma Socialist Programme Party</a>, but failed to bring democracy, although Marxism was abandoned. The country was led by a military government under the <a href="/wiki/State_Peace_and_Development_Council" title="State Peace and Development Council">State Peace and Development Council</a> until 2011, following <a href="/wiki/2010_Burmese_general_election" class="mw-redirect" title="2010 Burmese general election">2010 elections</a> viewed by many Western countries as fraudulent.<sup id="cite_ref-MacFarquhar_145-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MacFarquhar-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bbc.co.uk_146-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bbc.co.uk-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> End of the <a href="/wiki/Communist_insurgency_in_Myanmar" class="mw-redirect" title="Communist insurgency in Myanmar">communist insurgency</a> in 1989.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Cambodia" title="Cambodia"><img alt="Cambodia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Flag_of_the_State_of_Cambodia_%281989%E2%80%931992%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_State_of_Cambodia_%281989%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Flag_of_the_State_of_Cambodia_%281989%E2%80%931992%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_State_of_Cambodia_%281989%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Flag_of_the_State_of_Cambodia_%281989%E2%80%931992%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_State_of_Cambodia_%281989%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1200" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Kampuchea" title="People's Republic of Kampuchea">Cambodia</a> – The Vietnam-supported government, which had been in power since the <a href="/wiki/Cambodian%E2%80%93Vietnamese_War" title="Cambodian–Vietnamese War">fall of the Khmer Rouge</a>, lost power following UN-sponsored <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Transitional_Authority_in_Cambodia" title="United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia">elections in 1993</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Coalition_Government_of_Democratic_Kampuchea" title="Coalition Government of Democratic Kampuchea">CGDK</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Party_of_Democratic_Kampuchea" title="Party of Democratic Kampuchea">Party of Democratic Kampuchea</a> were dissolved in 1993.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> – The <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Chinese Communist Party</a> began implementing <a href="/wiki/Chinese_economic_reform" title="Chinese economic reform">liberalizing economic reforms</a> during the late 1970s under <a href="/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping" title="Deng Xiaoping">Deng Xiaoping</a>. However, the <a href="/wiki/Tiananmen_Square_protests_of_1989" class="mw-redirect" title="Tiananmen Square protests of 1989">pro-democracy protests of 1989</a> were crushed by the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army" title="People's Liberation Army">military</a>. Western countries imposed arms embargoes on China.<sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/1987%E2%80%931989_Tibetan_unrest" title="1987–1989 Tibetan unrest">Unrest in Tibet</a> in 1987. The <a href="/wiki/United_Revolutionary_Front_of_East_Turkestan" title="United Revolutionary Front of East Turkestan">URFET</a> and the <a href="/wiki/East_Turkestan_People%27s_Revolutionary_Party" title="East Turkestan People's Revolutionary Party">ETPRP</a> was dissolved.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/23px-Flag_of_India.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/35px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/45px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> – Defeat of the <a href="/wiki/Indian_National_Congress" title="Indian National Congress">Indian National Congress</a> in the <a href="/wiki/1989_Indian_general_election" title="1989 Indian general election">1989 Indian general election</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Rashtriya_Samajwadi_Congress" title="Rashtriya Samajwadi Congress">Rashtriya Samajwadi Congress</a> was dissolved in 1989, <a href="/wiki/Tripura_National_Volunteers" title="Tripura National Volunteers">Tripura National Volunteers</a> was dissolved in 1988 and <a href="/wiki/Hmar_People%27s_Convention" title="Hmar People's Convention">Hmar People's Convention</a> was dissolved in 1986. Beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Insurgency_in_Jammu_and_Kashmir" title="Insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir">Insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir</a> in 1989.<sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Naxalite%E2%80%93Maoist_insurgency" title="Naxalite–Maoist insurgency">Naxalite–Maoist insurgency</a> continued into the 21st century, while the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_India_(Marxist)" title="Communist Party of India (Marxist)">Communist Party of India (Marxist)</a> remains a major political force in the states of <a href="/wiki/West_Bengal" title="West Bengal">West Bengal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tripura" title="Tripura">Tripura</a>.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Flag_of_Laos.svg/23px-Flag_of_Laos.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Flag_of_Laos.svg/35px-Flag_of_Laos.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Flag_of_Laos.svg/45px-Flag_of_Laos.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Laos" title="Laos">Laos</a> – Remained communist under the <a href="/wiki/Lao_People%27s_Revolutionary_Party" title="Lao People's Revolutionary Party">Lao People's Revolutionary Party</a>. Laos was forced to ask France and Japan for emergency assistance, and also to ask the <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Asian_Development_Bank" title="Asian Development Bank">Asian Development Bank</a> for aid. Finally, in 1989, Kaisôn visited Beijing to confirm the restoration of friendly relations, and to secure Chinese aid. The red star and the hammer and sickle was taken out from the crest in 1991.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Flag_of_North_Korea.svg/23px-Flag_of_North_Korea.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Flag_of_North_Korea.svg/35px-Flag_of_North_Korea.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Flag_of_North_Korea.svg/46px-Flag_of_North_Korea.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="800" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/North_Korea" title="North Korea">North Korea</a> – <a href="/wiki/Kim_Il-sung" class="mw-redirect" title="Kim Il-sung">Kim Il-sung</a> died in 1994, passing power to his son <a href="/wiki/Kim_Jong-il" class="mw-redirect" title="Kim Jong-il">Kim Jong-il</a>. Unprecedented floods and the dissolution of the Soviet Union led to the <a href="/wiki/North_Korean_famine" class="mw-redirect" title="North Korean famine">North Korean famine</a>, which resulted in the deaths of an estimated 2.5 million to 3 million North Koreans. All references to Marxism–Leninism were absolutely replaced by <a href="/wiki/Juche" title="Juche">Juche</a> in 2009, thus signifying an apparent downplaying of the role of communism in North Korea. North Korea is still a single-party totalitarian state.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Flag_of_Sri_Lanka.svg/23px-Flag_of_Sri_Lanka.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Flag_of_Sri_Lanka.svg/35px-Flag_of_Sri_Lanka.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Flag_of_Sri_Lanka.svg/46px-Flag_of_Sri_Lanka.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a> – End of the second <a href="/wiki/1987%E2%80%9389_JVP_insurrection" class="mw-redirect" title="1987–89 JVP insurrection">communist insurgrency</a> by the communist <a href="/wiki/Janatha_Vimukthi_Peramuna" title="Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna">Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna</a> and the death of its leaders, but the <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lankan_civil_war" title="Sri Lankan civil war">Civil War</a> continues until 2009.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Flag_of_Vietnam.svg/23px-Flag_of_Vietnam.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Flag_of_Vietnam.svg/35px-Flag_of_Vietnam.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Flag_of_Vietnam.svg/45px-Flag_of_Vietnam.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a> – The <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Vietnam" title="Communist Party of Vietnam">Communist Party of Vietnam</a> has undertaken <a href="/wiki/Doi_Moi" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi Moi">Doi Moi</a> reforms since 1986, liberalizing certain sectors of the economy in a manner similar to China. Vietnam is still a single-party communist state.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Latin_America">Latin America</h5></div> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Flag_of_Cuba.svg/23px-Flag_of_Cuba.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Flag_of_Cuba.svg/35px-Flag_of_Cuba.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Flag_of_Cuba.svg/46px-Flag_of_Cuba.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a> – The end of Soviet subsidies led to the <a href="/wiki/Special_Period" title="Special Period">Special Period</a>. An <a href="/wiki/August_1994_protest_in_Cuba" class="mw-redirect" title="August 1994 protest in Cuba">unsuccessful protest was held in 1994</a>, in which thousands of Cubans took to the streets around the <a href="/wiki/Malec%C3%B3n,_Havana" title="Malecón, Havana">Malecón</a> in Havana to demand freedom and express frustration with the government.<sup id="cite_ref-149" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cuba is still a single-party communist state.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Flag_of_Guyana.svg/23px-Flag_of_Guyana.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Flag_of_Guyana.svg/35px-Flag_of_Guyana.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Flag_of_Guyana.svg/46px-Flag_of_Guyana.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Guyana" title="Guyana">Guyana</a> – After the death of <a href="/wiki/Forbes_Burnham" title="Forbes Burnham">Forbes Burnham</a> in 1985, his successor <a href="/wiki/Desmond_Hoyte" title="Desmond Hoyte">Desmond Hoyte</a> oversaw a period of democratization and the first free elections were <a href="/wiki/1992_Guyanese_general_election" title="1992 Guyanese general election">held in October 1992</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-N1_150-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-N1-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> during which the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Progressive_Party_(Guyana)" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Progressive Party (Guyana)">People's Progressive Party</a> of <a href="/wiki/Cheddi_Jagan" title="Cheddi Jagan">Cheddi Jagan</a> was elected.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Flag_of_Nicaragua.svg/23px-Flag_of_Nicaragua.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Flag_of_Nicaragua.svg/35px-Flag_of_Nicaragua.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Flag_of_Nicaragua.svg/46px-Flag_of_Nicaragua.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Nicaragua" title="Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a> – End of the <a href="/wiki/Contra_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Contra War">Contra War</a>, <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Ortega" title="Daniel Ortega">Daniel Ortega</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Sandinista_National_Liberation_Front" title="Sandinista National Liberation Front">Sandinista</a> lost the multi-party <a href="/wiki/1990_Nicaraguan_general_election" title="1990 Nicaraguan general election">elections in 1990</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/National_Opposition_Union_(Nicaragua,_1990)" title="National Opposition Union (Nicaragua, 1990)">National Opposition Union</a> won.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_151-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Flag_of_Suriname.svg/23px-Flag_of_Suriname.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Flag_of_Suriname.svg/35px-Flag_of_Suriname.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Flag_of_Suriname.svg/45px-Flag_of_Suriname.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Suriname" title="Suriname">Suriname</a> – democratization in 1987 and <a href="/wiki/Suriname_Guerrilla_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Suriname Guerrilla War">Suriname Guerrilla War</a> 1986–1992.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Oceania">Oceania</h5></div> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Flag_of_Vanuatu.svg/23px-Flag_of_Vanuatu.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Flag_of_Vanuatu.svg/35px-Flag_of_Vanuatu.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Flag_of_Vanuatu.svg/46px-Flag_of_Vanuatu.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="360" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Vanuatu" title="Vanuatu">Vanuatu</a> – <a href="/wiki/Vanua%27aku_Pati" title="Vanua'aku Pati">Vanua'aku Pati</a> lost the multi-party elections in 1991,<sup id="cite_ref-152" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Union_of_Moderate_Parties" title="Union of Moderate Parties">Union of Moderate Parties</a> won. Voter turnout was 71%.<sup id="cite_ref-N_153-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-N-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Other_countries">Other countries</h4></div> <p>Many Soviet-supported political parties and militant groups around the world suffered from demoralization and loss of financing.<sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="256" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a> – The <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Australia" title="Communist Party of Australia">Communist Party of Australia</a> was dissolved in 1991.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Austria.svg/23px-Flag_of_Austria.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Austria.svg/35px-Flag_of_Austria.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Austria.svg/45px-Flag_of_Austria.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austria</a> – The <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Austria" title="Communist Party of Austria">Communist Party of Austria</a> lost its East German financing and 250 million euros in assets.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a> – The <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Belgium" title="Communist Party of Belgium">Communist Party of Belgium</a> was divided to two parties in 1989.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Flag_of_Berlin.svg/23px-Flag_of_Berlin.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Flag_of_Berlin.svg/35px-Flag_of_Berlin.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Flag_of_Berlin.svg/46px-Flag_of_Berlin.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/West_Berlin" title="West Berlin">West Berlin</a> – The <a href="/wiki/Socialist_Unity_Party_of_West_Berlin" title="Socialist Unity Party of West Berlin">Socialist Unity Party of West Berlin</a> was dissolved in 1991.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a> – In 1990 the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Canada" title="Communist Party of Canada">Communist Party of Canada</a> was de-registered and had its assets seized, forcing it to begin an ultimately successful thirteen-year political and legal battle to maintain registration of small political parties in Canada known as <i><a href="/wiki/Figueroa_v._Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Figueroa v. Canada">Figueroa v. Canada</a></i>, thus changing the legal definition of a political party in Canada in 2003 and now operates without any elected political representation.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Flag_of_Equatorial_Guinea.svg/23px-Flag_of_Equatorial_Guinea.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Flag_of_Equatorial_Guinea.svg/35px-Flag_of_Equatorial_Guinea.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Flag_of_Equatorial_Guinea.svg/45px-Flag_of_Equatorial_Guinea.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Equatorial_Guinea" title="Equatorial Guinea">Equatorial Guinea</a> – <a href="/wiki/1993_Equatorial_Guinean_legislative_election" class="mw-redirect" title="1993 Equatorial Guinean legislative election">first multi-party elections in 1993</a>.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Flag_of_Finland.svg/23px-Flag_of_Finland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Flag_of_Finland.svg/35px-Flag_of_Finland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Flag_of_Finland.svg/46px-Flag_of_Finland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1100" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Finland" title="Finland">Finland</a> – The <a href="/wiki/Finnish_People%27s_Democratic_League" title="Finnish People's Democratic League">Finnish People's Democratic League</a> was dissolved in 1990 and the bankrupt <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Finland" title="Communist Party of Finland">Communist Party of Finland</a> collapsed in 1992, and absorbed to the <a href="/wiki/Left_Alliance_(Finland)" title="Left Alliance (Finland)">Left Alliance</a>.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Flag_of_France_%281976%E2%80%932020%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_France_%281976%E2%80%932020%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Flag_of_France_%281976%E2%80%932020%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_France_%281976%E2%80%932020%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Flag_of_France_%281976%E2%80%932020%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_France_%281976%E2%80%932020%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> – The collapse of the Eastern Bloc came as a shock to the <a href="/wiki/French_Communist_Party" title="French Communist Party">French Communist Party</a>. The crisis is called <i>la mutation</i>. Fusion of the <a href="/wiki/Unified_Socialist_Party_(France)" title="Unified Socialist Party (France)">Unified Socialist Party</a> with the New Left for Socialism, Ecology and Self-management for Red and Green Alternatives in 1989.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_The_Gambia.svg/23px-Flag_of_The_Gambia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_The_Gambia.svg/35px-Flag_of_The_Gambia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_The_Gambia.svg/45px-Flag_of_The_Gambia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/The_Gambia" title="The Gambia">Gambia</a> – <a href="/wiki/1994_Gambian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1994 Gambian coup d'état">1994 Gambian coup d'état</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/23px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/35px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/46px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">West Germany</a> – The <a href="/wiki/German_Communist_Party" title="German Communist Party">German Communist Party</a> lost its East German financing and declined significantly and the <a href="/wiki/Communist_League_(West_Germany)" title="Communist League (West Germany)">Communist League</a> was dissolved. The <a href="/wiki/Red_Army_Faction" title="Red Army Faction">Red Army Faction</a> lost its long-term supporter, the <a href="/wiki/Stasi" title="Stasi">Stasi</a>, after the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Berlin_Wall" title="Fall of the Berlin Wall">fall of the Berlin Wall</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Greece.svg/23px-Flag_of_Greece.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Greece.svg/35px-Flag_of_Greece.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Greece.svg/45px-Flag_of_Greece.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a> – The <a href="/wiki/Organisation_of_Marxist%E2%80%93Leninist_Communists_of_Greece" title="Organisation of Marxist–Leninist Communists of Greece">Organisation of Marxist–Leninist Communists of Greece</a> was dissolved in 1993 and merged into the <a href="/wiki/Movement_for_a_United_Communist_Party_of_Greece" title="Movement for a United Communist Party of Greece">Movement for a United Communist Party of Greece</a>. <a href="/wiki/Greek_Left" title="Greek Left">Greek Left</a> was dissolved in 1992.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Flag_of_Guinea.svg/23px-Flag_of_Guinea.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Flag_of_Guinea.svg/35px-Flag_of_Guinea.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Flag_of_Guinea.svg/45px-Flag_of_Guinea.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Guinea" title="Guinea">Guinea</a> – democratization in 1990.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Flag_of_Ireland.svg/23px-Flag_of_Ireland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Flag_of_Ireland.svg/35px-Flag_of_Ireland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Flag_of_Ireland.svg/46px-Flag_of_Ireland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland" title="Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a> – The <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Ireland" title="Communist Party of Ireland">Communist Party of Ireland</a> declined significantly. <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Socialist_Party_(Ireland)" title="Democratic Socialist Party (Ireland)">Democratic Socialist Party</a> was dissolved.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/23px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/35px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/45px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a> – The collapse caused the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Communist_Party" title="Italian Communist Party">Italian Communist Party</a> to reform itself, creating two new groups, the larger <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_of_the_Left" title="Democratic Party of the Left">Democratic Party of the Left</a> and the smaller <a href="/wiki/Communist_Refoundation_Party" title="Communist Refoundation Party">Communist Refoundation Party</a>. The disappearance of the Communist party in part led to profound changes within the Italian political party system in 1992–1994 and collapse of the <a href="/wiki/Radical_Party_(Italy)" title="Radical Party (Italy)">Radical Party</a> in 1989 and the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Socialist_Party" title="Italian Socialist Party">Italian Socialist Party</a> in 1994. Disintegration of the <a href="/wiki/Red_Brigades" title="Red Brigades">Red Brigades</a> in 1988.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg/22px-Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg/33px-Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg/43px-Flag_of_Japan_%281870%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="700" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a> – The <a href="/wiki/Japanese_Communist_Party" title="Japanese Communist Party">Japanese Communist Party</a> became gradually influenced by <a href="/wiki/Eurocommunism" title="Eurocommunism">Eurocommunism</a> and issued a statement titled "We welcome the end of a great historical evil of imperialism and hegemonism". As a result, the JCP survived the post-Cold War decline of communist parties in the Western Bloc, and remains one of the largest non-governing communist parties in the world.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Flag_of_Lebanon.svg/23px-Flag_of_Lebanon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Flag_of_Lebanon.svg/35px-Flag_of_Lebanon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Flag_of_Lebanon.svg/45px-Flag_of_Lebanon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2880" data-file-height="1920" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a> – End of the <a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Civil_War" title="Lebanese Civil War">Civil War</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Flag_of_Liberia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Liberia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Flag_of_Liberia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Liberia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Flag_of_Liberia.svg/46px-Flag_of_Liberia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1140" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Liberia" title="Liberia">Liberia</a> – <a href="/wiki/First_Liberian_Civil_War" title="First Liberian Civil War">First Liberian Civil War</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg/23px-Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg/35px-Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg/46px-Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="307" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Luxembourg" title="Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a> – The <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Luxembourg" title="Communist Party of Luxembourg">Communist Party of Luxembourg</a> declined significantly.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Flag_of_Malaysia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Malaysia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Flag_of_Malaysia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Malaysia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Flag_of_Malaysia.svg/46px-Flag_of_Malaysia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a> – The <a href="/wiki/Malayan_Communist_Party" title="Malayan Communist Party">Malayan Communist Party</a> laid down its arms in 1989, ending an <a href="/wiki/Communist_insurgency_in_Malaysia_(1968%E2%80%9389)" class="mw-redirect" title="Communist insurgency in Malaysia (1968–89)">insurgency</a> that had lasted decades.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Flag_of_Maldives.svg/23px-Flag_of_Maldives.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Flag_of_Maldives.svg/35px-Flag_of_Maldives.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Flag_of_Maldives.svg/45px-Flag_of_Maldives.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="480" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Maldives" title="Maldives">Maldives</a> – the failed <a href="/wiki/1988_Maldives_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" class="mw-redirect" title="1988 Maldives coup d'état">1988 Maldives coup d'état</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg/23px-Flag_of_Mexico.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg/35px-Flag_of_Mexico.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg/46px-Flag_of_Mexico.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="980" data-file-height="560" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a> – the <a href="/wiki/Mexican_Socialist_Party" title="Mexican Socialist Party">Mexican Socialist Party</a>, the last effort to unify the different Mexican left-wing parties, and the last political party in Mexico to officially use the word "socialist" in its name, dissolved in 1989.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Nepal" title="Nepal"><img alt="Nepal" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Flag_of_Nepal.svg/16px-Flag_of_Nepal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Flag_of_Nepal.svg/25px-Flag_of_Nepal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Flag_of_Nepal.svg/33px-Flag_of_Nepal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="726" data-file-height="885" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Nepal" title="Kingdom of Nepal">Nepal</a> – The <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Nepal_(Janamukhi)" title="Communist Party of Nepal (Janamukhi)">Communist Party of Nepal (Janamukhi)</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Nepal_(Fourth_Convention)" title="Communist Party of Nepal (Fourth Convention)">Communist Party of Nepal (Fourth Convention)</a> was dissolved in 1990.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a> – The <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Netherlands" title="Communist Party of the Netherlands">Communist Party of the Netherlands</a> was dissolved in 1991 and absorbed to the <a href="/wiki/GreenLeft" class="mw-redirect" title="GreenLeft">GreenLeft</a>. <a href="/wiki/League_of_Communists_in_the_Netherlands" title="League of Communists in the Netherlands">League of Communists in the Netherlands</a> was dissolved in 1992.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Flag_of_Niger.svg/18px-Flag_of_Niger.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Flag_of_Niger.svg/27px-Flag_of_Niger.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Flag_of_Niger.svg/35px-Flag_of_Niger.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Niger" title="Niger">Niger</a> – democratization in 1991, but <a href="/wiki/1996_Nigerien_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1996 Nigerien coup d'état">Coup d'état</a> in 1996.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Flag_of_Nigeria.svg/23px-Flag_of_Nigeria.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Flag_of_Nigeria.svg/35px-Flag_of_Nigeria.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Flag_of_Nigeria.svg/46px-Flag_of_Nigeria.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a> – <a href="/wiki/1985_Nigerian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1985 Nigerian coup d'état">Coup d'état</a> in 1985.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Norway.svg/21px-Flag_of_Norway.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Norway.svg/32px-Flag_of_Norway.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Norway.svg/41px-Flag_of_Norway.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="372" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Norway" title="Norway">Norway</a> – The <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Norway" title="Communist Party of Norway">Communist Party of Norway</a> changed their pro-Soviet line.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Flag_of_Oman.svg/23px-Flag_of_Oman.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Flag_of_Oman.svg/35px-Flag_of_Oman.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Flag_of_Oman.svg/46px-Flag_of_Oman.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Oman" title="Oman">Oman</a> – The <a href="/wiki/Popular_Front_for_the_Liberation_of_Oman" title="Popular Front for the Liberation of Oman">Popular Front for the Liberation of Oman</a> was dissolved in 1992.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Flag_of_the_Philippines_%28navy_blue%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Philippines_%28navy_blue%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Flag_of_the_Philippines_%28navy_blue%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Philippines_%28navy_blue%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Flag_of_the_Philippines_%28navy_blue%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Philippines_%28navy_blue%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a> – The <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Philippines" title="Communist Party of the Philippines">Communist Party of the Philippines</a> experienced criticism and the debates that ensued between the leading party cadres resulted to the expulsion of advocates of "left and right opportunism" notably forming the so-called "rejectionists" and "reaffirmist" factions. Those who affirmed the Maoist orthodoxy were called the "Reaffirmists", or RA, while those who rejected the document were called "Rejectionists" or RJ. In July 1993, the Komiteng Rehiyon ng Manila-Rizal (KRMR), one of the Rejectionists, declared its autonomy from the central leadership. Within a few months, several of the Party's regional formations and bureaus followed suit, permanently formalizing and deepening the schism.<sup id="cite_ref-156" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Flag_of_San_Marino.svg/20px-Flag_of_San_Marino.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Flag_of_San_Marino.svg/31px-Flag_of_San_Marino.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Flag_of_San_Marino.svg/40px-Flag_of_San_Marino.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/San_Marino" title="San Marino">San Marino</a> – The <a href="/wiki/Sammarinese_Communist_Party" title="Sammarinese Communist Party">Sammarinese Communist Party</a> was dissolved in 1990.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Flag_of_Singapore.svg/23px-Flag_of_Singapore.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Flag_of_Singapore.svg/35px-Flag_of_Singapore.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Flag_of_Singapore.svg/45px-Flag_of_Singapore.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a> – The <a href="/wiki/Barisan_Sosialis" title="Barisan Sosialis">Barisan Sosialis</a> was dissolved in 1988.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg/23px-Flag_of_Spain.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg/35px-Flag_of_Spain.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg/45px-Flag_of_Spain.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> – The <a href="/wiki/Workers%27_Party_of_Spain%E2%80%93Communist_Unity" title="Workers' Party of Spain–Communist Unity">Workers' Party of Spain–Communist Unity</a> was dissolved in 1991. <a href="/wiki/Alternative_Left_(Spain)" title="Alternative Left (Spain)">Alternative Left</a> was dissolved in 1993. <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Spain_(Marxist%E2%80%93Leninist)_(historical)" title="Communist Party of Spain (Marxist–Leninist) (historical)">Communist Party of Spain (Marxist–Leninist) (historical)</a> was dissolved in 1992. The <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Galicia_(Revolutionary_Marxist)" title="Communist Party of Galicia (Revolutionary Marxist)">Communist Party of Galicia (Revolutionary Marxist)</a> was dissolved in 1989.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg/23px-Flag_of_Sweden.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg/35px-Flag_of_Sweden.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg/46px-Flag_of_Sweden.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1000" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a> – The <a href="/wiki/Communist_Association_of_Norrk%C3%B6ping" title="Communist Association of Norrköping">Communist Association of Norrköping</a> was dissolved in 1990 and <a href="/wiki/Kommunistiska_F%C3%B6rbundet_Marxist-Leninisterna" class="mw-redirect" title="Kommunistiska Förbundet Marxist-Leninisterna">Kommunistiska Förbundet Marxist-Leninisterna</a> ceased to function as nationwide party. The pro-Albanian <a href="/wiki/Kommunistiska_Partiet_i_Sverige" class="mw-redirect" title="Kommunistiska Partiet i Sverige">Kommunistiska Partiet i Sverige</a> and the Maoist <a href="/wiki/Communist_Workers%27_Party_of_Sweden" title="Communist Workers' Party of Sweden">Communist Workers' Party of Sweden</a> were dissolved in 1993. The main leftist party, <a href="/wiki/V%C3%A4nsterpartiet_kommunisterna" class="mw-redirect" title="Vänsterpartiet kommunisterna">Vänsterpartiet kommunisterna</a>, VPK (Left Party – Communists), abandoned the communist part of its name, and became simply <a href="/wiki/V%C3%A4nsterpartiet" class="mw-redirect" title="Vänsterpartiet">Vänsterpartiet</a> (Left Party).</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/23px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/35px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/45px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a> – The <a href="/wiki/Communist_Labour_Party_of_Turkey" title="Communist Labour Party of Turkey">Communist Labour Party of Turkey</a> was split.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> – The <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Great_Britain" title="Communist Party of Great Britain">Communist Party of Great Britain</a> was dissolved.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/State_flag_of_Venezuela_%281954%E2%80%932006%29.svg/23px-State_flag_of_Venezuela_%281954%E2%80%932006%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/State_flag_of_Venezuela_%281954%E2%80%932006%29.svg/35px-State_flag_of_Venezuela_%281954%E2%80%932006%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/State_flag_of_Venezuela_%281954%E2%80%932006%29.svg/45px-State_flag_of_Venezuela_%281954%E2%80%932006%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Venezuela" title="Venezuela">Venezuela</a> – <a href="/wiki/1992_Venezuelan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_attempts" class="mw-redirect" title="1992 Venezuelan coup d'état attempts">1992 Venezuelan coup d'état attempts</a></li></ul> <p>Concurrently, many anti-communist authoritarian states, formerly supported by the US, gradually saw a transition to democracy. </p> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg/22px-Flag_of_Brazil.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg/33px-Flag_of_Brazil.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg/43px-Flag_of_Brazil.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="700" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a> – Held the <a href="/wiki/1989_Brazilian_presidential_election" title="1989 Brazilian presidential election">first democratic presidential election since 1960</a> due to reforms started a few years earlier.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Flag_of_Cameroon.svg/23px-Flag_of_Cameroon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Flag_of_Cameroon.svg/35px-Flag_of_Cameroon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Flag_of_Cameroon.svg/45px-Flag_of_Cameroon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Cameroon" title="Cameroon">Cameroon</a> – democratization in 1991.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Flag_of_Chad.svg/23px-Flag_of_Chad.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Flag_of_Chad.svg/35px-Flag_of_Chad.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Flag_of_Chad.svg/45px-Flag_of_Chad.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Chad" title="Chad">Chad</a> – <a href="/wiki/1990_Chadian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1990 Chadian coup d'état">Coup d'état in 1990</a>.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Flag_of_Chile.svg/23px-Flag_of_Chile.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Flag_of_Chile.svg/35px-Flag_of_Chile.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Flag_of_Chile.svg/45px-Flag_of_Chile.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile">Chile</a> – While communist guerillas were <a href="/wiki/Armed_resistance_in_Chile_(1973%E2%80%931990)" title="Armed resistance in Chile (1973–1990)">unsuccessful in toppling the anti-communist regime</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Military_dictatorship_of_Chile_(1973%E2%80%931990)" class="mw-redirect" title="Military dictatorship of Chile (1973–1990)">military junta</a> under <a href="/wiki/Augusto_Pinochet" title="Augusto Pinochet">Augusto Pinochet</a> was pressured to implement <a href="/wiki/1989_Chilean_general_election" title="1989 Chilean general election">democratic elections</a>, which saw <a href="/wiki/Chilean_transition_to_democracy" title="Chilean transition to democracy">Chile's democratization</a> in 1990. The <a href="/wiki/Broad_Party_of_Socialist_Left" title="Broad Party of Socialist Left">Broad Party of Socialist Left</a> subsequently merged into the <a href="/wiki/Socialist_Party_of_Chile" title="Socialist Party of Chile">Socialist Party of Chile</a>.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Flag_of_Colombia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Colombia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Flag_of_Colombia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Colombia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Flag_of_Colombia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Colombia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Colombia" title="Colombia">Colombia</a> – The <a href="/wiki/Colombian_Constitution_of_1886" title="Colombian Constitution of 1886">conservative constitution of 1886</a> was <a href="/wiki/Colombian_Constitution_of_1991" title="Colombian Constitution of 1991">repealed in 1991</a>. The <a href="/wiki/19th_of_April_Movement" title="19th of April Movement">19th of April Movement</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Movimiento_Armado_Quintin_Lame" title="Movimiento Armado Quintin Lame">Quintin Lame Armed Movement</a> and most of the <a href="/wiki/Popular_Liberation_Army" title="Popular Liberation Army">Popular Liberation Army</a> gave up their weapons and began to participate in politics. The <a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Armed_Forces_of_Colombia" title="Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia">FARC</a> continued its role in the <a href="/wiki/Colombian_conflict" title="Colombian conflict">Colombian conflict</a> into the 21st century.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Flag_of_El_Salvador.svg/23px-Flag_of_El_Salvador.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Flag_of_El_Salvador.svg/35px-Flag_of_El_Salvador.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Flag_of_El_Salvador.svg/46px-Flag_of_El_Salvador.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1005" data-file-height="567" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/El_Salvador" title="El Salvador">El Salvador</a> – The <a href="/wiki/Salvadoran_Civil_War" title="Salvadoran Civil War">Salvadoran Civil War</a> ended in 1992 following the <a href="/wiki/Chapultepec_Peace_Accords" title="Chapultepec Peace Accords">Chapultepec Peace Accords</a>. The rebel <a href="/wiki/Farabundo_Mart%C3%AD_National_Liberation_Front" title="Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front">FMLN</a> movement became a legal political party and participated in subsequent elections.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Flag_of_Gabon.svg/20px-Flag_of_Gabon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Flag_of_Gabon.svg/31px-Flag_of_Gabon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Flag_of_Gabon.svg/40px-Flag_of_Gabon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="750" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Gabon" title="Gabon">Gabon</a> – democratization in 1991.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Flag_of_Guatemala.svg/23px-Flag_of_Guatemala.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Flag_of_Guatemala.svg/35px-Flag_of_Guatemala.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Flag_of_Guatemala.svg/46px-Flag_of_Guatemala.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Guatemala" title="Guatemala">Guatemala</a> – The <a href="/wiki/Guatemalan_Civil_War" title="Guatemalan Civil War">Guatemalan Civil War</a> ended in 1996 and the rebel <a href="/wiki/Guatemalan_National_Revolutionary_Unity" title="Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity">Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity</a> became a legal party.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Flag_of_Haiti_%281964%E2%80%931986%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Haiti_%281964%E2%80%931986%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Flag_of_Haiti_%281964%E2%80%931986%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Haiti_%281964%E2%80%931986%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Flag_of_Haiti_%281964%E2%80%931986%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Haiti_%281964%E2%80%931986%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Haiti" title="Haiti">Haiti</a> – <a href="/wiki/Haitian_Revolution_of_1986" class="mw-redirect" title="Haitian Revolution of 1986">Haitian Revolution of 1986</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Flag_of_Indonesia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Indonesia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Flag_of_Indonesia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Indonesia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Flag_of_Indonesia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Indonesia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a> – The <a href="/wiki/Suharto" title="Suharto">Suharto</a> regime received great international criticism for its role in the 1991 <a href="/wiki/Santa_Cruz_massacre" title="Santa Cruz massacre">Santa Cruz massacre</a> and continued occupation of <a href="/wiki/East_Timor" class="mw-redirect" title="East Timor">East Timor</a>, leading to US sanctions. <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Suharto" title="Fall of Suharto">Suharto resigned in 1998</a> following mass protests, and East Timor gained independence in 2002 following the <a href="/wiki/1999_East_Timorese_independence_referendum" title="1999 East Timorese independence referendum">1999 referendum</a>.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Flag_of_C%C3%B4te_d%27Ivoire.svg/23px-Flag_of_C%C3%B4te_d%27Ivoire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Flag_of_C%C3%B4te_d%27Ivoire.svg/35px-Flag_of_C%C3%B4te_d%27Ivoire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Flag_of_C%C3%B4te_d%27Ivoire.svg/45px-Flag_of_C%C3%B4te_d%27Ivoire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Ivory_Coast" title="Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast</a> – democratization in 1990.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Kenya.svg/23px-Flag_of_Kenya.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Kenya.svg/35px-Flag_of_Kenya.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Kenya.svg/45px-Flag_of_Kenya.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Kenya" title="Kenya">Kenya</a> – Restoration of multi-party democracy in 1991<sup id="cite_ref-157" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Flag_of_Malawi.svg/23px-Flag_of_Malawi.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Flag_of_Malawi.svg/35px-Flag_of_Malawi.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Flag_of_Malawi.svg/45px-Flag_of_Malawi.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Malawi" title="Malawi">Malawi</a> – democratization in 1993.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Flag_of_Mauritania_%281959%E2%80%932017%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Mauritania_%281959%E2%80%932017%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Flag_of_Mauritania_%281959%E2%80%932017%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Mauritania_%281959%E2%80%932017%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Flag_of_Mauritania_%281959%E2%80%932017%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Mauritania_%281959%E2%80%932017%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Mauritania" title="Mauritania">Mauritania</a> – <a href="/wiki/1984_Mauritanian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1984 Mauritanian coup d'état">1984 Mauritanian coup d'état</a>; democratization in 1992.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/45px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a> – democratization in 1988.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Flag_of_Panama.svg/23px-Flag_of_Panama.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Flag_of_Panama.svg/35px-Flag_of_Panama.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Flag_of_Panama.svg/45px-Flag_of_Panama.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Panama" title="Panama">Panama</a> – The <a href="/wiki/Manuel_Noriega" title="Manuel Noriega">Manuel Noriega</a> regime was overthrown by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Panama" title="United States invasion of Panama">US invasion in 1989</a> as a result of his suppression of elections, drug-trafficking activities and the killing of a US serviceman.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Flag_of_Paraguay_%281990%E2%80%932013%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Paraguay_%281990%E2%80%932013%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Flag_of_Paraguay_%281990%E2%80%932013%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Paraguay_%281990%E2%80%932013%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Flag_of_Paraguay_%281990%E2%80%932013%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Paraguay_%281990%E2%80%932013%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="540" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Paraguay" title="Paraguay">Paraguay</a> – The dictatorship of <a href="/wiki/Alfredo_Stroessner" title="Alfredo Stroessner">Alfredo Stroessner</a> came to an end when he was deposed in a military coup d'état. In 1992, the country's new constitution established a democratic system of government.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Flag_of_Peru.svg/23px-Flag_of_Peru.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Flag_of_Peru.svg/35px-Flag_of_Peru.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Flag_of_Peru.svg/45px-Flag_of_Peru.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a> – The <a href="/wiki/Internal_conflict_in_Peru" title="Internal conflict in Peru">internal conflict in Peru</a> intensified under <a href="/wiki/Alberto_Fujimori" title="Alberto Fujimori">Alberto Fujimori</a>, who was criticized for his increased authoritarian rule and human rights abuses until his downfall in 2000. The <a href="/wiki/T%C3%BApac_Amaru_Revolutionary_Movement" title="Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement">Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement</a> ended its role in the <a href="/wiki/Internal_conflict_in_Peru" title="Internal conflict in Peru">internal conflict in Peru</a> in 1997. The <a href="/wiki/Shining_Path" title="Shining Path">Shining Path</a>, responsible for killing tens of thousands people, shrunk in the 1990s, but continued into the 21st century.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines"><img alt="Philippines" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Flag_of_the_Philippines_%281985%E2%80%931986%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Philippines_%281985%E2%80%931986%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Flag_of_the_Philippines_%281985%E2%80%931986%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Philippines_%281985%E2%80%931986%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Flag_of_the_Philippines_%281985%E2%80%931986%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Philippines_%281985%E2%80%931986%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Philippines_(1965%E2%80%9386)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Philippines (1965–86)">Philippines</a> – <a href="/wiki/People_Power_Revolution" title="People Power Revolution">People Power Revolution</a> in 1986 led to the downfall of <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Marcos" title="Ferdinand Marcos">Ferdinand Marcos</a>. <a href="/wiki/Communist_rebellion_in_the_Philippines" class="mw-redirect" title="Communist rebellion in the Philippines">Communist rebellion in the Philippines</a> continued into the 21st century.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Flag_of_Rwanda_%281961%E2%80%932001%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Rwanda_%281961%E2%80%932001%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Flag_of_Rwanda_%281961%E2%80%932001%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Rwanda_%281961%E2%80%932001%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Flag_of_Rwanda_%281961%E2%80%932001%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Rwanda_%281961%E2%80%932001%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Rwanda" title="Rwanda">Rwanda</a> – <a href="/wiki/Rwandan_Civil_War" title="Rwandan Civil War">Rwandan Civil War</a> in 1990 and <a href="/wiki/Rwandan_genocide" title="Rwandan genocide">Genocide</a> in 1994.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a> – Following the Soviet-Afghan War, <a href="/wiki/Osama_bin_Laden" title="Osama bin Laden">Osama bin Laden</a>, the founder of the Islamist militant group <a href="/wiki/Al-Qaeda" title="Al-Qaeda">al-Qaeda</a>, proposed to the Saudi monarchy not to rely on the United States after the <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Kuwait" class="mw-redirect" title="Invasion of Kuwait">fall of Kuwait</a>. Bin Laden later denounced the Saudi invitation of the U.S. <a href="/wiki/82nd_Airborne_Division" title="82nd Airborne Division">82nd Airborne Division</a> and was eventually expelled from the country in 1992 due to the criticism. His citizenship was revoked in 1994.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_South_Korea_%281984%E2%80%931997%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_South_Korea_%281984%E2%80%931997%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_South_Korea_%281984%E2%80%931997%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_South_Korea_%281984%E2%80%931997%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_South_Korea_%281984%E2%80%931997%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_South_Korea_%281984%E2%80%931997%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korea</a> – The <a href="/wiki/June_Democracy_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="June Democracy Movement">June Democracy Movement</a>'s <a href="/wiki/June_Struggle" class="mw-redirect" title="June Struggle">nationwide protests</a> led to the downfall of the <a href="/wiki/Chun_Doo-hwan" title="Chun Doo-hwan">Chun Doo-hwan</a> government in 1987, and the country's <a href="/wiki/1987_South_Korean_presidential_election" title="1987 South Korean presidential election">first democratic elections</a>. In 2000, North and South Korea agreed in principle to work towards <a href="/wiki/Korean_reunification" title="Korean reunification">peaceful reunification</a> in the future.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Flag_of_South_Africa_%281982%E2%80%931994%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_South_Africa_%281982%E2%80%931994%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Flag_of_South_Africa_%281982%E2%80%931994%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_South_Africa_%281982%E2%80%931994%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Flag_of_South_Africa_%281982%E2%80%931994%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_South_Africa_%281982%E2%80%931994%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a> – <a href="/wiki/Negotiations_to_end_apartheid_in_South_Africa" title="Negotiations to end apartheid in South Africa">Negotiations</a> were started in 1990 to end the <a href="/wiki/South_Africa_under_apartheid" class="mw-redirect" title="South Africa under apartheid">Apartheid</a> system. <a href="/wiki/Nelson_Mandela" title="Nelson Mandela">Nelson Mandela</a> was <a href="/wiki/1994_South_African_general_election" title="1994 South African general election">elected as the President of South Africa</a> in 1994.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan (Republic of China)</a> – In 1987 the ruling <a href="/wiki/Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">Kuomintang</a> party ended its <a href="/wiki/Martial_law_in_Taiwan" title="Martial law in Taiwan">strict martial law</a> introduced at the end of the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a>. Gradual <a href="/wiki/Taiwan#Democratic_reforms" title="Taiwan">democratic reforms</a> led to the <a href="/wiki/1996_Taiwanese_presidential_election" title="1996 Taiwanese presidential election">first direct presidential election</a> in 1996.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_Togo_%283-2%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Togo_%283-2%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_Togo_%283-2%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Togo_%283-2%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_Togo_%283-2%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Togo_%283-2%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Togo" title="Togo">Togo</a> – democratization in 1993.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> – The <a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland_peace_process" title="Northern Ireland peace process">Northern Ireland peace process</a> led to an end of <a href="/wiki/The_Troubles" title="The Troubles">The Troubles</a> in 1998, with the signing of the <a href="/wiki/Good_Friday_Agreement" title="Good Friday Agreement">Good Friday Agreement</a>.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> – Following the end of the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>, the United States became the world's sole <a href="/wiki/Superpower" title="Superpower">superpower</a>. It ceased to support many of the <a href="/wiki/Military_dictatorship" title="Military dictatorship">military dictatorships</a> it had during the Cold War, pressing more nations to adopt democracy.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Flag_of_North_Yemen.svg/23px-Flag_of_North_Yemen.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Flag_of_North_Yemen.svg/35px-Flag_of_North_Yemen.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Flag_of_North_Yemen.svg/45px-Flag_of_North_Yemen.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Yemen_Arab_Republic" title="Yemen Arab Republic">Yemen Arab Republic</a> – <a href="/wiki/Yemeni_unification" title="Yemeni unification">unified</a> with the communist <a href="/wiki/South_Yemen" title="South Yemen">South Yemen</a> after the <a href="/wiki/Yemeni_unification" title="Yemeni unification">separation period</a> (1967–1990) and also <a href="/wiki/Democratize" class="mw-redirect" title="Democratize">democratized</a> in 1990, then <a href="/wiki/Yemeni_Civil_War_(1994)" class="mw-redirect" title="Yemeni Civil War (1994)">suppressed communist secessionist movement</a> in the South in 1994.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Flag_of_Zaire_%281971%E2%80%931997%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Zaire_%281971%E2%80%931997%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Flag_of_Zaire_%281971%E2%80%931997%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Zaire_%281971%E2%80%931997%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Flag_of_Zaire_%281971%E2%80%931997%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Zaire_%281971%E2%80%931997%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="341" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Zaire" title="Zaire">Zaire</a> – <a href="/wiki/First_Congo_War" title="First Congo War">Civil War</a> in 1996.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Countries_that_emerged_into_socialist-styled_governments_beyond_1991">Countries that emerged into socialist-styled governments beyond 1991</h5></div> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Flag_of_Bolivia.svg/22px-Flag_of_Bolivia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Flag_of_Bolivia.svg/34px-Flag_of_Bolivia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Flag_of_Bolivia.svg/44px-Flag_of_Bolivia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="750" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Bolivia" title="Bolivia">Bolivia</a> – <a href="/wiki/Evo_Morales" title="Evo Morales">Evo Morales</a> led the <a href="/wiki/Movement_for_Socialism_(Bolivia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Movement for Socialism (Bolivia)">Movement for Socialism</a> which led to the establishment of the socialistic Plurinational State in 2009 and ruled the country until <a href="/wiki/2019_Bolivian_political_crisis" title="2019 Bolivian political crisis">his ouster in a coup</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-158" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Flag_of_Nepal.svg/16px-Flag_of_Nepal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Flag_of_Nepal.svg/25px-Flag_of_Nepal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Flag_of_Nepal.svg/33px-Flag_of_Nepal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="726" data-file-height="885" /></span></span>   </span><a href="/wiki/Nepal" title="Nepal">Nepal</a> – <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Nepal" title="Kingdom of Nepal">Monarchy</a> was overthrown in 2008 and the republic has been ruled by <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Nepal_(Maoist_Centre)" title="Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist Centre)">Communist Party</a> since then.</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/State_flag_of_Venezuela_%281954%E2%80%932006%29.svg/23px-State_flag_of_Venezuela_%281954%E2%80%932006%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/State_flag_of_Venezuela_%281954%E2%80%932006%29.svg/35px-State_flag_of_Venezuela_%281954%E2%80%932006%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/State_flag_of_Venezuela_%281954%E2%80%932006%29.svg/45px-State_flag_of_Venezuela_%281954%E2%80%932006%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Venezuela" title="Venezuela">Venezuela</a> – <a href="/wiki/Hugo_Chavez" class="mw-redirect" title="Hugo Chavez">Hugo Chavez</a> led the <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Republic_Movement" title="Fifth Republic Movement">Fifth Republic Movement</a> which led to the establishment of the Bolivarian Republic in 1999 and ruled the country until his death in 2013.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Other_impacts">Other impacts</h5></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Global_effect_of_1989-1991_Revolutions.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Global_effect_of_1989-1991_Revolutions.png/300px-Global_effect_of_1989-1991_Revolutions.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Global_effect_of_1989-1991_Revolutions.png/450px-Global_effect_of_1989-1991_Revolutions.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Global_effect_of_1989-1991_Revolutions.png/600px-Global_effect_of_1989-1991_Revolutions.png 2x" data-file-width="6300" data-file-height="3400" /></a><figcaption>Global effects of the 1988–1992 Revolutions</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg/21px-Flag_of_Israel.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg/32px-Flag_of_Israel.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg/41px-Flag_of_Israel.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="800" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a> – In 1990, the Soviet Union finally permitted free emigration of Soviet Jews to Israel. Prior to this, <a href="/wiki/1970s_Soviet_Union_aliyah" title="1970s Soviet Union aliyah">Jews trying to leave the USSR faced persecution</a>; those who succeeded arrived as refugees. Over the next few years, some one million Soviet citizens migrated to Israel. Although there was a concern that some of the new immigrants had only a very tenuous connection to Judaism, and many were accompanied by non-Jewish relatives, this massive wave of migration brought large numbers of highly educated Soviet Jews and slowly changed the demographic nature of Israel. In addition, thousands of <a href="/wiki/Beta_Israel" title="Beta Israel">Ethiopian Jews</a> were <a href="/wiki/Operation_Solomon" title="Operation Solomon">rescued</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Israel_Defense_Forces" title="Israel Defense Forces">Israel Defense Forces</a> in 1991.<sup id="cite_ref-159" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Political_reforms">Political reforms</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Decommunization" title="Decommunization">Decommunization</a></div> <p>Decommunization is a process of overcoming the legacies of the communist state establishments, culture, and psychology in the post-communist states. Decommunization was largely limited or non-existent. Communist parties were not outlawed and their members were not brought to trial. Just a few places even attempted to exclude members of communist secret services from decision-making.<sup id="cite_ref-pejovich_160-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pejovich-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In a number of countries the communist party simply changed its name and continued to function.<sup id="cite_ref-pejovich_160-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pejovich-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In several European countries, however, endorsing or attempting to justify crimes committed by communist regimes became punishable by up to three years of imprisonment.<sup id="cite_ref-161" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economic_reforms">Economic reforms</h2></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GDP_of_Russia_since_1989.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/GDP_of_Russia_since_1989.svg/300px-GDP_of_Russia_since_1989.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/GDP_of_Russia_since_1989.svg/450px-GDP_of_Russia_since_1989.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/GDP_of_Russia_since_1989.svg/600px-GDP_of_Russia_since_1989.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1130" data-file-height="530" /></a><figcaption>Russian GDP since the end of the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>. From 2014 are forecasts</figcaption></figure> <p>State run enterprises in socialist countries had little or no interest in producing what customers wanted, which resulted in shortages of goods and services.<sup id="cite_ref-aslund_162-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aslund-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the early 1990s, the general view was that there was no precedent for moving from socialism to capitalism",<sup id="cite_ref-Havrylyshyn_163-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Havrylyshyn-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and only some elderly people remembered how a market economy worked. As a result, the view that Central, Southeastern and Eastern Europe would stay poor for decades was common.<sup id="cite_ref-164" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The collapse of the Soviet Union, and the breakdown of economic ties which followed led to a severe economic crisis and catastrophic fall in the <a href="/wiki/Standard_of_living" title="Standard of living">standards of living</a> in the 1990s in post-Soviet states and the former Eastern bloc.<sup id="cite_ref-165" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-166" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even before Russia's <a href="/wiki/1998_Russian_financial_crisis" title="1998 Russian financial crisis">financial crisis</a> of 1998, Russia's GDP was half of what it had been in the early 1990s.<sup id="cite_ref-167" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There was a temporary fall of output in the official economy and an increase in black market economic activity.<sup id="cite_ref-aslund_162-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aslund-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Countries implemented different reform programs. One example, generally regarded as successful was the "shock therapy" <a href="/wiki/Balcerowicz_Plan" title="Balcerowicz Plan">Balcerowicz Plan</a> in Poland. Eventually the official economy began to grow.<sup id="cite_ref-aslund_162-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aslund-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In a 2007 paper, Oleh Havrylyshyn categorized the speed of reforms in the former communist countries of Europe:<sup id="cite_ref-Havrylyshyn_163-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Havrylyshyn-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><i>Sustained Big-Bang</i> (fastest): Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Czech Republic, Poland, Slovakia</li> <li><i>Advance Start/Steady Progress</i>: Croatia, Hungary, Slovenia</li> <li><i>Aborted Big-Bang</i>: Albania, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Kyrgyzstan, Russia</li> <li><i>Gradual Reforms</i>: Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Ukraine, Tajikistan, Romania</li> <li><i>Limited Reforms</i> (slowest): Belarus, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan</li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:History_of_NATO_enlargement.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/History_of_NATO_enlargement.svg/220px-History_of_NATO_enlargement.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/History_of_NATO_enlargement.svg/330px-History_of_NATO_enlargement.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/History_of_NATO_enlargement.svg/440px-History_of_NATO_enlargement.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="394" /></a><figcaption>NATO has <a href="/wiki/Enlargement_of_NATO" title="Enlargement of NATO">added 13 new members</a> since the <a href="/wiki/German_reunification" title="German reunification">German reunification</a> and the end of the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/2004_enlargement_of_the_European_Union" title="2004 enlargement of the European Union">2004 enlargement of the European Union</a> included the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia. The <a href="/wiki/2007_enlargement_of_the_European_Union" title="2007 enlargement of the European Union">2007 enlargement of the European Union</a> included Romania and Bulgaria, and Croatia <a href="/wiki/2013_enlargement_of_the_European_Union" title="2013 enlargement of the European Union">joined the EU in 2013</a>. The same countries have also <a href="/wiki/Enlargement_of_NATO" title="Enlargement of NATO">become NATO members</a>. In Mongolia, the economy was reformed in a similar fashion to the Eastern European counterparts. Armenia declared its decision to join the Customs Union and the Common Economic Space of Belarus, Kazakhstan and Russia, and participated in the formation of the Eurasian Economic Union.<sup id="cite_ref-168" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Effective from 2015, Armenia joined the treaty on the Eurasian Economic Union.<sup id="cite_ref-169" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Chinese_economic_reform" title="Chinese economic reform">Chinese economic liberalization</a> began in 1978 and has helped lift millions of people out of poverty, bringing the poverty rate down from 53% of the population in the Mao era, to 12% in 1981. Deng's economic reforms are still being followed by the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">CCP</a> today, and by 2001 the poverty rate was only 6% of the population.<sup id="cite_ref-170" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Doi_Moi" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi Moi">Economic liberalization in Vietnam</a> was initiated in 1986, following the Chinese example. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Economic_liberalisation_in_India" title="Economic liberalisation in India">Economic liberalization in India</a> was initiated in 1991. </p><p>Harvard University Professor <a href="/wiki/Richard_B._Freeman" title="Richard B. Freeman">Richard B. Freeman</a> has called the effect of reforms "The Great Doubling". He calculated that the size of the global workforce doubled from 1.46 billion workers to 2.93 billion workers.<sup id="cite_ref-171" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Freeman_172-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Freeman-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An immediate effect was a reduced ratio of capital to labor. In the long-term, China, India, and the former Soviet bloc will save and invest and contribute to the expansion of the world capital stock.<sup id="cite_ref-Freeman_172-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Freeman-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ideological_continuation_of_communism">Ideological continuation of communism</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Decommunization_in_Russia" title="Decommunization in Russia">Decommunization in Russia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neo-Stalinism" title="Neo-Stalinism">Neo-Stalinism</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Grand_Kremlin_Palace_fa%C3%A7ade,_1982-2008.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Grand_Kremlin_Palace_fa%C3%A7ade%2C_1982-2008.jpg/220px-Grand_Kremlin_Palace_fa%C3%A7ade%2C_1982-2008.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="331" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Grand_Kremlin_Palace_fa%C3%A7ade%2C_1982-2008.jpg/330px-Grand_Kremlin_Palace_fa%C3%A7ade%2C_1982-2008.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b5/Grand_Kremlin_Palace_fa%C3%A7ade%2C_1982-2008.jpg 2x" data-file-width="358" data-file-height="538" /></a><figcaption>The facade of the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Kremlin_Palace" title="Grand Kremlin Palace">Grand Kremlin Palace</a> was restored to its original form after the dissolution of the USSR in 1991. The <a href="/wiki/State_Emblem_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="State Emblem of the Soviet Union">State Emblem of the USSR</a> and the embedded letters forming the <a href="/wiki/CCCP_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="CCCP (disambiguation)">abbreviation of the USSR</a> (CCCP) were removed and replaced by five Russian <a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Russia" title="Coat of arms of Russia">double-headed eagles</a>. In a restoration of the coat of arms, the territories of the Russian Empire were placed above the eagles.</figcaption></figure> <p>As of 2008, nearly half of Russians viewed Stalin positively, and many supported restoration of his previously dismantled monuments.<sup id="cite_ref-173" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-174" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1992, President Yeltsin's government invited <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Bukovsky" title="Vladimir Bukovsky">Vladimir Bukovsky</a> to serve as an expert to testify at the <a href="/wiki/CPSU" class="mw-redirect" title="CPSU">CPSU</a> trial by the <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitutional Court">Constitutional Court</a> of Russia, where the communists were suing Yeltsin for banning their party. The respondent's case was that the <a href="/wiki/CPSU" class="mw-redirect" title="CPSU">CPSU</a> itself had been an unconstitutional organization. To prepare for his testimony, Bukovsky requested and was granted access to a large number of documents from Soviet archives, then reorganized into the <a href="/wiki/TsKhSD" class="mw-redirect" title="TsKhSD">TsKhSD</a>. Using a small handheld scanner and a laptop computer, he managed to secretly scan many documents, some with high <a href="/wiki/Security_clearance" title="Security clearance">security clearance</a>, including <a href="/wiki/KGB" title="KGB">KGB</a> reports to the <a href="/wiki/Central_Committee" class="mw-redirect" title="Central Committee">Central Committee</a>, and smuggle the files to the West.<sup id="cite_ref-175" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Interpretations">Interpretations</h2></div> <p>The events caught many people by surprise. Before 1991, many thought that the collapse of the Soviet Union was <a href="/wiki/Predictions_of_Soviet_collapse" class="mw-redirect" title="Predictions of Soviet collapse">impossible</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-melt_176-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-melt-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>176<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Bartlomiej Kaminski's book <i>The Collapse of State Socialism</i> argued that the state Socialist system has a lethal paradox, saying that "policy actions designed to improve performance only accelerate its decay".<sup id="cite_ref-177" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag needs further explanation. (April 2024)">further explanation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>By the end of 1989, revolts had spread from one capital to another, ousting the regimes imposed on Central, South-East and Eastern Europe after World War II. Even the isolationist Stalinist regime in Albania was unable to stem the tide. Gorbachev's abrogation of the <a href="/wiki/Brezhnev_Doctrine" title="Brezhnev Doctrine">Brezhnev Doctrine</a> was perhaps the key factor that enabled the popular uprisings to succeed. Once it became evident that the feared Soviet Army would not intervene to crush dissent, the Central, South-East and Eastern European regimes were exposed as vulnerable in the face of popular uprisings against the one-party system and power of <a href="/wiki/Secret_police" title="Secret police">secret police</a>. </p><p>In 1990, <a href="/wiki/Coit_D._Blacker" title="Coit D. Blacker">Coit D. Blacker</a> wrote that the Soviet leadership "appeared to have believed that whatever loss of authority the Soviet Union might suffer in Central and South-East Europe would be more than offset by a net increase in its influence in western Europe."<sup id="cite_ref-fa90_178-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fa90-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>178<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, it is unlikely that Gorbachev ever intended for the complete dismantling of communism and the Warsaw Pact. Rather, Gorbachev assumed that the communist parties of Central and South-East Europe could be reformed in a similar way to the reforms he hoped to achieve in the CPSU.<sup id="cite_ref-steele_1994_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-steele_1994-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Just as <i>perestroika</i> was aimed at making the Soviet Union more efficient economically and politically, Gorbachev believed that the <a href="/wiki/Comecon" title="Comecon">Comecon</a> and Warsaw Pact could be reformed into more effective entities. However, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Nikolaevich_Yakovlev" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander Nikolaevich Yakovlev">Alexander Yakovlev</a>, a close advisor to Gorbachev, later stated that it would have been "absurd to keep the system" in Central and South-East Europe. Yakovlev came to the conclusion that the Soviet-dominated Comecon could not work on non-market principles, and that the Warsaw Pact had "no relevance to real life".<sup id="cite_ref-steele_1994_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-steele_1994-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In retrospect, authoritarian regimes such as the Soviet Union are more likely to be subject to economic sanctions by democratic nations, creating a riskier vulnerability to collapse.<sup id="cite_ref-179" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1991, <a href="/wiki/Timur_Kuran" title="Timur Kuran">Timur Kuran</a> wrote that generally leaders were despised and failed to meet expectations of freedoms and economic prosperity that they had promised, leading to citizen motivation to upheave the government.<sup id="cite_ref-180" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Economic distress mirrored across most regimes had declined growth rates to near zero leading up to their respective uprisings.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_181-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-181"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>181<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While socialist economics may have played a role, <a href="/wiki/Stathis_Kalyvas" title="Stathis Kalyvas">Stathis N. Kalyvas</a> argues that international sanctions as well as the government makeup of authoritarian regimes were equally as impactful in reducing their economy's prosperity.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_181-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-181"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>181<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Scholars such as Gale Stokes argue that the moral repression under the guise of security by communist regimes had brought citizens to the streets.<sup id="cite_ref-182" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Others argue that the repression of revolutionary dissidents and human rights justified revolutionary privilege throughout Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-183" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Remembrance">Remembrance</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Organizations">Organizations</h3></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Memorial_(society)" title="Memorial (society)">Memorial</a>, an international historical and <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil rights">civil rights</a> society that operates in a number of <a href="/wiki/Post-Soviet_states" title="Post-Soviet states">post-Soviet states</a> which focuses on recording and publicising the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Totalitarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Totalitarian">totalitarian</a> aspect of the past, but also monitors human rights in post-Soviet states at the present time, for example in <a href="/wiki/Chechnya" title="Chechnya">Chechnya</a><sup id="cite_ref-184" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Events">Events</h3></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_Unity_Day" title="German Unity Day">German Unity Day</a> in Germany, a national holiday commemorating the anniversary of <a href="/wiki/German_reunification" title="German reunification">German reunification</a> in 1990</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statehood_Day_(Slovenia)" title="Statehood Day (Slovenia)">Statehood Day</a> in Slovenia commemorates the country's declaration of independence from Yugoslavia in 1991</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independence_and_Unity_Day" class="mw-redirect" title="Independence and Unity Day">Independence and Unity Day</a> in Slovenia commemorates the country's independence referendum</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Georgia" title="Public holidays in Georgia">Day of National Unity</a> in Georgia is a public holiday commemorating victims of the <a href="/wiki/9_April_tragedy" class="mw-redirect" title="9 April tragedy">9 April tragedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Day" class="mw-redirect" title="National Day">National Day</a> in Hungary</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Mongolia" title="Constitution of Mongolia">Constitution Day</a> in Mongolia commemorates the country's transition to democracy in 1992</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_Day" title="Constitution Day">Constitution Day</a> in Romania commemorates the 1991 <a href="/wiki/Romanian_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanian Constitution">Romanian Constitution</a> that enshrined the return to democracy after the fall of the communist regime</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Slovakia" title="Public holidays in Slovakia">Struggle for Freedom and Democracy Day</a> in Slovakia</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="Public holidays in the Czech Republic">Struggle for Freedom and Democracy Day</a> in the Czech Republic</li> <li>Restoration of Independence Day in Latvia commemorates the <a href="/wiki/On_the_Restoration_of_Independence_of_the_Republic_of_Latvia" title="On the Restoration of Independence of the Republic of Latvia">1990 declaration</a> restoring the country's independence</li></ul> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Picnic_Melocco.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="The text translates to "breaking through"" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Picnic_Melocco.JPG/246px-Picnic_Melocco.JPG" decoding="async" width="246" height="328" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Picnic_Melocco.JPG/369px-Picnic_Melocco.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Picnic_Melocco.JPG/492px-Picnic_Melocco.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Pan-European_Picnic" title="Pan-European Picnic">Pan-European Picnic</a> (Hungarian: Páneurópai piknik) memorial near <a href="/wiki/Sopron" title="Sopron">Sopron</a>, by Hungarian artist Miklós Melocco.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Places">Places</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-notice" role="presentation" style="width: auto;"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1d/Information_icon4.svg/20px-Information_icon4.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1d/Information_icon4.svg/30px-Information_icon4.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1d/Information_icon4.svg/40px-Information_icon4.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="620" data-file-height="620" /></span></span></td><td class="mbox-text" style="width: auto;"><div class="mbox-text-span">This list is <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Lists#Incomplete_lists" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Lists">incomplete</a>; you can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Revolutions_of_1989&action=edit">adding missing items</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">December 2009</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Checkpoint_Charlie_Museum" title="Checkpoint Charlie Museum">Checkpoint Charlie Museum</a> in Berlin, Germany</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeltoqsan" title="Jeltoqsan">Dawn of Liberty</a> in Kazakhstan, a monument dedicated to Jeltoqsan</li> <li><a href="/wiki/DDR_Museum" title="DDR Museum">DDR Museum</a> in Berlin, Germany</li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Solidarity_Centre" title="European Solidarity Centre">European Solidarity Centre</a> in Poland</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gda%C5%84sk_Shipyard" title="Gdańsk Shipyard">Gdańsk Shipyard</a> in Poland</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Museum_on_Communism" class="mw-redirect" title="Global Museum on Communism">Global Museum on Communism</a> in Washington DC, US</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gr%C5%ABtas_Park" title="Grūtas Park">Grūtas Park</a> in Lithuania</li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Terror" title="House of Terror">House of Terror</a> in Hungary</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lennon_Wall" title="Lennon Wall">Lennon Wall</a> in the Czech Republic</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memento_Park" title="Memento Park">Memento Park</a> in Hungary</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memorial_of_Rebirth" title="Memorial of Rebirth">Memorial of Rebirth</a> in Romania</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memorial_to_the_Victims_of_Communism" title="Memorial to the Victims of Communism">Memorial to the Victims of Communism</a> in the Czech Republic</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Occupations_and_Freedom_Fights" title="Museum of Occupations and Freedom Fights">Museum of Genocide Victims</a> in Vilnius, Lithuania</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Communism,_Czech_Republic" title="Museum of Communism, Czech Republic">Museum of Communism, Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Communism,_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Museum of Communism, Poland">Museum of Communism, Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Occupations_(Estonia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Museum of Occupations (Estonia)">Museum of Occupations (Estonia)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Museum_of_Occupation_(Lithuania)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Museum of Occupation (Lithuania) (page does not exist)">Museum of Occupation (Lithuania)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_the_Occupation_of_Latvia" title="Museum of the Occupation of Latvia">Museum of the Occupation of Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Socialist_Art" title="Museum of Socialist Art">Museum of Socialist Art</a> in Bulgaria</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Soviet_Occupation,_Kyiv" title="Museum of Soviet Occupation, Kyiv">Museum of Soviet Occupation</a> in Kyiv, Ukraine</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Soviet_Occupation_(Tbilisi)" title="Museum of Soviet Occupation (Tbilisi)">Museum of Soviet Occupation</a> in Tbilisi, Georgia</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muzeul_Memoriei_Neamului" title="Muzeul Memoriei Neamului">Muzeul Memoriei Neamului</a> in Moldova</li> <li><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%8E%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%9B%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE" class="extiw" title="uk:Тюрма на Лонцького">Museum of Victims of Occupational Regimes "Prison on Lontskoho"</a> in Lviv, Ukraine</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sighet_prison" class="mw-redirect" title="Sighet prison">Sighet Memorial Museum</a> in the old prison in Sighetu Marmației, Romania</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stasi_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="Stasi Museum">Stasi Museum</a> in the former Stasi headquarters, Berlin, Germany</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transalpina_Square" class="mw-redirect" title="Transalpina Square">Transalpina Square</a> divided between the towns of Gorizia, Italy, and Nova Gorica, Slovenia</li> <li>Victims of Political Persecution Memorial Museum in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia</li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other">Other</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-notice" role="presentation" style="width: auto;"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1d/Information_icon4.svg/20px-Information_icon4.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1d/Information_icon4.svg/30px-Information_icon4.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1d/Information_icon4.svg/40px-Information_icon4.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="620" data-file-height="620" /></span></span></td><td class="mbox-text" style="width: auto;"><div class="mbox-text-span">This list is <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Lists#Incomplete_lists" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Lists">incomplete</a>; you can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Revolutions_of_1989&action=edit">adding missing items</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">December 2009</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Soviet_Story" title="The Soviet Story">The Soviet Story</a></i>, an award-winning documentary film about the Soviet Union</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Singing_Revolution" title="The Singing Revolution">The Singing Revolution</a></i>, a documentary film about the Singing Revolution</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Heaven_on_Earth:_The_Rise_and_Fall_of_Socialism" title="Heaven on Earth: The Rise and Fall of Socialism">Heaven on Earth: The Rise and Fall of Socialism</a></i>, a book and a documentary film based on the book</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lenin%27s_Tomb:_The_Last_Days_of_the_Soviet_Empire" title="Lenin's Tomb: The Last Days of the Soviet Empire">Lenin's Tomb: The Last Days of the Soviet Empire</a></i>, a Pulitzer Prize-awarded book</li> <li><i>A Political Tragedy in Six Acts</i>, biography of dissident <a href="/wiki/V%C3%A1clav_Havel" title="Václav Havel">Václav Havel</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Right_Here,_Right_Now_(Jesus_Jones_song)" title="Right Here, Right Now (Jesus Jones song)">Right Here, Right Now</a></i>, an international hit written by Mike Edwards and performed by his rock band <a href="/wiki/Jesus_Jones" title="Jesus Jones">Jesus Jones</a> and released in September 1990</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Wind_of_Change_(Scorpions_song)" title="Wind of Change (Scorpions song)">Wind of Change</a>", a hit song by the German heavy-metal band <a href="/wiki/Scorpions_(band)" title="Scorpions (band)">Scorpions</a> that celebrates <a href="/wiki/Perestroika" title="Perestroika">Perestroika</a> and the fall of communism in Central and Eastern Europe.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breakup_of_Yugoslavia" title="Breakup of Yugoslavia">Breakup of Yugoslavia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_democracy_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese democracy movement">Chinese democracy movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colour_revolution" title="Colour revolution">Colour revolutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Solidarity" title="History of Solidarity">History of Solidarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/January_Events" title="January Events">January Events</a>, Lithuania, 1991</li> <li><a href="/wiki/JBTZ_trial" title="JBTZ trial">JBTZ trial</a>, former Yugoslavia, 1988</li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_Power_Revolution" title="People Power Revolution">People Power Revolution</a>, Philippines, 1986</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_Round_Table_Agreement" title="Polish Round Table Agreement">Polish Round Table Agreement</a>, 1989</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reagan_Doctrine" title="Reagan Doctrine">Reagan Doctrine</a></li></ul> <p><b>Aftermath:</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Spring" title="Arab Spring">Arab Spring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_Tiger" title="Baltic Tiger">Baltic Tiger</a>, Baltic economies</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carpat_Tiger" class="mw-redirect" title="Carpat Tiger">Carpat Tiger</a>, Romanian economy</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Independent_States" title="Commonwealth of Independent States">Commonwealth of Independent States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_nostalgia" title="Communist nostalgia">Communist nostalgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enlargement_of_NATO" title="Enlargement of NATO">Enlargement of NATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enlargement_of_the_European_Union" title="Enlargement of the European Union">Enlargement of the European Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euromaidan" title="Euromaidan">Euromaidan</a>, Ukraine, 2013</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_relations_since_1989" title="International relations since 1989">International relations since 1989</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeans_Revolution" title="Jeans Revolution">Jeans Revolution</a>, Belarus, 2006</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orange_Revolution" title="Orange Revolution">Orange Revolution</a>, Ukraine, 2004</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overthrow_of_Slobodan_Milo%C5%A1evi%C4%87" title="Overthrow of Slobodan Milošević">Overthrow of Slobodan Milošević</a>, Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, 2000</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pink_tide" title="Pink tide">Pink tide</a>, Latin America, 21st century</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rose_Revolution" title="Rose Revolution">Rose Revolution</a>, Georgia, 2003</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Ukrainian_War" title="Russo-Ukrainian War">Russo-Ukrainian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Dissolution of Czechoslovakia">Velvet Divorce</a> in Czechoslovakia</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2018_Armenian_Revolution" title="2018 Armenian Revolution">Velvet Revolution</a>, Armenia, 2018</li></ul> <p><b>General:</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_resistance" title="Civil resistance">Civil resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_Europe" title="Democracy in Europe">Democracy in Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preference_falsification" title="Preference falsification">Preference falsification</a></li></ul> <p><b>Earlier revolutionary eras:</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Revolutions" title="Atlantic Revolutions">Atlantic Revolutions</a>, late 18th and early 19th century</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1917%E2%80%931923" title="Revolutions of 1917–1923">Revolutions of 1917–1923</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFKochanowicz,_Jacek2006" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Kochanowicz, Jacek (2006). <a href="/wiki/Iv%C3%A1n_T._Berend" title="Iván T. Berend">Berend, Ivan T.</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=f6RGpe1mjzQC"><i>Backwardness and Modernization: Poland and Eastern Europe in the 16th–20th Centuries</i></a>. Collected studies: Studies in East-Central Europe. Vol. 858li. Aldershot: Ashgate. p. 198. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-5905-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-5905-1"><bdi>978-0-7546-5905-1</bdi></a>. <q>Within the communist world, certain strata of population were particularly sensitive to Western influences. Late communism produced sizable, specific middle classes of relatively well-educated professionals, technicians and even highly skilled blue-collar workers. These classes had no attachment whatsoever to Marxist–Leninist ideology, while they became attracted to the Western way of life. Many members of the ruling 'nomenklatura' shared the same sentiments, as Western consumerism and individualism seemed more attractive to them than communist collective Puritanism. There were two very important consequences of this, one economic, and the second political. The economic one was the attractiveness of consumerism. The political consequence was the pressure to increase the margins of political freedom and public space.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Backwardness+and+Modernization%3A+Poland+and+Eastern+Europe+in+the+16th%E2%80%9320th+Centuries&rft.place=Aldershot&rft.series=Collected+studies%3A+Studies+in+East-Central+Europe&rft.pages=198&rft.pub=Ashgate&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-7546-5905-1&rft.au=Kochanowicz%2C+Jacek&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Df6RGpe1mjzQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCross2000" class="citation book cs1">Cross, Gary S. (2000). "1: The Irony of the Century". <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/allconsumingcent00cros_0"><i>An All-consuming Century: Why Commercialism Won in Modern America</i></a></span>. New York: Columbia University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/allconsumingcent00cros_0/page/8">8</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-2311-1312-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-2311-1312-0"><bdi>978-0-2311-1312-0</bdi></a>. <q>For East Europeans, the promise of mass consumption was preferable to the nightmare of solidarity even if it meant also the dominance of money and the private control of wealth. In reality, the fall of communism had more to do with the appeals of capitalist consumerism than political democracy.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=1%3A+The+Irony+of+the+Century&rft.btitle=An+All-consuming+Century%3A+Why+Commercialism+Won+in+Modern+America&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=8&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-2311-1312-0&rft.aulast=Cross&rft.aufirst=Gary+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fallconsumingcent00cros_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGehlerKosickiWohnout2019" class="citation book cs1">Gehler, Michael; Kosicki, Piotr H.; Wohnout, Helmut (2019). <i>Christian Democracy and the Fall of Communism</i>. <a href="/wiki/Leuven_University_Press" title="Leuven University Press">Leuven University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9-4627-0216-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-9-4627-0216-5"><bdi>978-9-4627-0216-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Christian+Democracy+and+the+Fall+of+Communism&rft.pub=Leuven+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-9-4627-0216-5&rft.aulast=Gehler&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.au=Kosicki%2C+Piotr+H.&rft.au=Wohnout%2C+Helmut&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NedelmannSztompka1993-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NedelmannSztompka1993_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNedelmannSztompka1993" class="citation book cs1">Nedelmann, Birgitta; Sztompka, Piotr (1 January 1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cOqTuIDuuMMC&pg=PA1"><i>Sociology in Europe: In Search of Identity</i></a>. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 1–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-1101-3845-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-1101-3845-0"><bdi>978-3-1101-3845-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sociology+in+Europe%3A+In+Search+of+Identity&rft.pages=1-&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=1993-01-01&rft.isbn=978-3-1101-3845-0&rft.aulast=Nedelmann&rft.aufirst=Birgitta&rft.au=Sztompka%2C+Piotr&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcOqTuIDuuMMC%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BernhardSzlajfer2010-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BernhardSzlajfer2010_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBernhardSzlajfer2010" class="citation book cs1">Bernhard, Michael; <a href="/wiki/Henryk_Szlajfer" title="Henryk Szlajfer">Szlajfer, Henryk</a> (1 November 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YE29dvVxvdgC&pg=PA221"><i>From the Polish Underground: Selections from Krytyka, 1978–1993</i></a>. Penn State Press. pp. 221–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-2710-4427-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-2710-4427-9"><bdi>978-0-2710-4427-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+the+Polish+Underground%3A+Selections+from+Krytyka%2C+1978%E2%80%931993&rft.pages=221-&rft.pub=Penn+State+Press&rft.date=2010-11-01&rft.isbn=978-0-2710-4427-9&rft.aulast=Bernhard&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.au=Szlajfer%2C+Henryk&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYE29dvVxvdgC%26pg%3DPA221&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Luciano2008-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Luciano2008_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLuciano2008" class="citation book cs1">Luciano, Bernadette (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eBdKQYm4tyYC&pg=PA77"><i>Cinema of Silvio Soldini: Dream, Image, Voyage</i></a>. Troubador. pp. 77ff. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-9065-1024-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-9065-1024-4"><bdi>978-1-9065-1024-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cinema+of+Silvio+Soldini%3A+Dream%2C+Image%2C+Voyage&rft.pages=77ff&rft.pub=Troubador&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-9065-1024-4&rft.aulast=Luciano&rft.aufirst=Bernadette&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeBdKQYm4tyYC%26pg%3DPA77&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Grofman2001-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Grofman2001_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrofman,_Bernard2001" class="citation book cs1">Grofman, Bernard (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SuIZ0wkeTmIC&pg=PA85"><i>Political Science as Puzzle Solving</i></a>. University of Michigan Press. pp. 85ff. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-4720-8723-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-4720-8723-1"><bdi>0-4720-8723-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Political+Science+as+Puzzle+Solving&rft.pages=85ff&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-4720-8723-1&rft.au=Grofman%2C+Bernard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSuIZ0wkeTmIC%26pg%3DPA85&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SadurskiCzarnota2006-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-SadurskiCzarnota2006_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSadurskiCzarnotaKrygier2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Wojciech_Sadurski" title="Wojciech Sadurski">Sadurski, Wojciech</a>; Czarnota, Adam; Krygier, Martin (30 July 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_c9HAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA285"><i>Spreading Democracy and the Rule of Law?: The Impact of EU Enlargemente for the Rule of Law, Democracy and Constitutionalism in Post-Communist Legal Orders</i></a>. Springer. pp. 285–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-3842-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-3842-6"><bdi>978-1-4020-3842-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spreading+Democracy+and+the+Rule+of+Law%3F%3A+The+Impact+of+EU+Enlargemente+for+the+Rule+of+Law%2C+Democracy+and+Constitutionalism+in+Post-Communist+Legal+Orders&rft.pages=285-&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2006-07-30&rft.isbn=978-1-4020-3842-6&rft.aulast=Sadurski&rft.aufirst=Wojciech&rft.au=Czarnota%2C+Adam&rft.au=Krygier%2C+Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_c9HAAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA285&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPutz2016" class="citation web cs1">Putz, Catherine (16 December 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://thediplomat.com/2016/12/1986-kazakhstans-other-independence-anniversary">"1986: Kazakhstan's Other Independence Anniversary"</a>. The Diplomat<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Central European University Press. p. 85. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9-6391-1671-8" title="Special:BookSources/9-6391-1671-8"><bdi>9-6391-1671-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Independence+Reborn+and+the+Demons+of+the+Velvet+Revolution&rft.btitle=Between+Past+and+Future%3A+The+Revolutions+of+1989+and+Their+Aftermath&rft.pages=85&rft.pub=Central+European+University+Press&rft.date=2000-01&rft.isbn=9-6391-1671-8&rft.aulast=Antohi&rft.aufirst=Sorin&rft.au=Tism%C4%83neanu%2C+Vladimir&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1pl5T45FwIwC%26pg%3DPA85&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-lead-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-lead_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoyes2009" class="citation news cs1">Boyes, Roger (4 June 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/world-agenda-20-years-later-poland-can-lead-eastern-europe-once-again-mf5vbbdgmhz">"World Agenda: 20 years later, Poland can lead eastern Europe once again"</a>. <i>The Times</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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University of Chicago Press. p. 16. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-2267-8815-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-2267-8815-6"><bdi>0-2267-8815-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Preface&rft.btitle=Society+in+Action%3A+the+Theory+of+Social+Becoming&rft.pages=16&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1991-08-27&rft.isbn=0-2267-8815-6&rft.aulast=Sztompka&rft.aufirst=Piotr&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsdSw3FgVOS4C%26pg%3DPP16&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171019113955/http://www.cecl.gr/RigasNetwork/databank/Constitutions/Yugoslavia.html">"Yugoslavia"</a>. <i>Constitution</i>. Greece: CECL. 27 April 1992. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cecl.gr/RigasNetwork/databank/Constitutions/Yugoslavia.html">the original</a> on 19 October 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Facts on File News Services. 6 September 2007</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarkham1989" class="citation news cs1">Markham, James M. (7 July 1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1989/07/07/world/gorbachev-spurns-the-use-of-force-in-eastern-europe.html?scp=714&sq=Hungary&st=nyt&gwh=8324637C96A56F9E0671EC017DB71D98">"Gorbachev spurns the use of force in Eastern Europe"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Gorbachev+spurns+the+use+of+force+in+Eastern+Europe&rft.date=1989-07-07&rft.aulast=Markham&rft.aufirst=James+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1989%2F07%2F07%2Fworld%2Fgorbachev-spurns-the-use-of-force-in-eastern-europe.html%3Fscp%3D714%26sq%3DHungary%26st%3Dnyt%26gwh%3D8324637C96A56F9E0671EC017DB71D98&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBello1986" class="citation journal cs1">Bello, Walden (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/01436598608419897">"From the ashes: The rebirth of the Philippine revolution—a review essay"</a>. <i>Third World Quarterly</i>. <b>8</b>: <span class="nowrap">258–</span>276. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01436598608419897">10.1080/01436598608419897</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Third+World+Quarterly&rft.atitle=From+the+ashes%3A+The+rebirth+of+the+Philippine+revolution%E2%80%94a+review+essay&rft.volume=8&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E258-%3C%2Fspan%3E276&rft.date=1986&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F01436598608419897&rft.aulast=Bello&rft.aufirst=Walden&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfonline.com%2Fdoi%2Fpdf%2F10.1080%2F01436598608419897&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Freedom_House" title="Freedom House">Freedom House</a>, <i>Freedom in the World 1999–2000</i> (New York, 2000).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWałęsa1991" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lech_Wa%C5%82%C4%99sa" title="Lech Wałęsa">Wałęsa, Lech</a> (1991). <i>The Struggle and the Triumph: An Autobiography</i>. Arcade. p. 151. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55970-221-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-55970-221-4"><bdi>1-55970-221-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Struggle+and+the+Triumph%3A+An+Autobiography&rft.pages=151&rft.pub=Arcade&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=1-55970-221-4&rft.aulast=Wa%C5%82%C4%99sa&rft.aufirst=Lech&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWałęsa1991157-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWałęsa1991157_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWałęsa1991">Wałęsa 1991</a>, p. 157.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWałęsa1991174-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWałęsa1991174_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWałęsa1991">Wałęsa 1991</a>, p. 174.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTagliabue1989" class="citation news cs1">Tagliabue, John (15 August 1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1989/08/15/world/poland-s-premier-offering-to-yield-to-non-communist.html?scp=187&sq=Poland&st=nyt&gwh=1619ADC23679717BAA7BEEB89D42F7C7">"Poland's premier offering to yield to non-Communist"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Poland%27s+premier+offering+to+yield+to+non-Communist&rft.date=1989-08-15&rft.aulast=Tagliabue&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1989%2F08%2F15%2Fworld%2Fpoland-s-premier-offering-to-yield-to-non-communist.html%3Fscp%3D187%26sq%3DPoland%26st%3Dnyt%26gwh%3D1619ADC23679717BAA7BEEB89D42F7C7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-apple_1989-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-apple_1989_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-apple_1989_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFApple1989" class="citation news cs1">Apple, R. W. Jr. (20 August 1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1989/08/20/weekinreview/a-new-orbit-poland-s-break-leads-europe-and-communism-to-a-threshold.html?scp=825&sq=Hungary&st=nyt&gwh=6C7A9946FB31BA34FCA893628C2ECB2B">"A New orbit: Poland's Break Leads Europe And Communism To a Threshold"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=A+New+orbit%3A+Poland%27s+Break+Leads+Europe+And+Communism+To+a+Threshold&rft.date=1989-08-20&rft.aulast=Apple&rft.aufirst=R.+W.+Jr.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1989%2F08%2F20%2Fweekinreview%2Fa-new-orbit-poland-s-break-leads-europe-and-communism-to-a-threshold.html%3Fscp%3D825%26sq%3DHungary%26st%3Dnyt%26gwh%3D6C7A9946FB31BA34FCA893628C2ECB2B&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTagliabue1989" class="citation news cs1">Tagliabue, John (25 August 1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1989/08/25/world/opening-new-era-poles-pick-leader.html?scp=117&sq=Poland&st=nyt&gwh=F25D35FF96685DE091584BA304075DFB">"Opening new era, Poles pick leader"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Opening+new+era%2C+Poles+pick+leader&rft.date=1989-08-25&rft.aulast=Tagliabue&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1989%2F08%2F25%2Fworld%2Fopening-new-era-poles-pick-leader.html%3Fscp%3D117%26sq%3DPoland%26st%3Dnyt%26gwh%3DF25D35FF96685DE091584BA304075DFB&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTagliabue1989" class="citation news cs1">Tagliabue, John (13 September 1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1989/09/13/opinion/poles-approve-solidarity-led-cabinet.html?scp=7&sq=Poland&st=nyt&gwh=ADFB73DF2E2E33BE8ECFB353BC221D80">"Poles Approve Solidarity-Led Cabinet"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Poles+Approve+Solidarity-Led+Cabinet&rft.date=1989-09-13&rft.aulast=Tagliabue&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1989%2F09%2F13%2Fopinion%2Fpoles-approve-solidarity-led-cabinet.html%3Fscp%3D7%26sq%3DPoland%26st%3Dnyt%26gwh%3DADFB73DF2E2E33BE8ECFB353BC221D80&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB124051894535749519">"Across Eastern Europe, Remembering the Curtain's Fall"</a>. <i>Wall Street Journal</i>. 24 April 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wall+Street+Journal&rft.atitle=Across+Eastern+Europe%2C+Remembering+the+Curtain%27s+Fall&rft.date=2009-04-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wsj.com%2Farticles%2FSB124051894535749519&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PWN_historia-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-PWN_historia_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PWN_historia_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PWN_historia_45-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061001084717/http://encyklopedia.pwn.pl/haslo.php?id=4575043">"Polska. Historia"</a>, <a href="/wiki/Internetowa_encyklopedia_PWN" title="Internetowa encyklopedia PWN"><i>Internetowa encyklopedia PWN</i></a> [<i>PWN Internet Encyklopedia</i>] (in Polish), archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://encyklopedia.pwn.pl/haslo.php?id=4575043">the original</a> on 1 October 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 July</span> 2005</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Polska.+Historia&rft.btitle=Internetowa+encyklopedia+PWN&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fencyklopedia.pwn.pl%2Fhaslo.php%3Fid%3D4575043&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKamm1988" class="citation news cs1">Kamm, Henry (23 May 1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1988/05/23/world/hungarian-party-replaces-kadar-with-his-premier.html?scp=135&sq=Hungary&st=nyt&gwh=E283E53C9144CEB5DC839A7740A35E80">"Hungarian Party replace Kadar with his premier"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Hungarian+Party+replace+Kadar+with+his+premier&rft.date=1988-05-23&rft.aulast=Kamm&rft.aufirst=Henry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1988%2F05%2F23%2Fworld%2Fhungarian-party-replaces-kadar-with-his-premier.html%3Fscp%3D135%26sq%3DHungary%26st%3Dnyt%26gwh%3DE283E53C9144CEB5DC839A7740A35E80&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1989/01/12/world/hungary-eases-dissent-curbs.html?scp=432&sq=Hungary&st=nyt&gwh=92733275AEC8E1D4866E0147173B702E">"Hungary Eases Dissent Curbs"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. 12 January 1989.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Hungary+Eases+Dissent+Curbs&rft.date=1989-01-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1989%2F01%2F12%2Fworld%2Fhungary-eases-dissent-curbs.html%3Fscp%3D432%26sq%3DHungary%26st%3Dnyt%26gwh%3D92733275AEC8E1D4866E0147173B702E&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1989/01/29/world/hungary-in-turnabout-declares-56-rebellion-a-popular-uprising.html?scp=461&sq=Hungary&st=nyt&gwh=4FAE12DBE2835A0221C2EB3EBE50910D">"Hungary, in Turnabout, Declares '56 Rebellion a Popular Uprising"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. 29 January 1989.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Hungary%2C+in+Turnabout%2C+Declares+%2756+Rebellion+a+Popular+Uprising&rft.date=1989-01-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1989%2F01%2F29%2Fworld%2Fhungary-in-turnabout-declares-56-rebellion-a-popular-uprising.html%3Fscp%3D461%26sq%3DHungary%26st%3Dnyt%26gwh%3D4FAE12DBE2835A0221C2EB3EBE50910D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFalk2003" class="citation book cs1">Falk, Barbara J (2003). <i>The Dilemmas of Dissidence in East-Central Europe</i>. <a href="/wiki/Central_European_University_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Central European University Press">Central European University Press</a>. p. 147. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/963-9241-39-3" title="Special:BookSources/963-9241-39-3"><bdi>963-9241-39-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dilemmas+of+Dissidence+in+East-Central+Europe&rft.pages=147&rft.pub=Central+European+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=963-9241-39-3&rft.aulast=Falk&rft.aufirst=Barbara+J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBayer2003" class="citation cs2">Bayer, József (2003), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110721104934/http://www.europainstitut.hu/pdf/bayer22.pdf">"The Process of Political System Change in Hungary"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <i>Schriftenreihe</i>, Budapest, <a href="/wiki/Hungary" title="Hungary">HU</a>: Europa Institutes, p. 180, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.europainstitut.hu/pdf/bayer22.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 21 July 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 May</span> 2012</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Process+of+Political+System+Change+in+Hungary&rft.btitle=Schriftenreihe&rft.place=Budapest%2C+HU&rft.pages=180&rft.pub=Europa+Institutes&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Bayer&rft.aufirst=J%C3%B3zsef&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.europainstitut.hu%2Fpdf%2Fbayer22.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStokes1993" class="citation cs2">Stokes, G (1993), <i>The Walls Came Tumbling Down</i>, <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, p. 131</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Walls+Came+Tumbling+Down&rft.pages=131&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=Stokes&rft.aufirst=G&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1989/06/01/world/hungarian-party-assails-nagy-s-execution.html?scp=654&sq=Hungary&st=nyt&gwh=AB4FDDAFE5F0111C9B81EEA7B377A93F">"Hungarian Party Assails Nagy's Execution"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. 1 June 1989.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Hungarian+Party+Assails+Nagy%27s+Execution&rft.date=1989-06-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1989%2F06%2F01%2Fworld%2Fhungarian-party-assails-nagy-s-execution.html%3Fscp%3D654%26sq%3DHungary%26st%3Dnyt%26gwh%3DAB4FDDAFE5F0111C9B81EEA7B377A93F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKamm1989" class="citation news cs1">Kamm, Henry (17 June 1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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href="#cite_ref-miklós_2019_54-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Miklós Németh in Interview, Austrian TV – ORF "Report", 25 June 2019.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-szabo_otmar-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-szabo_otmar_55-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-szabo_otmar_55-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hilde Szabo: <i>Die Berliner Mauer begann im Burgenland zu bröckeln</i> (The Berlin Wall began to crumble in Burgenland – German), in Wiener Zeitung 16 August 1999; Otmar Lahodynsky: <i>Paneuropäisches Picknick: Die Generalprobe für den Mauerfall</i> (Pan-European picnic: the dress rehearsal for the fall of the Berlin Wall – German), in: <i>Profil</i> 9 August 2014.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ludwig_2014-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ludwig_2014_56-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ludwig_2014_56-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Ludwig Greven "Und dann ging das Tor auf", in Die Zeit, 19 August 2014.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-frank_2010-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-frank_2010_57-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-frank_2010_57-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Michael Frank: Paneuropäisches Picknick – Mit dem Picknickkorb in die Freiheit (German: Pan-European picnic – With the picnic basket to freedom), in: <i>Süddeutsche Zeitung</i>, 17 May 2010.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rödder_2009-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rödder_2009_58-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rödder_2009_58-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rödder_2009_58-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rödder_2009_58-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Andreas Rödder, Deutschland einig Vaterland – Die Geschichte der Wiedervereinigung (2009).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeenan,_PatrickLamontagne,_Monique1999" class="citation book cs1">Heenan, Patrick; Lamontagne, Monique (1999). <i>The Central and Eastern Europe Handbook</i>. <a href="/wiki/Taylor_%26_Francis" title="Taylor & Francis">Taylor & Francis</a>. p. 13. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57958-089-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-57958-089-0"><bdi>1-57958-089-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Central+and+Eastern+Europe+Handbook&rft.pages=13&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=1-57958-089-0&rft.au=Heenan%2C+Patrick&rft.au=Lamontagne%2C+Monique&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDe_Nevers,_Renée2003" class="citation book cs1">De Nevers, Renée (2003). <i>Comrades No More: The Seeds of Change in Eastern Europe</i>. <a href="/wiki/MIT_Press" title="MIT Press">MIT Press</a>. p. 130. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-262-54129-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-262-54129-7"><bdi>0-262-54129-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Comrades+No+More%3A+The+Seeds+of+Change+in+Eastern+Europe&rft.pages=130&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-262-54129-7&rft.au=De+Nevers%2C+Ren%C3%A9e&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElster,_JonOffe,_ClausPreuss,_Ulrich_K1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jon_Elster" title="Jon Elster">Elster, Jon</a>; Offe, Claus; Preuss, Ulrich K (1998). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/institutionaldes0000elst"><i>Institutional Design in Post-communist Societies</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p. 66. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-47931-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-47931-2"><bdi>0-521-47931-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Institutional+Design+in+Post-communist+Societies&rft.pages=66&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-521-47931-2&rft.au=Elster%2C+Jon&rft.au=Offe%2C+Claus&rft.au=Preuss%2C+Ulrich+K&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Finstitutionaldes0000elst&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-kamm_1989-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-kamm_1989_62-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-kamm_1989_62-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKamm1989" class="citation news cs1">Kamm, Henry (8 October 1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1989/10/08/world/communist-party-in-hungary-votes-for-radical-shift.html">"Communist party in Hungary votes for radical shift"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Communist+party+in+Hungary+votes+for+radical+shift&rft.date=1989-10-08&rft.aulast=Kamm&rft.aufirst=Henry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1989%2F10%2F08%2Fworld%2Fcommunist-party-in-hungary-votes-for-radical-shift.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1989/10/19/world/hungary-purges-stalinism-from-its-constitution.html?scp=61&sq=Hungary&st=nyt&gwh=142906DE0FC1FFA303D77A84282021BB">"Hungary Purges Stalinism From Its Constitution"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. 19 October 1989.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Hungary+Purges+Stalinism+From+Its+Constitution&rft.date=1989-10-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1989%2F10%2F19%2Fworld%2Fhungary-purges-stalinism-from-its-constitution.html%3Fscp%3D61%26sq%3DHungary%26st%3Dnyt%26gwh%3D142906DE0FC1FFA303D77A84282021BB&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1989/10/20/world/hungary-legalizes-opposition-groups.html">"Hungary legalizes opposition groups"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. 20 October 1989.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Hungary+legalizes+opposition+groups&rft.date=1989-10-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1989%2F10%2F20%2Fworld%2Fhungary-legalizes-opposition-groups.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-roser_2018-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-roser_2018_65-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-roser_2018_65-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Thomas Roser: DDR-Massenflucht: Ein Picknick hebt die Welt aus den Angeln (German – Mass exodus of the GDR: A picnic clears the world) in: Die Presse 16 August 2018.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-lahodynsky_2014-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-lahodynsky_2014_66-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-lahodynsky_2014_66-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Otmar Lahodynsky: Paneuropäisches Picknick: Die Generalprobe für den Mauerfall (Pan-European picnic: the dress rehearsal for the fall of the Berlin Wall – German), in: Profil 9 August 2014.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-faz_2009-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-faz_2009_67-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-faz_2009_67-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">"Der 19. August 1989 war ein Test für Gorbatschows" (German – 19 August 1989 was a test for Gorbachev), in: FAZ 19 August 2009.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hilde_1999-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-hilde_1999_68-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hilde_1999_68-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hilde Szabo: Die Berliner Mauer begann im Burgenland zu bröckeln (The Berlin Wall began to crumble in Burgenland – German), in Wiener Zeitung 16 August 1999.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David Childs, <i>The Fall of the GDR</i> (Routledge, 2014).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pritchard-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Pritchard_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPritchard" class="citation book cs1">Pritchard, Rosalind MO. <i>Reconstructing education: East German schools and universities after unification</i>. p. 10.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reconstructing+education%3A+East+German+schools+and+universities+after+unification&rft.pages=10&rft.aulast=Pritchard&rft.aufirst=Rosalind+MO&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFulbrook" class="citation book cs1">Fulbrook, Mary. <i>History of Germany, 1918–2000: the divided nation</i>. p. 256.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Germany%2C+1918%E2%80%932000%3A+the+divided+nation&rft.pages=256&rft.aulast=Fulbrook&rft.aufirst=Mary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministerrat_der_DDR_(1986%E2%80%931989)" class="extiw" title="de:Ministerrat der DDR (1986–1989)">de:Ministerrat der DDR (1986–1989)</a> contains all the members of the Council.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">see also <a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regierung_Modrow" class="extiw" title="de:Regierung Modrow">de:Regierung Modrow</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.denik.cz/z_domova/demonstrace-na-letne-pred-25-lety-urychlily-kapitulaci-komunistu-20141123.html">"Demonstrace na letne pred 25 lety urychlily kapitulaci komunistu"</a>. <i>Deník</i> (in Czech). <a href="/wiki/Czech_Republic" title="Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a>. 23 November 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Den%C3%ADk&rft.atitle=Demonstrace+na+letne+pred+25+lety+urychlily+kapitulaci+komunistu&rft.date=2014-11-23&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.denik.cz%2Fz_domova%2Fdemonstrace-na-letne-pred-25-lety-urychlily-kapitulaci-komunistu-20141123.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://blogs.wsj.com/emergingeurope/2011/06/28/soviet-soldiers-left-czechoslovakia-20-years-ago-ordinary-well-off-russians-to-move-in/">"20 Years After Soviet Soldiers Left the Czech Republic, Russians Move In"</a>. <i>The Wall Street Journal</i>. 28 June 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Wall+Street+Journal&rft.atitle=20+Years+After+Soviet+Soldiers+Left+the+Czech+Republic%2C+Russians+Move+In&rft.date=2011-06-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fblogs.wsj.com%2Femergingeurope%2F2011%2F06%2F28%2Fsoviet-soldiers-left-czechoslovakia-20-years-ago-ordinary-well-off-russians-to-move-in%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sds.bg/about/history"><i>History of the UDF</i></a> (in Bulgarian), <a href="/wiki/Bulgaria" title="Bulgaria">BG</a>: SDS</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+UDF&rft.place=BG&rft.pub=SDS&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sds.bg%2Fabout%2Fhistory&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ilian Mihov, "in Bulgaria, 1989–1999." in <i>Transition: the first decade</i> edited by Mario I. Blejer and Marko kreb (2001): 401+.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEastPontin2016" class="citation book cs1">East, Roger; Pontin, Jolyon (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-G3qDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA182"><i>Revolution and Change in Central and Eastern Europe: Revised Edition</i></a>. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 182. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781474287487" title="Special:BookSources/9781474287487"><bdi>9781474287487</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Revolution+and+Change+in+Central+and+Eastern+Europe%3A+Revised+Edition&rft.pages=182&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9781474287487&rft.aulast=East&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft.au=Pontin%2C+Jolyon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-G3qDAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA182&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbraham2016" class="citation book cs1">Abraham, Florin (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BZ9sDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA107"><i>Romania since the Second World War: A Political, Social and Economic History</i></a>. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 107. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781472529923" title="Special:BookSources/9781472529923"><bdi>9781472529923</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Romania+since+the+Second+World+War%3A+A+Political%2C+Social+and+Economic+History&rft.pages=107&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9781472529923&rft.aulast=Abraham&rft.aufirst=Florin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBZ9sDQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA107&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTagliabue1989" class="citation news cs1">Tagliabue, John (10 December 1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1989/12/10/nyregion/upheaval-east-hard-line-czech-president-quit-dissident-seen-successor.html">"Upheaval In The East; Hard-Line Czech President to Quit And Dissident Is Seen as Successor"</a>. <i>New York Times</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Upheaval+In+The+East%3B+Hard-Line+Czech+President+to+Quit+And+Dissident+Is+Seen+as+Successor&rft.date=1989-12-10&rft.aulast=Tagliabue&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1989%2F12%2F10%2Fnyregion%2Fupheaval-east-hard-line-czech-president-quit-dissident-seen-successor.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Flavius Cristian Marcau, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.utgjiu.ro/revista/lit/pdf/2013-04/16_Flavius%20Cristian%20Marcau%20-%20Revolution%20of%201989%20-%20Milea%60s%20suicide.pdf">"Revolution of 1989: Milea's Suicide"</a>, University of Târgu Jiu, Letter and Social Science Series, Issue 4, 2013, Retrieved February 27, 2016.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCornel2012" class="citation book cs1">Cornel, Ban (13 December 2012). <i>Sovereign Debt, Austerity, and Regime Change: The Case of Nicolae Ceausescu's Romania</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 April</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Yugoslavia%3A+1918%E2%80%932003&rft.date=2011-02-17&rft.au=Judah%2C+Tim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fhistory%2Fworldwars%2Fwwone%2Fyugoslavia_01.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNaimarkCase2003" class="citation book cs1">Naimark, Norman M.; Case, Holly (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=u5tUbUyXtToC&pg=PA38"><i>Yugoslavia and Its Historians: Understanding the Balkan Wars of the 1990s</i></a>. Stanford University Press. p. xvii. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-4594-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-4594-9"><bdi>978-0-8047-4594-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Yugoslavia+and+Its+Historians%3A+Understanding+the+Balkan+Wars+of+the+1990s&rft.pages=xvii&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-8047-4594-9&rft.aulast=Naimark&rft.aufirst=Norman+M.&rft.au=Case%2C+Holly&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Du5tUbUyXtToC%26pg%3DPA38&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRogel2004" class="citation book cs1">Rogel, Carole (2004). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/breakupofyugosla00roge_0"><i>The Breakup of Yugoslavia and Its Aftermath</i></a></span>. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. <span class="nowrap">91–</span>92. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-313323-57-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-313323-57-7"><bdi>0-313323-57-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Breakup+of+Yugoslavia+and+Its+Aftermath&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E91-%3C%2Fspan%3E92&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-313323-57-7&rft.aulast=Rogel&rft.aufirst=Carole&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbreakupofyugosla00roge_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">There is uncertainty over Hoxha's true date of birth. <a href="/wiki/Enver_Hoxha#CITEREFFevziu2016" title="Enver Hoxha">Fevziu (2016)</a>, p. 10) notes: "No fewer than five different dates are to be found in the Central State Archives [of Albania] alone."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tvklan.al/emisioni.php?id=2512#">Mysteries of December 1990 (Misteret e Dhjetoret)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110211110848/http://tvklan.al/emisioni.php?id=2512">Archived</a> 2011-02-11 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a href="/wiki/TV_Klan" class="mw-redirect" title="TV Klan">TV Klan</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Dieter_Nohlen" title="Dieter Nohlen">Dieter Nohlen</a> & Philip Stöver (2010) <i>Elections in Europe: A data handbook</i>, p133 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-8329-5609-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-8329-5609-7">978-3-8329-5609-7</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ipu.org/parline-e/reports/arc/2001_92.htm">Albania: Elections held in 1992</a> Inter-Parliamentary Union</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimons1980" class="citation book cs1">Simons, William B., ed. (1980). <i>The Constitutions of the Communist World</i>. BRILL. p. 256. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9028600701" title="Special:BookSources/9028600701"><bdi>9028600701</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Constitutions+of+the+Communist+World&rft.pages=256&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=9028600701&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kaplonski-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kaplonski_100-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kaplonski_100-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kaplonski_100-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kaplonski_100-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaplonski2004" class="citation book cs1">Kaplonski, Christopher (2004). <i>Truth, History, and Politics in Mongolia: The Memory of Heroes</i>. Psychology Press. pp. 51, 56, 60, <span class="nowrap">64–</span>65, 67, <span class="nowrap">80–</span>82. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1134396732" title="Special:BookSources/1134396732"><bdi>1134396732</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Truth%2C+History%2C+and+Politics+in+Mongolia%3A+The+Memory+of+Heroes&rft.pages=51%2C+56%2C+60%2C+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E64-%3C%2Fspan%3E65%2C+67%2C+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E80-%3C%2Fspan%3E82&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=1134396732&rft.aulast=Kaplonski&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREF350.orgHunter2024" class="citation web cs1">350.org; Hunter, Daniel (17 April 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://commonslibrary.org/authoritarianism-to-democracy-the-story-of-mongolia/">"Authoritarianism to Democracy: The Story of Mongolia"</a>. <i>The Commons Social Change Library</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 February</span> 2025</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Commons+Social+Change+Library&rft.atitle=Authoritarianism+to+Democracy%3A+The+Story+of+Mongolia&rft.date=2024-04-17&rft.au=350.org&rft.au=Hunter%2C+Daniel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcommonslibrary.org%2Fauthoritarianism-to-democracy-the-story-of-mongolia%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFG.2011" class="citation news cs1">G., Dari (5 December 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120110172038/http://politics.news.mn/content/89237.shtml">"Democracy Days to be inaugurated"</a>. news.mn (in Mongolian). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://politics.news.mn/content/89237.shtml">the original</a> on 10 January 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 July</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Democracy+Days+to+be+inaugurated&rft.date=2011-12-05&rft.aulast=G.&rft.aufirst=Dari&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpolitics.news.mn%2Fcontent%2F89237.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CDMongolia-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-CDMongolia_103-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130610155307/http://cdmongolia.mn/tsakhia-elbegdorj/#.UdovIfmmiAg">"Tsakhia Elbegdorj"</a>. Community of Democracies Mongolia. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cdmongolia.mn/tsakhia-elbegdorj/#.UdovIfmmiAg">the original</a> on 10 June 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 July</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tsakhia+Elbegdorj&rft.pub=Community+of+Democracies+Mongolia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcdmongolia.mn%2Ftsakhia-elbegdorj%2F%23.UdovIfmmiAg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fineman-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Fineman_104-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFineman1990" class="citation news cs1">Fineman, Mark (24 January 1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1990-01-24-mn-609-story.html">"Mongolia Reform Group Marches to Rock Anthem"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times" title="Los Angeles Times">Los Angeles Times</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 December</span> 2012</span>. <q>Mongolia-watchers in Beijing said that... the democracy movement is rooted more in nationalism than in dissent.... 'Watching it unfold, you get the feeling this is more a pro-nationalist and pro-Mongolian movement than it is anti-party or anti-government,' said a diplomat who left Ulan Bator on Monday.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Los+Angeles+Times&rft.atitle=Mongolia+Reform+Group+Marches+to+Rock+Anthem&rft.date=1990-01-24&rft.aulast=Fineman&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.latimes.com%2Farchives%2Fla-xpm-1990-01-24-mn-609-story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Politburo-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Politburo_105-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAhmedNorton1999" class="citation book cs1">Ahmed, Nizam U.; Norton, Philip (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=slpaAe40kn0C&pg=PA143"><i>Parliaments in Asia</i></a>. London: Frank Cass & Co.Ltd. p. 143. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7146-4951-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-7146-4951-1"><bdi>0-7146-4951-1</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 July</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Parliaments+in+Asia&rft.place=London&rft.pages=143&rft.pub=Frank+Cass+%26+Co.Ltd&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-7146-4951-1&rft.aulast=Ahmed&rft.aufirst=Nizam+U.&rft.au=Norton%2C+Philip&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DslpaAe40kn0C%26pg%3DPA143&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaabar2009" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Baabar" title="Baabar">Baabar</a> (16 November 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121227133854/http://baabar.niitlelch.mn/content/112.shtml">"Democratic Revolution and Its Terrible Explanations"</a>. baabar.mn (in Mongolian). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://baabar.niitlelch.mn/content/112.shtml">the original</a> on 27 December 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 June</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Democratic+Revolution+and+Its+Terrible+Explanations&rft.pub=baabar.mn+%28in+Mongolian%29&rft.date=2009-11-16&rft.au=Baabar&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbaabar.niitlelch.mn%2Fcontent%2F112.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Amarsanaa-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Amarsanaa_107-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Amarsanaa_107-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFS.S.2009" class="citation book cs1">S., Amarsanaa; S., Mainbayar (2009). <i>Concise historical album of the Mongolian Democratic Union</i>. pp. <span class="nowrap">3–</span>5, 10, <span class="nowrap">33–</span>35, 44, 47, <span class="nowrap">51–</span>56, 58, 66.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Concise+historical+album+of+the+Mongolian+Democratic+Union&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E3-%3C%2Fspan%3E5%2C+10%2C+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E33-%3C%2Fspan%3E35%2C+44%2C+47%2C+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E51-%3C%2Fspan%3E56%2C+58%2C+66&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=S.&rft.aufirst=Amarsanaa&rft.au=S.%2C+Mainbayar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=2199&dat=19900312&id=QkUyAAAAIBAJ&pg=4637,3539885">"Entire Mongolian Politburo resigns"</a>. <i>Lawrence Journal-World</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 April</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.jammu-kashmir.com&rft.atitle=Chronicle+of+Important+events%2Fdate+in+J%26K%27s+political+history&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jammu-kashmir.com%2Fbasicfacts%2Fpolitics%2Fpolitical_history.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCueto2021" class="citation web cs1">Cueto, Jose Carlos (12 July 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias-america-latina-57805495">"Protests in Cuba: what was the historic "Maleconazo" of 1994 and how it compares with the massive mobilizations this Sunday"</a>. <i>BBC</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 October</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BBC&rft.atitle=Protests+in+Cuba%3A+what+was+the+historic+%22Maleconazo%22+of+1994+and+how+it+compares+with+the+massive+mobilizations+this+Sunday&rft.date=2021-07-12&rft.aulast=Cueto&rft.aufirst=Jose+Carlos&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fmundo%2Fnoticias-america-latina-57805495&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-N1-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-N1_150-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Dieter_Nohlen" title="Dieter Nohlen">Dieter Nohlen</a> (2005) <i>Elections in the Americas: A data handbook, Volume I</i>, p363 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-928357-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-928357-6">978-0-19-928357-6</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:02-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:02_151-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUhlig1990" class="citation news cs1">Uhlig, Mark A. (27 February 1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C0CEFDF173DF934A15751C0A966958260">"Turnover in Nicaragua – Nicaraguan Opposition Routs Sandinistas; U.S. Pledges Aid, Tied to Orderly Turnover"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 April</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Turnover+in+Nicaragua+%E2%80%93+Nicaraguan+Opposition+Routs+Sandinistas%3B+U.S.+Pledges+Aid%2C+Tied+to+Orderly+Turnover&rft.date=1990-02-27&rft.aulast=Uhlig&rft.aufirst=Mark+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fquery.nytimes.com%2Fgst%2Ffullpage.html%3Fres%3D9C0CEFDF173DF934A15751C0A966958260&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteeves1992" class="citation journal cs1">Steeves, Jeffrey S. (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25169129">"Vanuatu: The 1991 National Elections and Their Aftermath"</a>. <i>The Journal of Pacific History</i>. <b>27</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">217–</span>228. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00223349208572708">10.1080/00223349208572708</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-3344">0022-3344</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25169129">25169129</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Pacific+History&rft.atitle=Vanuatu%3A+The+1991+National+Elections+and+Their+Aftermath&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E217-%3C%2Fspan%3E228&rft.date=1992&rft.issn=0022-3344&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25169129%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00223349208572708&rft.aulast=Steeves&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25169129&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-N-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-N_153-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Dieter_Nohlen" title="Dieter Nohlen">Dieter Nohlen</a>, Florian Grotz & Christof Hartmann (2001) <i>Elections in Asia: A data handbook, Volume II</i>, p842 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-924959-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-924959-8">0-19-924959-8</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Freedom House, <i>Freedom in the World 1999–2000</i> (New York, 2000).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Schmeidel, John. "My Enemy's Enemy: Twenty Years of Co-operation between West Deutschland's Red Army Faction and the GDR Ministry for State Security." <i>Intelligence and National Security</i> 8, no. 4 (October 1993): 59–72.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pcij.org/imag/SpecialReport/left.html">"PCIJ findings: What's flawed, fuzzy with drug war numbers?"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160527195503/http://pcij.org/imag/SpecialReport/left.html">Archived</a> 27 May 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerlez1991" class="citation web cs1">Perlez, Jane (3 December 1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1991/12/03/world/kenyan-yielding-on-multiparty-politics.html">"Kenya Yielding on Multiparty Democracy"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 June</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Kenya+Yielding+on+Multiparty+Democracy&rft.date=1991-12-03&rft.aulast=Perlez&rft.aufirst=Jane&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1991%2F12%2F03%2Fworld%2Fkenyan-yielding-on-multiparty-politics.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">James Dunkerley, "Evo Morales, the 'Two Bolivias' and the Third Bolivian Revolution". <i>Journal of Latin American Studies</i> 39: 133–66. doi:10.1017/s0022216x06002069.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Clive A. Jones, <i>Soviet Jewish Aliyah, 1989–92: Impact and Implications for Israel and the Middle East</i> (Routledge, 2013).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pejovich-160"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pejovich_160-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pejovich_160-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icer.it/docs/wp2000/Pejovich162000.pdf">After Socialism: where hope for individual liberty lies</a>. Svetozar Pejovich.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091004081457/https://www.annefrank.org/content.asp?PID=888&LID=2">"Is Holocaust denial against the law?"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.annefrank.org/content.asp?PID=888&LID=2">the original</a> on 4 October 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 September</span> 2018</span> – via AnneFrank.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Is+Holocaust+denial+against+the+law%3F&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.annefrank.org%2Fcontent.asp%3FPID%3D888%26LID%3D2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-aslund-162"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-aslund_162-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-aslund_162-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-aslund_162-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAslund2000" class="citation web cs1">Aslund, Anders (1 December 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.carnegieendowment.org/publications/index.cfm?fa=view&id=611">"The Myth of Output Collapse after Communism"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Myth+of+Output+Collapse+after+Communism&rft.date=2000-12-01&rft.aulast=Aslund&rft.aufirst=Anders&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.carnegieendowment.org%2Fpublications%2Findex.cfm%3Ffa%3Dview%26id%3D611&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Havrylyshyn-163"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Havrylyshyn_163-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Havrylyshyn_163-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHavrylyshyn2007" class="citation web cs1">Havrylyshyn, Oleh (9 November 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cato.org/pubs/dpa/DPA4.pdf">"Fifteen Years of Transformation in the Post-Communist World"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Fifteen+Years+of+Transformation+in+the+Post-Communist+World&rft.date=2007-11-09&rft.aulast=Havrylyshyn&rft.aufirst=Oleh&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cato.org%2Fpubs%2Fdpa%2FDPA4.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.economist.com/displayStory.cfm?story_id=14793753">"The world after 1989: Walls in the mind"</a>. <i>The Economist</i>. 5 November 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economist&rft.atitle=The+world+after+1989%3A+Walls+in+the+mind&rft.date=2009-11-05&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.economist.com%2FdisplayStory.cfm%3Fstory_id%3D14793753&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/966616.stm">"Child poverty soars in eastern Europe"</a>, BBC News, 11 October 2000.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See "What Can Transition Economies Learn from the First Ten Years? A New World Bank Report," in <i>Transition Newsletter</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20060414053225/http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/NEWSLETTERS/EXTTRANSITION/EXTDECBEYTRANEWLET/0%2C%2CmenuPK%3A1542365%7EpagePK%3A64168427%7EpiPK%3A64168435%7EtheSitePK%3A1542353%2C00.html">Worldbank.org</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.k-a.kg/?nid=5&value=6">K-A.kg</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B03E4D91E3AF93BA35753C1A9669C8B63">Who Lost Russia?</a>, New York Times, 8 October 2000.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMitraAndrewGyulumyanHolden2007" class="citation book cs1">Mitra, Saumya; Andrew, Douglas; Gyulumyan, Gohar; Holden, Paul; Kaminski, Bart; Kuznetsov, Yevgeny; Vashakmadze, Ekaterine (2007). <i>The Caucasian Tiger : Sustaining Economic Growth in Armenia</i>. Washington, DC: World Bank.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Caucasian+Tiger+%3A+Sustaining+Economic+Growth+in+Armenia&rft.place=Washington%2C+DC&rft.pub=World+Bank&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Mitra&rft.aufirst=Saumya&rft.au=Andrew%2C+Douglas&rft.au=Gyulumyan%2C+Gohar&rft.au=Holden%2C+Paul&rft.au=Kaminski%2C+Bart&rft.au=Kuznetsov%2C+Yevgeny&rft.au=Vashakmadze%2C+Ekaterine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mfa.am/en/international-organisations/6">"International organizations: Eurasian Economic Union"</a>. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=International+organizations%3A+Eurasian+Economic+Union&rft.pub=Ministry+of+Foreign+Affairs+of+Armenia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mfa.am%2Fen%2Finternational-organisations%2F6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://econ.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTDEC/EXTRESEARCH/0,,contentMDK:20634060~pagePK:64165401~piPK:64165026~theSitePK:469382,00.html">Fighting Poverty: Findings and Lessons from China's Success</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130922130002/http://econ.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTDEC/EXTRESEARCH/0,,contentMDK:20634060~pagePK:64165401~piPK:64165026~theSitePK:469382,00.html">Archived</a> 22 September 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (World Bank). Retrieved 10 August 2006.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://emlab.berkeley.edu/users/webfac/eichengreen/e183_sp07/great_doub.pdf">"The Great Doubling: The Challenge of the New Global Labor Market"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/776507131">776507131</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lessons+of+the+East+European+revolutions+of+1989&rft.pub=Woodrow+Wilson+International+Center+for+Scholars&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F776507131&rft.aulast=Stokes&rft.aufirst=Gale&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworldcat.org%2Foclc%2F776507131&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHorvath2007" class="citation journal cs1">Horvath, Robert (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1353/hrq.2007.0041">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"The Solzhenitsyn Effect": East European Dissidents and the Demise of the Revolutionary Privilege"</a>. <i>Human Rights Quarterly</i>. <b>29</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">879–</span>907. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fhrq.2007.0041">10.1353/hrq.2007.0041</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1085-794X">1085-794X</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144778599">144778599</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Human+Rights+Quarterly&rft.atitle=%22The+Solzhenitsyn+Effect%22%3A+East+European+Dissidents+and+the+Demise+of+the+Revolutionary+Privilege&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E879-%3C%2Fspan%3E907&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144778599%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1085-794X&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fhrq.2007.0041&rft.aulast=Horvath&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1353%2Fhrq.2007.0041&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.memo.ru/en-us/">"Memorial website"</a>. Memo.ru<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 June</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Memorial+website&rft.pub=Memo.ru&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.memo.ru%2Fen-us%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarton_Ash1990" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Garton_Ash" title="Timothy Garton Ash">Garton Ash, Timothy</a> (1990). <i>The magic lantern: the revolution of '89 witnessed in Warsaw, Budapest, Berlin, and Prague</i> (1st U.S. ed.). New York: <a href="/wiki/Random_House" title="Random House">Random House</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-394-58884-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-394-58884-1"><bdi>978-0-394-58884-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+magic+lantern%3A+the+revolution+of+%2789+witnessed+in+Warsaw%2C+Budapest%2C+Berlin%2C+and+Prague&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=1st+U.S.&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-394-58884-1&rft.aulast=Garton+Ash&rft.aufirst=Timothy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarton_Ash2009" class="citation magazine cs1"><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Garton_Ash" title="Timothy Garton Ash">Garton Ash, Timothy</a> (5 November 2009). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/2009/nov/05/1989/">"1989!"</a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Review_of_Books" title="The New York Review of Books">The New York Review of Books</a></i>. Vol. 56, no. 17. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0028-7504">0028-7504</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Review+of+Books&rft.atitle=1989%21&rft.volume=56&rft.issue=17&rft.date=2009-11-05&rft.issn=0028-7504&rft.aulast=Garton+Ash&rft.aufirst=Timothy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nybooks.com%2Farticles%2Farchives%2F2009%2Fnov%2F05%2F1989%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBléjerŠkreb2001" class="citation book cs1">Bléjer, Mario I.; Škreb, Marko, eds. (2001). <i>Transition: the first decade</i>. Cambridge, Mass.: <a href="/wiki/MIT_Press" title="MIT Press">MIT Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-02505-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-02505-8"><bdi>978-0-262-02505-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Transition%3A+the+first+decade&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Mass.&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-262-02505-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDe_Nevers2003" class="citation book cs1">De Nevers, Renée (2003). <i>Comrades no more: the seeds of political change in Eastern Europe</i>. BCSIA studies in international security. Cambridge, MA: <a href="/wiki/MIT_Press" title="MIT Press">MIT Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-04193-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-04193-5"><bdi>978-0-262-04193-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Comrades+no+more%3A+the+seeds+of+political+change+in+Eastern+Europe&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.series=BCSIA+studies+in+international+security&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-262-04193-5&rft.aulast=De+Nevers&rft.aufirst=Ren%C3%A9e&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElsterOffePreuß1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jon_Elster" title="Jon Elster">Elster, Jon</a>; Offe, Claus; Preuß, Ulrich K. (1998). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/institutionaldes0000elst"><i>Institutional design in post-communist societies: rebuilding the ship at sea</i></a></span>. Theories of institutional design (Repr ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-47931-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-47931-8"><bdi>978-0-521-47931-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Institutional+design+in+post-communist+societies%3A+rebuilding+the+ship+at+sea&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.series=Theories+of+institutional+design&rft.edition=Repr&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-521-47931-8&rft.aulast=Elster&rft.aufirst=Jon&rft.au=Offe%2C+Claus&rft.au=Preu%C3%9F%2C+Ulrich+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Finstitutionaldes0000elst&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFalk2003" class="citation book cs1">Falk, Barbara J. (2003). <i>The dilemmas of dissidence in East-Central Europe: citizen intellectuals and philosopher kings</i>. Budapest; New York: <a href="/wiki/Central_European_University_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Central European University Press">Central European University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-963-9241-39-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-963-9241-39-8"><bdi>978-963-9241-39-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+dilemmas+of+dissidence+in+East-Central+Europe%3A+citizen+intellectuals+and+philosopher+kings&rft.place=Budapest%3B+New+York&rft.pub=Central+European+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-963-9241-39-8&rft.aulast=Falk&rft.aufirst=Barbara+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGhodseeOrenstein2021" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kristen_Ghodsee" title="Kristen Ghodsee">Ghodsee, Kristen Rogheh</a>; Orenstein, Mitchell A. (2021). <i>Taking stock of shock: social consequences of the 1989 revolutions</i>. New York, NY: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foso%2F9780197549230.001.0001">10.1093/oso/9780197549230.001.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-754927-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-754927-8"><bdi>978-0-19-754927-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Taking+stock+of+shock%3A+social+consequences+of+the+1989+revolutions&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foso%2F9780197549230.001.0001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-754927-8&rft.aulast=Ghodsee&rft.aufirst=Kristen+Rogheh&rft.au=Orenstein%2C+Mitchell+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeenanLamontagne1999" class="citation book cs1">Heenan, Patrick; Lamontagne, Monique (1999). <i>The Central and Eastern Europe handbook</i>. Regional handbooks of economic development. London; Chicago (Ill.): <a href="/wiki/Fitzroy_Dearborn" class="mw-redirect" title="Fitzroy Dearborn">Fitzroy Dearborn</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57958-089-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57958-089-6"><bdi>978-1-57958-089-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Central+and+Eastern+Europe+handbook&rft.place=London%3B+Chicago+%28Ill.%29&rft.series=Regional+handbooks+of+economic+development&rft.pub=Fitzroy+Dearborn&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-1-57958-089-6&rft.aulast=Heenan&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rft.au=Lamontagne%2C+Monique&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJudah2011" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Tim_Judah" title="Tim Judah">Judah, Tim</a> (17 February 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/wwone/yugoslavia_01.shtml">"Yugoslavia: 1918–2003"</a>. <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 April</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Yugoslavia%3A+1918%E2%80%932003&rft.date=2011-02-17&rft.aulast=Judah&rft.aufirst=Tim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fhistory%2Fworldwars%2Fwwone%2Fyugoslavia_01.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKenney2008" class="citation book cs1">Kenney, Padraic (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KPFJEAAAQBAJ"><i>The Burdens of Freedom: Eastern Europe since 1989</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Bloomsbury_Publishing" title="Bloomsbury Publishing">Bloomsbury Publishing</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84813-121-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84813-121-7"><bdi>978-1-84813-121-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Burdens+of+Freedom%3A+Eastern+Europe+since+1989&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-84813-121-7&rft.aulast=Kenney&rft.aufirst=Padraic&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKPFJEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLefflerWestad2010" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a href="/wiki/Melvyn_P._Leffler" title="Melvyn P. Leffler">Leffler, Melvyn P.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Odd_Arne_Westad" title="Odd Arne Westad">Westad, Odd Arne</a> (2010). <i>The Cambridge history of the Cold War</i>. Vol. III. Endings. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-83719-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-83719-4"><bdi>978-0-521-83719-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+history+of+the+Cold+War&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-521-83719-4&rft.aulast=Leffler&rft.aufirst=Melvyn+P.&rft.au=Westad%2C+Odd+Arne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLévesque1997" class="citation book cs1">Lévesque, Jacques (1997). <i>The enigma of 1989: the USSR and the liberation of Eastern Europe</i>. Berkeley: <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>. p. 275. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-20631-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-20631-1"><bdi>978-0-520-20631-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+enigma+of+1989%3A+the+USSR+and+the+liberation+of+Eastern+Europe&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pages=275&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-520-20631-1&rft.aulast=L%C3%A9vesque&rft.aufirst=Jacques&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNaimarkCase2003" class="citation book cs1">Naimark, Norman M.; Case, Holly (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=u5tUbUyXtToC&pg=PR17"><i>Yugoslavia and its historians: understanding the Balkan wars of the 1990s</i></a>. Stanford (Calif.): <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University_Press" title="Stanford University Press">Stanford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-4594-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-4594-9"><bdi>978-0-8047-4594-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Yugoslavia+and+its+historians%3A+understanding+the+Balkan+wars+of+the+1990s&rft.place=Stanford+%28Calif.%29&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-8047-4594-9&rft.aulast=Naimark&rft.aufirst=Norman+M.&rft.au=Case%2C+Holly&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Du5tUbUyXtToC%26pg%3DPR17&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOstrovsky2011" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Ostrovsky, Alexander (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kn_lPgAACAAJ"><i>Глупость или измена?: расследование гибели СССР</i></a> [<i>Stupidity or treason? Investigation of the death of the USSR</i>] (in Russian). Крымский Мост-9Д. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-5-89747-068-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-5-89747-068-6"><bdi>978-5-89747-068-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%D0%93%D0%BB%D1%83%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C+%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8+%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0%3F%3A+%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5+%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8+%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A0&rft.pub=%D0%9A%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9+%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82-9%D0%94&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-5-89747-068-6&rft.aulast=Ostrovsky&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dkn_lPgAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoberts1991" class="citation book cs1">Roberts, Adam (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://static1.squarespace.com/static/62b0eb7da51f3717911bb4e1/t/64358aad6b0fcb70422592f3/1681230512200/CivilResistanceintheEastEuropeanandSovietRevolutions.pdf"><i>Civil Resistance in the East European and Soviet Revolutions</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Cambridge, MA: <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein_Institution" title="Albert Einstein Institution">Albert Einstein Institution</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-880813-04-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-880813-04-1"><bdi>978-1-880813-04-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Civil+Resistance+in+the+East+European+and+Soviet+Revolutions&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=Albert+Einstein+Institution&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-1-880813-04-1&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fstatic1.squarespace.com%2Fstatic%2F62b0eb7da51f3717911bb4e1%2Ft%2F64358aad6b0fcb70422592f3%2F1681230512200%2FCivilResistanceintheEastEuropeanandSovietRevolutions.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobertsAsh2009" class="citation book cs1">Roberts, Sir Adam; Ash, Timothy Garton (2009). <a href="/wiki/Timothy_Garton_Ash" title="Timothy Garton Ash">Garton Ash, Timothy</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/title/294885650"><i>Civil resistance and power politics: the experience of non-violent action from Gandhi to the present</i></a>. Oxford [England]; New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-955201-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-955201-6"><bdi>978-0-19-955201-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/294885650">294885650</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Civil+resistance+and+power+politics%3A+the+experience+of+non-violent+action+from+Gandhi+to+the+present&rft.place=Oxford+%5BEngland%5D%3B+New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F294885650&rft.isbn=978-0-19-955201-6&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=Sir+Adam&rft.au=Ash%2C+Timothy+Garton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Ftitle%2F294885650&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span> Contains chapters on the Soviet Union (Mark Kramer), Czechoslovakia (Kieran Williams), Poland (Alexander Smolar), Baltic States (Mark R. Beissinger), China (Merle Goldman), and East Germany (Charles Maier).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRogel2004" class="citation book cs1">Rogel, Carole (2004). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/breakupofyugosla00roge_0"><i>The breakup of Yugoslavia and its aftermath</i></a></span> (Rev. ed.). Westport, Conn.: <a href="/wiki/Greenwood_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Greenwood Press">Greenwood Press</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/breakupofyugosla00roge_0/page/91">91</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-32357-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-32357-7"><bdi>978-0-313-32357-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+breakup+of+Yugoslavia+and+its+aftermath&rft.place=Westport%2C+Conn.&rft.pages=91&rft.edition=Rev.&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-313-32357-7&rft.aulast=Rogel&rft.aufirst=Carole&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbreakupofyugosla00roge_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSarotte2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/M._E._Sarotte" title="M. E. Sarotte">Sarotte, Mary Elise</a> (2014). <i>The collapse: the accidental opening of the Berlin Wall</i>. New York, NY: <a href="/wiki/Basic_Books" title="Basic Books">Basic Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-06494-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-465-06494-6"><bdi>978-0-465-06494-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+collapse%3A+the+accidental+opening+of+the+Berlin+Wall&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-465-06494-6&rft.aulast=Sarotte&rft.aufirst=Mary+Elise&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSebestyen2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Victor_Sebestyen" title="Victor Sebestyen">Sebestyen, Victor</a> (2009). <i>Revolution 1989: the fall of the Soviet empire</i>. A Phoenix paperback. London: <a href="/wiki/Phoenix_Books" class="mw-redirect" title="Phoenix Books">Phoenix Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7538-2709-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7538-2709-3"><bdi>978-0-7538-2709-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Revolution+1989%3A+the+fall+of+the+Soviet+empire&rft.place=London&rft.series=A+Phoenix+paperback&rft.pub=Phoenix+Books&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-7538-2709-3&rft.aulast=Sebestyen&rft.aufirst=Victor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilson2014" class="citation book cs1">Wilson, James Graham (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cornellpress.cornell.edu/book/?GCOI=80140100037580"><i>The triumph of improvisation: Gorbachev's adaptability, Reagan's engagement, and the end of the Cold War</i></a>. Ithaca, N.Y.: <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University_Press" title="Cornell University Press">Cornell University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-5229-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-5229-1"><bdi>978-0-8014-5229-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+triumph+of+improvisation%3A+Gorbachev%27s+adaptability%2C+Reagan%27s+engagement%2C+and+the+end+of+the+Cold+War&rft.place=Ithaca%2C+N.Y.&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-8014-5229-1&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=James+Graham&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cornellpress.cornell.edu%2Fbook%2F%3FGCOI%3D80140100037580&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Fall_of_Communism" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Fall of Communism">Fall of Communism</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://chnm.gmu.edu/1989">"The History of 1989: The Fall of Communism in Eastern Europe"</a>. GMU.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+History+of+1989%3A+The+Fall+of+Communism+in+Eastern+Europe&rft.pub=GMU&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fchnm.gmu.edu%2F1989&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://simon31.narod.ru/syndromeofsocialism.htm">"Syndrome of Socialism"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">RU</a>: Narod.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Syndrome+of+Socialism&rft.place=RU&rft.pub=Narod&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsimon31.narod.ru%2Fsyndromeofsocialism.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span>. Some of aspects of state national economy evolution in the system of the international economic order.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dissentmagazine.org/online_articles/two-decades-after-the-fall-a-symposium-on-1989">"A look at the collapse of Eastern European Communism two decades later"</a>. <i>Dissent Magazine</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Dissent+Magazine&rft.atitle=A+look+at+the+collapse+of+Eastern+European+Communism+two+decades+later&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dissentmagazine.org%2Fonline_articles%2Ftwo-decades-after-the-fall-a-symposium-on-1989&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111118221408/http://publicsphere.ssrc.org/guide/history-of-the-public-sphere/political-geography/post-socialist-countries/">"History of the public sphere. Post-socialist countries"</a> (annotated bibliography). SSRC. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://publicsphere.ssrc.org/guide/history-of-the-public-sphere/political-geography/post-socialist-countries/">the original</a> on 18 November 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 October</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=History+of+the+public+sphere.+Post-socialist+countries&rft.pub=SSRC&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpublicsphere.ssrc.org%2Fguide%2Fhistory-of-the-public-sphere%2Fpolitical-geography%2Fpost-socialist-countries%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKloss,_Oliver2005" class="citation cs2">Kloss, Oliver (2005), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/RevolutioExNihiloKritikAnOppUndPollack.Revolution1989">"Revolutio ex nihilo? Zur methodologischen Kritik des soziologischen Modells 'spontaner Kooperation' und zur Erklärung der Revolution von 1989 in der DDR"</a>, in Timmermann, Heiner (ed.), <i>Agenda DDR-Forschung. Ergebnisse, Probleme, Kontroversen</i>, Dokumente und Schriften der Europäischen Akademie Otzenhausen, vol. 112, Muenster: LIT, pp. <span class="nowrap">363–</span>79, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-8258-6909-1" title="Special:BookSources/3-8258-6909-1"><bdi>3-8258-6909-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Revolutio+ex+nihilo%3F+Zur+methodologischen+Kritik+des+soziologischen+Modells+%27spontaner+Kooperation%27+und+zur+Erkl%C3%A4rung+der+Revolution+von+1989+in+der+DDR&rft.btitle=Agenda+DDR-Forschung.+Ergebnisse%2C+Probleme%2C+Kontroversen&rft.place=Muenster&rft.series=Dokumente+und+Schriften+der+Europ%C3%A4ischen+Akademie+Otzenhausen&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E363-%3C%2Fspan%3E79&rft.pub=LIT&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=3-8258-6909-1&rft.au=Kloss%2C+Oliver&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FRevolutioExNihiloKritikAnOppUndPollack.Revolution1989&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARevolutions+of+1989" class="Z3988"></span> + Ergänzender Anhang A – F.</li></ul> <p><b>Video of the revolutions in 1989</b> </p> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F1jrs0BTglA"><span class="plainlinks">Revolutions footage</span></a> on <a href="/wiki/YouTube_video_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="YouTube video (identifier)">YouTube</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Revolutionary_waves23" style="wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Revolutionary_waves" title="Template:Revolutionary waves"><abbr title="View this 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independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_during_the_1820s" title="Revolutions during the 1820s">Revolutions of 1820</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1830" title="Revolutions of 1830">Revolutions of 1830</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Revolutions of 1848</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Eastern_Crisis" title="Great Eastern Crisis">Great Eastern Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1917%E2%80%931923" title="Revolutions of 1917–1923">Revolutions of 1917–1923</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strike_wave_of_1945%E2%80%931946" class="mw-redirect" title="Strike wave of 1945–1946">Strike wave of 1945–1946</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protests_of_1968" title="Protests of 1968">Protests of 1968</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_American_crisis" title="Central American crisis">Central American crisis</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Revolutions of 1989</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colour_revolution" title="Colour revolution">Colour revolutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Spring" title="Arab Spring">Arab Spring</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Spring_concurrent_incidents" title="Arab Spring concurrent incidents">Concurrent incidents</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-austerity_movement" title="Anti-austerity movement">Anti-austerity movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupy_movement" title="Occupy movement">Occupy movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2018%E2%80%932022_Arab_protests" class="mw-redirect" title="2018–2022 Arab protests">2018–2022 Arab protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coup_Belt" title="Coup Belt">Coup Belt</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Revolutions_of_1989233" style="wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#CEE0F2;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Fall_of_Communism" title="Template:Fall of Communism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Fall_of_Communism" title="Template talk:Fall of Communism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Fall_of_Communism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Fall of Communism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Revolutions_of_1989233" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Revolutions of 1989</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">Internal<br />background</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Era_of_Stagnation" title="Era of Stagnation">Era of Stagnation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-communism" title="Anti-communism">Anti-communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_communist_party_rule" title="Criticism of communist party rule">Criticism of communist party rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc_politics" title="Eastern Bloc politics">Eastern Bloc politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc_media_and_propaganda" title="Eastern Bloc media and propaganda">Eastern Bloc media and propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emigration_from_the_Eastern_Bloc" title="Emigration from the Eastern Bloc">Emigration from the Eastern Bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KGB" title="KGB">KGB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nomenklatura" title="Nomenklatura">Nomenklatura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shortage_economy" title="Shortage economy">Shortage economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-communist_insurgencies_in_Central_and_Eastern_Europe" title="Anti-communist insurgencies in Central and Eastern Europe">Anti-communist insurgencies in Central and Eastern Europe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">International<br />background</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active_measures" title="Active measures">Active measures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_socialist_states" title="List of socialist states">List of socialist states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_Power_Revolution" title="People Power Revolution">People Power Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predictions_of_the_collapse_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Predictions of the collapse of the Soviet Union">Predictions of the collapse of the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reagan_Doctrine" title="Reagan Doctrine">Reagan Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Empire">Soviet Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrorism_and_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Terrorism and the Soviet Union">Terrorism and the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_See%E2%80%93Soviet_Union_relations" title="Holy See–Soviet Union relations">Vatican Opposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia">Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">Reforms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uskorenie" title="Uskorenie">Uskorenie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perestroika" title="Perestroika">Perestroika</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demokratizatsiya_(Soviet_Union)" title="Demokratizatsiya (Soviet Union)">Demokratizatsiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khozraschyot" class="mw-redirect" title="Khozraschyot">Khozraschyot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/500_Days_Program" title="500 Days Program">500 Days Program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_political_thinking" title="New political thinking">New political thinking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinatra_Doctrine" title="Sinatra Doctrine">Sinatra Doctrine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glasnost" title="Glasnost">Glasnost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reform_and_Opening_Up" class="mw-redirect" title="Reform and Opening Up">Reform and Opening Up</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism_with_Chinese_characteristics" title="Socialism with Chinese characteristics">Socialism with Chinese characteristics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BB%95i_M%E1%BB%9Bi" title="Đổi Mới">Đổi Mới</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">Government<br />leaders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ramiz_Alia" title="Ramiz Alia">Ramiz Alia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolae_Ceau%C8%99escu" title="Nicolae Ceaușescu">Nicolae Ceaușescu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Mikhail Gorbachev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%C3%A1roly_Gr%C3%B3sz" title="Károly Grósz">Károly Grósz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Honecker" title="Erich Honecker">Erich Honecker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milo%C5%A1_Jake%C5%A1" title="Miloš Jakeš">Miloš Jakeš</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egon_Krenz" title="Egon Krenz">Egon Krenz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wojciech_Jaruzelski" title="Wojciech Jaruzelski">Wojciech Jaruzelski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slobodan_Milo%C5%A1evi%C4%87" title="Slobodan Milošević">Slobodan Milošević</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathieu_K%C3%A9r%C3%A9kou" title="Mathieu Kérékou">Mathieu Kérékou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mengistu_Haile_Mariam" title="Mengistu Haile Mariam">Mengistu Haile Mariam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ne_Win" title="Ne Win">Ne Win</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denis_Sassou_Nguesso" title="Denis Sassou Nguesso">Denis Sassou Nguesso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heng_Samrin" title="Heng Samrin">Heng Samrin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping" title="Deng Xiaoping">Deng Xiaoping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhao_Ziyang" title="Zhao Ziyang">Zhao Ziyang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Todor_Zhivkov" title="Todor Zhivkov">Todor Zhivkov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siad_Barre" title="Siad Barre">Siad Barre</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">Opposition<br />methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_resistance" title="Civil resistance">Civil resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_chain_(politics)" title="Human chain (politics)">Human chains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnitizdat" title="Magnitizdat">Magnitizdat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_underground_press" title="Polish underground press">Polish underground press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_demonstration" title="Political demonstration">Political demonstration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protest" title="Protest">Protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samizdat" title="Samizdat">Samizdat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strike_action" title="Strike action">Strike action</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">Opposition<br />leaders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lech_Wa%C5%82%C4%99sa" title="Lech Wałęsa">Lech Wałęsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C3%A1clav_Havel" title="Václav Havel">Václav Havel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Dub%C4%8Dek" title="Alexander Dubček">Alexander Dubček</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ion_Iliescu" title="Ion Iliescu">Ion Iliescu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_Gang" title="Liu Gang">Liu Gang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wu%27erkaixi" class="mw-redirect" title="Wu'erkaixi">Wu'erkaixi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chai_Ling" title="Chai Ling">Chai Ling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Dan_(dissident)" title="Wang Dan (dissident)">Wang Dan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feng_Congde" title="Feng Congde">Feng Congde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tank_Man" title="Tank Man">Tank Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joachim_Gauck" title="Joachim Gauck">Joachim Gauck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sali_Berisha" title="Sali Berisha">Sali Berisha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanjaas%C3%BCrengiin_Zorig" title="Sanjaasürengiin Zorig">Sanjaasürengiin Zorig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Bukovsky" title="Vladimir Bukovsky">Vladimir Bukovsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boris_Yeltsin" title="Boris Yeltsin">Boris Yeltsin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viacheslav_Chornovil" title="Viacheslav Chornovil">Viacheslav Chornovil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vytautas_Landsbergis" title="Vytautas Landsbergis">Vytautas Landsbergis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zianon_Pazniak" title="Zianon Pazniak">Zianon Pazniak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhelyu_Zhelev" title="Zhelyu Zhelev">Zhelyu Zhelev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aung_San_Suu_Kyi" title="Aung San Suu Kyi">Aung San Suu Kyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meles_Zenawi" title="Meles Zenawi">Meles Zenawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaias_Afwerki" title="Isaias Afwerki">Isaias Afwerki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">George H. W. Bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_II" title="Pope John Paul II">Pope John Paul II</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">Opposition<br />movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beijing_Students%27_Autonomous_Federation" title="Beijing Students' Autonomous Federation">Beijing Students' Autonomous Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charter_77" title="Charter 77">Charter 77</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Forum" title="New Forum">New Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civic_Forum" title="Civic Forum">Civic Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_of_Albania" title="Democratic Party of Albania">Democratic Party of Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Russia" title="Democratic Russia">Democratic Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Initiative_for_Peace_and_Human_Rights" title="Initiative for Peace and Human Rights">Initiative for Peace and Human Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C4%85j%C5%ABdis" title="Sąjūdis">Sąjūdis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Movement_of_Ukraine" title="People's Movement of Ukraine">People's Movement of Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solidarity_(Polish_trade_union)" title="Solidarity (Polish trade union)">Solidarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_Front_of_Latvia" title="Popular Front of Latvia">Popular Front of Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_Front_of_Estonia" title="Popular Front of Estonia">Popular Front of Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_Against_Violence" title="Public Against Violence">Public Against Violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_Popular_Front" title="Belarusian Popular Front">Belarusian Popular Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rastokhez" title="Rastokhez">Rastokhez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_League_for_Democracy" title="National League for Democracy">National League for Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Salvation_Front_(Romania)" title="National Salvation Front (Romania)">National Salvation Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_of_Democratic_Forces_(Bulgaria)" title="Union of Democratic Forces (Bulgaria)">Union of Democratic Forces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-regional_Deputies_Group" title="Inter-regional Deputies Group">Inter-regional Deputies Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alliance_of_Free_Democrats" title="Alliance of Free Democrats">Alliance of Free Democrats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Democratic_Forum" title="Hungarian Democratic Forum">Hungarian Democratic Forum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">Events<br />by location</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">Central and<br />Eastern Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_communism_in_Albania" title="Fall of communism in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Bulgaria#End_of_the_People's_Republic" title="People's Republic of Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velvet_Revolution" title="Velvet Revolution">Czechoslovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peaceful_Revolution" title="Peaceful Revolution">East Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/End_of_communism_in_Hungary" title="End of communism in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_(1945%E2%80%931989)#Final_decade_of_the_Polish_People's_Republic_(1980–1989)" title="History of Poland (1945–1989)">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_revolution" title="Romanian revolution">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breakup_of_Yugoslavia" title="Breakup of Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">Soviet Union</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1991_Armenian_independence_referendum" title="1991 Armenian independence referendum">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Azerbaijani_independence_referendum" title="1991 Azerbaijani independence referendum">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Belarusian_strikes" title="1991 Belarusian strikes">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chechen_Revolution" title="Chechen Revolution">Chechnya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singing_Revolution" title="Singing Revolution">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Georgian_independence_referendum" title="1991 Georgian independence referendum">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singing_Revolution" title="Singing Revolution">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singing_Revolution" title="Singing Revolution">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kazakhstan" title="History of Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kyrgyzstan#Towards_independence:_1985-1991" title="History of Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independence_of_Moldova" title="Independence of Moldova">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Russian_Federation" title="History of the Russian Federation">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tajikistani_Revolution" title="Tajikistani Revolution">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Turkmen_independence_referendum" title="1991 Turkmen independence referendum">Turkmenistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1989%E2%80%931991_Ukrainian_revolution" title="1989–1991 Ukrainian revolution">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Uzbek_independence_election" title="1991 Uzbek independence election">Uzbekistan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">Elsewhere</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afghan_Civil_War_(1989%E2%80%931992)" title="Afghan Civil War (1989–1992)">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bicesse_Accords" title="Bicesse Accords">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Benin#Dissolution" title="People's Republic of Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/8888_Uprising" title="8888 Uprising">Burma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Paris_Peace_Agreements" title="1991 Paris Peace Agreements">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1989_Tiananmen_Square_protests_and_massacre" title="1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_the_Congo#Transition" title="People's Republic of the Congo">Congo-Brazzaville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Derg_regime" title="Fall of the Derg regime">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_Revolution_of_1990" title="Mongolian Revolution of 1990">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozambican_Civil_War#Transition_to_peace" title="Mozambican Civil War">Mozambique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_Rebellion" title="Somali Rebellion">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemeni_unification" title="Yemeni unification">South Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">Individual<br />events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jeltoqsan" title="Jeltoqsan">Jeltoqsan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1987%E2%80%931989_Tibetan_unrest" title="1987–1989 Tibetan unrest">1987–1989 Tibetan unrest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_in_the_Caucasus" title="Wars in the Caucasus">Wars in the Caucasus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1988_Polish_strikes" title="1988 Polish strikes">1988 Polish strikes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_Round_Table_Agreement" title="Polish Round Table Agreement">Polish Round Table Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/April_9_tragedy" title="April 9 tragedy">April 9 tragedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Removal_of_Hungary%27s_border_fence_with_Austria" title="Removal of Hungary's border fence with Austria">Removal of Hungary's border fence with Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Round_Table_Talks" title="Hungarian Round Table Talks">Hungarian Round Table Talks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-European_Picnic" title="Pan-European Picnic">Pan-European Picnic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_Way" title="Baltic Way">Baltic Way</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monday_demonstrations_in_East_Germany" title="Monday demonstrations in East Germany">Monday Demonstrations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexanderplatz_demonstration" title="Alexanderplatz demonstration">Alexanderplatz demonstration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Berlin_Wall" title="Fall of the Berlin Wall">Fall of the Berlin Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_inner_German_border" title="Fall of the inner German border">Fall of the inner German border</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malta_Summit" title="Malta Summit">Malta Summit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_January" title="Black January">Black January</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1990s_post-Soviet_aliyah" title="1990s post-Soviet aliyah">1990s post-Soviet aliyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helsinki_Summit_(1990)" title="Helsinki Summit (1990)">Helsinki Summit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolution_on_Granite" title="Revolution on Granite">Revolution on Granite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_reunification" title="German reunification">Reunification of Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/January_Events_(Lithuania)" class="mw-redirect" title="January Events (Lithuania)">January Events in Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Barricades" title="The Barricades">January Events in Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transnistria_War" title="Transnistria War">Transnistria War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_protests_in_Belgrade" title="1991 protests in Belgrade">1991 protests in Belgrade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Belarusian_strikes" title="1991 Belarusian strikes">1991 Belarusian strikes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact#End_of_the_Cold_War" title="Warsaw Pact">Dissolution of the Warsaw Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Soviet_coup_attempt" title="1991 Soviet coup attempt">August Coup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">Dissolution of the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tajikistani_Civil_War" title="Tajikistani Civil War">Tajikistani Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Dissolution of Czechoslovakia">Dissolution of Czechoslovakia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">Later events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colour_revolution" title="Colour revolution">Colour revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decommunization" title="Decommunization">Decommunization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lustration" title="Lustration">Lustration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratization" title="Democratization">Democratization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_liberalization" title="Economic liberalization">Economic liberalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Soviet_conflicts" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-Soviet conflicts">Post-Soviet conflicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Sovietism" title="Neo-Sovietism">Neo-Sovietism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Stalinism" title="Neo-Stalinism">Neo-Stalinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-communism" title="Post-communism">Post-communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_Wars" title="Yugoslav Wars">Yugoslav Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pink_tide" title="Pink tide">Pink tide</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Human rights in the Soviet Union">Human rights in the Soviet Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Cold_War16183" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Cold_War" title="Template:Cold War"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Cold_War" title="Template talk:Cold War"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Cold_War" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Cold War"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Cold_War16183" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ANZUS" title="ANZUS">ANZUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Treaty_Organization" title="Central Treaty Organization">METO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia_Treaty_Organization" title="Southeast Asia Treaty Organization">SEATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_Asia_Treaty_Organization" title="Northeast Asia Treaty Organization">NEATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-American_Treaty_of_Reciprocal_Assistance" title="Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance">Rio Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-Aligned_Movement" title="Non-Aligned Movement">Non-Aligned Movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1940s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Morgenthau_Plan" title="Morgenthau Plan">Morgenthau Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hukbalahap_rebellion" title="Hukbalahap rebellion">Hukbalahap rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamaican_political_conflict" title="Jamaican political conflict">Jamaican political conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dekemvriana" title="Dekemvriana">Dekemvriana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_war_in_the_Baltic_states" title="Guerrilla war in the Baltic states">Guerrilla war in the Baltic states</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Priboi" title="Operation Priboi">Operation <i>Priboi</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Jungle" title="Operation Jungle">Operation <i>Jungle</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Baltic_states" title="Occupation of the Baltic states">Occupation of the Baltic states</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursed_soldiers" title="Cursed soldiers">Cursed soldiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Unthinkable" title="Operation Unthinkable">Operation <i>Unthinkable</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gouzenko_Affair" title="Gouzenko Affair">Gouzenko Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Division_of_Korea" title="Division of Korea">Division of Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_National_Revolution" title="Indonesian National Revolution">Indonesian National Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Vietnam_(1945%E2%80%931946)" title="War in Vietnam (1945–1946)">Operation <i>Masterdom</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Beleaguer" title="Operation Beleaguer">Operation <i>Beleaguer</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Blacklist_Forty" title="Operation Blacklist Forty">Operation <i>Blacklist Forty</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_crisis_of_1946" title="Iran crisis of 1946">Iran crisis of 1946</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Civil_War" title="Greek Civil War">Greek Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Plan" title="Baruch Plan">Baruch Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corfu_Channel_incident" title="Corfu Channel incident">Corfu Channel incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Straits_crisis" title="Turkish Straits crisis">Turkish Straits crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restatement_of_Policy_on_Germany" title="Restatement of Policy on Germany">Restatement of Policy on Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Indochina_War" title="First Indochina War">First Indochina War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1947_Polish_parliamentary_election" title="1947 Polish parliamentary election">1947 Polish parliamentary election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truman_Doctrine" title="Truman Doctrine">Truman Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asian_Relations_Conference" title="Asian Relations Conference">Asian Relations Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/May_1947_crises" title="May 1947 crises">May 1947 crises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partition_of_India" title="Partition of India">Partition of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Pakistani_war_of_1947%E2%80%931948" title="Indo-Pakistani war of 1947–1948">Indo-Pakistani war of 1947–1948</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Palestine_war" title="1948 Palestine war">1947–1949 Palestine war</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1947%E2%80%931948_civil_war_in_Mandatory_Palestine" title="1947–1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine">1947–1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_War" title="1948 Arab–Israeli War">1948 Arab–Israeli War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Palestinian_expulsion_and_flight" title="1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight">1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Plan" title="Marshall Plan">Marshall Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comecon" title="Comecon">Comecon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Czechoslovak_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état">1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied_Control_Council#Incapacitation_of_the_council" title="Allied Control Council">Incapacitation of the Allied Control Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Wathbah_uprising" title="Al-Wathbah uprising">Al-Wathbah uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tito%E2%80%93Stalin_split" title="Tito–Stalin split">Tito–Stalin split</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Blockade" title="Berlin Blockade">Berlin Blockade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Hyderabad" title="Annexation of Hyderabad">Annexation of Hyderabad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madiun_Affair" title="Madiun Affair">Madiun Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_betrayal" title="Western betrayal">Western betrayal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Curtain" title="Iron Curtain">Iron Curtain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Bloc" title="Western Bloc">Western Bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Revolution" title="Chinese Communist Revolution">Chinese Communist Revolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayan_Emergency" title="Malayan Emergency">Malayan Emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_1949_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="March 1949 Syrian coup d'état">March 1949 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Valuable" title="Operation Valuable">Operation Valuable</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1950s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bamboo_curtain" title="Bamboo curtain">Bamboo curtain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McCarthyism" title="McCarthyism">McCarthyism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Cold_War" title="Arab Cold War">Arab Cold War (1952–1979)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1952_Egyptian_revolution" title="1952 Egyptian revolution">1952 Egyptian revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Intifada_(1952)" title="Iraqi Intifada (1952)">Iraqi Intifada (1952)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mau_Mau_rebellion" title="Mau Mau rebellion">Mau Mau rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_German_uprising_of_1953" title="East German uprising of 1953">East German uprising of 1953</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1953_Iranian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1953 Iranian coup d'état">1953 Iranian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pact_of_Madrid" title="Pact of Madrid">Pact of Madrid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bricker_Amendment" title="Bricker Amendment">Bricker Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1954_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1954 Syrian coup d'état">1954 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrov_Affair" title="Petrov Affair">Petrov Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domino_theory" title="Domino theory">Domino theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1954_Geneva_Conference" title="1954 Geneva Conference">1954 Geneva Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1954_Guatemalan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1954 Guatemalan coup d'état">1954 Guatemalan coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_the_Tuapse" title="Capture of the Tuapse">Capture of the <i>Tuapse</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Taiwan_Strait_Crisis" title="First Taiwan Strait Crisis">First Taiwan Strait Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jebel_Akhdar_War" title="Jebel Akhdar War">Jebel Akhdar War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_War" title="Algerian War">Algerian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashmir_Princess" title="Kashmir Princess">Kashmir Princess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bandung_Conference" title="Bandung Conference">Bandung Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geneva_Summit_(1955)" title="Geneva Summit (1955)">Geneva Summit (1955)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyprus_Emergency" title="Cyprus Emergency">Cyprus Emergency</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/On_the_Cult_of_Personality_and_Its_Consequences" title="On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences">On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1956_Pozna%C5%84_protests" title="1956 Poznań protests">1956 Poznań protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1956" title="Hungarian Revolution of 1956">Hungarian Revolution of 1956</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_October" title="Polish October">Polish October</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suez_Crisis" title="Suez Crisis">Suez Crisis</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/We_will_bury_you" title="We will bury you">We will bury you</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Gladio" title="Operation Gladio">Operation <i>Gladio</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Crisis_of_1957" title="Syrian Crisis of 1957">Syrian Crisis of 1957</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sputnik_crisis" title="Sputnik crisis">Sputnik crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ifni_War" title="Ifni War">Ifni War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/14_July_Revolution" title="14 July Revolution">Iraqi 14 July Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1958_Lebanon_crisis" title="1958 Lebanon crisis">1958 Lebanon crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Taiwan_Strait_Crisis" title="Second Taiwan Strait Crisis">Second Taiwan Strait Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1959_Mosul_uprising" title="1959 Mosul uprising">1959 Mosul uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1959_Tibetan_uprising" title="1959 Tibetan uprising">1959 Tibetan uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laotian_Civil_War" title="Laotian Civil War">Laotian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kitchen_Debate" title="Kitchen Debate">Kitchen Debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_Revolution" title="Cuban Revolution">Cuban Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consolidation_of_the_Cuban_Revolution" title="Consolidation of the Cuban Revolution">Consolidation of the Cuban Revolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_split" title="Sino-Soviet split">Sino-Soviet split</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1960s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congo_Crisis" title="Congo Crisis">Congo Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simba_rebellion" title="Simba rebellion">Simba rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1960_U-2_incident" title="1960 U-2 incident">1960 U-2 incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bay_of_Pigs_Invasion" title="Bay of Pigs Invasion">Bay of Pigs Invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1960_Turkish_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1960 Turkish coup d'état">1960 Turkish coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albanian%E2%80%93Soviet_split" title="Albanian–Soviet split">Albanian–Soviet split</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Expulsion_of_Soviets_from_Albania" title="Expulsion of Soviets from Albania">Expulsion of Soviets from Albania</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_conflict" title="Iraqi–Kurdish conflict">Iraqi–Kurdish conflict</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_War" title="First Iraqi–Kurdish War">First Iraqi–Kurdish War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Crisis_of_1961" title="Berlin Crisis of 1961">Berlin Crisis of 1961</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Wall" title="Berlin Wall">Berlin Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Goa" title="Annexation of Goa">Annexation of Goa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papua_conflict" title="Papua conflict">Papua conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesia%E2%80%93Malaysia_confrontation" title="Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation">Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sand_War" title="Sand War">Sand War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Colonial_War" title="Portuguese Colonial War">Portuguese Colonial War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angolan_War_of_Independence" title="Angolan War of Independence">Angolan War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guinea-Bissau_War_of_Independence" title="Guinea-Bissau War of Independence">Guinea-Bissau War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozambican_War_of_Independence" title="Mozambican War of Independence">Mozambican War of Independence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis" title="Cuban Missile Crisis">Cuban Missile Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Porte%C3%B1azo" title="El Porteñazo">El Porteñazo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Indian_War" title="Sino-Indian War">Sino-Indian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_insurgency_in_Sarawak" title="Communist insurgency in Sarawak">Communist insurgency in Sarawak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramadan_Revolution" title="Ramadan Revolution">Ramadan Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eritrean_War_of_Independence" title="Eritrean War of Independence">Eritrean War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Yemen_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="North Yemen Civil War">North Yemen Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1963_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1963 Syrian coup d'état">1963 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="Assassination of John F. Kennedy">Assassination of John F. Kennedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aden_Emergency" title="Aden Emergency">Aden Emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cypriot_intercommunal_violence#Crisis_of_1963–1964" title="Cypriot intercommunal violence">Cyprus crisis of 1963–1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shifta_War" title="Shifta War">Shifta War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_Dirty_War" title="Mexican Dirty War">Mexican Dirty War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tlatelolco_massacre" title="Tlatelolco massacre">Tlatelolco massacre</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guatemalan_Civil_War" title="Guatemalan Civil War">Guatemalan Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colombian_conflict" title="Colombian conflict">Colombian conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1964_Brazilian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1964 Brazilian coup d'état">1964 Brazilian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominican_Civil_War" title="Dominican Civil War">Dominican Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhodesian_Bush_War" title="Rhodesian Bush War">Rhodesian Bush War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_mass_killings_of_1965%E2%80%9366" title="Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66">Indonesian mass killings of 1965–1966</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_to_the_New_Order" title="Transition to the New Order">Transition to the New Order (Indonesia)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ASEAN_Declaration" title="ASEAN Declaration">ASEAN Declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1966_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1966 Syrian coup d'état">1966 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argentine_Revolution" title="Argentine Revolution">Argentine Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Border_War" title="South African Border War">South African Border War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_DMZ_Conflict" title="Korean DMZ Conflict">Korean DMZ Conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/12-3_incident" title="12-3 incident">12-3 incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_junta" title="Greek junta">Greek junta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1967_Hong_Kong_riots" title="1967 Hong Kong riots">1967 Hong Kong riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Years_of_Lead_(Italy)" title="Years of Lead (Italy)">Years of Lead (Italy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Six-Day_War" title="Six-Day War">Six-Day War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Attrition" title="War of Attrition">War of Attrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhofar_War" title="Dhofar War">Dhofar War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Wadiah_War" title="Al-Wadiah War">Al-Wadiah War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigerian_Civil_War" title="Nigerian Civil War">Nigerian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protests_of_1968" title="Protests of 1968">Protests of 1968</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/May_68" title="May 68">May 68</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prague_Spring" title="Prague Spring">Prague Spring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_Pueblo_(AGER-2)#Pueblo_incident" title="USS Pueblo (AGER-2)">USS <i>Pueblo</i> incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_Polish_political_crisis" title="1968 Polish political crisis">1968 Polish political crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_insurgency_in_Malaysia_(1968%E2%80%931989)" title="Communist insurgency in Malaysia (1968–1989)">Communist insurgency in Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia">Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/17_July_Revolution" title="17 July Revolution">17 July Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_Peruvian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1968 Peruvian coup d'état">1968 Peruvian coup d'état</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Government_of_the_Armed_Forces_of_Peru" title="Revolutionary Government of the Armed Forces of Peru">Revolutionary Government</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1969_Sudanese_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1969 Sudanese coup d'état">1969 Sudanese coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1969_Libyan_revolution" title="1969 Libyan revolution">1969 Libyan revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goulash_Communism" title="Goulash Communism">Goulash Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_border_conflict" title="Sino-Soviet border conflict">Sino-Soviet border conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_People%27s_Army_rebellion" title="New People's Army rebellion">New People's Army rebellion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1970s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9tente" title="Détente">Détente</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Non-Proliferation_of_Nuclear_Weapons" title="Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons">Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_September" title="Black September">Black September</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcora_Exercise" title="Alcora Exercise">Alcora Exercise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrective_Movement_(Syria)" title="Corrective Movement (Syria)">Corrective Movement (Syria)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Sahara_conflict" title="Western Sahara conflict">Western Sahara conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_Civil_War" title="Cambodian Civil War">Cambodian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_insurgency_in_Thailand" title="Communist insurgency in Thailand">Communist insurgency in Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1970_Polish_protests" title="1970 Polish protests">1970 Polish protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koza_riot" title="Koza riot">Koza riot</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Realpolitik" title="Realpolitik">Realpolitik</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ping-pong_diplomacy" title="Ping-pong diplomacy">Ping-pong diplomacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1971_JVP_insurrection" title="1971 JVP insurrection">1971 JVP insurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrective_revolution_(Egypt)" title="Corrective revolution (Egypt)">Corrective revolution (Egypt)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1971_Turkish_military_memorandum" title="1971 Turkish military memorandum">1971 Turkish military memorandum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1971_Sudanese_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1971 Sudanese coup d'état">1971 Sudanese coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1971_Bolivian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1971 Bolivian coup d'état">1971 Bolivian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Power_Agreement_on_Berlin" title="Four Power Agreement on Berlin">Four Power Agreement on Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangladesh_Liberation_War" title="Bangladesh Liberation War">Bangladesh Liberation War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1972_visit_by_Richard_Nixon_to_China" title="1972 visit by Richard Nixon to China">1972 visit by Richard Nixon to China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Yemen#Disputes_with_North_Yemen" title="South Yemen">North Yemen-South Yemen Border conflict of 1972</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Yemenite_War" title="First Yemenite War">First Yemenite War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Munich_massacre" title="Munich massacre">Munich massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1972%E2%80%931975_Bangladesh_insurgency" title="1972–1975 Bangladesh insurgency">1972–1975 Bangladesh insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eritrean_Civil_Wars" title="Eritrean Civil Wars">Eritrean Civil Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_Uruguayan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1973 Uruguayan coup d'état">1973 Uruguayan coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_Afghan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1973 Afghan coup d'état">1973 Afghan coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_Chilean_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1973 Chilean coup d'état">1973 Chilean coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yom_Kippur_War" title="Yom Kippur War">Yom Kippur War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_oil_crisis" title="1973 oil crisis">1973 oil crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnation_Revolution" title="Carnation Revolution">Carnation Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_transition_to_democracy" title="Spanish transition to democracy">Spanish transition to democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metapolitefsi" title="Metapolitefsi">Metapolitefsi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_Arms_Limitation_Talks" title="Strategic Arms Limitation Talks">Strategic Arms Limitation Talks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_War" title="Second Iraqi–Kurdish War">Second Iraqi–Kurdish War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_invasion_of_Cyprus" title="Turkish invasion of Cyprus">Turkish invasion of Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/15_August_1975_Bangladeshi_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="15 August 1975 Bangladeshi coup d'état">15 August 1975 Bangladeshi coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/3_November_1975_Bangladeshi_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="3 November 1975 Bangladeshi coup d'état">Siege of Dhaka (1975)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/7_November_1975_Bangladeshi_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="7 November 1975 Bangladeshi coup d'état">Sipahi-Janata revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angolan_Civil_War" title="Angolan Civil War">Angolan Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_genocide" title="Cambodian genocide">Cambodian genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/June_1976_protests" title="June 1976 protests">June 1976 protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozambican_Civil_War" title="Mozambican Civil War">Mozambican Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oromo_conflict" title="Oromo conflict">Oromo conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ogaden_War" title="Ogaden War">Ogaden War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1978_Somali_coup_attempt" title="1978 Somali coup attempt">1978 Somali coup attempt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Sahara_War" title="Western Sahara War">Western Sahara War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Civil_War" title="Ethiopian Civil War">Ethiopian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Civil_War" title="Lebanese Civil War">Lebanese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Albanian_split" title="Sino-Albanian split">Sino-Albanian split</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Indochina_War" title="Third Indochina War">Third Indochina War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian%E2%80%93Vietnamese_War" title="Cambodian–Vietnamese War">Cambodian–Vietnamese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_conflict_(1979%E2%80%931998)" title="Cambodian conflict (1979–1998)">Cambodian conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Condor" title="Operation Condor">Operation <i>Condor</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dirty_War" title="Dirty War">Dirty War (Argentina)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1976_Argentine_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1976 Argentine coup d'état">1976 Argentine coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian%E2%80%93Libyan_War" title="Egyptian–Libyan War">Egyptian–Libyan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Autumn" title="German Autumn">German Autumn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Air_Lines_Flight_902" title="Korean Air Lines Flight 902">Korean Air Lines Flight 902</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicaraguan_Revolution" title="Nicaraguan Revolution">Nicaraguan Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uganda%E2%80%93Tanzania_War" title="Uganda–Tanzania War">Uganda–Tanzania War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NDF_Rebellion" title="NDF Rebellion">NDF Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chadian%E2%80%93Libyan_War" title="Chadian–Libyan War">Chadian–Libyan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Yemenite_War" title="Second Yemenite War">Second Yemenite War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Mosque_seizure" title="Grand Mosque seizure">Grand Mosque seizure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_revolution" title="Iranian revolution">Iranian revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saur_Revolution" title="Saur Revolution">Saur Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Vietnamese_War" title="Sino-Vietnamese War">Sino-Vietnamese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Jewel_Movement" title="New Jewel Movement">New Jewel Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1979_Herat_uprising" title="1979 Herat uprising">1979 Herat uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Days_to_the_River_Rhine" title="Seven Days to the River Rhine">Seven Days to the River Rhine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Struggle_against_political_abuse_of_psychiatry_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Struggle against political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union">Struggle against political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1980s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Salvadoran_Civil_War" title="Salvadoran Civil War">Salvadoran Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">Soviet–Afghan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1980_Summer_Olympics_boycott" title="1980 Summer Olympics boycott">1980</a> and <a href="/wiki/1984_Summer_Olympics_boycott" title="1984 Summer Olympics boycott">1984 Summer Olympics boycotts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gera_Demands" title="Gera Demands">Gera Demands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peruvian_Civil_War_of_1980%E2%80%932000" class="mw-redirect" title="Peruvian Civil War of 1980–2000">Peruvian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gda%C5%84sk_Agreement" title="Gdańsk Agreement">Gdańsk Agreement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solidarity_(Polish_trade_union)" title="Solidarity (Polish trade union)">Solidarity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eritrean_Civil_Wars" title="Eritrean Civil Wars">Eritrean Civil Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1980_Turkish_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1980 Turkish coup d'état">1980 Turkish coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugandan_Bush_War" title="Ugandan Bush War">Ugandan Bush War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Sidra_incident_(1981)" title="Gulf of Sidra incident (1981)">Gulf of Sidra incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial_law_in_Poland" title="Martial law in Poland">Martial law in Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casamance_conflict" title="Casamance conflict">Casamance conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falklands_War" title="Falklands War">Falklands War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1982_Ethiopian%E2%80%93Somali_Border_War" title="1982 Ethiopian–Somali Border War">1982 Ethiopian–Somali Border War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ndogboyosoi_War" title="Ndogboyosoi War">Ndogboyosoi War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Grenada" title="United States invasion of Grenada">United States invasion of Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Able_Archer_83" title="Able Archer 83">Able Archer 83</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_Defense_Initiative" title="Strategic Defense Initiative">Star Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geneva_Summit_(1985)" title="Geneva Summit (1985)">1985 Geneva Summit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="Iran–Iraq War">Iran–Iraq War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_Rebellion" title="Somali Rebellion">Somali Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reykjav%C3%ADk_Summit" title="Reykjavík Summit">Reykjavík Summit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1986_Black_Sea_incident" title="1986 Black Sea incident">1986 Black Sea incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Yemen_civil_war" title="South Yemen civil war">South Yemen civil war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toyota_War" title="Toyota War">Toyota War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1987_Lieyu_massacre" title="1987 Lieyu massacre">1987 Lieyu massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Denver" title="Operation Denver">Operation Denver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1987%E2%80%931989_JVP_insurrection" title="1987–1989 JVP insurrection">1987–1989 JVP insurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord%27s_Resistance_Army_insurgency" title="Lord's Resistance Army insurgency">Lord's Resistance Army insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1988_Black_Sea_bumping_incident" title="1988 Black Sea bumping incident">1988 Black Sea bumping incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/8888_Uprising" title="8888 Uprising">8888 Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Solidarity" title="History of Solidarity">Solidarity</a> (<a href="/wiki/Soviet_reaction_to_the_Polish_crisis_of_1980%E2%80%931981" title="Soviet reaction to the Polish crisis of 1980–1981">Soviet reaction</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contras" title="Contras">Contras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_American_crisis" title="Central American crisis">Central American crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_RYAN" title="Operation RYAN">Operation RYAN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Air_Lines_Flight_007" title="Korean Air Lines Flight 007">Korean Air Lines Flight 007</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_Power_Revolution" title="People Power Revolution">People Power Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glasnost" title="Glasnost">Glasnost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perestroika" title="Perestroika">Perestroika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bougainville_conflict" title="Bougainville conflict">Bougainville conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Nagorno-Karabakh_War" title="First Nagorno-Karabakh War">First Nagorno-Karabakh War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afghan_Civil_War_(1989%E2%80%931992)" title="Afghan Civil War (1989–1992)">Afghan Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Panama" title="United States invasion of Panama">United States invasion of Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1988_Polish_strikes" title="1988 Polish strikes">1988 Polish strikes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_Round_Table_Agreement" title="Polish Round Table Agreement">Polish Round Table Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1989_Tiananmen_Square_protests_and_massacre" title="1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre">1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Revolutions of 1989</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Berlin_Wall" title="Fall of the Berlin Wall">Fall of the Berlin Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_inner_German_border" title="Fall of the inner German border">Fall of the inner German border</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velvet_Revolution" title="Velvet Revolution">Velvet Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_revolution" title="Romanian revolution">Romanian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peaceful_Revolution" title="Peaceful Revolution">Peaceful Revolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1990s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_Revolution_of_1990" title="Mongolian Revolution of 1990">Mongolian Revolution of 1990</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Min_Ping_Yu_No._5540_incident" title="Min Ping Yu No. 5540 incident">Min Ping Yu No. 5540 incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Min_Ping_Yu_No._5202" title="Min Ping Yu No. 5202">Min Ping Yu No. 5202</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_reunification" title="German reunification">German reunification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemeni_unification" title="Yemeni unification">Yemeni unification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_communism_in_Albania" title="Fall of communism in Albania">Fall of communism in Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breakup_of_Yugoslavia" title="Breakup of Yugoslavia">Breakup of Yugoslavia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">Dissolution of the Soviet Union</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1991_Soviet_coup_attempt" title="1991 Soviet coup attempt">1991 August Coup</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Dissolution of Czechoslovakia">Dissolution of Czechoslovakia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Frozen_conflict" title="Frozen conflict">Frozen conflicts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abkhazia_conflict" title="Abkhazia conflict">Abkhazia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_status_of_Taiwan" title="Political status of Taiwan">China-Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Division_of_Korea" title="Division of Korea">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_status_of_Kosovo" title="Political status of Kosovo">Kosovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian%E2%80%93Ossetian_conflict" title="Georgian–Ossetian conflict">South Ossetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transnistria_War" title="Transnistria War">Transnistria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Indian_border_dispute" title="Sino-Indian border dispute">Sino-Indian border dispute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Borneo_dispute" title="North Borneo dispute">North Borneo dispute</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Foreign policy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Truman_Doctrine" title="Truman Doctrine">Truman Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Containment" title="Containment">Containment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eisenhower_Doctrine" title="Eisenhower Doctrine">Eisenhower Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domino_theory" title="Domino theory">Domino theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hallstein_Doctrine" title="Hallstein Doctrine">Hallstein Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kennedy_Doctrine" title="Kennedy Doctrine">Kennedy Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peaceful_coexistence" title="Peaceful coexistence">Peaceful coexistence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostpolitik" title="Ostpolitik">Ostpolitik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johnson_Doctrine" title="Johnson Doctrine">Johnson Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brezhnev_Doctrine" title="Brezhnev Doctrine">Brezhnev Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nixon_Doctrine" title="Nixon Doctrine">Nixon Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulbricht_Doctrine" title="Ulbricht Doctrine">Ulbricht Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carter_Doctrine" title="Carter Doctrine">Carter Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reagan_Doctrine" title="Reagan Doctrine">Reagan Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rollback" title="Rollback">Rollback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinmen_Agreement" title="Kinmen Agreement">Kinmen Agreement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Ideologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_school_of_economics" title="Chicago school of economics">Chicago school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Conservatism in the United States">American conservatism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keynesian_economics" title="Keynesian economics">Keynesianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monetarism" title="Monetarism">Monetarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_economics" title="Neoclassical economics">Neoclassical economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reaganomics" title="Reaganomics">Reaganomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supply-side_economics" title="Supply-side economics">Supply-side economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_capitalism" title="Democratic capitalism">Democratic capitalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism" title="Marxism–Leninism">Marxism–Leninism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Fidel_Castro" class="mw-redirect" title="Politics of Fidel Castro">Castroism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurocommunism" title="Eurocommunism">Eurocommunism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guevarism" title="Guevarism">Guevarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoxhaism" title="Hoxhaism">Hoxhaism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Juche" title="Juche">Juche</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ho_Chi_Minh_Thought" title="Ho Chi Minh Thought">Ho Chi Minh Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maoism" title="Maoism">Maoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trotskyism" title="Trotskyism">Trotskyism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalinism" title="Stalinism">Stalinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titoism" title="Titoism">Titoism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-imperialism" title="Anti-imperialism">Anti-imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultranationalism" title="Ultranationalism">Ultranationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chauvinism" title="Chauvinism">Chauvinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_nationalism" title="Ethnic nationalism">Ethnic nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Zionism" title="Anti-Zionism">Anti-Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Nazism" title="Neo-Nazism">Neo-Nazism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">Autocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_democracy" title="Liberal democracy">Liberal democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illiberal_democracy" title="Illiberal democracy">Illiberal democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guided_democracy" title="Guided democracy">Guided democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third-worldism" title="Third-worldism">Third-worldism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">White supremacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_nationalism" title="White nationalism">White nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_supremacy#White_separatism" title="White supremacy">White separatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">Apartheid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia_Treaty_Organization" title="Southeast Asia Treaty Organization">SEATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Treaty_Organization" title="Central Treaty Organization">METO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Economic_Community" title="European Economic Community">EEC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comecon" title="Comecon">Comecon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-Aligned_Movement" title="Non-Aligned Movement">Non-Aligned Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutral_and_Non-Aligned_European_States" title="Neutral and Non-Aligned European States">NN States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ASEAN" title="ASEAN">ASEAN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_Association_for_Regional_Cooperation" title="South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation">SAARC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safari_Club" title="Safari Club">Safari Club</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Propaganda</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Pro-communist</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active_measures" title="Active measures">Active measures</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Izvestia" title="Izvestia">Izvestia</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Neues_Deutschland" title="Neues Deutschland">Neues Deutschland</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pravda" title="Pravda">Pravda</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_Moscow" title="Radio Moscow">Radio Moscow</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rud%C3%A9_pr%C3%A1vo" title="Rudé právo">Rudé právo</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Trybuna_Ludu" title="Trybuna Ludu">Trybuna Ludu</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TASS" title="TASS">TASS</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Russian_Life" title="Russian Life">Soviet Life</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Pro-Western</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Amerika_(magazine)" title="Amerika (magazine)">Amerika</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusade_for_Freedom" title="Crusade for Freedom">Crusade for Freedom</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Paix_et_Libert%C3%A9" title="Paix et Liberté">Paix et Liberté</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_Free_Europe/Radio_Liberty" title="Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty">Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Red_Scare" title="Red Scare">Red Scare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voice_of_America" title="Voice of America">Voice of America</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Technological<br />competition</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arms_race" title="Arms race">Arms race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_arms_race" title="Nuclear arms race">Nuclear arms race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Historians</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gar_Alperovitz" title="Gar Alperovitz">Gar Alperovitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_A._Bailey" title="Thomas A. Bailey">Thomas A. Bailey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Beschloss" title="Michael Beschloss">Michael Beschloss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archie_Brown_(historian)" title="Archie Brown (historian)">Archie Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warren_H._Carroll" title="Warren H. Carroll">Warren H. Carroll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrian_Cioroianu" title="Adrian Cioroianu">Adrian Cioroianu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Costello_(historian)" title="John Costello (historian)">John Costello</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Cox_(academic)" title="Michael Cox (academic)">Michael Cox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_J._Cull" title="Nicholas J. Cull">Nicholas J. Cull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Davies" title="Norman Davies">Norman Davies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willem_Drees" title="Willem Drees">Willem Drees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_D._English" title="Robert D. English">Robert D. English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Feis" title="Herbert Feis">Herbert Feis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hugh_Ferrell" title="Robert Hugh Ferrell">Robert Hugh Ferrell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Fontaine" title="André Fontaine">André Fontaine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anneli_Ute_Gabanyi" title="Anneli Ute Gabanyi">Anneli Ute Gabanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lewis_Gaddis" title="John Lewis Gaddis">John Lewis Gaddis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lloyd_Gardner" title="Lloyd Gardner">Lloyd Gardner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Garton_Ash" title="Timothy Garton Ash">Timothy Garton Ash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Gorodetsky" title="Gabriel Gorodetsky">Gabriel Gorodetsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Halliday" title="Fred Halliday">Fred Halliday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jussi_Hanhim%C3%A4ki" title="Jussi Hanhimäki">Jussi Hanhimäki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Earl_Haynes" title="John Earl Haynes">John Earl Haynes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_J._Hearden" title="Patrick J. Hearden">Patrick J. Hearden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tvrtko_Jakovina" title="Tvrtko Jakovina">Tvrtko Jakovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tony_Judt" title="Tony Judt">Tony Judt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Klehr" title="Harvey Klehr">Harvey Klehr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Kolko" title="Gabriel Kolko">Gabriel Kolko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_LaFeber" title="Walter LaFeber">Walter LaFeber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Laqueur" title="Walter Laqueur">Walter Laqueur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melvyn_P._Leffler" title="Melvyn P. Leffler">Melvyn P. Leffler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geir_Lundestad" title="Geir Lundestad">Geir Lundestad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vojtech_Mastny_(historian)" title="Vojtech Mastny (historian)">Vojtech Mastny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_F._Matlock_Jr." title="Jack F. Matlock Jr.">Jack F. Matlock Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_J._McCormick" title="Thomas J. McCormick">Thomas J. McCormick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Naftali" title="Timothy Naftali">Timothy Naftali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marius_Oprea" title="Marius Oprea">Marius Oprea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_S._Painter" title="David S. Painter">David S. Painter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_B._Pickett" title="William B. Pickett">William B. Pickett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_E._Powaski" title="Ronald E. Powaski">Ronald E. Powaski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakov_M._Rabkin" title="Yakov M. Rabkin">Yakov M. Rabkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M._E._Sarotte" title="M. E. Sarotte">M. E. Sarotte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_M._Schlesinger_Jr." title="Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.">Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ellen_Schrecker" title="Ellen Schrecker">Ellen Schrecker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giles_Scott-Smith" title="Giles Scott-Smith">Giles Scott-Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shen_Zhihua" title="Shen Zhihua">Shen Zhihua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Snyder" title="Timothy Snyder">Timothy Snyder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athan_Theoharis" title="Athan Theoharis">Athan Theoharis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Thorpe" title="Andrew Thorpe">Andrew Thorpe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Tism%C4%83neanu" title="Vladimir Tismăneanu">Vladimir Tismăneanu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Vaughan" title="Patrick Vaughan">Patrick Vaughan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alex_von_Tunzelmann" title="Alex von Tunzelmann">Alex von Tunzelmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odd_Arne_Westad" title="Odd Arne Westad">Odd Arne Westad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Appleman_Williams" title="William Appleman Williams">William Appleman Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Reed_Winkler" title="Jonathan Reed Winkler">Jonathan Reed Winkler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolph_Winnacker" title="Rudolph Winnacker">Rudolph Winnacker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ken_Young" title="Ken Young">Ken Young</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Espionage and<br />intelligence</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Eastern_Bloc_agents_in_the_United_States" title="List of Eastern Bloc agents in the United States">List of Eastern Bloc agents in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_espionage_in_the_United_States" title="Soviet espionage in the United States">Soviet espionage in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_espionage_in_the_United_States" title="Russian espionage in the United States">Russian espionage in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_espionage_in_the_Soviet_Union_and_Russian_Federation" title="American espionage in the Soviet Union and Russian Federation">American espionage in the Soviet Union and Russian Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CIA_and_the_Cultural_Cold_War" title="CIA and the Cultural Cold War">CIA and the Cultural Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">CIA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MI5" title="MI5">MI5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MI6" title="MI6">MI6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_involvement_in_regime_change" title="United States involvement in regime change">United States involvement in regime change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_involvement_in_regime_change" title="Soviet involvement in regime change">Soviet involvement in regime change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Internal_Affairs_(Soviet_Union)" title="Ministry of Internal Affairs (Soviet Union)">MVD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KGB" title="KGB">KGB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stasi" title="Stasi">Stasi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allied_intervention_in_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War">Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Soviet Union–United States relations">Soviet Union–United States relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Soviet_Union%E2%80%93United_States_summits" title="List of Soviet Union–United States summits">Soviet Union–United States summits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93NATO_relations" title="Russia–NATO relations">Russia–NATO relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on terror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brinkmanship#Cold_War" title="Brinkmanship">Brinkmanship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pax_Atomica" title="Pax Atomica">Pax Atomica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Cold_War" title="Second Cold War">Second Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Cold_War" title="Category:Cold War">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_conflicts_related_to_the_Cold_War" title="List of conflicts related to the Cold War">List of conflicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Cold_War" title="Timeline of the Cold War">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Eastern_Bloc308" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Eastern_Bloc" title="Template:Eastern Bloc"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Eastern_Bloc" title="Template talk:Eastern Bloc"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Eastern_Bloc" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Eastern Bloc"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Eastern_Bloc308" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li></ul></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Formation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yalta_Conference" title="Yalta Conference">Yalta Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_occupations_by_the_Soviet_Union" title="Military occupations by the Soviet Union">Soviet occupations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_occupation_of_Bessarabia_and_Northern_Bukovina" title="Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina">Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Baltic_states" title="Occupation of the Baltic states">Baltic states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungary%E2%80%93Soviet_Union_relations" title="Hungary–Soviet Union relations">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_occupation_of_Romania" title="Soviet occupation of Romania">Romania</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Czechoslovak_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état">1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Blockade" title="Berlin Blockade">Berlin Blockade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Plan#Rejection_by_Stalin" title="Marshall Plan">Soviet response to the Marshall Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tito%E2%80%93Stalin_split" title="Tito–Stalin split">Tito–Stalin split</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Soviet-allied states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Socialist_Republic_of_Albania" title="People's Socialist Republic of Albania">People's Republic of Albania <span style="font-size:85%;">(to 1961)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Bulgaria" title="People's Republic of Bulgaria">People's Republic of Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czechoslovak_Socialist_Republic" title="Czechoslovak Socialist Republic">Czechoslovak Socialist Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany">German Democratic Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_People%27s_Republic" title="Hungarian People's Republic">Hungarian People's Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_People%27s_Republic" title="Polish People's Republic">Polish People's Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Republic_of_Romania" title="Socialist Republic of Romania">Socialist Republic of Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Federal_Republic_of_Yugoslavia" title="Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia">Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia <span style="font-size:85%;">(to 1948)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cominform" title="Cominform">Cominform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comecon" title="Comecon">COMECON</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Federation_of_Trade_Unions" title="World Federation of Trade Unions">World Federation of Trade Unions <span style="font-size:85%;">(WFTU)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Federation_of_Democratic_Youth" title="World Federation of Democratic Youth">World Federation of Democratic Youth <span style="font-size:85%;">(WFDY)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Revolts and<br />opposition</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Goryani" title="Goryani">Goryani Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1949_East_German_State_Railway_strike" title="1949 East German State Railway strike">1949 East German State Railway strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cazin_rebellion" title="Cazin rebellion">Rebellion of Cazin 1950</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1953_Plze%C5%88_uprising" title="1953 Plzeň uprising">1953 Plzeň uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_German_uprising_of_1953" title="East German uprising of 1953">1953 East German uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1956_Pozna%C5%84_protests" title="1956 Poznań protests">1956 Poznań protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1956" title="Hungarian Revolution of 1956">1956 Hungarian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prague_Spring" title="Prague Spring">Prague Spring</a> / <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia">Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1970_Polish_protests" title="1970 Polish protests">1970 Polish protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Croatian_Spring" title="Croatian Spring">Croatian Spring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/June_1976_protests" title="June 1976 protests">June 1976 protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solidarity_(Polish_trade_union)" title="Solidarity (Polish trade union)">Solidarity</a> / <a href="/wiki/Soviet_reaction_to_the_Polish_crisis_of_1980%E2%80%931981" title="Soviet reaction to the Polish crisis of 1980–1981">Soviet reaction</a> / <a href="/wiki/Martial_law_in_Poland" title="Martial law in Poland">Martial law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1981_protests_in_Kosovo" title="1981 protests in Kosovo">1981 protests in Kosovo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Conditions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emigration_from_the_Eastern_Bloc" title="Emigration from the Eastern Bloc">Emigration and defection</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Soviet_and_Eastern_Bloc_defectors" title="List of Soviet and Eastern Bloc defectors">list of defectors</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovietization_of_the_Baltic_states" title="Sovietization of the Baltic states">Sovietization of the Baltic states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc_media_and_propaganda" title="Eastern Bloc media and propaganda">Information dissemination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc_politics" title="Eastern Bloc politics">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc_economies" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Bloc economies">Economies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telephone_tapping_in_the_Eastern_Bloc" title="Telephone tapping in the Eastern Bloc">Telephone tapping</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dissolution</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Revolutions of 1989</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Peaceful_Revolution" title="Peaceful Revolution">Die Wende</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Berlin_Wall" title="Fall of the Berlin Wall">Fall of the Berlin Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/End_of_communism_in_Hungary" title="End of communism in Hungary">End of communism in Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velvet_Revolution" title="Velvet Revolution">Velvet Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_revolution" title="Romanian revolution">Romanian revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_communism_in_Albania" title="Fall of communism in Albania">Fall of communism in Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singing_Revolution" title="Singing Revolution">Singing Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">Collapse of the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Dissolution of Czechoslovakia">Dissolution of Czechoslovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/January_Events" title="January Events">January 1991 events in Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Barricades" title="The Barricades">January 1991 events in Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breakup_of_Yugoslavia" title="Breakup of Yugoslavia">Breakup of Yugoslavia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_Wars" title="Yugoslav Wars">Yugoslav Wars</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Soviet_Union_topics570" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Soviet_Union_topics" title="Template:Soviet Union topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Soviet_Union_topics" title="Template talk:Soviet Union topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Soviet_Union_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Soviet Union topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Soviet_Union_topics570" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="History of the Soviet Union">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Soviet_Union%E2%80%93related_articles" title="Index of Soviet Union–related articles">Index of Soviet Union–related articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/February_Revolution" title="February Revolution">February</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Civil_War" title="Russian Civil War">Russian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic" title="Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic">Russian SFSR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Creation_of_the_Union_of_Soviet_Socialist_Republics" title="Treaty on the Creation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics">Creation treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Economic_Policy" title="New Economic Policy">New Economic Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalinism" title="Stalinism">Stalinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Purge" title="Great Purge">Great Purge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union_in_World_War_II" title="Soviet Union in World War II">Great Patriotic War</a> (World War II) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evacuation_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Evacuation in the Soviet Union">Evacuation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="The Holocaust in the Soviet Union">The Holocaust</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khrushchev_Thaw" title="Khrushchev Thaw">Khrushchev Thaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_split" title="Sino-Soviet split">Sino-Soviet split</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_space_program" title="Soviet space program">Soviet space program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis" title="Cuban Missile Crisis">Caribbean Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1965_Soviet_economic_reform" title="1965 Soviet economic reform">1965 economic reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Era_of_Stagnation" title="Era of Stagnation">Stagnation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">Soviet–Afghan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perestroika" title="Perestroika">Perestroika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glasnost" title="Glasnost">Glasnost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster" title="Chernobyl disaster">Chernobyl disaster</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Revolutions of 1989</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Soviet_coup_attempt" title="1991 Soviet coup attempt">August Coup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">Dissolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Soviet_states" title="Post-Soviet states">Post-Soviet states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nostalgia_for_the_Soviet_Union" title="Nostalgia for the Soviet Union">Nostalgia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Geography of the Soviet Union">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Subdivisions_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Subdivisions of the Soviet Union">Subdivisions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republics_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Republics of the Soviet Union">Republics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republics" title="Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republics">Autonomous</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krais_of_Russia" title="Krais of Russia">Krais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oblasts_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Oblasts of the Soviet Union">Oblasts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_oblasts_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Autonomous oblasts of the Soviet Union">Autonomous</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_okrugs_of_Russia" title="Autonomous okrugs of Russia">Autonomous okrugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Closed_city" title="Closed city">Closed city</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caucasus_Mountains" title="Caucasus Mountains">Caucasus Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Russia" title="European Russia">European Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Caucasus" title="North Caucasus">North Caucasus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ural_Mountains" title="Ural Mountains">Ural Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Siberian_Plain" title="West Siberian Plain">West Siberian Plain</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Politics of the Soviet Union">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Constitution of the Soviet Union">Constitution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1936_Constitution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="1936 Constitution of the Soviet Union">1936</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1977_Constitution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="1977 Constitution of the Soviet Union">1977</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Elections in the Soviet Union">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Foreign relations of the Soviet Union">Foreign relations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brezhnev_Doctrine" title="Brezhnev Doctrine">Brezhnev Doctrine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_control_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Gun control in the Soviet Union">Gun control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Government of the Soviet Union">Government</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_governments_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of governments of the Soviet Union">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Human rights in the Soviet Union">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_the_post-Soviet_states" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in the post-Soviet states">LGBT</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Law of the Soviet Union">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Capital punishment in the Soviet Union">Capital punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_leaders_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of leaders of the Soviet Union">Leaders</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Collective_leadership_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Collective leadership in the Soviet Union">Collective leadership</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_delimitation_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="National delimitation in the Soviet Union">National delimitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passport_system_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Passport system in the Soviet Union">Passport system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propiska_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Propiska in the Soviet Union">Propiska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of political parties in the Soviet Union">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideology_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Ideology of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">State ideology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism" title="Marxism–Leninism">Marxism–Leninism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leninism" title="Leninism">Leninism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalinism" title="Stalinism">Stalinism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_anti-Zionism" title="Soviet anti-Zionism">Soviet anti-Zionism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Bodies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Communist Party</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Organization_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Organization of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">organisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Central Committee</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Presidium/Politburo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secretariat_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Secretariat of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Secretariat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">General Secretary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Soviets_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Congress of Soviets of the Soviet Union">Congress of Soviets</a> (1922–1936)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Soviet_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union">Supreme Soviet</a> (1938–1991)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_People%27s_Deputies_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Congress of People's Deputies of the Soviet Union">Congress of People's Deputies</a> (1989–1991)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Supreme Court of the Soviet Union">Supreme Court</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_Collegium_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Military Collegium of the Supreme Court of the Soviet Union">Military Collegium</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Offices</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_heads_of_state_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of heads of state of the Soviet Union">Heads of state</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="President of the Soviet Union">President</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Premier_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Premier of the Soviet Union">Premier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deputy_Premier_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Deputy Premier of the Soviet Union">Deputy Premier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Deputy_Premier_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="First Deputy Premier of the Soviet Union">First Deputy Premier</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_Soviet_secret_police_agencies" title="Chronology of Soviet secret police agencies">Security services</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cheka" title="Cheka">Cheka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_Political_Directorate" title="State Political Directorate">GPU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NKVD" title="NKVD">NKVD</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Destruction_battalions" class="mw-redirect" title="Destruction battalions">Destruction battalions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Internal_Affairs_(Soviet_Union)" title="Ministry of Internal Affairs (Soviet Union)">MVD</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Militsiya" title="Militsiya">Militsiya</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_State_Security_(Soviet_Union)" title="Ministry of State Security (Soviet Union)">MGB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KGB" title="KGB">KGB</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_chairmen_of_the_KGB" title="List of chairmen of the KGB">Chairmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Border_Troops" title="Soviet Border Troops">Soviet Border Troops</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Armed_Forces" title="Soviet Armed Forces">Soviet Armed Forces</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Army" title="Soviet Army">Soviet Army</a>/<a href="/wiki/Spetsnaz_GRU" title="Spetsnaz GRU">Spetsnaz GRU</a> • <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Navy" title="Soviet Navy">Soviet Navy</a> • <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Air_Forces" title="Soviet Air Forces">Soviet Air Forces</a>/<a href="/wiki/Soviet_Airborne_Forces" title="Soviet Airborne Forces">Soviet Airborne Forces</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Political repression in the Soviet Union">Political repression</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Red_Terror" title="Red Terror">Red Terror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivization_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Collectivization in the Soviet Union">Collectivization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Purge" title="Great Purge">Great Purge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_transfer_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Population transfer in the Soviet Union">Population transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_labor_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Forced labor in the Soviet Union">Forced labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag">Gulag</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Gulag_camps" title="List of Gulag camps">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holodomor" title="Holodomor">Holodomor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_abuse_of_psychiatry_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union">Political abuse of psychiatry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ideological_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Ideological repression in the Soviet Union">Ideological repression</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Religion in the Soviet Union">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repression_of_science_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Repression of science in the Soviet Union">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Censorship in the Soviet Union">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_of_images_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Censorship of images in the Soviet Union">Censorship of images</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Economy of the Soviet Union">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Agriculture in the Soviet Union">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gosbank" class="mw-redirect" title="Gosbank">Central Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet-type_economic_planning" title="Soviet-type economic planning">Economic planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_policy_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Energy policy of the Soviet Union">Energy policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five-year_plans_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Five-year plans of the Soviet Union">Five-year plans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/.su" title=".su">Internet domain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation#Soviet_Union" title="Timeline of Russian innovation">Inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_material_product" title="Net material product">Net material product</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OGAS" title="OGAS">OGAS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Science and technology in the Soviet Union">Science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_ruble" title="Soviet ruble">Rouble <span style="font-size:85%;">(currency)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Transport in the Soviet Union">Transport</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Railway_system_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Railway system of the Soviet Union">Railway system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_transport_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Rail transport in the Soviet Union">Rail transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_metro_systems_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of metro systems in the Soviet Union">List of metro systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vehicle_registration_plates_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Vehicle registration plates of the Soviet Union">Vehicle registration plates</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Science and technology in the Soviet Union">Science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Academy" title="Communist Academy">Communist Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cybernetics_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Cybernetics in the Soviet Union">Cybernetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Academy_of_Sciences#In_the_Soviet_Union" title="Russian Academy of Sciences">Academy of Sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USSR_Academy_of_Medical_Sciences" title="USSR Academy of Medical Sciences">Academy of Medical Sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VASKhNIL" title="VASKhNIL">Lenin All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharashka" title="Sharashka">Sharashkas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naukograd" title="Naukograd">Naukograds</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Naukograds" title="Category:Naukograds">List</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Category:Society of the Soviet Union">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Antisemitism in the Soviet Union">Antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Crime in the Soviet Union">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Demographics of the Soviet Union">Demographics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_people" title="Soviet people">Soviet people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_working_class" title="Soviet working class">Working class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1989_Soviet_census" title="1989 Soviet census">1989 census</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Drug policy of the Soviet Union">Drug policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Family in the Soviet Union">Family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Languages of the Soviet Union">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Linguistics_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistics of the Soviet Union">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrillisation_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Cyrillisation in the Soviet Union">Cyrillisation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prohibition_in_the_Russian_Empire_and_the_Soviet_Union" title="Prohibition in the Russian Empire and the Soviet Union">Prohibition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Racism in the Soviet Union">Racism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Culture of the Soviet Union">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_ballet" title="Russian ballet">Ballet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Cinema of the Soviet Union">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fashion_in_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Fashion in the Soviet Union">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_literature#20th_century" title="Russian literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Music of the Soviet Union">Music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_opera#20th_century" title="Russian opera">Opera</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_phraseology" title="Soviet phraseology">Phraseology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Printed_media_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Printed media in the Soviet Union">Printed media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Propaganda in the Soviet Union">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Radio in the Soviet Union">Radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Russia" title="Sport in Russia">Sports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalinist_architecture" title="Stalinist architecture">Stalinist architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Television in the Soviet Union">Television</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anti-Sovietism" title="Anti-Sovietism">Opposition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_dissidents" title="Soviet dissidents">Soviet dissidents</a> and their groups <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Soviet_opposition_groups" title="Category:Soviet opposition groups">List</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Symbols</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_Anthem_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="State Anthem of the Soviet Union">Anthem</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthems_of_the_Soviet_Republics" title="Anthems of the Soviet Republics">Republics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_Emblem_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="State Emblem of the Soviet Union">Emblem</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emblems_of_the_Soviet_Republics" title="Emblems of the Soviet Republics">Republics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Flag of the Soviet Union">Flag</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flags_of_the_Soviet_Republics" title="Flags of the Soviet Republics">Republics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hammer_and_sickle" title="Hammer and sickle">Hammer and sickle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="16" 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