Development and characterization of new ecological adsorbents based on cardoon wastes: Application to brilliant green adsorption

<!DOCTYPE html> <html lang="en" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"> <head> <meta charset="utf-8"> <meta http-equiv="x-ua-compatible" content="ie=edge"> <title>Development and characterization of new ecological adsorbents based on cardoon wastes: Application to brilliant green adsorption</title>  <link rel="preload" href="/assets/fonts/montserrat-v15-latin-ext_cyrillic-ext-regular.woff2" as="font" type="font/woff2" crossorigin="anonymous"> <link rel="preload" href="/assets/fonts/montserrat-v25-latin-ext_cyrillic-ext-500.woff2" as="font" type="font/woff2" crossorigin="anonymous"> <link rel="preload" href="/assets/fonts/montserrat-v15-latin-ext_cyrillic-ext-700.woff2" as="font" type="font/woff2" crossorigin="anonymous">  <link rel="preload" href="/assets/fonts/merriweather-v30-latin-ext_cyrillic-ext-300.woff2" as="font" type="font/woff2" crossorigin="anonymous"> <link rel="preload" href="/assets/fonts/merriweather-v22-latin-ext_cyrillic-ext-regular.woff2" as="font" type="font/woff2" crossorigin="anonymous"> <link rel="preload" href="/assets/fonts/merriweather-v22-latin-ext_cyrillic-ext-700.woff2" as="font" type="font/woff2" crossorigin="anonymous">  <link rel="preload" href="/assets/stylesheets/fontawesome.woff2" as="font" type="font/woff2" crossorigin="anonymous"> <link rel="stylesheet" media="all" href='/assets/stylesheets/02f295d1f6a8e9c282e7831cd493e8ff-bootstrap.purged.min.css' /> <link rel="stylesheet" media="all" href='/assets/stylesheets/5337b0511e7530e28f005276f70cde44-main.min.css' /> <link rel="stylesheet" media="all" href='/assets/stylesheets/13761c60ba5201f465803f3005ccd7ef-fontawesome-codes.css' /> <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/x-icon" href='/assets/images/ec7d7606b4e2f3f921b5e1700948efb6-favicon.ico' /> <link rel="alternate" hreflang="en" href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/chem-2024-0078/html?lang=en" /> <link rel="alternate" hreflang="de" href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/chem-2024-0078/html?lang=de" /> <link rel="alternate" hreflang="x-default" href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/chem-2024-0078/html" />  <link rel="schema.dcterms" href="http://purl.org/dc/terms/"> <meta name="dcterms.rightsHolder" content="Walter de Gruyter GmbH"> <meta name="dcterms.rights" content="De Gruyter expressly reserves the right to use all content for commercial text and data mining within the meaning of Section 44b of the German Copyright Act."> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="https://www.google-analytics.com" /> <meta name="google" content="notranslate" /> <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1" /> <meta name="description" content="This study aimed to develop four adsorbents, neat and activated, from the cardoon leaves and stems. The developed adsorbents were first analyzed to determine the surface acid–base properties using Boehm’s method, pH at zero charge point, iodine and methylene blue values, and moisture, ash, and fixed carbon contents. They were also characterized by scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy-dispersive X-ray analysis, X-ray diffraction, Fourier transform infrared absorption spectroscopy, thermogravimetric analysis, and inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy. After that, these adsorbents were applied for adsorption of an organic dye “brilliant green” (BG), and the effect of various parameters on the adsorption efficiency was evaluated. The obtained results revealed the differences between the adsorbents derived from the neat cardoon leaves and stems and their activated carbon in terms of properties and BG adsorption efficiency."/> <meta property="og:url" content="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/chem-2024-0078/html"/><meta property="og:site_name" content="De Gruyter"/><meta property="og:title" content="Development and characterization of new ecological adsorbents based on cardoon wastes: Application to brilliant green adsorption"/><meta property="og:type" content="article"/><meta property="og:locale" content="en"/><meta property="og:image" content="https://www.degruyter.com/document/cover/journal_key/CHEM/product"/><meta property="og:image:type" content="image/jpeg"/><meta property="og:description" content="This study aimed to develop four adsorbents, neat and activated, from the cardoon leaves and stems. The developed adsorbents were first analyzed to determine the surface acid–base properties using Boehm’s method, pH at zero charge point, iodine and methylene blue values, and moisture, ash, and fixed carbon contents. They were also characterized by scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy-dispersive X-ray analysis, X-ray diffraction, Fourier transform infrared absorption spectroscopy, thermogravimetric analysis, and inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy. After that, these adsorbents were applied for adsorption of an organic dye “brilliant green” (BG), and the effect of various parameters on the adsorption efficiency was evaluated. The obtained results revealed the differences between the adsorbents derived from the neat cardoon leaves and stems and their activated carbon in terms of properties and BG adsorption efficiency."/><meta property="og:locale:alternate" content="de"/><meta property="article:author" content="Meryem Hajji Nabih"/><meta property="article:author" content="Hamza Boulika"/><meta property="article:author" content="Maryam El Hajam"/><meta property="article:author" content="Noureddine Idrissi Kandri"/><meta property="article:author" content="Maryam M. Alomran"/><meta property="article:author" content="Fehmi Boufahja"/><meta property="article:tag" content="depollution"/><meta property="article:tag" content="kinetics"/><meta property="article:tag" content="isotherms"/><meta property="article:tag" content="ecology"/><meta property="article:tag" content="environment"/><meta property="article:published_time" content="2024-01-01"/><meta property="article:section" content="Open Chemistry"/> <meta name="citation_issue" content="1" /> <meta name="citation_issn" content="2391-5420" /> <meta name="citation_language" content='en' /> <meta name="citation_volume" content="22" /> <meta name="citation_publisher" content='De Gruyter Open Access' /> <meta name="citation_pdf_url" content="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/chem-2024-0078/pdf" /> <meta name="citation_keywords" content='depollution; kinetics; isotherms; ecology; environment' /> <meta name="citation_author" content="Meryem Hajji Nabih" /> <meta name="citation_author" content="Hamza Boulika" /> <meta name="citation_author" content="Maryam El Hajam" /> <meta name="citation_author" content="Noureddine Idrissi Kandri" /> <meta name="citation_author" content="Maryam M. Alomran" /> <meta name="citation_author" content="Fehmi Boufahja" /> <meta name="citation_title" content='Development and characterization of new ecological adsorbents based on cardoon wastes: Application to brilliant green adsorption' /> <meta name="citation_xml_url" content="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/chem-2024-0078/xml" /> <meta name="citation_journal_title" content="Open Chemistry" /> <meta name="citation_publication_date" content='2024/01/01' /> <meta name="citation_doi" content="10.1515/chem-2024-0078" /> <meta name="citation_fulltext_world_readable" content="" /> <script type="application/ld+json">{"author":[{"@type":"Person","name":"Meryem Hajji Nabih"},{"@type":"Person","name":"Hamza Boulika"},{"@type":"Person","name":"Maryam El Hajam"},{"@type":"Person","name":"Noureddine Idrissi Kandri"},{"@type":"Person","name":"Maryam M. Alomran"},{"@type":"Person","name":"Fehmi Boufahja"}],"editor":[],"audience":null,"datePublished":"2024-01-01","headline":"","keywords":"keyword,keyword,keyword,keyword,keyword","isAccessibleForFree":true,"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"De Gruyter Open Access"},"@context":"https://schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Development and characterization of new ecological adsorbents based on cardoon wastes: Application to brilliant green adsorption","image":"https://www.degruyter.com/document/cover/journal_key/CHEM/thumbnail","url":"https://doi.org/10.1515/chem-2024-0078"}</script> <script nonce="Cy1+5Q5k1mXOI+Z6ALjK4w=="> // Define dataLayer and the gtag function. window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; function gtag(){dataLayer.push(arguments);} function getCookieValue(name){ const regex = new RegExp(`(^| )${name}=([^;]+)`) const match = document.cookie.match(regex) if (match) { return match[2] } } // Set default consent to 'denied' as a placeholder // Determine actual values based on your own requirements const acceptCookies = getCookieValue('acceptcookies') === "true"; const defaultSettings = (acceptCookies) => ({ 'ad_storage': acceptCookies ? 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Your documents are now available to view.</p> <div id="orderCompleteItemList"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <main id="main" class='language_en min-vh-100 '> <div class="row no-theme-gutter-x g-0 " id="docContent"> <div class='offset-lg-1 col-lg-8 pb-2'> <div class='row g-0 '> <div class="col p-3 pt-5"> <div class="d-flex flex-wrap flex-column flex-md-row justify-content-between"> <div> <div class="mb-2"> <span> <a class="creative-commons-license ga_creative_commons_license text-decoration-none" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" title='Creative Commons - Some Rights Reserved'> <img src="/assets/images/cc-licenses/by.svg" height="100%" width="100%" alt='BY 4.0 license'/> </a> </span> <span class="fa fas fa-icon-open-access"></span> <span class="accessOpenAccess me-2">Open Access</span> <span class="publisherAndPublicationDate metadataInfoMainContent"> <span class="publisher"> Published by <a class="ga_published_by ga_published_by_header" href='/search?query=*&publisherFacet=De+Gruyter'>De Gruyter Open Access</a> </span> <span class="publicationDate">August 29, 2024</span> </span> </div> <div id="mobilePurchaseDiv" class="d-none"> <a class="mobilePurchaseButton" href="#"> Purchase article <svg width="17" height="16" viewBox="0 0 17 16" fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"> <path fill-rule="evenodd" clip-rule="evenodd" d="M12.75 10.3238L11.4513 9L9.5 11.1469L9.5 1L7.5 1L7.5 11.1473L5.54829 9L4.24962 10.3238L8.49981 15L12.75 10.3238Z" fill="#007596"/> </svg> </a> </div> <h1>Development and characterization of new ecological adsorbents based on cardoon wastes: Application to brilliant green adsorption</h1> <ul class="contributors list-unstyled mb-2"> <li class="contributors-AUTHOR mb-2"> <span class="metadataAndContributorsFont"><span class="contributor"> <span class="displayName linkAnimation">Meryem Hajji Nabih</span> <contributor-popdown name="Meryem Hajji Nabih" position="1" email="meryem.hajjinabih@usmba.ac.ma" affiliations="Signals, Systems and Components Laboratory (SSC), Faculty of Sciences and Techniques, Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah University, Route Imouzzer, BP2202, Atlas, FEZ, Morocco" > </contributor-popdown> <a href="mailto:meryem.hajjinabih@usmba.ac.ma"> <img alt="EMAIL logo" src='/assets/images/db2546a9d03b905bae083962a41791e1-mail.svg' width="16" height="12" /> </a> </span><span class="comma">, </span><span class="contributor"> <span class="displayName linkAnimation">Hamza Boulika</span> <contributor-popdown name="Hamza Boulika" position="2" email="" affiliations="Signals, Systems and Components Laboratory (SSC), Faculty of Sciences and Techniques, Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah University, Route Imouzzer, BP2202, Atlas, FEZ, Morocco" > </contributor-popdown> </span><span class="comma">, </span><span class="contributor"> <span class="displayName linkAnimation">Maryam El Hajam</span> <contributor-popdown name="Maryam El Hajam" position="3" email="" affiliations="Advanced Structures and Composites Center, University of Maine, Orono, 04469, United States of America" > </contributor-popdown> </span><span class="comma">, </span><span class="contributor"> <span class="displayName linkAnimation">Noureddine Idrissi Kandri</span> <contributor-popdown name="Noureddine Idrissi Kandri" position="4" email="" affiliations="Signals, Systems and Components Laboratory (SSC), Faculty of Sciences and Techniques, Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah University, Route Imouzzer, BP2202, Atlas, FEZ, Morocco" > </contributor-popdown> </span><span class="comma">, </span><span class="contributor"> <span class="displayName linkAnimation">Maryam M. Alomran</span> <contributor-popdown name="Maryam M. Alomran" position="5" email="" affiliations="Department of Biology, College of Science, Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University, P.O. Box 84428, Riyadh, 11671, Saudi Arabia" > </contributor-popdown> </span> and <span class="contributor"> <span class="displayName linkAnimation">Fehmi Boufahja</span> <contributor-popdown name="Fehmi Boufahja" position="6" email="" affiliations="Biology Department, College of Science, Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University (IMSIU), Riyadh, 11623, Saudi Arabia" > </contributor-popdown> </span></span> </li> </ul> <div class="subTitleInfoProductPage">From the journal <a class="ga_parent ga_parent_journal" href="/journal/key/chem/html">Open Chemistry</a></div> <div class="doi"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1515/chem-2024-0078" class="linkWithoutStyle subTitleInfoProductPage ga_doi" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1515/chem-2024-0078</a></div> </div> <div class="d-sm-none pt-3 pb-3 border-bottom"> <div class="alternateForms d-none"> <a href="/document/doi/10.1515/chem-2024-0078/pdf?licenseType=open-access" data-doi="10.1515/chem-2024-0078" class="ga_download_button_pdf_article downloadCompletePdfArticle downloadPdf btn btn-primary fw-bold py-2 w-100 vgwort-click"> <span>Download article (PDF)</span> <span class="fa fas fa-download-button"></span> </a> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="d-flex align-items-center flex-wrap px-4 px-lg-2 "> <button id='citationsModalButton' type="button" class="btn btn-main-content ga_cite_this me-2" href='#citationsModal' data-bs-toggle="modal" data-bs-target="#citationsModal" data-doi="10.1515/chem-2024-0078" aria-controls='citationsModal'> Cite this </button> <button id="socialModalButton" type="button" class="btn btn-main-content ga_share_this me-2" href="#socialModal" data-bs-toggle="modal" data-bs-target="#socialModal" aria-controls="socialModal"> Share this </button> <div class="dimensions __dimensions_badge_embed__ ga_dimensions_citation me-2" data-doi="10.1515/chem-2024-0078" data-hide-zero-citations="true" data-legend="never" data-style="large_rectangle"></div> </div> <div id="div-document-progress-bar" class="sticky-top d-none"> <div class="row"> <div class="col-12"> <div class="progress progress-bar-toolbar"> <div id="document-progress-bar" class="progress-bar bg-primary" role="progressbar" aria-label="Document progress bar" aria-valuenow="0" aria-valuemin="0" aria-valuemax="100"></div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div id="document-main-content" class='row'> <div class="container-fluid px-3 px-lg-0 py-2"> <div class="col"> <div class="d-none analyticsHolder" data-subjects='CH|CH-06|CH-12|CH-26' data-publisherCode='DG_OA' data-license='open-access' data-publisher='De Gruyter Open Access' data-contentName='Development and characterization of new ecological adsorbents based on cardoon wastes: Application to brilliant green adsorption' data-doi='10.1515/chem-2024-0078' data-parentIdentifier='CHEM' data-parentName='Open Chemistry' data-languages='en' ></div> <div id="documentContent" class="content py-2" data-doi='10.1515/chem-2024-0078' data-accessrestricted="false" data-countertype="document"> <div class="px-2"> <div id="text-container"> <div xmlns:dgdoi="http://degruyter.com/resources/doi-from-crossref" xmlns:dgpm="http://degruyter.com/resources/fetched-pubmed-id" class="contentWrapper"><div class="article" lang="en"><div class="abstract"> <h2 class="subheading">Abstract</h2> <p>This study aimed to develop four adsorbents, neat and activated, from the cardoon leaves and stems. The developed adsorbents were first analyzed to determine the surface acid–base properties using Boehm’s method, pH at zero charge point, iodine and methylene blue values, and moisture, ash, and fixed carbon contents. They were also characterized by scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy-dispersive X-ray analysis, X-ray diffraction, Fourier transform infrared absorption spectroscopy, thermogravimetric analysis, and inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy. After that, these adsorbents were applied for adsorption of an organic dye “brilliant green” (BG), and the effect of various parameters on the adsorption efficiency was evaluated. The obtained results revealed the differences between the adsorbents derived from the neat cardoon leaves and stems and their activated carbon in terms of properties and BG adsorption efficiency.</p> </div><div class="keywords mb-3">Keywords: <a href="/search?query=keywordValues%3A%28%22depollution%22%29%20AND%20journalKey%3A%28%22CHEM%22%29&documentVisibility=all&documentTypeFacet=article" class="ga_keyword">depollution</a>; <a href="/search?query=keywordValues%3A%28%22kinetics%22%29%20AND%20journalKey%3A%28%22CHEM%22%29&documentVisibility=all&documentTypeFacet=article" class="ga_keyword">kinetics</a>; <a href="/search?query=keywordValues%3A%28%22isotherms%22%29%20AND%20journalKey%3A%28%22CHEM%22%29&documentVisibility=all&documentTypeFacet=article" class="ga_keyword">isotherms</a>; <a href="/search?query=keywordValues%3A%28%22ecology%22%29%20AND%20journalKey%3A%28%22CHEM%22%29&documentVisibility=all&documentTypeFacet=article" class="ga_keyword">ecology</a>; <a href="/search?query=keywordValues%3A%28%22environment%22%29%20AND%20journalKey%3A%28%22CHEM%22%29&documentVisibility=all&documentTypeFacet=article" class="ga_keyword">environment</a></div><div class="body"> <section id="j_chem-2024-0078_s_001"> <h2 class="subheading">1 Introduction</h2> <p>Cardoon is a plant species of the Asteraceae family (<em>Cynara cardunculus</em> L.), which has recently attracted the interest of food and pharmaceutical industries, whether cultivated or wild [<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_001" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_001" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[1] Brás T, Paulino AFC, Neves LA, Crespo JG, Duarte MF. Ultrasound assisted extraction of cynaropicrin from Cynara cardunculus leaves: Optimization using the response surface methodology and the effect of pulse mode. Ind Crop Prod. 2020;150:112395.10.1016/j.indcrop.2020.112395Search in Google Scholar">1</a>,<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_002" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_002" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[2] Garcia-Castello EM, Moratalla M, Reig M, Iborra-Clar MI, Iborra-Clar A, Rodriguez-Lopez AD. Clarification of the cardoon (Cynara cardunculus) blanching wastewater by ultrafiltration – study of membrane fouling and flux recovery after chemical cleaning. Separations. 2023;10:418.10.3390/separations10070418Search in Google Scholar">2</a>]. Its derivatives can be used as a vegetable coagulant in the production of certain cheeses, paper pulp, and edible oil [<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_001" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_001" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[1] Brás T, Paulino AFC, Neves LA, Crespo JG, Duarte MF. Ultrasound assisted extraction of cynaropicrin from Cynara cardunculus leaves: Optimization using the response surface methodology and the effect of pulse mode. Ind Crop Prod. 2020;150:112395.10.1016/j.indcrop.2020.112395Search in Google Scholar">1</a>,<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_002" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_002" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[2] Garcia-Castello EM, Moratalla M, Reig M, Iborra-Clar MI, Iborra-Clar A, Rodriguez-Lopez AD. Clarification of the cardoon (Cynara cardunculus) blanching wastewater by ultrafiltration – study of membrane fouling and flux recovery after chemical cleaning. Separations. 2023;10:418.10.3390/separations10070418Search in Google Scholar">2</a>,<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_003" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_003" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[3] Alina-Ioana Gostina VYW. Edible flowers as functional food: A review on artichoke (Cynara cardunculus L.). Trends Food Sci Technol. 2018;86:381–91.10.1016/j.tifs.2019.02.015Search in Google Scholar">3</a>]. The many industrial applications of this plant produce millions of tons of waste [<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_004" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_004" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[4] Hajji Nabih M, Boulika H, El Hajam M, Alghonaim MI, Idrissi Kandri N, Alsalamah SA, et al. Successive solvent extraction, characterization and antioxidant activities of cardoon waste (leaves and stems) extracts: comparative study. Molecules. 2023;28:1129.10.3390/molecules28031129Search in Google Scholar
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 ">4</a>] which pollute the environment. However, these wastes are an important source of biologically active compounds such as antioxidants [<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_004" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_004" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[4] Hajji Nabih M, Boulika H, El Hajam M, Alghonaim MI, Idrissi Kandri N, Alsalamah SA, et al. Successive solvent extraction, characterization and antioxidant activities of cardoon waste (leaves and stems) extracts: comparative study. Molecules. 2023;28:1129.10.3390/molecules28031129Search in Google Scholar
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 ">4</a>], making them potential precursors for the preparation of environmentally friendly adsorbents for the reduction and even elimination of organic dyes contained in industrial effluents, mainly those from textiles [<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_005" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_005" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[5] Hajji Nabih M, Boulika H, El hajam M, Idrissi Kandri N, Zerouale A. Synthesis of an activated carbon based on cardoon waste and its comparison to a commercial carbon in terms of physicochemical characterization and organic dye adsorption performance. Key Eng Mater. 2023;954:41–54.10.4028/p-WYfpO4Search in Google Scholar">5</a>,<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_006" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_006" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[6] Hajji Nabih M, El Hajam M, Boulika H, Chiki Z, Ben Tahar S, Idrissi Kandri N, et al. Preparation and characterization of activated carbons from cardoon “Cynara Cardunculus” waste: Application to the adsorption of synthetic organic dyes. Mater Today Proc. 2023;72:3369–79.10.1016/j.matpr.2022.07.414Search in Google Scholar">6</a>,<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_007" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_007" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[7] El Hajam M, Idrissi Kandri N, Harrach A, Zerouale A. Adsorption of methylene blue on industrial softwood waste “cedar” and hardwood waste “mahogany”: comparative study. Mater Today Proc. 2019;13:812–21.10.1016/j.matpr.2019.04.044Search in Google Scholar">7</a>]. Several physico-chemical processes have been used to treat organic dyes, such as adsorption [<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_008" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_008" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[8] Boulika H, El Hajam M, Hajji Nabih M, Riffi Karim I, Idrissi Kandri N, Zerouale A. Definitive screening design applied to cationic & anionic adsorption dyes on Almond shells activated carbon: Isotherm, kinetic and thermodynamic studies. Mater Today Proc. 2023;72:3336–46.10.1016/j.matpr.2022.07.358Search in Google Scholar">8</a>,<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_009" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_009" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[9] El Hajam M, Idrissi Kandri N, Plavan GI, Harrath AH, Mansour L, Boufahja F, et al. Pb2+ ions adsorption onto raw and chemically activated Dibetou sawdust: Application of experimental designs. J King Saud Univ-Sci. 2020;32:2176–89.10.1016/j.jksus.2020.02.027Search in Google Scholar">9</a>,<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_010" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_010" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[10] El Hajam M, Idrissi Kandri N, Özdemir S, Plavan G, Ben Hamadi N, Boufahja F, et al. Statistical design and optimization of Cr (VI) adsorption onto Native and HNO3/NaOH activated cedar sawdust using AAS and a response surface methodology (RSM). Molecules. 2023;28:7271.10.3390/molecules28217271Search in Google Scholar
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 ">10</a>], coagulation-flocculation, membrane filtration [<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_011" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_011" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[11] Monette F, Brière FG, Létourneau M, Duchesne M, Hausler R. Traitement des eaux usées par coagulation-floculation avec recirculation des boues chimiques: Performance générale et stabilité du procédé. Can J Civ Eng. 2000;27:702–18.10.1139/l00-047Search in Google Scholar">11</a>], and adsorption on commercially activated carbon. However, only adsorption remains industrially exploitable and eco-compatible. As a result, scientists are constantly looking for adsorbents that are cheaper, easier to prepare, and more effective than commercial activated carbons. A variety of plant wastes have recently been used to develop environmentally friendly adsorbents and tested for optimal adsorption in water and industrial effluent treatment [<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_012" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_012" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[12] Boulika H, Hajji Nabih M, El Hajam M, Idrissi Kandri N. Preparation of a photocatalytic activated carbon based on almond shell and Ag-ZnO: characterization and application to organic effluent treatment. Key Eng Mater. 2023;954:17–29.10.4028/p-l9uLkUSearch in Google Scholar">12</a>,<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_013" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_013" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[13] Boulika H, El Hajam M, Hajji Nabih M, Idrissi Kandri N, Zerouale A. Physico-chemical properties and valorization perspectives of almond residues (shells & hulls) in the northern Morocco: a comparative study. Biomass Convers Biorefinery. 2024;1–10.10.1007/s13399-024-05274-1Search in Google Scholar">13</a>]. The aim of this study was to develop four adsorbents from the leaves and stems of crude and activated cardoon wastes. The prepared materials’ moisture, ash, and fixed carbon contents were determined, along with surface acid–base functions, pH at zero charge point (pH<sub>PZC</sub>), and iodine and methylene blue values. Characterization by energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy coupled with scanning electron microscopy (EDX-SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) absorption spectroscopy, inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-AES), and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) was also carried out. Their adsorption efficiency was evaluated and optimized using a solution of brilliant green (BG). The effects of solution pH, adsorbent mass, contact time, initial dye concentration, medium temperature, and salinity were studied, along with their kinetics and BG adsorption.</p> </section> <section id="j_chem-2024-0078_s_002"> <h2 class="subheading">2 Materials and methods</h2> <section id="j_chem-2024-0078_s_002_s_001"> <h3 class="subheading">2.1 Materials</h3> <p>After being gathered from a vegetable market in Fez, Morocco, vegetable waste from <em>C. cardunculus</em> L. was cleaned, dried, separated into leaves and stems, ground, and sieved to a diameter of between 50 µm and 0.2 mm. They were then Soxhlet extracted in a solvent [<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_004" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_004" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[4] Hajji Nabih M, Boulika H, El Hajam M, Alghonaim MI, Idrissi Kandri N, Alsalamah SA, et al. Successive solvent extraction, characterization and antioxidant activities of cardoon waste (leaves and stems) extracts: comparative study. Molecules. 2023;28:1129.10.3390/molecules28031129Search in Google Scholar
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 ">4</a>]. The leaf and stem residues resulting from this extraction were divided into two parts: the first was washed with distilled water, filtered, and oven-dried at 110°C to obtain ecological adsorbents denoted as AdsF for the leaves and AdsT for the stems. The second part was chemically and physically activated to obtain activated carbon, denoted as CAF for leaves and CAT for stems. Chemical activation was carried out on a mass of residue using a 30% volume of H<sub>3</sub>PO<sub>4</sub>. At room temperature, the resultant mixture was swirled for 24 h. After Büchner filtration, the residue was neutralized with water and oven-dried for 24 h. Physical activation was carried out as follows: the obtained dry product was placed in a Lenton furnace – a type of muffle furnace. The thermal cycle took place in two stages lasting one and a half hours at 180°C and one and a half hours at 350°C with an increase of 5°C/min in the heating rate [<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_006" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_006" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[6] Hajji Nabih M, El Hajam M, Boulika H, Chiki Z, Ben Tahar S, Idrissi Kandri N, et al. Preparation and characterization of activated carbons from cardoon “Cynara Cardunculus” waste: Application to the adsorption of synthetic organic dyes. Mater Today Proc. 2023;72:3369–79.10.1016/j.matpr.2022.07.414Search in Google Scholar">6</a>,<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_007" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_007" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[7] El Hajam M, Idrissi Kandri N, Harrach A, Zerouale A. Adsorption of methylene blue on industrial softwood waste “cedar” and hardwood waste “mahogany”: comparative study. Mater Today Proc. 2019;13:812–21.10.1016/j.matpr.2019.04.044Search in Google Scholar">7</a>,<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_008" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_008" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[8] Boulika H, El Hajam M, Hajji Nabih M, Riffi Karim I, Idrissi Kandri N, Zerouale A. Definitive screening design applied to cationic & anionic adsorption dyes on Almond shells activated carbon: Isotherm, kinetic and thermodynamic studies. Mater Today Proc. 2023;72:3336–46.10.1016/j.matpr.2022.07.358Search in Google Scholar">8</a>,<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_009" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_009" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[9] El Hajam M, Idrissi Kandri N, Plavan GI, Harrath AH, Mansour L, Boufahja F, et al. Pb2+ ions adsorption onto raw and chemically activated Dibetou sawdust: Application of experimental designs. J King Saud Univ-Sci. 2020;32:2176–89.10.1016/j.jksus.2020.02.027Search in Google Scholar">9</a>,<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_010" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_010" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[10] El Hajam M, Idrissi Kandri N, Özdemir S, Plavan G, Ben Hamadi N, Boufahja F, et al. Statistical design and optimization of Cr (VI) adsorption onto Native and HNO3/NaOH activated cedar sawdust using AAS and a response surface methodology (RSM). Molecules. 2023;28:7271.10.3390/molecules28217271Search in Google Scholar
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 ">10</a>,<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_011" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_011" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[11] Monette F, Brière FG, Létourneau M, Duchesne M, Hausler R. Traitement des eaux usées par coagulation-floculation avec recirculation des boues chimiques: Performance générale et stabilité du procédé. Can J Civ Eng. 2000;27:702–18.10.1139/l00-047Search in Google Scholar">11</a>,<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_012" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_012" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[12] Boulika H, Hajji Nabih M, El Hajam M, Idrissi Kandri N. Preparation of a photocatalytic activated carbon based on almond shell and Ag-ZnO: characterization and application to organic effluent treatment. Key Eng Mater. 2023;954:17–29.10.4028/p-l9uLkUSearch in Google Scholar">12</a>,<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_013" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_013" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[13] Boulika H, El Hajam M, Hajji Nabih M, Idrissi Kandri N, Zerouale A. Physico-chemical properties and valorization perspectives of almond residues (shells & hulls) in the northern Morocco: a comparative study. Biomass Convers Biorefinery. 2024;1–10.10.1007/s13399-024-05274-1Search in Google Scholar">13</a>,<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_014" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_014" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[14] Hajji Nabih M, El Hajam M, Boulika H, Hassan MM, Idrissi Kandri N, Hedfi A, et al. Physicochemical characterization of cardoon ‘cynara cardunculus’ wastes (Leaves and stems): A comparative study. Sustain. 2021;13:1–12.10.3390/su132413905Search in Google Scholar">14</a>]. Yields of ecological adsorbents and activated carbons were calculated from equation (<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_eq_001" class="link link-disp-formula" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_eq_001">1</a>):</p><div class="formula" id="j_chem-2024-0078_eq_001"> <span class="label">(1)</span> <span class="alternatives"> <mml:math xmlns:env="http://degruyter.com/resources/metadata" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:dgror="http://degruyter.com/resources/fetched-ror-id" xmlns:m="http://degruyter.com/resources/metadata" xmlns:ali="http://www.niso.org/schemas/ali/1.0/" xmlns:tei="http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0" display="block"> <mml:mtext>Yield </mml:mtext> <mml:mrow> <mml:mrow> <mml:mo stretchy="false">(</mml:mo> <mml:mrow> <mml:mtext>%</mml:mtext> </mml:mrow> <mml:mo stretchy="false">)</mml:mo> </mml:mrow> </mml:mrow> <mml:mo>=</mml:mo> <mml:mfrac> <mml:mrow> <mml:mtext>Final</mml:mtext> <mml:mspace width=".5em"></mml:mspace> <mml:mtext>mass</mml:mtext> </mml:mrow> <mml:mrow> <mml:mtext>Initial </mml:mtext> <mml:mspace width=".5em"></mml:mspace> <mml:mtext>mass</mml:mtext> </mml:mrow> </mml:mfrac> <mml:mo>×</mml:mo> <mml:mn>100</mml:mn> <mml:mo>.</mml:mo> </mml:math> </span> </div><p> </p> </section> <section id="j_chem-2024-0078_s_002_s_002"> <h3 class="subheading">2.2 Characterization methods</h3> <section id="j_chem-2024-0078_s_002_s_002_s_001"> <h4 class="subheading">2.2.1 Preliminary analysis</h4> <p>Using the ASTMD standard technique 2867-99, we determined the moisture and volatile matter content of various samples. The ash content was determined using the ASTMD standard technique 2867-94. The fixed carbon content was obtained by deducting the moisture, volatile matter, and ash contents from 100% [<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_015" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_015" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[15] Alongamo BAA, Ajifack LD, Ghogomu JN, Nsami NJ, Ketcha JM. Activated carbon from the peelings of cassava tubers (Manihot esculenta) for the removal of nickel(II) ions from aqueous solution. J Chem. 2021;2021:1–14.10.1155/2021/5545110Search in Google Scholar">15</a>].</p> </section> <section id="j_chem-2024-0078_s_002_s_002_s_002"> <h4 class="subheading">2.2.2 Quantification of surface oxygen groups using Boehm’s method and pH<sub>PZC</sub> </h4> <p>Boehm’s method was used to determine the acidic or basic nature of the adsorbents’ surface. The graphical method for detecting pH<sub>PZC</sub> uses curves of the final pH values (pH<sub>f</sub>) as a function of initial pH values (pH<sub> <em>i</em> </sub>) [<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_006" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_006" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[6] Hajji Nabih M, El Hajam M, Boulika H, Chiki Z, Ben Tahar S, Idrissi Kandri N, et al. Preparation and characterization of activated carbons from cardoon “Cynara Cardunculus” waste: Application to the adsorption of synthetic organic dyes. Mater Today Proc. 2023;72:3369–79.10.1016/j.matpr.2022.07.414Search in Google Scholar">6</a>].</p> </section> <section id="j_chem-2024-0078_s_002_s_002_s_003"> <h4 class="subheading">2.2.3 Iodine value and methylene blue value</h4> <p>The quantity of iodine adsorbed by the developed materials was evaluated using the standard method (AWWA B600-76) [<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_016" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_016" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[16] ElShafei GMS, ElSherbiny IMA, Darwish AS, Philip CA. Artichoke as a non-conventional precursor for activated carbon: Role of the activation process. J Taibah Univ Sci. 2017;11:677–88.10.1016/j.jtusci.2016.04.006Search in Google Scholar">16</a>]. Quantification of the methylene blue index for the four adsorbents was carried out using the CEFIC 1989 method [<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_017" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_017" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[17] Mamane OS, Zanguina A, Daou I, Natatou I. Préparation et caractérisation de charbons actifs à base de coques de noyaux de Balanites Eagyptiaca et de Zizyphus Mauritiana. la Société Ouest-Africaine Chim. 2016;41:59–67.Search in Google Scholar">17</a>].</p> </section> <section id="j_chem-2024-0078_s_002_s_002_s_004"> <h4 class="subheading">2.2.4 Characterization by physicochemical methods</h4> <p>Adsorbents’ surface morphology and porosity were analyzed using a JEOL-IT500 HR scanning electron microscope, coupled with an EDX spectrometer for the qualitative determination of their constituent compounds. An X-ray diffractometer Panalytical X’Pert Pro was used to identify the crystal structure. The bonds of the functional groups present in the chemical composition of the adsorbents were identified using a Bruker Vertex 70 FTIR spectrophotometer in ATR mode. Elemental analysis was carried out by ICP-AES using a Horiba Jobin-Yvon Activa type [<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_018" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_018" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[18] Pinta M. Méthodes de référence pour la détermination des éléments minéraux dans les végétaux: Détermination des éléments Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn, Zn et Cu par absorption atomique. Oléagineux. 1973;28:87–92.Search in Google Scholar">18</a>]. A LINSEIS high-end thermobalance (TG + DSC) (LINSEIS STA PT 1600) was used to test the adsorbents’ thermal stability between 20 and 1,000°C at a heating rate of 10°C/min.</p> </section> </section> <section id="j_chem-2024-0078_s_002_s_003"> <h3 class="subheading">2.3 Adsorption process</h3> <p>The Batch technique was used for adsorption experiments [<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_006" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_006" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[6] Hajji Nabih M, El Hajam M, Boulika H, Chiki Z, Ben Tahar S, Idrissi Kandri N, et al. Preparation and characterization of activated carbons from cardoon “Cynara Cardunculus” waste: Application to the adsorption of synthetic organic dyes. Mater Today Proc. 2023;72:3369–79.10.1016/j.matpr.2022.07.414Search in Google Scholar">6</a>]. A dye solution with a concentration of <em>C</em> <sub>0</sub> having a volume <em>V</em> and an adsorbent mass <em>m</em> distributed throughout it was used. After 30 min of stirring, the mixture was centrifuged. Using a UV spectrophotometer, the equilibrium concentration of <em>C</em> <sub>e</sub> dye in the filtrate was ascertained spectrophotometrically.</p> <p>The quantity of dye adsorbed <em>q</em> <sub>e</sub> was determined by equation (<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_eq_002" class="link link-disp-formula" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_eq_002">2</a>):</p><div class="formula" id="j_chem-2024-0078_eq_002"> <span class="label">(2)</span> <span class="alternatives"> <mml:math xmlns:env="http://degruyter.com/resources/metadata" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:dgror="http://degruyter.com/resources/fetched-ror-id" xmlns:m="http://degruyter.com/resources/metadata" xmlns:ali="http://www.niso.org/schemas/ali/1.0/" xmlns:tei="http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0" display="block"> <mml:mspace width=".25em"></mml:mspace> <mml:msub> <mml:mrow> <mml:mi>q</mml:mi> </mml:mrow> <mml:mrow> <mml:mtext>e</mml:mtext> </mml:mrow> </mml:msub> <mml:mo>=</mml:mo> <mml:mfrac> <mml:mrow> <mml:msub> <mml:mrow> <mml:mi>C</mml:mi> </mml:mrow> <mml:mrow> <mml:mn>0</mml:mn> </mml:mrow> </mml:msub> <mml:mo>−</mml:mo> <mml:msub> <mml:mrow> <mml:mi>C</mml:mi> </mml:mrow> <mml:mrow> <mml:mtext>e</mml:mtext> </mml:mrow> </mml:msub> </mml:mrow> <mml:mi>m</mml:mi> </mml:mfrac> <mml:mo>×</mml:mo> <mml:mi>V</mml:mi> <mml:mo>.</mml:mo> </mml:math> </span> </div><p> </p> <p>Adsorption percentage of dye (% Ads) was calculated by formula (<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_eq_003" class="link link-disp-formula" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_eq_003">3</a>):</p><div class="formula" id="j_chem-2024-0078_eq_003"> <span class="label">(3)</span> <span class="alternatives"> <mml:math xmlns:env="http://degruyter.com/resources/metadata" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:dgror="http://degruyter.com/resources/fetched-ror-id" xmlns:m="http://degruyter.com/resources/metadata" xmlns:ali="http://www.niso.org/schemas/ali/1.0/" xmlns:tei="http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0" display="block"> <mml:mo>%</mml:mo> <mml:mspace width=".5em"></mml:mspace> <mml:mtext>Ads</mml:mtext> <mml:mo>=</mml:mo> <mml:mfrac> <mml:mrow> <mml:msub> <mml:mrow> <mml:mi>C</mml:mi> </mml:mrow> <mml:mrow> <mml:mn>0</mml:mn> </mml:mrow> </mml:msub> <mml:mo>−</mml:mo> <mml:msub> <mml:mrow> <mml:mi>C</mml:mi> </mml:mrow> <mml:mrow> <mml:mtext>e</mml:mtext> </mml:mrow> </mml:msub> </mml:mrow> <mml:mrow> <mml:msub> <mml:mrow> <mml:mi>C</mml:mi> </mml:mrow> <mml:mrow> <mml:mn>0</mml:mn> </mml:mrow> </mml:msub> </mml:mrow> </mml:mfrac> <mml:mo>×</mml:mo> <mml:mn>100</mml:mn> <mml:mo>.</mml:mo> </mml:math> </span> </div><p> </p> <section id="j_chem-2024-0078_s_002_s_003_s_001"> <h4 class="subheading">2.3.1 Kinetics and isotherm of adsorption</h4> <section id="j_chem-2024-0078_s_002_s_003_s_001_s_001"> <h5 class="subheading">2.3.1.1 Adsorption kinetics</h5> <p>The BG dye’s adsorption kinetics was investigated on the AdsF (ecological adsorbent made from raw leaves), AdsT (ecological adsorbent made from raw stems), CAF (ecological adsorbent based on chemically and physically activated leaves), and CAT (ecological adsorbent based on chemically and physically activated stems) samples. The correlation between the experimental results and those of the kinetic model forms the basis of this study. Namely:<ol type="1" class="list " list-type="custom"><li class="listItem ps-2" style="list-style-type:'−';"><div class="listItem-contents"> <p>The Lagergren model (pseudo-first order – PFO) determined by equation (<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_eq_004" class="link link-disp-formula" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_eq_004">4</a>) [<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_019" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_019" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[19] El Hajam M, Idrissi Kandri N, Harrach A, et al. Adsorptive removal of brilliant green dye from aqueous solutions using cedar and mahogany sawdusts. Sci Study Res Chem Chem Eng Biotechnol Food Ind. 2019;20:395–409.Search in Google Scholar">19</a>]:</p> </div></li></ol> </p><div class="formula" id="j_chem-2024-0078_eq_004"> <span class="label">(4)</span> <span class="alternatives"> <mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" display="block"> <mml:mtext> ln</mml:mtext> <mml:mo stretchy="false">(</mml:mo> <mml:msub> <mml:mrow> <mml:mi>q</mml:mi> </mml:mrow> <mml:mrow> <mml:mtext>e</mml:mtext> </mml:mrow> </mml:msub> <mml:mo>−</mml:mo> <mml:msub> <mml:mrow> <mml:mi>q</mml:mi> </mml:mrow> <mml:mrow> <mml:mtext>t</mml:mtext> </mml:mrow> </mml:msub> <mml:mo stretchy="false">)</mml:mo> <mml:mo>=</mml:mo> <mml:mtext>ln</mml:mtext> <mml:mspace width=".25em"></mml:mspace> <mml:mo stretchy="false">(</mml:mo> <mml:msub> <mml:mrow> <mml:mi>q</mml:mi> </mml:mrow> <mml:mrow> <mml:mtext>e</mml:mtext> </mml:mrow> </mml:msub> <mml:mo stretchy="false">)</mml:mo> <mml:mo>‒</mml:mo> <mml:msub> <mml:mrow> <mml:mi>K</mml:mi> </mml:mrow> <mml:mrow> <mml:mn>1</mml:mn> </mml:mrow> </mml:msub> <mml:mo>⋅</mml:mo> <mml:mi>t</mml:mi> <mml:mo>,</mml:mo> </mml:math> </span> </div><p>where <em>K</em> <sub>1</sub> is the pseudo-first-order kinetic constant in min<sup>−1</sup>, <span class="inline-formula"> <span class="alternatives"> <mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"> <mml:msub> <mml:mrow> <mml:mi>q</mml:mi> </mml:mrow> <mml:mrow> <mml:mtext>t</mml:mtext> </mml:mrow> </mml:msub> </mml:math> </span> </span> is the quantity of BG adsorbed at time <em>t</em> in mg/g, <span class="inline-formula"> <span class="alternatives"> <mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"> <mml:msub> <mml:mrow> <mml:mi>q</mml:mi> </mml:mrow> <mml:mrow> <mml:mtext>e</mml:mtext> </mml:mrow> </mml:msub> </mml:math> </span> </span> is the quantity of BG adsorbed in equilibrium in mg/g, and <em>t</em> is the contact time in min.<ol type="1" class="list " list-type="custom"><li class="listItem ps-2" style="list-style-type:'−';"><div class="listItem-contents"> <p>The Blanchard model (pseudo-second order – PSO) determined by equation (<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_eq_005" class="link link-disp-formula" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_eq_005">5</a>) [<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_020" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_020" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[20] Ho YS, McKay G. Sorption of basic dye from aqueous solution by pomelo. Chem Eng J. 1998;70:115–24.10.1016/S0923-0467(98)00076-1Search in Google Scholar">20</a>]:</p> </div></li></ol> </p><div class="formula" id="j_chem-2024-0078_eq_005"> <span class="label">(5)</span> <span class="alternatives"> <mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" display="block"> <mml:mfrac> <mml:mi>t</mml:mi> <mml:mrow> <mml:msub> <mml:mrow> <mml:mi>q</mml:mi> </mml:mrow> <mml:mrow> <mml:mtext>t</mml:mtext> </mml:mrow> </mml:msub> </mml:mrow> </mml:mfrac> <mml:mo>=</mml:mo> <mml:mspace width=".25em"></mml:mspace> <mml:mfrac> <mml:mn>1</mml:mn> <mml:mrow> <mml:msub> <mml:mrow> <mml:mi>K</mml:mi> </mml:mrow> <mml:mrow> <mml:mn>2</mml:mn> </mml:mrow> </mml:msub> <mml:mo>⋅</mml:mo> <mml:msubsup> <mml:mrow> <mml:mi>q</mml:mi> </mml:mrow> <mml:mrow> <mml:mtext>e</mml:mtext> </mml:mrow> <mml:mrow> <mml:mn>2</mml:mn> </mml:mrow> </mml:msubsup> </mml:mrow> </mml:mfrac> <mml:mo>+</mml:mo> <mml:mspace width=".25em"></mml:mspace> <mml:mfrac> <mml:mn>1</mml:mn> <mml:mrow> <mml:msub> <mml:mrow> <mml:mi>q</mml:mi> </mml:mrow> <mml:mrow> <mml:mtext>e</mml:mtext> </mml:mrow> </mml:msub> </mml:mrow> </mml:mfrac> <mml:mo>⋅</mml:mo> <mml:mi>t</mml:mi> <mml:mo>,</mml:mo> </mml:math> </span> </div><p>where <em>K</em> <sub>2</sub> is the rate constant for the second-order adsorption reaction of the dye on the adsorbent in g mg<sup>−1</sup> min<sup>−1</sup>.</p> <p>The <em>R</em> <sup>2</sup> correlation coefficients and the values of the theoretical and experimental maximal quantities were used to assess the consistency between experimental results and those predicted by these models.</p> </section> <section id="j_chem-2024-0078_s_002_s_003_s_001_s_002"> <h5 class="subheading">2.3.1.2 Adsorption isotherms</h5> <p>We selected the two most popular models, the Freundlich and Langmuir models, to simulate adsorption isotherms.<ol type="1" class="list " list-type="custom"><li class="listItem ps-2" style="list-style-type:'−';"><div class="listItem-contents"> <p>The Langmuir model is defined by formula (<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_eq_006" class="link link-disp-formula" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_eq_006">6</a>) [<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_021" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_021" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[21] Rangabhashiyam S, Anu N, Selvaraju N. Sequestration of dye from textile industry wastewater using agricultural waste products as adsorbents. J Env Chem Eng. 2013;1:629–41.10.1016/j.jece.2013.07.014Search in Google Scholar">21</a>]:</p><div class="formula" id="j_chem-2024-0078_eq_006"> <span class="label">(6)</span> <span class="alternatives"> <mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" display="block"> <mml:mfrac> <mml:mrow> <mml:mspace width=".25em"></mml:mspace> <mml:msub> <mml:mrow> <mml:mi>C</mml:mi> </mml:mrow> <mml:mrow> <mml:mtext>e</mml:mtext> </mml:mrow> </mml:msub> </mml:mrow> <mml:mrow> <mml:msub> <mml:mrow> <mml:mi>q</mml:mi> </mml:mrow> <mml:mrow> <mml:mtext>e</mml:mtext> </mml:mrow> </mml:msub> </mml:mrow> </mml:mfrac> <mml:mo>=</mml:mo> <mml:mspace width=".25em"></mml:mspace> <mml:mfrac> <mml:mn>1</mml:mn> <mml:mrow> <mml:msub> <mml:mrow> <mml:mi>q</mml:mi> </mml:mrow> <mml:mrow> <mml:mtext>max</mml:mtext> </mml:mrow> </mml:msub> </mml:mrow> </mml:mfrac> <mml:mo>⋅</mml:mo> <mml:msub> <mml:mrow> <mml:mi>C</mml:mi> </mml:mrow> <mml:mrow> <mml:mtext>e</mml:mtext> </mml:mrow> </mml:msub> <mml:mo>+</mml:mo> <mml:mfrac> <mml:mn>1</mml:mn> <mml:mrow> <mml:msub> <mml:mrow> <mml:mi>q</mml:mi> </mml:mrow> <mml:mrow> <mml:mtext>max</mml:mtext> </mml:mrow> </mml:msub> <mml:mo>⋅</mml:mo> <mml:msub> <mml:mrow> <mml:mi>K</mml:mi> </mml:mrow> <mml:mrow> <mml:mtext>L</mml:mtext> </mml:mrow> </mml:msub> </mml:mrow> </mml:mfrac> <mml:mo>,</mml:mo> </mml:math> </span> </div><p>where <span class="inline-formula"> <span class="alternatives"> <mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"> <mml:msub> <mml:mrow> <mml:mi>q</mml:mi> </mml:mrow> <mml:mrow> <mml:mtext>e</mml:mtext> </mml:mrow> </mml:msub> </mml:math> </span> </span> is the quantity of dye adsorbed at equilibrium in mg/g, <em>C</em> <sub>e</sub> is the concentration of dye at equilibrium in mg/L, and <em>K</em> <sub>L</sub> is the thermodynamic equilibrium constant for adsorption in L/mg.</p> </div></li><li class="listItem ps-2" style="list-style-type:'−';"><div class="listItem-contents"> <p>The Freundlich model is represented by formula (<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_eq_007" class="link link-disp-formula" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_eq_007">7</a>) [<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_022" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_022" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[22] Matandabuzo M, Ajibade PA. Removal of metal ions from aqueous solutions using activated carbon prepared from zea mays stem. Sci Study Res Chem Chem Eng Biotechnol Food Ind. 2018;19:117–32.Search in Google Scholar">22</a>]:</p> </div></li></ol> </p><div class="formula" id="j_chem-2024-0078_eq_007"> <span class="label">(7)</span> <span class="alternatives"> <mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" display="block"> <mml:mtext>Log</mml:mtext> <mml:mrow> <mml:mrow> <mml:mo stretchy="false">(</mml:mo> <mml:mrow> <mml:msub> <mml:mrow> <mml:mi>q</mml:mi> </mml:mrow> <mml:mrow> <mml:mtext>e</mml:mtext> </mml:mrow> </mml:msub> </mml:mrow> <mml:mo stretchy="false">)</mml:mo> </mml:mrow> </mml:mrow> <mml:mo>=</mml:mo> <mml:mtext>Log</mml:mtext> <mml:mrow> <mml:mrow> <mml:mo stretchy="false">(</mml:mo> <mml:mrow> <mml:msub> <mml:mrow> <mml:mi>K</mml:mi> </mml:mrow> <mml:mrow> <mml:mtext>f</mml:mtext> </mml:mrow> </mml:msub> </mml:mrow> <mml:mo stretchy="false">)</mml:mo> </mml:mrow> </mml:mrow> <mml:mo>+</mml:mo> <mml:mfrac> <mml:mn>1</mml:mn> <mml:mrow> <mml:msub> <mml:mrow> <mml:mi>n</mml:mi> </mml:mrow> <mml:mrow> <mml:mtext>f</mml:mtext> </mml:mrow> </mml:msub> </mml:mrow> </mml:mfrac> <mml:mo>⋅</mml:mo> <mml:mtext>Log</mml:mtext> <mml:mrow> <mml:mrow> <mml:mo stretchy="false">(</mml:mo> <mml:mrow> <mml:msub> <mml:mrow> <mml:mi>C</mml:mi> </mml:mrow> <mml:mrow> <mml:mtext>e</mml:mtext> </mml:mrow> </mml:msub> </mml:mrow> <mml:mo stretchy="false">)</mml:mo> </mml:mrow> </mml:mrow> <mml:mo>,</mml:mo> </mml:math> </span> </div><p>where <span class="inline-formula"> <span class="alternatives"> <mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"> <mml:msub> <mml:mrow> <mml:mi>K</mml:mi> </mml:mrow> <mml:mrow> <mml:mtext>f</mml:mtext> </mml:mrow> </mml:msub> </mml:math> </span> </span> is the Freundlich constant and <span class="inline-formula"> <span class="alternatives"> <mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"> <mml:msub> <mml:mrow> <mml:mi>n</mml:mi> </mml:mrow> <mml:mrow> <mml:mtext>f</mml:mtext> </mml:mrow> </mml:msub> </mml:math> </span> </span> is the adsorption intensity.</p> </section> </section> </section> </section> <section id="j_chem-2024-0078_s_003"> <h2 class="subheading">3 Results and discussion</h2> <section id="j_chem-2024-0078_s_003_s_001"> <h3 class="subheading">3.1 Adsorbent characterization</h3> <section id="j_chem-2024-0078_s_003_s_001_s_001"> <h4 class="subheading">3.1.1 Preliminary analysis</h4> <p>The preliminary analysis results in <a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_tab_001" class="link link-table" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_tab_001">Table 1</a> show that AdsF and AdsT raw adsorbents have lower moisture, ash, and fixed carbon contents than CAF and CAT. However, the volatile matter content is lower for CAF and CAT. Alongamo et al. found that the peelings of “cassava tubers” produced distinct outcomes when it came to activated carbon.</p> <div class="table-wrap mb-4" id="j_chem-2024-0078_tab_001" position="float"> <div class="table-label h3">Table 1</div> <div class="caption mb-3"> <p>Results of preliminary analyses of AdsF, AdsT, CAF, and CAT</p> </div> <table xmlns:env="http://degruyter.com/resources/metadata" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:dgror="http://degruyter.com/resources/fetched-ror-id" xmlns:m="http://degruyter.com/resources/metadata" xmlns:ali="http://www.niso.org/schemas/ali/1.0/" xmlns:tei="http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0" frame="hsides" rules="groups" class="content-table"> <thead> <tr> <th style="text-align: left">Adsorbents</th> <th style="text-align: left">Moisture (%)</th> <th style="text-align: left">Volatile matter (%)</th> <th style="text-align: left">Ash (%)</th> <th style="text-align: left">Fixed carbon (%)</th> </tr> </thead> <tbody> <tr> <td style="text-align: left">AdsF</td> <td style="text-align: left">1.11</td> <td style="text-align: left">90.32</td> <td style="text-align: left">4.96</td> <td style="text-align: left">3.61</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left">AdsT</td> <td style="text-align: left">2.50</td> <td style="text-align: left">88.28</td> <td style="text-align: left">5.09</td> <td style="text-align: left">4.13</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left">CAF</td> <td style="text-align: left">1.50</td> <td style="text-align: left">23.67</td> <td style="text-align: left">10.69</td> <td style="text-align: left">64.14</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left">CAT</td> <td style="text-align: left">2.91</td> <td style="text-align: left">20.53</td> <td style="text-align: left">21.34</td> <td style="text-align: left"> 55.22</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left">Cassava tubers [<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_015" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_015" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[15] Alongamo BAA, Ajifack LD, Ghogomu JN, Nsami NJ, Ketcha JM. Activated carbon from the peelings of cassava tubers (Manihot esculenta) for the removal of nickel(II) ions from aqueous solution. J Chem. 2021;2021:1–14.10.1155/2021/5545110Search in Google Scholar">15</a>]</td> <td style="text-align: left">1</td> <td style="text-align: left">13</td> <td style="text-align: left">8</td> <td style="text-align: left">78</td> </tr> </tbody> </table> </div> </section> <section id="j_chem-2024-0078_s_003_s_001_s_002"> <h4 class="subheading">3.1.2 Quantification of surface oxygen groups using Boehm’s method and pH<sub>PZC</sub> </h4> <section id="j_chem-2024-0078_s_003_s_001_s_002_s_001"> <h5 class="subheading">3.1.2.1 Acid–base character: Boehm’s method</h5> <p>The results obtained from the acid–base analysis of the surface functions of the adsorbent show that the acid functions predominate, with CAF and CAT being more acidic. Similar results were obtained for activated carbon prepared from “coffee waste” (<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_tab_002" class="link link-table" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_tab_002">Table 2</a>).</p> <div class="table-wrap mb-4" id="j_chem-2024-0078_tab_002" position="float"> <div class="table-label h3">Table 2</div> <div class="caption mb-3"> <p>Surface oxygen group quantification using the Boehm method</p> </div> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups" class="content-table"> <thead> <tr> <th style="text-align: left">Adsorbents</th> <th style="text-align: left">AdsF</th> <th style="text-align: left">AdsT</th> <th style="text-align: left">CAF</th> <th style="text-align: left">CAT</th> <th style="text-align: left">Coffee waste [<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_023" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_023" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[23] Lafi R, Montasser I, Hafiane A. Adsorption of congo red dye from aqueous solutions by prepared activated carbon with oxygen-containing functional groups and its regeneration. Adsorpt Sci Technol. 2019;37:160–81.10.1177/0263617418819227Search in Google Scholar">23</a>]</th> </tr> </thead> <tbody> <tr> <td style="text-align: left">Total acidity (meq·g<sup>−1</sup>)</td> <td style="text-align: left">2.890</td> <td style="text-align: left">2.425</td> <td style="text-align: left">4.500</td> <td style="text-align: left">3.500</td> <td style="text-align: left">2.573</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left">Total basicity (meq·g<sup>−1</sup>)</td> <td style="text-align: left">1.635</td> <td style="text-align: left">1.585</td> <td style="text-align: left">2.075</td> <td style="text-align: left">2.400</td> <td style="text-align: left">2.015</td> </tr> </tbody> </table> </div> </section> <section id="j_chem-2024-0078_s_003_s_001_s_002_s_002"> <h5 class="subheading">3.1.2.2 pH<sub>PZC</sub> </h5> <p>The results of pH<sub>PZC</sub> in <a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_fig_001" class="link link-fig" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_fig_001">Figure 1</a> indicate that the pH<sub>PZC</sub> values obtained for AdsF and AdsT are 6.8 and 5.8, respectively. However, the pH<sub>PZC</sub> values for CAF and CAT are in the order of 4.9 and 6.2, respectively; this shows that all four adsorbents are acidic in character. When the pH falls below the pH<sub>PZC</sub> value, the adsorbent surface is positively charged; when the pH rises over the pH<sub>PZC</sub> value, it is negatively charged. The density of negatively charged ions on the adsorbent surface rises as the pH moves closer to pH<sub>PZC</sub>. These results concur with those of surface functional group quantification. Benadjemia et al. found similar outcomes with activated carbon made from artichoke leaves [<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_024" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_024" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[24] Benadjemia M, Millière L, Reinert L, Benderdouche N, Duclaux L. Preparation, characterization and Methylene Blue adsorption of phosphoric acid activated carbons from globe artichoke leaves. Fuel Process Technol. 2011;92:1203–12.10.1016/j.fuproc.2011.01.014Search in Google Scholar">24</a>].</p> <div class="figure-wrapper" id="j_chem-2024-0078_fig_001"><div class="figure w-100"><div class="graphic"><img loading="lazy" src="/document/doi/10.1515/chem-2024-0078/asset/graphic/j_chem-2024-0078_fig_001.jpg" alt="Figure 1 
 pHPZC of AdsF, AdsT, CAF, and CAT.
 "></img></div><div class="figure-description mb-3"><div class="figure-label h3"><span class="label">Figure 1</span></div><div class="figure-caption mb-2"><span class="caption"><p>pH<sub>PZC</sub> of AdsF, AdsT, CAF, and CAT.</p></span></div></div></div></div> </section> </section> <section id="j_chem-2024-0078_s_003_s_001_s_003"> <h4 class="subheading">3.1.3 Iodine and methylene blue indices</h4> <p>The iodine values obtained for AdsF, AdsT, CAF, and CAT are 437.40, 400.17, 500.34, and 504.91 mg/g, respectively. These values show that the developed adsorbents are microporous in nature according to ASTMD 2866-94 [<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_016" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_016" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[16] ElShafei GMS, ElSherbiny IMA, Darwish AS, Philip CA. Artichoke as a non-conventional precursor for activated carbon: Role of the activation process. J Taibah Univ Sci. 2017;11:677–88.10.1016/j.jtusci.2016.04.006Search in Google Scholar">16</a>]. The methylene blue indices of AdsF, AdsT, CAF, and CAT are of the order of 4.27, 3.09, 4.62, and 4.68 in mg/g, respectively. These show that these materials also have a mesoporous and macroporous nature [<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_017" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_017" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[17] Mamane OS, Zanguina A, Daou I, Natatou I. Préparation et caractérisation de charbons actifs à base de coques de noyaux de Balanites Eagyptiaca et de Zizyphus Mauritiana. la Société Ouest-Africaine Chim. 2016;41:59–67.Search in Google Scholar">17</a>].</p> </section> <section id="j_chem-2024-0078_s_003_s_001_s_004"> <h4 class="subheading">3.1.4 Physicochemical characterization</h4> <section id="j_chem-2024-0078_s_003_s_001_s_004_s_001"> <h5 class="subheading">3.1.4.1 SEM observation</h5> <p>SEM observation in <a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_fig_002" class="link link-fig" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_fig_002">Figure 2a and b</a> of non-activated adsorbents reveals a heterogeneous porous surface with pore diameters ranging from 0.8928 to 2.525 μm for AdsF and from 3.718 to 6.445 μm for AdsT. Chemical activation followed by calcination in <a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_fig_002" class="link link-fig" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_fig_002">Figure 2c and d</a> results in activated adsorbents with homogeneous pore structures and a rough surface texture, with diameters of 2.720–8.595 μm for CAF and 2.035–5.398 μm for CAT. This activation improves the surface texture of the raw adsorbents and develops active cavities. Artichoke leaves activated carbon illustrations display rather uneven surfaces with diameters ranging from 10 to 200 μm [<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_024" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_024" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[24] Benadjemia M, Millière L, Reinert L, Benderdouche N, Duclaux L. Preparation, characterization and Methylene Blue adsorption of phosphoric acid activated carbons from globe artichoke leaves. Fuel Process Technol. 2011;92:1203–12.10.1016/j.fuproc.2011.01.014Search in Google Scholar">24</a>].</p> <div class="figure-wrapper" id="j_chem-2024-0078_fig_002"><div class="figure w-100"><div class="graphic"><img loading="lazy" src="/document/doi/10.1515/chem-2024-0078/asset/graphic/j_chem-2024-0078_fig_002.jpg" alt="Figure 2 
 Surface morphology of AdsF (a), AdsT (b), CAF (c), and CAT (d).
 "></img></div><div class="figure-description mb-3"><div class="figure-label h3"><span class="label">Figure 2</span></div><div class="figure-caption mb-2"><span class="caption"><p>Surface morphology of AdsF (a), AdsT (b), CAF (c), and CAT (d).</p></span></div></div></div></div> <p>Qualitative analysis by surface electron scattering (EDX) (<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_tab_003" class="link link-table" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_tab_003">Table 3</a>) shows a dominance of carbon and oxygen in the adsorbents, justifying their organic character. The oxygen content falls and the carbon content rises in activated adsorbents compared with those in non-activated ones. These results show that CAF and CAT are essentially made up of carbon graphite. The activation of the H<sub>3</sub>PO<sub>4</sub> solution, which interacted with the acid functions of the adsorbent surface, is responsible for the significant amount of phosphorus present on the surface of CAF and CAT [<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_025" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_025" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[25] Boulika H, El Hajam M, Hajji Nabih M, Idrissi Kandri N, Zerouale A. Activated carbon from almond shells using an eco-compatible method: screening, optimization, characterization, and adsorption performance testing. RSC Adv. 2022;12:34393–403.10.1039/D2RA06220HSearch in Google Scholar
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 ">25</a>]. The outcomes for the activated carbon made from <em>Gundelia tournefortii</em> seeds show a carbon content of 37.35% and an oxygen content of 41.55%. These results differ from those reported by Mokhtaryan et al. [<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_026" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_026" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[26] Mokhtaryan S, Khodabakhshi A, Sadeghi R, Nourmoradi H, Shakeri K, Hemati S, et al. New activated carbon derived from Gundelia tournefortii seeds for effective removal of acetaminophen from aqueous solutions: Adsorption performance. Arab J Chem. 2023;16:105253.10.1016/j.arabjc.2023.105253Search in Google Scholar">26</a>].</p> <div class="table-wrap mb-4" id="j_chem-2024-0078_tab_003" position="float"> <div class="table-label h3">Table 3</div> <div class="caption mb-3"> <p>EDX microanalysis of the elements present in AdsF, AdsT, CAF, and CAT</p> </div> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups" class="content-table"> <thead> <tr> <th style="text-align: left" rowspan="2">Elements</th> <th style="text-align: center" colspan="4">Mass (%)</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="text-align: left">AdsF</th> <th style="text-align: left">AdsT</th> <th style="text-align: left">CAF</th> <th style="text-align: left">CAT</th> </tr> </thead> <tbody> <tr> <td style="text-align: left">C</td> <td style="text-align: center">59.10 ± 0.18</td> <td style="text-align: center">49.96 ± 0.16</td> <td style="text-align: center">80.03 ± 0.52</td> <td style="text-align: center">86.72 ± 0.18</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left">O</td> <td style="text-align: center">37.14 ± 0.41</td> <td style="text-align: center">47.18 ± 0.39</td> <td style="text-align: center">15.86 ± 0.71</td> <td style="text-align: center">11.85 ± 0.24</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left">Mg</td> <td style="text-align: center">0.28 ± 0.03</td> <td style="text-align: center">0.45 ± 0.04</td> <td style="text-align: center">00.00 ± 0.00</td> <td style="text-align: center">00.00 ± 0.00</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left">Ca</td> <td style="text-align: center">3.28 ± 0.11</td> <td style="text-align: center">2.41 ± 0.08</td> <td style="text-align: center">00.00 ± 0.00</td> <td style="text-align: center">00.00 ± 0.00</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left">P</td> <td style="text-align: center">0.21 ± 0.03</td> <td style="text-align: center">00.00 ± 0.00</td> <td style="text-align: center">2.78 ± 0.18</td> <td style="text-align: center">1.00 ± 0.04</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left">Si</td> <td style="text-align: center">00.00 ± 0.00</td> <td style="text-align: center">00.00 ± 0.00</td> <td style="text-align: center">1.34 ± 0.13</td> <td style="text-align: center">0.44 ± 0.03</td> </tr> </tbody> </table> </div> </section> <section id="j_chem-2024-0078_s_003_s_001_s_004_s_002"> <h5 class="subheading">3.1.4.2 X-ray diffraction (XRD)</h5> <p>The diffractograms of AdsF and CAF display similar peaks. <a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_fig_003" class="link link-fig" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_fig_003">Figure 3 shows</a> a large intense peak between 20 and 25° in 2<em>θ</em>, which is attributed to the (002) crystalline plane of amorphous carbon [<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_006" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_006" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[6] Hajji Nabih M, El Hajam M, Boulika H, Chiki Z, Ben Tahar S, Idrissi Kandri N, et al. Preparation and characterization of activated carbons from cardoon “Cynara Cardunculus” waste: Application to the adsorption of synthetic organic dyes. Mater Today Proc. 2023;72:3369–79.10.1016/j.matpr.2022.07.414Search in Google Scholar">6</a>]. There are two centered, less intense peaks at 31 and 49° in 2<em>θ</em>, corresponding, respectively, to the (040) and (102) planes of crystalline graphite. However for AdsF, there are peaks at 42, 44, and 45° in 2<em>θ</em> corresponding to the (101) plane of crystalline graphite [<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_025" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_025" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[25] Boulika H, El Hajam M, Hajji Nabih M, Idrissi Kandri N, Zerouale A. Activated carbon from almond shells using an eco-compatible method: screening, optimization, characterization, and adsorption performance testing. RSC Adv. 2022;12:34393–403.10.1039/D2RA06220HSearch in Google Scholar
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 ">25</a>]. The diffractograms of AdsT and CAT are almost similar in terms of peaks; they show two broad peaks between 10 and 15° and between 20 and 25° in 2<em>θ</em>; the latter are attributed to the (101) and (002) crystal planes, respectively, of amorphous carbon [<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_006" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_006" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[6] Hajji Nabih M, El Hajam M, Boulika H, Chiki Z, Ben Tahar S, Idrissi Kandri N, et al. Preparation and characterization of activated carbons from cardoon “Cynara Cardunculus” waste: Application to the adsorption of synthetic organic dyes. Mater Today Proc. 2023;72:3369–79.10.1016/j.matpr.2022.07.414Search in Google Scholar">6</a>] and another peak at 34° in 2<em>θ</em> corresponding to the (040) plane of crystalline graphite. These outcomes resemble those of activated carbon made from almond shells [<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_025" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_025" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[25] Boulika H, El Hajam M, Hajji Nabih M, Idrissi Kandri N, Zerouale A. Activated carbon from almond shells using an eco-compatible method: screening, optimization, characterization, and adsorption performance testing. RSC Adv. 2022;12:34393–403.10.1039/D2RA06220HSearch in Google Scholar
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 ">25</a>].</p> <div class="figure-wrapper" id="j_chem-2024-0078_fig_003"><div class="figure w-100"><div class="graphic"><img loading="lazy" src="/document/doi/10.1515/chem-2024-0078/asset/graphic/j_chem-2024-0078_fig_003.jpg" alt="Figure 3 
 Diffractograms of AdsF, AdsT, CAF, and CAT.
 "></img></div><div class="figure-description mb-3"><div class="figure-label h3"><span class="label">Figure 3</span></div><div class="figure-caption mb-2"><span class="caption"><p>Diffractograms of AdsF, AdsT, CAF, and CAT.</p></span></div></div></div></div> </section> <section id="j_chem-2024-0078_s_003_s_001_s_004_s_003"> <h5 class="subheading">3.1.4.3 Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy</h5> <p>IR spectroscopic analysis of AdsF, AdsT, CAF, and CAT in the 400–4,000 cm<sup>−1</sup> range enables the detection of adsorbent organic functional groups. In this way, analysis of the neat and activated adsorbent surfaces reveals the surface groups destroyed during activation. The IR absorption spectra of the prepared adsorbents in <a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_fig_004" class="link link-fig" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_fig_004">Figure 4</a> show a difference in the majority of absorption bands. The positions of the AdsF and AdsT absorption bands are similar but differ in intensity. They exhibit a broad absorption band with a center of 3,300 cm<sup>−1</sup>, which is indicative of the hydroxyl functional groups of the water of hydration’s O–H bond elongation. Absorption bands at 2,920 and 2,845 cm<sup>−1</sup> indicate aliphatic C–H stretching of lignin and hemicellulose [<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_027" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_027" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[27] Namasivayam C, Kavitha D. IR, XRD and SEM studies on the mechanism of adsorption of dyes and phenols by coir pith carbon from aqueous phase. Microchem J. 2006;82:43–8.10.1016/j.microc.2005.07.002Search in Google Scholar">27</a>]. Another absorption band at 1,730 cm<sup>−1</sup> is indicative of the xylan esters and/or carboxylic acids’ C═O valence vibration, which are found in lignin and hemicelluloses [<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_004" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_004" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[4] Hajji Nabih M, Boulika H, El Hajam M, Alghonaim MI, Idrissi Kandri N, Alsalamah SA, et al. Successive solvent extraction, characterization and antioxidant activities of cardoon waste (leaves and stems) extracts: comparative study. Molecules. 2023;28:1129.10.3390/molecules28031129Search in Google Scholar
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 ">4</a>]. The band centered at 1,629 cm<sup>−1</sup> is attributed to the presence of strongly conjugated C–O in a quinone/carbonyl structure [<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_027" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_027" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[27] Namasivayam C, Kavitha D. IR, XRD and SEM studies on the mechanism of adsorption of dyes and phenols by coir pith carbon from aqueous phase. Microchem J. 2006;82:43–8.10.1016/j.microc.2005.07.002Search in Google Scholar">27</a>]. Another band at 1,425 cm<sup>−1</sup> confirms the presence of the C–H bond. The existence of C–O and/or C–O–C bond stretching vibrations in acid groups is shown by the absorption band at 1,240 cm<sup>−1</sup> [<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_006" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_006" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[6] Hajji Nabih M, El Hajam M, Boulika H, Chiki Z, Ben Tahar S, Idrissi Kandri N, et al. Preparation and characterization of activated carbons from cardoon “Cynara Cardunculus” waste: Application to the adsorption of synthetic organic dyes. Mater Today Proc. 2023;72:3369–79.10.1016/j.matpr.2022.07.414Search in Google Scholar">6</a>]. Carboxylic acids show a broad band at 1,160 cm<sup>−1</sup> corresponding to the in-plane deformation of aliphatic C–O bonds [<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_025" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_025" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[25] Boulika H, El Hajam M, Hajji Nabih M, Idrissi Kandri N, Zerouale A. Activated carbon from almond shells using an eco-compatible method: screening, optimization, characterization, and adsorption performance testing. RSC Adv. 2022;12:34393–403.10.1039/D2RA06220HSearch in Google Scholar
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 ">25</a>]. The band characteristic of cellulose at 1,025 cm<sup>−1</sup> is more clear [<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_004" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_004" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[4] Hajji Nabih M, Boulika H, El Hajam M, Alghonaim MI, Idrissi Kandri N, Alsalamah SA, et al. Successive solvent extraction, characterization and antioxidant activities of cardoon waste (leaves and stems) extracts: comparative study. Molecules. 2023;28:1129.10.3390/molecules28031129Search in Google Scholar
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 ">4</a>]. The absorption spectra of CAF and CAT reveal that chemical/physical activation leads to the disappearance of the main absorption bands of carboxylic acids and xylan esters present in hemicelluloses and lignin, due to solubilization during activation. For CAF and CAT, a band centered at 1,580 cm<sup>−1</sup> is characteristic of P–O–C and P═OOH bonds [<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_025" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_025" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[25] Boulika H, El Hajam M, Hajji Nabih M, Idrissi Kandri N, Zerouale A. Activated carbon from almond shells using an eco-compatible method: screening, optimization, characterization, and adsorption performance testing. RSC Adv. 2022;12:34393–403.10.1039/D2RA06220HSearch in Google Scholar
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 ">25</a>]. A band at 1,180 cm<sup>−1</sup> representing in-plane deformation of aliphatic C–O bonds is identified with the remaining carboxylic acids [<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_025" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_025" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[25] Boulika H, El Hajam M, Hajji Nabih M, Idrissi Kandri N, Zerouale A. Activated carbon from almond shells using an eco-compatible method: screening, optimization, characterization, and adsorption performance testing. RSC Adv. 2022;12:34393–403.10.1039/D2RA06220HSearch in Google Scholar
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 ">25</a>]. The stretching of the P–OH bond is responsible for the absorption band observed at 1,065 cm<sup>−1</sup> in phosphonate groups [<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_025" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_025" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[25] Boulika H, El Hajam M, Hajji Nabih M, Idrissi Kandri N, Zerouale A. Activated carbon from almond shells using an eco-compatible method: screening, optimization, characterization, and adsorption performance testing. RSC Adv. 2022;12:34393–403.10.1039/D2RA06220HSearch in Google Scholar
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 ">25</a>]. Absorption bands at 900, 517, and 487 cm<sup>−1</sup> correspond to the aromatic rings. In accord with preliminary analyses indicating the acidic nature of the surface, the results demonstrate the presence of acidic functional groups on the adsorbent surface.</p> <div class="figure-wrapper" id="j_chem-2024-0078_fig_004"><div class="figure w-100"><div class="graphic"><img loading="lazy" src="/document/doi/10.1515/chem-2024-0078/asset/graphic/j_chem-2024-0078_fig_004.jpg" alt="Figure 4 
 FTIR spectra of AdsF, CAF, AdsT, and CAT.
 "></img></div><div class="figure-description mb-3"><div class="figure-label h3"><span class="label">Figure 4</span></div><div class="figure-caption mb-2"><span class="caption"><p>FTIR spectra of AdsF, CAF, AdsT, and CAT.</p></span></div></div></div></div> </section> <section id="j_chem-2024-0078_s_003_s_001_s_004_s_004"> <h5 class="subheading">3.1.4.4 ICP-AES</h5> <p>Elemental analysis results for AdsF, CAF, AdsT, and CAT reveal the presence of principal elements Ca, Mg, P, Fe, Al, and Na and traces of Sr, Zn, K, Mn, Cu, and Ba. Due to activation by H<sub>3</sub>PO<sub>4</sub>, residual phosphate is present in CAF and CAT, explaining their high phosphorus content (<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_tab_004" class="link link-table" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_tab_004">Table 4</a>).</p> <div class="table-wrap mb-4" id="j_chem-2024-0078_tab_004" position="float"> <div class="table-label h3">Table 4</div> <div class="caption mb-3"> <p>Elemental compositions of AdsF, AdsT, CAF, and CAT</p> </div> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups" class="content-table"> <thead> <tr> <th style="text-align: left">Elements (mg/g) </th> <th style="text-align: left">Ca</th> <th style="text-align: left">Mg</th> <th style="text-align: left">P</th> <th style="text-align: left">Fe</th> <th style="text-align: left">Al</th> <th style="text-align: left">Na</th> </tr> </thead> <tbody> <tr> <td style="text-align: left">AdsF</td> <td style="text-align: left">15.537</td> <td style="text-align: left">2.304</td> <td style="text-align: left">1.025</td> <td style="text-align: left">0.362</td> <td style="text-align: left">0.356</td> <td style="text-align: left">0.201</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left">CAF</td> <td style="text-align: left">20.904</td> <td style="text-align: left">7.927</td> <td style="text-align: left">5.464</td> <td style="text-align: left">0.553</td> <td style="text-align: left">0.783</td> <td style="text-align: left">1.497</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left">AdsT</td> <td style="text-align: left">21.738</td> <td style="text-align: left">3.348</td> <td style="text-align: left">0.521</td> <td style="text-align: left">0.206</td> <td style="text-align: left">0.313</td> <td style="text-align: left">0.818</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left">CAT</td> <td style="text-align: left">46.658</td> <td style="text-align: left">20.560</td> <td style="text-align: left">13.191</td> <td style="text-align: left">0.740</td> <td style="text-align: left">1.098</td> <td style="text-align: left">3.112</td> </tr> </tbody> </table> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups" class="content-table"> <thead> <tr> <th style="text-align: left">Elements (mg/g) </th> <th style="text-align: left">Sr</th> <th style="text-align: left">Zn</th> <th style="text-align: left">K</th> <th style="text-align: left">Mn</th> <th style="text-align: left">Cu</th> <th style="text-align: left">Ba</th> </tr> </thead> <tbody> <tr> <td style="text-align: left">AdsF</td> <td style="text-align: left">0.180</td> <td style="text-align: left">0.119</td> <td style="text-align: left">0.155</td> <td style="text-align: left">0.032</td> <td style="text-align: left">0.030</td> <td style="text-align: left">0.024</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left">CAF</td> <td style="text-align: left">0.043</td> <td style="text-align: left">0.026</td> <td style="text-align: left">0.309</td> <td style="text-align: left">0.000 </td> <td style="text-align: left">0.040</td> <td style="text-align: left">0.027</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left">AdsT</td> <td style="text-align: left">0.260</td> <td style="text-align: left">0.075</td> <td style="text-align: left">0.795</td> <td style="text-align: left">0.015</td> <td style="text-align: left">0.032</td> <td style="text-align: left">0.039</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left">CAT</td> <td style="text-align: left">0.115</td> <td style="text-align: left">0.064</td> <td style="text-align: left">0.717</td> <td style="text-align: left">0.000 </td> <td style="text-align: left">0.046</td> <td style="text-align: left">0.069</td> </tr> </tbody> </table> </div> </section> <section id="j_chem-2024-0078_s_003_s_001_s_004_s_005"> <h5 class="subheading">3.1.4.5 Thermogravimetric analysis</h5> <p>Thermograms of the neat and activated sheet adsorbents AdsF and CAF are shown in <a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_fig_005" class="link link-fig" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_fig_005">Figure 5</a> that demonstrate mass losses of 6.21 and 13.34%, respectively, at 90°C. These losses are caused by water vapor trapped in the pores of the processed adsorbents. AdsF and CAF show significant thermal stability between 125 and 180°C and 125 and 350°C, respectively, followed by a second, continuous, and significant mass loss of 88.24% in the range of 180–520°C for AdsF and 76.97% in the range of 350–850°C for CAF; the latter is due to the degradation of acid-function fragments bound to phosphates and polyphosphates.</p> <div class="figure-wrapper" id="j_chem-2024-0078_fig_005"><div class="figure w-100"><div class="graphic"><img loading="lazy" src="/document/doi/10.1515/chem-2024-0078/asset/graphic/j_chem-2024-0078_fig_005.jpg" alt="Figure 5 
 Thermograms (ATG) of AdsF and CAF.
 "></img></div><div class="figure-description mb-3"><div class="figure-label h3"><span class="label">Figure 5</span></div><div class="figure-caption mb-2"><span class="caption"><p>Thermograms (ATG) of AdsF and CAF.</p></span></div></div></div></div> <p>Thermograms in <a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_fig_006" class="link link-fig" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_fig_006">Figure 6</a> of AdsT and CAT raw and activated rod-based adsorbents show that at 90°C there are mass losses of 8.15 and 7.15%, respectively; then, thermal stability is observed between 120 and 180°C for AdsT and between 120 and 350°C for CAT, followed by a second, significant, and continuous mass loss of 81.24% in the 180–510°C range for AdsT and 80% in the 350–680°C range for CAT. In conclusion, activated adsorbents are more thermally stable than non-activated ones. According to a study by Benadjemia et al., there is a first more marked mass loss at 400°C, a second less severe and progressive mass loss in the 400–600°C zone, and a third mass loss in the 650–850°C region [<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_024" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_024" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[24] Benadjemia M, Millière L, Reinert L, Benderdouche N, Duclaux L. Preparation, characterization and Methylene Blue adsorption of phosphoric acid activated carbons from globe artichoke leaves. Fuel Process Technol. 2011;92:1203–12.10.1016/j.fuproc.2011.01.014Search in Google Scholar">24</a>].</p> <div class="figure-wrapper" id="j_chem-2024-0078_fig_006"><div class="figure w-100"><div class="graphic"><img loading="lazy" src="/document/doi/10.1515/chem-2024-0078/asset/graphic/j_chem-2024-0078_fig_006.jpg" alt="Figure 6 
 Thermograms (ATG) of AdsT and CAT.
 "></img></div><div class="figure-description mb-3"><div class="figure-label h3"><span class="label">Figure 6</span></div><div class="figure-caption mb-2"><span class="caption"><p>Thermograms (ATG) of AdsT and CAT.</p></span></div></div></div></div> </section> <section id="j_chem-2024-0078_s_003_s_001_s_004_s_006"> <h5 class="subheading">3.1.4.6 Adsorbent production yield</h5> <p>The influence of H<sub>3</sub>PO<sub>4</sub> treatment on the adsorbent yield was observed in the synthesis of adsorbents from neat and activated cardoon leaves and stems. Washing with distilled water gave yields of 56.56 and 51.42% for AdsF and AdsT, respectively, whereas with chemical activation followed by calcination, these yields increased to 60.00% for CAF and 83.71% for CAT. The influence of residual H<sub>3</sub>PO<sub>4</sub> in the pores of CAF and CAT, which functions as a flame retardant throughout the carbonization process and provides a high yield, can be used to explain these yield disparities [<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_028" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_028" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[28] Ji W, Wang D, Guo J, Fei B, Gu X, Li H, et al. The preparation of starch derivatives reacted with urea- phosphoric acid and effects on fire performance of expandable polystyrene foams. Carbohydr Polym. 2019;233:115841.10.1016/j.carbpol.2020.115841Search in Google Scholar
 PubMed
 ">28</a>]. The volatile content released by activated adsorbents depends not only on the carbonization temperature but also on the activation conditions [<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_024" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_024" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[24] Benadjemia M, Millière L, Reinert L, Benderdouche N, Duclaux L. Preparation, characterization and Methylene Blue adsorption of phosphoric acid activated carbons from globe artichoke leaves. Fuel Process Technol. 2011;92:1203–12.10.1016/j.fuproc.2011.01.014Search in Google Scholar">24</a>]. We also note that these yields vary between leaves and stems; indeed, we know from scanning electron microscopy that stems and leaves have different surface structures which influence their adsorbents’ yields. Activated carbons with phosphoric acid made from artichoke waste gave comparable results [<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_024" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_024" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[24] Benadjemia M, Millière L, Reinert L, Benderdouche N, Duclaux L. Preparation, characterization and Methylene Blue adsorption of phosphoric acid activated carbons from globe artichoke leaves. Fuel Process Technol. 2011;92:1203–12.10.1016/j.fuproc.2011.01.014Search in Google Scholar">24</a>].</p> </section> </section> </section> <section id="j_chem-2024-0078_s_003_s_002"> <h3 class="subheading">3.2 Factors influencing BG adsorption</h3> <section id="j_chem-2024-0078_s_003_s_002_s_001"> <h4 class="subheading">3.2.1 pH effect</h4> <p>Solutions of HCl and NaOH (0.1 M) were used to modify the pH values of the dye solutions between 3 and 10. Approximately 100 mg of adsorbent was dispersed in 25 ml of BG solution (80 ppm) for 30 min at 25°C, with gentle agitation. UV spectrophotometry was used to determine the dye concentration of the filtrate after filtration. <a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_fig_007" class="link link-fig" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_fig_007">Figure 7</a> shows that the adsorption rate of BG on AdsF was 91.25% at pH = 3, increasing to 98% at pH = 4, and remaining constant thereafter, while CAF reached a maximum and constant adsorption rate of 99% from pH = 3. For AdsT, the adsorption rate was 78.95% at pH = 3. It then increased with pH to reach 94.94%. For CAT, the adsorption percentage of BG was constant at 99% throughout the pH range studied. These results confirm that H<sup>+</sup> ions in an acidic environment reduce the contact between BG ions (cationic dye) and adsorbent sites. Conversely, at higher pH values, the H<sup>+</sup> concentration decreased, resulting in good interaction between dye ions and adsorbent surface sites. These results are almost identical to those obtained with cedar and mahogany sawdust-based adsorbents [<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_019" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_019" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[19] El Hajam M, Idrissi Kandri N, Harrach A, et al. Adsorptive removal of brilliant green dye from aqueous solutions using cedar and mahogany sawdusts. Sci Study Res Chem Chem Eng Biotechnol Food Ind. 2019;20:395–409.Search in Google Scholar">19</a>].</p> <div class="figure-wrapper" id="j_chem-2024-0078_fig_007"><div class="figure w-100"><div class="graphic"><img loading="lazy" src="/document/doi/10.1515/chem-2024-0078/asset/graphic/j_chem-2024-0078_fig_007.jpg" alt="Figure 7 
 Effect of pH on adsorption of BG on CAF, AdsF, CAT, and AdsT (C
 0 = 80 ppm, t = 30 min, m = 100 mg, V = 25 ml, and T = 25°C).
 "></img></div><div class="figure-description mb-3"><div class="figure-label h3"><span class="label">Figure 7</span></div><div class="figure-caption mb-2"><span class="caption"><p>Effect of pH on adsorption of BG on CAF, AdsF, CAT, and AdsT (<em>C</em> <sub>0</sub> = 80 ppm, <em>t</em> = 30 min, <em>m</em> = 100 mg, <em>V</em> = 25 ml, and <em>T</em> = 25°C).</p></span></div></div></div></div> </section> <section id="j_chem-2024-0078_s_003_s_002_s_002"> <h4 class="subheading">3.2.2 Contact time effect</h4> <p>Under stirring, 100 mg of sample was mixed with 25 ml of BG solution (80 ppm) for between 5 and 180 min. After filtration, the adsorption rate of BG increased within the first 15 min to 98.21% and remained stable for the next 165 min for AdsF, while for CAF the adsorption rate reached 97.5% within the first 5 min and remained almost constant. However, AdsT and CAT adsorption rates reached 95.47% during 20 min of contact and 99.30% during 5 min of contact, respectively (<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_fig_008" class="link link-fig" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_fig_008">Figure 8)</a>.</p> <div class="figure-wrapper" id="j_chem-2024-0078_fig_008"><div class="figure w-100"><div class="graphic"><img loading="lazy" src="/document/doi/10.1515/chem-2024-0078/asset/graphic/j_chem-2024-0078_fig_008.jpg" alt="Figure 8 
 Contact time effect of BG adsorption on CAF, AdsF, CAT, and AdsT (C
 0 = 80 ppm, m = 100 mg, V = 25 ml, and T = 25°C).
 "></img></div><div class="figure-description mb-3"><div class="figure-label h3"><span class="label">Figure 8</span></div><div class="figure-caption mb-2"><span class="caption"><p>Contact time effect of BG adsorption on CAF, AdsF, CAT, and AdsT (<em>C</em> <sub>0</sub> = 80 ppm, <em>m</em> = 100 mg, <em>V</em> = 25 ml, and <em>T</em> = 25°C).</p></span></div></div></div></div> </section> <section id="j_chem-2024-0078_s_003_s_002_s_003"> <h4 class="subheading">3.2.3 Initial concentration effect</h4> <p>For 30 min, 100 mg of adsorbent was dispersed in 25 ml of BG solution, with initial BG concentrations varying from 40 to 1,000 ppm. The adsorption rate of the dye on the four adsorbents decreased with increasing concentration, as shown in <a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_fig_009" class="link link-fig" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_fig_009">Figure 9</a>, due to saturation of active sites, thus with different kinetics. The AdsF adsorbent reached the first equilibrium at an initial concentration between 40 and 160 ppm with an average adsorption rate of 98.70%, the second equilibrium reached 92.72% in the 200–500 ppm range, and then the adsorption rate dropped to 74% with an initial concentration of 1,000 ppm. While CAF reached equilibrium at an initial concentration between 40 and 500 ppm with an average adsorption rate of 99.30%, it dropped to 97.26% for <em>C</em> <sub>0</sub> = 1,000 ppm. The AdsT curve shows an average adsorption rate of 98.30% at an initial concentration between 40 and 80 ppm, which then drops from 97.53 to 87% in the 120–1,000 ppm range. CAT reaches equilibrium at an initial concentration of between 40 and 500 ppm with an average adsorption rate of 99.32%, then increases to 97.9% at a concentration of 1,000 ppm. These results show that BG adsorption varies according to the colorant’s initial concentration.</p> <div class="figure-wrapper" id="j_chem-2024-0078_fig_009"><div class="figure w-100"><div class="graphic"><img loading="lazy" src="/document/doi/10.1515/chem-2024-0078/asset/graphic/j_chem-2024-0078_fig_009.jpg" alt="Figure 9 
 Initial concentration effect of BG adsorption on CAF, AdsF, CAT, and AdsT (t = 30 min, m = 100 mg, V = 25 ml, and T = 25°C).
 "></img></div><div class="figure-description mb-3"><div class="figure-label h3"><span class="label">Figure 9</span></div><div class="figure-caption mb-2"><span class="caption"><p>Initial concentration effect of BG adsorption on CAF, AdsF, CAT, and AdsT (<em>t</em> = 30 min, <em>m</em> = 100 mg, <em>V</em> = 25 ml, and <em>T</em> = 25°C).</p></span></div></div></div></div> </section> <section id="j_chem-2024-0078_s_003_s_002_s_004"> <h4 class="subheading">3.2.4 Adsorbent mass effect</h4> <p>A sample mass of 20–120 mg was distributed in 25 mL of BG solution with an 80 ppm concentration. The findings in <a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_fig_010" class="link link-fig" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_fig_010">Figure 10</a> demonstrate that the mass of the adsorbent and the adsorption rate are proportionate. The BG adsorption rate increases from 80% to 98% when the mass of CAF and AdsF used increases from 20 to 60 mg, but beyond this range the adsorption rate remains constant. The adsorption rate for CAT reaches its maximum value of 99% at 20 mg and for AdsT it reaches 95% at 100 mg, then stabilizes. This increase in the adsorption rate of BG can be explained by the increase in the specific surface area involved.</p> <div class="figure-wrapper" id="j_chem-2024-0078_fig_010"><div class="figure w-100"><div class="graphic"><img loading="lazy" src="/document/doi/10.1515/chem-2024-0078/asset/graphic/j_chem-2024-0078_fig_010.jpg" alt="Figure 10 
 Adsorbent mass effect of BG adsorption on CAF, AdsF, CAT, and AdsT (t = 30 min, C
 0 = 80 ppm, V = 25 ml, and T = 25°C).
 "></img></div><div class="figure-description mb-3"><div class="figure-label h3"><span class="label">Figure 10</span></div><div class="figure-caption mb-2"><span class="caption"><p>Adsorbent mass effect of BG adsorption on CAF, AdsF, CAT, and AdsT (<em>t</em> = 30 min, <em>C</em> <sub>0</sub> = 80 ppm, <em>V</em> = 25 ml, and <em>T</em> = 25°C).</p></span></div></div></div></div> </section> <section id="j_chem-2024-0078_s_003_s_002_s_005"> <h4 class="subheading">3.2.5 Ionic strength effect</h4> <p>For 30 min, 100 mg of sample was stirred in 25 ml of 80 ppm BG solution at NaCl concentrations ranging from 0.1 to 0.6 M in 0.1 M steps. The obtained results indicate that the adsorption rate of BG remains constant with increasing NaCl concentration. As there is no competition for surface adsorption of Cl<sup>−</sup> anions and BG cations in <a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_fig_011" class="link link-fig" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_fig_011">Figure 11</a>, it can be concluded that ionic strength has no influence on the adsorption capacity. These results are consistent with the findings of previous research [<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_006" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_006" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[6] Hajji Nabih M, El Hajam M, Boulika H, Chiki Z, Ben Tahar S, Idrissi Kandri N, et al. Preparation and characterization of activated carbons from cardoon “Cynara Cardunculus” waste: Application to the adsorption of synthetic organic dyes. Mater Today Proc. 2023;72:3369–79.10.1016/j.matpr.2022.07.414Search in Google Scholar">6</a>].</p> <div class="figure-wrapper" id="j_chem-2024-0078_fig_011"><div class="figure w-100"><div class="graphic"><img loading="lazy" src="/document/doi/10.1515/chem-2024-0078/asset/graphic/j_chem-2024-0078_fig_011.jpg" alt="Figure 11 
 Effect of medium salinity on the adsorption rate of BG on CAF, AdsF, CAT, and AdsT (m = 100 mg, t = 30 min, C
 0 = 80 ppm, V = 25 ml, and T = 25°C).
 "></img></div><div class="figure-description mb-3"><div class="figure-label h3"><span class="label">Figure 11</span></div><div class="figure-caption mb-2"><span class="caption"><p>Effect of medium salinity on the adsorption rate of BG on CAF, AdsF, CAT, and AdsT (<em>m</em> = 100 mg, <em>t</em> = 30 min, <em>C</em> <sub>0</sub> = 80 ppm, <em>V</em> = 25 ml, and <em>T</em> = 25°C).</p></span></div></div></div></div> </section> <section id="j_chem-2024-0078_s_003_s_002_s_006"> <h4 class="subheading">3.2.6 Temperature effect</h4> <p>Stirring for 30 min was used to disperse 100 mg of sample in 25 ml of a BG solution at a concentration of 80 ppm at temperatures ranging from 25 to 70°C. The results show that temperature has no significant effect on the adsorption rate (<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_fig_012" class="link link-fig" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_fig_012">Figure 12)</a>.</p> <div class="figure-wrapper" id="j_chem-2024-0078_fig_012"><div class="figure w-100"><div class="graphic"><img loading="lazy" src="/document/doi/10.1515/chem-2024-0078/asset/graphic/j_chem-2024-0078_fig_012.jpg" alt="Figure 12 
 Effect of temperature on adsorption of BG on CAF, AdsF, CAT, and AdsT (m = 100 mg, t = 30 min, C
 0 = 80 ppm, and V = 25 ml).
 "></img></div><div class="figure-description mb-3"><div class="figure-label h3"><span class="label">Figure 12</span></div><div class="figure-caption mb-2"><span class="caption"><p>Effect of temperature on adsorption of BG on CAF, AdsF, CAT, and AdsT (<em>m</em> = 100 mg, <em>t</em> = 30 min, <em>C</em> <sub>0</sub> = 80 ppm, and <em>V</em> = 25 ml).</p></span></div></div></div></div> </section> </section> <section id="j_chem-2024-0078_s_003_s_003"> <h3 class="subheading">3.3 Adsorption kinetics modeling</h3> <p>The obtained results for the kinetic modeling of the BG adsorption are shown in <a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_tab_005" class="link link-table" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_tab_005">Table 5</a>, where they show that the values of the <em>R</em> <sup>2</sup> correlation coefficient for the first-order model are far from 1, while they are quite close to unity for the second-order model. The quantities of dye adsorbed at equilibrium per gram of CAF, AdsF, CAT, and AdsT were calculated using the second-order model (<em>q</em> <sub>e</sub> cal); however, they are extremely similar to the experimental values (<em>q</em> <sub>e</sub> exp). This suggests that the second-order model describes the BG’s adsorption kinetics. These outcomes resemble those of El Hajam et al., who demonstrated that the PSO model describes the BG adsorption process on cedar and mahogany sawdust [<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_019" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_019" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[19] El Hajam M, Idrissi Kandri N, Harrach A, et al. Adsorptive removal of brilliant green dye from aqueous solutions using cedar and mahogany sawdusts. Sci Study Res Chem Chem Eng Biotechnol Food Ind. 2019;20:395–409.Search in Google Scholar">19</a>].</p> <div class="table-wrap mb-4" id="j_chem-2024-0078_tab_005" position="float"> <div class="table-label h3">Table 5</div> <div class="caption mb-3"> <p>Parameters of PFO and PSO BG adsorption kinetics on CAF, AdsF, CAT, and AdsT</p> </div> <table xmlns:env="http://degruyter.com/resources/metadata" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:dgror="http://degruyter.com/resources/fetched-ror-id" xmlns:m="http://degruyter.com/resources/metadata" xmlns:ali="http://www.niso.org/schemas/ali/1.0/" xmlns:tei="http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0" frame="hsides" rules="groups" class="content-table"> <thead> <tr> <th style="text-align: left" rowspan="2">Adsorbents</th> <th style="text-align: center" colspan="3">PFO</th> <th style="text-align: center" colspan="3">PSO</th> <th style="text-align: left" rowspan="2"> <em>q</em> <sub>e</sub> exp (mg/g)</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="text-align: left"> <em>K</em> <sub>1</sub> (min<sup>−1</sup>)</th> <th style="text-align: left"> <em>R</em> <sup>2</sup> </th> <th style="text-align: left"> <em>q</em> <sub>e</sub> (mg/g)</th> <th style="text-align: left"> <em>K</em> <sub>2</sub> (g·min<sup>−1</sup>·mg<sup>−1</sup>)</th> <th style="text-align: left"> <em>R</em> <sup>2</sup> </th> <th style="text-align: left"> <em>q</em> <sub>e</sub> cal (mg/g)</th> </tr> </thead> <tbody> <tr> <td style="text-align: left">CAF</td> <td style="text-align: left">0.0157</td> <td style="text-align: left">0.3247</td> <td style="text-align: left">0.50</td> <td style="text-align: left">0.0736</td> <td style="text-align: left">0.9999</td> <td style="text-align: left">19.96</td> <td style="text-align: left">19.92</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left">AdsF</td> <td style="text-align: left">0.0196</td> <td style="text-align: left">0.5878</td> <td style="text-align: left">0.28</td> <td style="text-align: left">0.2466</td> <td style="text-align: left">1.0000</td> <td style="text-align: left">19.84</td> <td style="text-align: left">19.84</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left">CAT</td> <td style="text-align: left">0.0096</td> <td style="text-align: left">0.4331</td> <td style="text-align: left">0.03</td> <td style="text-align: left">1.7928</td> <td style="text-align: left">1.0000</td> <td style="text-align: left">19.96</td> <td style="text-align: left">19.95</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left">AdsT</td> <td style="text-align: left">0.0177</td> <td style="text-align: left">0.5600</td> <td style="text-align: left">0.98</td> <td style="text-align: left">0.0538</td> <td style="text-align: left">0.9999</td> <td style="text-align: left">19.53</td> <td style="text-align: left">19.49</td> </tr> </tbody> </table> </div> </section> <section id="j_chem-2024-0078_s_003_s_004"> <h3 class="subheading">3.4 Adsorption isotherm modeling</h3> <p>The results from the Langmuir and Freundlich models are used to calculate the maximum adsorption capacity and the adsorption parameters (<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_tab_006" class="link link-table" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_tab_006">Table 6</a>). The regression coefficients show that the Langmuir isotherm best characterizes the BG adsorption mechanism on the four adsorbents, with linear regression coefficients <em>R</em> <sup>2</sup> on the order of 1. The results for cedar and mahogany sawdusts are comparable [<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_019" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_019" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[19] El Hajam M, Idrissi Kandri N, Harrach A, et al. Adsorptive removal of brilliant green dye from aqueous solutions using cedar and mahogany sawdusts. Sci Study Res Chem Chem Eng Biotechnol Food Ind. 2019;20:395–409.Search in Google Scholar">19</a>].</p> <div class="table-wrap mb-4" id="j_chem-2024-0078_tab_006" position="float"> <div class="table-label h3">Table 6</div> <div class="caption mb-3"> <p>BG adsorption parameters for CAF, AdsF, CAT, and AdsT using the Langmuir and Freundlich models</p> </div> <table xmlns:env="http://degruyter.com/resources/metadata" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:dgror="http://degruyter.com/resources/fetched-ror-id" xmlns:m="http://degruyter.com/resources/metadata" xmlns:ali="http://www.niso.org/schemas/ali/1.0/" xmlns:tei="http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0" frame="hsides" rules="groups" class="content-table"> <thead> <tr> <th style="text-align: left">Models</th> <th style="text-align: left">Adsorbents</th> <th style="text-align: left">CAF</th> <th style="text-align: left">AdsF</th> <th style="text-align: left">CAT</th> <th style="text-align: left">AdsT</th> </tr> </thead> <tbody> <tr> <td style="text-align: left" rowspan="3">Langmuir</td> <td style="text-align: left"> <em>R</em> <sup>2</sup> </td> <td style="text-align: left">0.9681</td> <td style="text-align: left">0.9503</td> <td style="text-align: left">0.9663</td> <td style="text-align: left">0.9638</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left"> <em>q</em> <sub>max</sub> </td> <td style="text-align: left">250.00</td> <td style="text-align: left">172.41</td> <td style="text-align: left">270.27</td> <td style="text-align: left">161.29</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left"> <em>K</em> <sub>L</sub> </td> <td style="text-align: left">0.3125</td> <td style="text-align: left">0.0544</td> <td style="text-align: left">0.3394</td> <td style="text-align: left">0.0752</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left" rowspan="3">Freundlich</td> <td style="text-align: left"> <em>R</em> <sup>2</sup> </td> <td style="text-align: left">0.7824</td> <td style="text-align: left">0.9041</td> <td style="text-align: left">0.8355</td> <td style="text-align: left">0.8513</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left"> <em>K</em> <sub>f</sub> </td> <td style="text-align: left">53.40</td> <td style="text-align: left">22.04</td> <td style="text-align: left">58.53</td> <td style="text-align: left">16.04</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left"> <em>n</em> <sub>f</sub> </td> <td style="text-align: left">2.09</td> <td style="text-align: left">2.62</td> <td style="text-align: left">1.89</td> <td style="text-align: left">1.84</td> </tr> </tbody> </table> </div> </section> <section id="j_chem-2024-0078_s_003_s_005"> <h3 class="subheading">3.5 Comparative study of different quantities of dyes adsorbed from BG dyes with different eco-friendly and non-eco-friendly adsorbents</h3> <p>In the present study, the amount of dye adsorbed by each adsorbent and the most effective adsorbent for dye removal were determined by examining the adsorption of the BG dye on different types of prepared, neat, or activated adsorbents under constant operating conditions (<em>C</em> <sub>0</sub> = 80 ppm, <em>m</em> = 100 mg, <em>V</em> = 25 ml, <em>T</em> = 25°C, and <em>t</em> = 120–180 min). As presented in <a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_tab_007" class="link link-table" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_tab_007">Table 7</a>, CAT showed the highest amount of adsorbed dye for BG dye removal, followed by CAF, AdsF, and AdsT. Different quantities of the adsorbed dye <em>q</em> <sub>e</sub> obtained for BG dye uptake by different adsorbents are greater than those obtained by different adsorbents presented in <a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_tab_007" class="link link-table" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_tab_007">Table 7</a> from previous studies. These results allow us to conclude that the adsorbents used in this study, whether raw or activated, perform better than the other eco-friendly or non-eco-friendly adsorbents presented in <a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_tab_007" class="link link-table" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_tab_007">Table 7</a>. For this reason, cardoon waste remains a perfect precursor for the preparation of ecological adsorbents which are more effective for the treatment of water contaminated by synthetic organic dyes. Cardoon is also used in other fields, for example, in the extraction of phenolic compounds [<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_002" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_002" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[2] Garcia-Castello EM, Moratalla M, Reig M, Iborra-Clar MI, Iborra-Clar A, Rodriguez-Lopez AD. Clarification of the cardoon (Cynara cardunculus) blanching wastewater by ultrafiltration – study of membrane fouling and flux recovery after chemical cleaning. Separations. 2023;10:418.10.3390/separations10070418Search in Google Scholar">2</a>].</p> <div class="table-wrap mb-4" id="j_chem-2024-0078_tab_007" position="float"> <div class="table-label h3">Table 7</div> <div class="caption mb-3"> <p>Comparison of different quantities of dye adsorbed reported by other researchers for BG dye removal with different eco-friendly and non-eco-friendly adsorbents</p> </div> <table xmlns:env="http://degruyter.com/resources/metadata" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:dgror="http://degruyter.com/resources/fetched-ror-id" xmlns:m="http://degruyter.com/resources/metadata" xmlns:ali="http://www.niso.org/schemas/ali/1.0/" xmlns:tei="http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0" frame="hsides" rules="groups" class="content-table"> <thead> <tr> <th style="text-align: left" colspan="3">Adsorbent</th> <th style="text-align: left">Quantity of dye adsorbed <em>q</em> <sub>e</sub> (mg/g)</th> <th style="text-align: left">Operating conditions</th> <th style="text-align: left">Reference</th> </tr> </thead> <tbody> <tr> <td style="text-align: left" rowspan="4">Non-eco-friendly adsorbents</td> <td style="text-align: left" colspan="2">Cu<sub>0.5</sub>Mn<sub>0.5</sub>Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>4</sub> nanospinels</td> <td style="text-align: left">0.8900</td> <td style="text-align: left">pH = 2, <em>C</em> <sub>0</sub> = 100 ppm, <em>t</em> = 120 min, <em>T</em> = 50°C</td> <td style="text-align: left">[<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_029" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_029" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[29] Hashemian S, Dehghanpor A, Moghahed M. Cu0. 5Mn0. 5Fe2O4 nano spinels as potential sorbent for adsorption of brilliant green. J Ind Eng Chem. 2015;24:308–14.10.1016/j.jiec.2014.10.001Search in Google Scholar">29</a>]</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left" colspan="2">Pristine MOF-5</td> <td style="text-align: left">6.2500</td> <td style="text-align: left"> <em>m</em> = 1.4 g, <em>C</em> <sub>0</sub> = 20 ppm, <em>t</em> = 2 h, <em>T</em> = 30 ◦C.</td> <td style="text-align: left">[<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_030" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_030" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[30] Dahlan I, Obi CC, Razaman NS, Hasan HYA. Adsorptive decolorization of brilliant green dye in aqueous media using various modified MOF-5 adsorbents. Groundw Sustain Dev. 2024;101228.10.1016/j.gsd.2024.101228Search in Google Scholar">30</a>]</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left" rowspan="2">Cellulose derivatives – CuFe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>4</sub>–zeolite</td> <td style="text-align: left">ZSM-5/CuF/CE</td> <td style="text-align: left">9.668</td> <td style="text-align: left" rowspan="2"> <em>T</em> = 20°C, <em>t</em> = 140 min, <em>V</em> = 25 ml, <em>m</em> = 10 mg, <em>C</em> <sub>0</sub> = 5 ppm</td> <td style="text-align: left" rowspan="2">[<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_031" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_031" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[31] Katowah DF, Alzahrani HK. A new ternary nanocomposites-based cellulose derivatives-CuFe2O4-zeolite with ultra-high adsorption capacity for Brilliant Green dye treatment and removal from the aquatic environment. J Saudi Chem Soc. 2023;27:101764.10.1016/j.jscs.2023.101764Search in Google Scholar">31</a>]</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left">ZSM-5/CuF/CEA</td> <td style="text-align: left">6.547</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left" rowspan="9">Eco-friendly adsorbents</td> <td style="text-align: left" colspan="2">CAF</td> <td style="text-align: left">19.9200</td> <td style="text-align: left"> <em>C</em> <sub>0</sub> = 80 ppm, <em>m</em> = 100 mg, <em>V</em> = 25 ml, <em>T</em> = 25°C, <em>t</em> = 180 min</td> <td style="text-align: left" rowspan="4">Present study</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left" colspan="2">AdsF</td> <td style="text-align: left">19.8400</td> <td style="text-align: left"> <em>C</em> <sub>0</sub> = 80 ppm, <em>m</em> = 100 mg, <em>V</em> = 25 ml, <em>T</em> = 25°C, <em>t</em> = 140 min</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left" colspan="2">CAT</td> <td style="text-align: left">19.9500</td> <td style="text-align: left"> <em>C</em> <sub>0</sub> = 80 ppm, <em>m</em> = 100 mg, <em>V</em> = 25 ml, <em>T</em> = 25°C, <em>t</em> = 180 min</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left" colspan="2">AdsT</td> <td style="text-align: left">19.4900</td> <td style="text-align: left"> <em>C</em> <sub>0</sub> = 80 ppm, <em>m</em> = 100 mg, <em>V</em> = 25 ml, <em>T</em> = 25°C, <em>t</em> = 120 min</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left" colspan="2">Salix alba leaves</td> <td style="text-align: left">15.8900</td> <td style="text-align: left">pH = 6, <em>m</em> = 0.15 g, <em>C</em> <sub>0</sub> = 50 ppm, <em>t</em> = 3.5 h, <em>T</em> = 298 K</td> <td style="text-align: left">[<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_032" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_032" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[32] Fiaz R, Hafeez M, Mahmood R. Removal of brilliant green (BG) from aqueous solution by using low cost biomass Salix alba leaves (SAL): thermodynamic and kinetic studies. J Water Reuse Desalin. 2020;10:70–81.10.2166/wrd.2020.054Search in Google Scholar">32</a>]</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left" colspan="2">Rambutan peels</td> <td style="text-align: left">9.6400</td> <td style="text-align: left"> <em>t</em> = 24 h</td> <td style="text-align: left">[<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_033" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_033" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[33] Nor NM, Hadibarata T, Yusop Z, Lazim ZM. Removal of brilliant green and procionred dyes from aqueous solutionby adsorption using selected agricultural wastes. J Teknologi. 2015;74:117–22.10.11113/jt.v74.4880Search in Google Scholar">33</a>]</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left" colspan="2">Tannin gel</td> <td style="text-align: left">8.5500</td> <td style="text-align: left">pH = 7</td> <td style="text-align: left">[<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_034" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_034" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[34] Akter N, Hossain MA, Hassan MJ, Amin MK, Elias M, Rahman MM, et al. Amine modified tannin gel for adsorptive removal of Brilliant Green dye. J Environ Chem Eng. 2016;4:1231–41.10.1016/j.jece.2016.01.013Search in Google Scholar">34</a>]</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left" colspan="2">Cedar</td> <td style="text-align: left">2.1523</td> <td style="text-align: left" rowspan="2"> <em>C</em> <sub>0</sub> = 50 ppm, agitation speed = 250 rpm, <em>T</em> = 25°C, pH = 6, <em>m</em> = 2 g, <em>t</em> = 250 min, 100 μm < <em>Φ</em> < 500 μm</td> <td style="text-align: left" rowspan="2">[<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_019" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_019" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[19] El Hajam M, Idrissi Kandri N, Harrach A, et al. Adsorptive removal of brilliant green dye from aqueous solutions using cedar and mahogany sawdusts. Sci Study Res Chem Chem Eng Biotechnol Food Ind. 2019;20:395–409.Search in Google Scholar">19</a>,<a href="#j_chem-2024-0078_ref_035" class="link link-bibr" data-bs-target="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_035" data-bs-toggle="tooltip" title="[35] El Hajam M, Idrissi Kandri N, Zerouale A. Batch adsorption of brilliant green dye on raw beech sawdust: equilibrium isotherms and kinetic studies. Moroccan J Chem. 2019;7:431–5.Search in Google Scholar">35</a>]</td> </tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left" colspan="2">Mahogany</td> <td style="text-align: left">2.0189</td> </tr> </tbody> </table> <div class="table-wrap-foot"> <p> <em>C</em> <sub>0</sub>: initial concentration of BG, <em>t</em>: contact time, <em>T</em>: temperature, pH: pH of the solution, <em>m</em>: mass, <em>V</em>: volume, and <em>Φ</em>: particle mesh size.</p> </div> </div> </section> </section> <section id="j_chem-2024-0078_s_004"> <h2 class="subheading">4 Conclusions</h2> <p>The properties of AdsF, AdsT, CAF, and CAT have been determined. Adsorption was examined in relation to the following variables: pH value (3–10), contact time (5–180 min), initial dye concentration (40–1,000 ppm), and adsorbent mass (20–120 mg) of CAF, AdsF, CAT, or AdsT. The influence of the temperature of the reaction medium (20–70°C) and salinity on the adsorption process was studied. The maximum adsorption rate of BG was achieved between pH = 3 and pH = 10 for CAF and CAT. However, AdsF and AdsT reached their maximum adsorption rate between pH = 4 and pH = 10. The adsorption rate increased with the increase in the adsorbent mass; CAT reached its maximum value of 99% at 20 mg and AdsT 95% at 100 mg, for CAF and AdsF, the adsorption rate of BG increased from 80 to 98% when their masses increased from 20 to 60 mg. The adsorption rate of BG increased within the first 15 min to 98.21% and remained stable for the next 165 min for AdsF, while for CAF the adsorption rate reached 97.5% within the first 5 min and remained almost constant. However, AdsT and CAT adsorption rates reached 95.47% during 20 min of contact and 99.30% during 5 min of contact, respectively. The optimum initial concentration of BG was 80 ppm. The ionic strength and temperature had no major influence on dye adsorption. For all four adsorbents, the Langmuir model was well suited, based on the results of adsorption modeling using Freundlich and Langmuir isotherms. The PSO model best describes the adsorption kinetics of BG on CAF, AdsF, CAT, or AdsT, according to the evaluation of the adsorption kinetics using the PFO and PSO models. These results allow us to conclude that cardoon leaves or stems are excellent adsorbents for the adsorption of synthetic dyes.</p> </section> </div><div class="contrib-group"></div><div class="back"> <div class="acknowledgements" id="j_chem-2024-0078_ack_001"> <h2 class="subheading">Acknowledgements</h2> <p>This project was supported by Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University Researchers Supporting Project number (PNURSP2024R221), Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.</p> </div> <ol class="footnote-group" id=""> <li class="footnote footnote-noLabel" id="j_chem-2024-0078_fn_001" fn-type="financial-disclosure"> <p> <strong>Funding information:</strong> This project was supported by Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University Researchers Supporting Project number (PNURSP2024R221), Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.</p> </li> <li class="footnote footnote-noLabel" id="j_chem-2024-0078_fn_002" fn-type="con"> <p> <strong>Author contributions:</strong> M.H.N.: methodology and writing – original draft; H.B. and M.E.H.: methodology; M.M.A. and M.E.H.: software and editing; F.B. and M.M.A.: funding acquisition and conceptualization; M.M.A., H.B., and F.B.: supervision and formal analysis. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.</p> </li> <li class="footnote footnote-noLabel" id="j_chem-2024-0078_fn_003" fn-type="conflict"> <p> <strong>Conflict of interest:</strong> The authors declare no conflicts of interest.</p> </li> <li class="footnote footnote-noLabel" id="j_chem-2024-0078_fn_004" fn-type="other"> <p> <strong>Data availability statement:</strong> All the data in the article are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. Samples of the compounds are not available from the authors at this time.</p> </li> </ol> <span class="ref-list"> <h2 class="subheading">References</h2> <p class="reference" id="j_chem-2024-0078_ref_001"><span class="reference-label d-inlineblock me-4">[1] </span><span class="reference-mixed-citation">Brás T, Paulino AFC, Neves LA, Crespo JG, Duarte MF. 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"Development and characterization of new ecological adsorbents based on cardoon wastes: Application to brilliant green adsorption" <i>Open Chemistry</i>, vol. 22, no. 1, 2024, pp. 20240078. <a href='https://doi.org/10.1515/chem-2024-0078'>https://doi.org/10.1515/chem-2024-0078</a></div> <div class="tab-pane fade " id="APA" role="tabpanel" aria-labelledby="APA-tab">Nabih, M., Boulika, H., El Hajam, M., Kandri, N., Alomran, M. & Boufahja, F. (2024). Development and characterization of new ecological adsorbents based on cardoon wastes: Application to brilliant green adsorption. <i>Open Chemistry</i>, <i>22</i>(1), 20240078. <a href='https://doi.org/10.1515/chem-2024-0078'>https://doi.org/10.1515/chem-2024-0078</a></div> <div class="tab-pane fade " id="Harvard" role="tabpanel" aria-labelledby="Harvard-tab">Nabih, M., Boulika, H., El Hajam, M., Kandri, N., Alomran, M. and Boufahja, F. (2024) Development and characterization of new ecological adsorbents based on cardoon wastes: Application to brilliant green adsorption. Open Chemistry, Vol. 22 (Issue 1), pp. 20240078. <a href='https://doi.org/10.1515/chem-2024-0078'>https://doi.org/10.1515/chem-2024-0078</a></div> <div class="tab-pane fade " id="Chicago" role="tabpanel" aria-labelledby="Chicago-tab">Nabih, Meryem Hajji, Boulika, Hamza, El Hajam, Maryam, Kandri, Noureddine Idrissi, Alomran, Maryam M. and Boufahja, Fehmi. "Development and characterization of new ecological adsorbents based on cardoon wastes: Application to brilliant green adsorption" <i>Open Chemistry</i> 22, no. 1 (2024): 20240078. <a href='https://doi.org/10.1515/chem-2024-0078'>https://doi.org/10.1515/chem-2024-0078</a></div> <div class="tab-pane fade " id="Vancouver" role="tabpanel" aria-labelledby="Vancouver-tab">Nabih M, Boulika H, El Hajam M, Kandri N, Alomran M, Boufahja F. 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Development and characterization of new ecological adsorbents based on cardoon wastes: Application to brilliant green adsorption