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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_antiquity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Ancient antiquity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_antiquity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classical_antiquity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classical_antiquity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Classical antiquity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classical_antiquity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Middle_Ages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Middle_Ages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Middle Ages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Middle_Ages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ottoman_Syria" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ottoman_Syria"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Ottoman Syria </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ottoman_Syria-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-French_Mandate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#French_Mandate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 French Mandate </div> </a> <ul id="toc-French_Mandate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Independent_Syrian_Republic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Independent_Syrian_Republic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6 Independent Syrian Republic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Independent_Syrian_Republic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_Arab_Republic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_Arab_Republic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7 United Arab Republic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_Arab_Republic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Land_reform" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Land_reform"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7.1 Land reform </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Land_reform-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ba'athist_Syria" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ba'athist_Syria"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.8 Ba'athist Syria </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ba'athist_Syria-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Involvement_of_Lebanese_war" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Involvement_of_Lebanese_war"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.8.1 Involvement of Lebanese war </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Involvement_of_Lebanese_war-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Syrian_Revolution_and_Civil_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Syrian_Revolution_and_Civil_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.8.2 Syrian Revolution and Civil War </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Syrian_Revolution_and_Civil_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rise_and_fall_of_Islamic_State,_intervention_of_foreign_countries_and_creation_of_several_rebel_factions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rise_and_fall_of_Islamic_State,_intervention_of_foreign_countries_and_creation_of_several_rebel_factions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.8.3 Rise and fall of Islamic State, intervention of foreign countries and creation of several rebel factions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rise_and_fall_of_Islamic_State,_intervention_of_foreign_countries_and_creation_of_several_rebel_factions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rebel_offensive_and_fall_of_the_Ba'athist_regime" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rebel_offensive_and_fall_of_the_Ba'athist_regime"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.8.4 Rebel offensive and fall of the Ba'athist regime </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rebel_offensive_and_fall_of_the_Ba'athist_regime-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transitional_Government_Syria:_Interim_Period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transitional_Government_Syria:_Interim_Period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.9 Transitional Government Syria: Interim Period </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transitional_Government_Syria:_Interim_Period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Geography </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Geography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Geography subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Geography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Biodiversity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biodiversity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Biodiversity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biodiversity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Government_and_politics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Government_and_politics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Government and politics </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Government_and_politics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Government and politics subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Government_and_politics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Post-Ba'athist_Syria" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-Ba'athist_Syria"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Post-Ba'athist Syria </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post-Ba'athist_Syria-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ba'athist_Syria_(1963–2024)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ba'athist_Syria_(1963–2024)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Ba'athist Syria (1963–2024) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ba'athist_Syria_(1963–2024)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Administrative_divisions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Administrative_divisions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Administrative divisions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Administrative_divisions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Autonomous_Administration_of_North_and_East_Syria" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Autonomous_Administration_of_North_and_East_Syria"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.1 Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Autonomous_Administration_of_North_and_East_Syria-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Foreign_relations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foreign_relations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Foreign relations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Foreign_relations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-International_disputes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#International_disputes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4.1 International disputes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-International_disputes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Military </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Human_rights" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_rights"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.6 Human rights </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Human_rights-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Economy </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Economy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Economy subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Economy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Energy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Energy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Energy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Energy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Agriculture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Agriculture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Agriculture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Agriculture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transport" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transport"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Transport </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transport-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Internet_and_telecommunications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Internet_and_telecommunications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Internet and telecommunications </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Internet_and_telecommunications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Water_supply_and_sanitation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Water_supply_and_sanitation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Water supply and sanitation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Water_supply_and_sanitation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Drug_industry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Drug_industry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6 Drug industry </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Drug_industry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Demographics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Demographics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Demographics </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Demographics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Demographics subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Demographics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Largest_cities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Largest_cities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Largest cities </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Largest_cities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethnic_groups" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethnic_groups"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Ethnic groups </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethnic_groups-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Languages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Religion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5 Education </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Health" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Health"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.6 Health </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Health-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Culture </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Culture subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Literature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Music" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Music"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Music </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Music-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Media" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Media"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Media </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Media-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cuisine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cuisine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Cuisine </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cuisine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Syria</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 259 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-259" aria-hidden="true" > 259 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ace mw-list-item"><a href="https://ace.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suriyah" title="Suriyah – Acehnese" lang="ace" hreflang="ace" data-title="Suriyah" data-language-autonym="Acèh" data-language-local-name="Acehnese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Acèh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbd mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Шам – Kabardian" lang="kbd" hreflang="kbd" data-title="Шам" data-language-autonym="Адыгэбзэ" data-language-local-name="Kabardian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Адыгэбзэ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ady mw-list-item"><a href="https://ady.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Сирие – Adyghe" lang="ady" hreflang="ady" data-title="Сирие" data-language-autonym="Адыгабзэ" data-language-local-name="Adyghe" class="interlanguage-link-target">Адыгабзэ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siri%C3%AB" title="Sirië – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Sirië" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrien" title="Syrien – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Syrien" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%B6%E1%88%AA%E1%8B%AB" title="ሶሪያ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ሶሪያ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-smn mw-list-item"><a href="https://smn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syyria" title="Syyria – Inari Sami" lang="smn" hreflang="smn" data-title="Syyria" data-language-autonym="Anarâškielâ" data-language-local-name="Inari Sami" class="interlanguage-link-target">Anarâškielâ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE" title="सीरिया – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="सीरिया" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target">अंगिका</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria" title="Syria – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Syria" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ænglisc</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ab mw-list-item"><a href="https://ab.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D1%8C%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%82%D3%99%D1%8B%D0%BB%D0%B0" title="Шьамтәыла – Abkhazian" lang="ab" hreflang="ab" data-title="Шьамтәыла" data-language-autonym="Аԥсшәа" data-language-local-name="Abkhazian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Аԥсшәа</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="سوريا – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="سوريا" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siria" title="Siria – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Siria" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arc mw-list-item"><a href="https://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%A3%DC%98%DC%AA%DC%9D%DC%90" title="ܣܘܪܝܐ – Aramaic" lang="arc" hreflang="arc" data-title="ܣܘܪܝܐ" data-language-autonym="ܐܪܡܝܐ" data-language-local-name="Aramaic" class="interlanguage-link-target">ܐܪܡܝܐ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8D%D5%B8%D6%82%D6%80%D5%AB%D5%A1" title="Սուրիա – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Սուրիա" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Արեւմտահայերէն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frp mw-list-item"><a href="https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siria" title="Siria – Arpitan" lang="frp" hreflang="frp" data-title="Siria" data-language-autonym="Arpetan" data-language-local-name="Arpitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Arpetan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9B%E0%A6%BF%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE" title="ছিৰিয়া – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="ছিৰিয়া" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siria" title="Siria – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Siria" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-awa mw-list-item"><a href="https://awa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE" title="सीरिया – Awadhi" lang="awa" hreflang="awa" data-title="सीरिया" data-language-autonym="अवधी" data-language-local-name="Awadhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">अवधी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%ADria" title="Síria – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Síria" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Шам – Avaric" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="Шам" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="Avaric" class="interlanguage-link-target">Авар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suriya" title="Suriya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Suriya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%87" title="سوریه – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="سوریه" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suriah" title="Suriah – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Suriah" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Bali</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bm mw-list-item"><a href="https://bm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suriya" title="Suriya – Bambara" lang="bm" hreflang="bm" data-title="Suriya" data-language-autonym="Bamanankan" data-language-local-name="Bambara" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bamanankan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE" title="সিরিয়া – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="সিরিয়া" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Su-l%C4%AB-a" title="Su-lī-a – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Su-lī-a" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D2%AF%D1%80%D0%B8%D3%99" title="Сүриә – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Сүриә" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%96%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Сірыя – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Сірыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%8B%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Сырыя – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Сырыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE" title="सीरिया – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="सीरिया" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirya" title="Sirya – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Sirya" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bi mw-list-item"><a href="https://bi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siria" title="Siria – Bislama" lang="bi" hreflang="bi" data-title="Siria" data-language-autonym="Bislama" data-language-local-name="Bislama" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bislama</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Сирия – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Сирия" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrien" title="Syrien – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Syrien" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%A6%E0%BD%B2%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BD%B2%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A1%E0%BC%8D" title="སི་རི་ཡ། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="སི་རི་ཡ།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target">བོད་ཡིག</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirija" title="Sirija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Sirija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siria" title="Siria – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Siria" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B8" title="Сири – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Сири" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%ADria" title="Síria – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Síria" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B8" title="Сири – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Сири" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siria" title="Siria – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Siria" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%BDrie" title="Sýrie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Sýrie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cbk-zam mw-list-item"><a href="https://cbk-zam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siria" title="Siria – Chavacano" lang="cbk" hreflang="cbk" data-title="Siria" data-language-autonym="Chavacano de Zamboanga" data-language-local-name="Chavacano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Chavacano de Zamboanga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria" title="Syria – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Syria" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target">ChiShona</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tum mw-list-item"><a href="https://tum.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria" title="Syria – Tumbuka" lang="tum" hreflang="tum" data-title="Syria" data-language-autonym="ChiTumbuka" data-language-local-name="Tumbuka" class="interlanguage-link-target">ChiTumbuka</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siria" title="Siria – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Siria" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="Corsican" class="interlanguage-link-target">Corsu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria" title="Syria – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Syria" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dag mw-list-item"><a href="https://dag.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria" title="Syria – Dagbani" lang="dag" hreflang="dag" data-title="Syria" data-language-autonym="Dagbanli" data-language-local-name="Dagbani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dagbanli</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrien" title="Syrien – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Syrien" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="سوريا – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="سوريا" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-se mw-list-item"><a href="https://se.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria" title="Syria – Northern Sami" lang="se" hreflang="se" data-title="Syria" data-language-autonym="Davvisámegiella" data-language-local-name="Northern Sami" class="interlanguage-link-target">Davvisámegiella</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrien" title="Syrien – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Syrien" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dv mw-list-item"><a href="https://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%90%DE%AB%DE%83%DE%A8%DE%94%DE%A7" title="ސޫރިޔާ – Divehi" lang="dv" hreflang="dv" data-title="ސޫރިޔާ" data-language-autonym="ދިވެހިބަސް" data-language-local-name="Divehi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ދިވެހިބަސް</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nv mw-list-item"><a href="https://nv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ha%CA%BCa%CA%BCaahj%C3%AD_%C3%81s%C3%A1%C3%AD_Dine%CA%BC%C3%A9_Bik%C3%A9yah" title="Haʼaʼaahjí Ásáí Dineʼé Bikéyah – Navajo" lang="nv" hreflang="nv" data-title="Haʼaʼaahjí Ásáí Dineʼé Bikéyah" data-language-autonym="Diné bizaad" data-language-local-name="Navajo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Diné bizaad</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://dsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syriska" title="Syriska – Lower Sorbian" lang="dsb" hreflang="dsb" data-title="Syriska" data-language-autonym="Dolnoserbski" data-language-local-name="Lower Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dolnoserbski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dty mw-list-item"><a href="https://dty.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE" title="सीरिया – Doteli" lang="dty" hreflang="dty" data-title="सीरिया" data-language-autonym="डोटेली" data-language-local-name="Doteli" class="interlanguage-link-target">डोटेली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%BC%C3%BCria" title="Süüria – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Süüria" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%85%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Συρία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Συρία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siria" title="Siria – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Siria" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirio" title="Sirio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Sirio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siria" title="Siria – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Siria" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target">Estremeñu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siria" title="Siria – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Siria" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ee mw-list-item"><a href="https://ee.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siria" title="Siria – Ewe" lang="ee" hreflang="ee" data-title="Siria" data-language-autonym="Eʋegbe" data-language-local-name="Ewe" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eʋegbe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%87" title="سوریه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="سوریه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria_(des)" title="Syria (des) – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Syria (des)" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%BDria" title="Sýria – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Sýria" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrie" title="Syrie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Syrie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrje" title="Syrje – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Syrje" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ff mw-list-item"><a href="https://ff.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suriya" title="Suriya – Fula" lang="ff" hreflang="ff" data-title="Suriya" data-language-autonym="Fulfulde" data-language-local-name="Fula" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fulfulde</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_tSiria" title="An tSiria – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="An tSiria" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yn_Teer" title="Yn Teer – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Yn Teer" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaelg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gag mw-list-item"><a href="https://gag.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siriya" title="Siriya – Gagauz" lang="gag" hreflang="gag" data-title="Siriya" data-language-autonym="Gagauz" data-language-local-name="Gagauz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gagauz</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siria" title="Siria – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Siria" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siria" title="Siria – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Siria" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ki mw-list-item"><a href="https://ki.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria" title="Syria – Kikuyu" lang="ki" hreflang="ki" data-title="Syria" data-language-autonym="Gĩkũyũ" data-language-local-name="Kikuyu" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gĩkũyũ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-glk mw-list-item"><a href="https://glk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%DB%8A%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%87" title="سۊريه – Gilaki" lang="glk" hreflang="glk" data-title="سۊريه" data-language-autonym="گیلکی" data-language-local-name="Gilaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">گیلکی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%B8%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%B0%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%AF%E0%AA%BE" title="સિરિયા – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="સિરિયા" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-got mw-list-item"><a href="https://got.wikipedia.org/wiki/%F0%90%8D%83%F0%90%8C%B0%F0%90%8C%BF%F0%90%8D%82%F0%90%8C%BE%F0%90%8C%B0" title="𐍃𐌰𐌿𐍂𐌾𐌰 – Gothic" lang="got" hreflang="got" data-title="𐍃𐌰𐌿𐍂𐌾𐌰" data-language-autonym="𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺" data-language-local-name="Gothic" class="interlanguage-link-target">𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gom mw-list-item"><a href="https://gom.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE" title="सीरिया – Goan Konkani" lang="gom" hreflang="gom" data-title="सीरिया" data-language-autonym="गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni" data-language-local-name="Goan Konkani" class="interlanguage-link-target">गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Si-li-%C3%A2" title="Si-li-â – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Si-li-â" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%8B%9C%EB%A6%AC%EC%95%84" title="시리아 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="시리아" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siriya" title="Siriya – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Siriya" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-haw mw-list-item"><a href="https://haw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suria" title="Suria – Hawaiian" lang="haw" hreflang="haw" data-title="Suria" data-language-autonym="Hawaiʻi" data-language-local-name="Hawaiian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hawaiʻi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8D%D5%AB%D6%80%D5%AB%D5%A1" title="Սիրիա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Սիրիա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE" title="सीरिया – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="सीरिया" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syriska" title="Syriska – Upper Sorbian" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Syriska" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="Upper Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hornjoserbsce</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirija" title="Sirija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Sirija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siria" title="Siria – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Siria" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siria" title="Siria – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Siria" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bpy mw-list-item"><a href="https://bpy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE" title="সিরিয়া – Bishnupriya" lang="bpy" hreflang="bpy" data-title="সিরিয়া" data-language-autonym="বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী" data-language-local-name="Bishnupriya" class="interlanguage-link-target">বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suriah" title="Suriah – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Suriah" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria" title="Syria – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Syria" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siria" title="Siria – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Siria" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingue</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B8" title="Сири – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Сири" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ирон</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%BDrland" title="Sýrland – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Sýrland" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siria" title="Siria – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Siria" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%94" title="סוריה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="סוריה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suriah" title="Suriah – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Suriah" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siirii" title="Siirii – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Siirii" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%BE" title="ಸಿರಿಯಾ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಸಿರಿಯಾ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam mw-list-item"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siria" title="Siria – Pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Siria" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="Pampanga" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kapampangan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="სირია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="სირია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%85_(%D9%85%D9%8F%D9%84%DA%A9)" title="شام (مُلک) – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="شام (مُلک)" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target">कॉशुर / کٲشُر</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-csb mw-list-item"><a href="https://csb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syr%C3%ABj%C3%B4" title="Syrëjô – Kashubian" lang="csb" hreflang="csb" data-title="Syrëjô" data-language-autonym="Kaszëbsczi" data-language-local-name="Kashubian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kaszëbsczi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Сирия – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Сирия" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syri" title="Syri – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Syri" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rw mw-list-item"><a href="https://rw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siriya" title="Siriya – Kinyarwanda" lang="rw" hreflang="rw" data-title="Siriya" data-language-autonym="Ikinyarwanda" data-language-local-name="Kinyarwanda" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ikinyarwanda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria" title="Syria – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Syria" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kv mw-list-item"><a href="https://kv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Сирия – Komi" lang="kv" hreflang="kv" data-title="Сирия" data-language-autonym="Коми" data-language-local-name="Komi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Коми</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria" title="Syria – Kongo" lang="kg" hreflang="kg" data-title="Syria" data-language-autonym="Kongo" data-language-local-name="Kongo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kongo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siri" title="Siri – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Siri" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siri" title="Siri – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Siri" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%BBr%C3%AE" title="Sûrî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Sûrî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Сирия – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Сирия" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siria" title="Siria – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Siria" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surya" title="Surya – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Surya" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladino</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria" title="Syria – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Syria" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C4%ABrija" title="Sīrija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Sīrija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrien" title="Syrien – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Syrien" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Сирия – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Сирия" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="Lezghian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Лезги</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirija" title="Sirija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Sirija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sciria" title="Sciria – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Sciria" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ligure</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syri%C3%AB" title="Syrië – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Syrië" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item"><a href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir%C3%AD" title="Sirí – Lingala" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" data-title="Sirí" data-language-autonym="Lingála" data-language-local-name="Lingala" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingála</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suria" title="Suria – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Suria" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-olo mw-list-item"><a href="https://olo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirii" title="Sirii – Livvi-Karelian" lang="olo" hreflang="olo" data-title="Sirii" data-language-autonym="Livvinkarjala" data-language-local-name="Livvi-Karelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Livvinkarjala</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/sixygu%27e" title="sixygu'e – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="sixygu'e" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="Lojban" class="interlanguage-link-target">La .lojban.</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siria" title="Siria – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Siria" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sz%C3%ADria" title="Szíria – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Szíria" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mad mw-list-item"><a href="https://mad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suriah" title="Suriah – Madurese" lang="mad" hreflang="mad" data-title="Suriah" data-language-autonym="Madhurâ" data-language-local-name="Madurese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Madhurâ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE" title="सीरिया – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="सीरिया" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target">मैथिली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Сирија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Сирија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siria" title="Siria – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Siria" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B1%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AF" title="സിറിയ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="സിറിയ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirja" title="Sirja – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Sirja" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mi mw-list-item"><a href="https://mi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiria" title="Hiria – Māori" lang="mi" hreflang="mi" data-title="Hiria" data-language-autonym="Māori" data-language-local-name="Māori" class="interlanguage-link-target">Māori</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE" title="सीरिया – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="सीरिया" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="სირია – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="სირია" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="سوريا – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="سوريا" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%87" title="سوریه – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="سوریه" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria" title="Syria – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Syria" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mni mw-list-item"><a href="https://mni.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%AF%81%EA%AF%A4%EA%AF%94%EA%AF%A4%EA%AF%8C%EA%AF%A5" title="ꯁꯤꯔꯤꯌꯥ – Manipuri" lang="mni" hreflang="mni" data-title="ꯁꯤꯔꯤꯌꯥ" data-language-autonym="ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-local-name="Manipuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suriah" title="Suriah – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Suriah" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target">Minangkabau</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%AA%CC%A4%E1%B9%B3-l%C3%A9-%C4%81" title="Sê̤ṳ-lé-ā – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Sê̤ṳ-lé-ā" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%ADria" title="Síria – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Síria" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mdf mw-list-item"><a href="https://mdf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Сирия – Moksha" lang="mdf" hreflang="mdf" data-title="Сирия" data-language-autonym="Мокшень" data-language-local-name="Moksha" class="interlanguage-link-target">Мокшень</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B8" title="Сири – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Сири" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%86%E1%80%AE%E1%80%B8%E1%80%9B%E1%80%AE%E1%80%B8%E1%80%9A%E1%80%AC%E1%80%B8%E1%80%94%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%84%E1%80%B6" title="ဆီးရီးယားနိုင်ငံ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဆီးရီးယားနိုင်ငံ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syri%C3%AB" title="Syrië – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Syrië" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syri%C3%AB" title="Syrië – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Syrië" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nedersaksies</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE" title="सिरिया – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="सिरिया" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE" title="सिरिया – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="सिरिया" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B7%E3%83%AA%E3%82%A2" title="シリア – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="シリア" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B8" title="Сири – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Сири" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrien" title="Syrien – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Syrien" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria" title="Syria – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Syria" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria" title="Syria – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Syria" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siria" title="Siria – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Siria" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target">Novial</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siria" title="Siria – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Siria" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Сирий – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Сирий" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target">Олык марий</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%B8%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%B0%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%86" title="ସିରିଆ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ସିରିଆ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target">ଓଡ଼ିଆ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siiriyaa" title="Siiriyaa – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Siiriyaa" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oromoo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suriya" title="Suriya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Suriya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B8%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%86" title="ਸੀਰੀਆ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਸੀਰੀਆ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pi mw-list-item"><a href="https://pi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE" title="सिरिया – Pali" lang="pi" hreflang="pi" data-title="सिरिया" data-language-autonym="पालि" data-language-local-name="Pali" class="interlanguage-link-target">पालि</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ami mw-list-item"><a href="https://ami.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria" title="Syria – Amis" lang="ami" hreflang="ami" data-title="Syria" data-language-autonym="Pangcah" data-language-local-name="Amis" class="interlanguage-link-target">Pangcah</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%85" title="شام – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="شام" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siria" title="Siria – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Siria" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target">Papiamentu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%87" title="سوريه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="سوريه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siria" title="Siria – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Siria" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%8A%E1%9E%B8%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%B8" title="ស៊ីរី – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="ស៊ីរី" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirie" title="Sirie – Picard" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd" data-title="Sirie" data-language-autonym="Picard" data-language-local-name="Picard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Picard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siria" title="Siria – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Siria" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tpi mw-list-item"><a href="https://tpi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria" title="Syria – Tok Pisin" lang="tpi" hreflang="tpi" data-title="Syria" data-language-autonym="Tok Pisin" data-language-local-name="Tok Pisin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tok Pisin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrien" title="Syrien – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Syrien" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria" title="Syria – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Syria" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%85%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Συρία – Pontic" lang="pnt" hreflang="pnt" data-title="Συρία" data-language-autonym="Ποντιακά" data-language-local-name="Pontic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ποντιακά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%ADria" title="Síria – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Síria" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siriya" title="Siriya – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Siriya" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qaraqalpaqsha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suriye" title="Suriye – Crimean Tatar" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="Suriye" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="Crimean Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qırımtatarca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siria" title="Siria – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Siria" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirya" title="Sirya – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Sirya" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Сирия – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Сирия" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Сирия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Сирия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Сирия – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Сирия" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szy mw-list-item"><a href="https://szy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria" title="Syria – Sakizaya" lang="szy" hreflang="szy" data-title="Syria" data-language-autonym="Sakizaya" data-language-local-name="Sakizaya" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sakizaya</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sm mw-list-item"><a href="https://sm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suria" title="Suria – Samoan" lang="sm" hreflang="sm" data-title="Suria" data-language-autonym="Gagana Samoa" data-language-local-name="Samoan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gagana Samoa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE" title="सिरिया – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="सिरिया" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%A5%E1%B1%A4%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%A4%E1%B1%AD%E1%B1%9F" title="ᱥᱤᱨᱤᱭᱟ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱥᱤᱨᱤᱭᱟ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%ACria" title="Sìria – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Sìria" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrie" title="Syrie – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Syrie" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-trv mw-list-item"><a href="https://trv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria" title="Syria – Taroko" lang="trv" hreflang="trv" data-title="Syria" data-language-autonym="Seediq" data-language-local-name="Taroko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Seediq</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siria" title="Siria – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Siria" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siria" title="Siria – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Siria" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80" title="සිරියාව – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="සිරියාව" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria" title="Syria – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Syria" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%85" title="شام – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="شام" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ss mw-list-item"><a href="https://ss.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISiriya" title="ISiriya – Swati" lang="ss" hreflang="ss" data-title="ISiriya" data-language-autonym="SiSwati" data-language-local-name="Swati" class="interlanguage-link-target">SiSwati</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%BDria" title="Sýria – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Sýria" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirija" title="Sirija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Sirija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cu mw-list-item"><a href="https://cu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%B7%D1%80%D1%97%EA%99%97" title="Сѷрїꙗ – Church Slavic" lang="cu" hreflang="cu" data-title="Сѷрїꙗ" data-language-autonym="Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ" data-language-local-name="Church Slavic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl mw-list-item"><a href="https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syryjo" title="Syryjo – Silesian" lang="szl" hreflang="szl" data-title="Syryjo" data-language-autonym="Ślůnski" data-language-local-name="Silesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ślůnski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suuriya" title="Suuriya – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Suuriya" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="سووریا – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="سووریا" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-srn mw-list-item"><a href="https://srn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syirikondre" title="Syirikondre – Sranan Tongo" lang="srn" hreflang="srn" data-title="Syirikondre" data-language-autonym="Sranantongo" data-language-local-name="Sranan Tongo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sranantongo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Сирија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Сирија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirija" title="Sirija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Sirija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suriah" title="Suriah – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Suriah" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syyria" title="Syyria – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Syyria" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrien" title="Syrien – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Syrien" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siria" title="Siria – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Siria" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BE" title="சிரியா – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="சிரியா" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surya" title="Surya – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Surya" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D2%AF%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Сүрия – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Сүрия" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shn mw-list-item"><a href="https://shn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%99%E1%80%AD%E1%80%B0%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%9E%E1%80%AE%E1%80%B8%E1%80%9B%E1%80%AE%E1%80%B8%E1%80%9A%E1%82%83%E1%80%B8" title="မိူင်းသီးရီးယႃး – Shan" lang="shn" hreflang="shn" data-title="မိူင်းသီးရီးယႃး" data-language-autonym="တႆး" data-language-local-name="Shan" class="interlanguage-link-target">တႆး</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tay mw-list-item"><a href="https://tay.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria" title="Syria – Atayal" lang="tay" hreflang="tay" data-title="Syria" data-language-autonym="Tayal" data-language-local-name="Atayal" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tayal</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B8%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%BE" title="సిరియా – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="సిరియా" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tet mw-list-item"><a href="https://tet.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%ADria" title="Síria – Tetum" lang="tet" hreflang="tet" data-title="Síria" data-language-autonym="Tetun" data-language-local-name="Tetum" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tetun</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%8B%E0%B8%B5%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2" title="ประเทศซีเรีย – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ประเทศซีเรีย" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ti mw-list-item"><a href="https://ti.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%B1%E1%88%AD%E1%8B%AB" title="ሱርያ – Tigrinya" lang="ti" hreflang="ti" data-title="ሱርያ" data-language-autonym="ትግርኛ" data-language-local-name="Tigrinya" class="interlanguage-link-target">ትግርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Сурия – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Сурия" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-to mw-list-item"><a href="https://to.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silia" title="Silia – Tongan" lang="to" hreflang="to" data-title="Silia" data-language-autonym="Lea faka-Tonga" data-language-local-name="Tongan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lea faka-Tonga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suriye" title="Suriye – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Suriye" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siri%C3%BDa" title="Siriýa – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Siriýa" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkmençe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tw mw-list-item"><a href="https://tw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria" title="Syria – Twi" lang="tw" hreflang="tw" data-title="Syria" data-language-autonym="Twi" data-language-local-name="Twi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Twi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kcg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kcg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suriya" title="Suriya – Tyap" lang="kcg" hreflang="kcg" data-title="Suriya" data-language-autonym="Tyap" data-language-local-name="Tyap" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tyap</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-udm mw-list-item"><a href="https://udm.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Сирия – Udmurt" lang="udm" hreflang="udm" data-title="Сирия" data-language-autonym="Удмурт" data-language-local-name="Udmurt" class="interlanguage-link-target">Удмурт</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bug mw-list-item"><a href="https://bug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%A8%94%E1%A8%98%E1%A8%91%E1%A8%97%E1%A8%90" title="ᨔᨘᨑᨗᨐ – Buginese" lang="bug" hreflang="bug" data-title="ᨔᨘᨑᨗᨐ" data-language-autonym="Basa Ugi" data-language-local-name="Buginese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Ugi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Сирія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Сирія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C%DB%81" title="سوریہ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="سوریہ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%DB%87%D8%B1%D9%89%D9%8A%DB%95" title="سۇرىيە – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="سۇرىيە" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target">ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siliya" title="Siliya – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Siliya" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vahcuengh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%ACria" title="Sìria – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Sìria" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirii" title="Sirii – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Sirii" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vepsän kel’</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria" title="Syria – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Syria" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo mw-list-item"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%BCriy%C3%A4n" title="Süriyän – Volapük" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Süriyän" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="Volapük" class="interlanguage-link-target">Volapük</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%BC%C3%BCri%C3%A4" title="Süüriä – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Süüriä" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sireye" title="Sireye – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Sireye" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Walon</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%95%98%E5%88%A9%E4%BA%9E" title="敘利亞 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="敘利亞" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls mw-list-item"><a href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syri%C3%AB" title="Syrië – West Flemish" lang="vls" hreflang="vls" data-title="Syrië" data-language-autonym="West-Vlams" data-language-local-name="West Flemish" class="interlanguage-link-target">West-Vlams</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirya" title="Sirya – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Sirya" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wo mw-list-item"><a href="https://wo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siri" title="Siri – Wolof" lang="wo" hreflang="wo" data-title="Siri" data-language-autonym="Wolof" data-language-local-name="Wolof" class="interlanguage-link-target">Wolof</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%99%E5%88%A9%E4%BA%9A" title="叙利亚 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="叙利亚" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ts mw-list-item"><a href="https://ts.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria" title="Syria – Tsonga" lang="ts" hreflang="ts" data-title="Syria" data-language-autonym="Xitsonga" data-language-local-name="Tsonga" class="interlanguage-link-target">Xitsonga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%A2" title="סיריע – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="סיריע" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%ADr%C3%AD%C3%A0" title="Síríà – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Síríà" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target">Yorùbá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%95%98%E5%88%A9%E4%BA%9E" title="敘利亞 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="敘利亞" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suriya" title="Suriya – Dimli" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Suriya" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Dimli" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zea mw-list-item"><a href="https://zea.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syri%C3%AB" title="Syrië – Zeelandic" lang="zea" hreflang="zea" data-title="Syrië" data-language-autonym="Zeêuws" data-language-local-name="Zeelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zeêuws</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C4%97r%C4%97j%C4%97" title="Sėrėjė – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Sėrėjė" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%99%E5%88%A9%E4%BA%9A" title="叙利亚 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="叙利亚" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bew mw-list-item"><a href="https://bew.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suriah" title="Suriah – Betawi" lang="bew" hreflang="bew" data-title="Suriah" data-language-autonym="Betawi" data-language-local-name="Betawi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Betawi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dtp mw-list-item"><a href="https://dtp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria" title="Syria – Central Dusun" lang="dtp" hreflang="dtp" data-title="Syria" data-language-autonym="Kadazandusun" data-language-local-name="Central Dusun" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kadazandusun</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-iba mw-list-item"><a href="https://iba.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siria" title="Siria – Iban" lang="iba" hreflang="iba" data-title="Siria" data-language-autonym="Jaku Iban" data-language-local-name="Iban" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jaku Iban</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kge mw-list-item"><a href="https://kge.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suriyah" title="Suriyah – Komering" lang="kge" hreflang="kge" data-title="Suriyah" data-language-autonym="Kumoring" data-language-local-name="Komering" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kumoring</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-syl mw-list-item"><a href="https://syl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%A0%8D%EA%A0%A4%EA%A0%9E%EA%A0%A4%EA%A0%80" title="ꠍꠤꠞꠤꠀ – Sylheti" lang="syl" hreflang="syl" data-title="ꠍꠤꠞꠤꠀ" data-language-autonym="ꠍꠤꠟꠐꠤ" data-language-local-name="Sylheti" class="interlanguage-link-target">ꠍꠤꠟꠐꠤ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tdd mw-list-item"><a href="https://tdd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%A5%9B%E1%A5%AB%E1%A5%92%E1%A5%B0_%E1%A5%94%E1%A5%A4%E1%A5%B0_%E1%A5%98%E1%A5%A4%E1%A5%B0_%E1%A5%95%E1%A5%A3%E1%A5%B0" title="ᥛᥫᥒᥰ ᥔᥤᥰ ᥘᥤᥰ ᥕᥣᥰ – Tai Nuea" lang="tdd" hreflang="tdd" data-title="ᥛᥫᥒᥰ ᥔᥤᥰ ᥘᥤᥰ ᥕᥣᥰ" data-language-autonym="ᥖᥭᥰ ᥖᥬᥲ ᥑᥨᥒᥰ" data-language-local-name="Tai Nuea" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᥖᥭᥰ ᥖᥬᥲ ᥑᥨᥒᥰ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tly mw-list-item"><a href="https://tly.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surij%C9%99" title="Surijə – Talysh" lang="tly" hreflang="tly" data-title="Surijə" data-language-autonym="Tolışi" data-language-local-name="Talysh" 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class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Syria_-_%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7" hreflang="en">Wikimedia Commons</a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibooks mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Pinyin/Syria" hreflang="en">Wikibooks</a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikinews mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Category:Syria" hreflang="en">Wikinews</a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikiquote mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Syria" hreflang="en">Wikiquote</a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikivoyage mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Syria" hreflang="en">Wikivoyage</a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q858" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g">Wikidata item</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" 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.geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Syria&params=35_N_38_E_">35°N 38°E / 35°N 38°E / 35; 38</a></div></div> <div id="mw-indicator-pp-default" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#extended" title="This article is extended-confirmed-protected."><img alt="Page extended-confirmed-protected" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8c/Extended-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Extended-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8c/Extended-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Extended-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Country in West Asia</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Syrian Arab Republic" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Republic" title="Syrian Republic">Syrian Republic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Syria_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Syria (disambiguation)">Syria (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output 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.mergedtoprow .infobox-below{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-full-data{border:0;padding:0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-full-data{border-top:0;border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-header{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-above{font-size:125%;line-height:1.2}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-names{padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-name-style{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-image{padding:0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-anthem{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding-top:0.5em;margin-top:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-largest,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-lang{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-ethnic,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-religion,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-sovereignty{font-weight:normal;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li{text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li2{text-indent:0.5em;margin-left:1em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-website{line-height:11pt}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption3{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn{text-align:left;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-num{margin-left:1em}</style><table class="infobox ib-country vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr"><div class="fn org country-name">Syrian Arab Republic</div><div class="ib-country-names">اَلْجُمْهُورِيَّةُ ٱلْعَرَبِيَّةُ ٱلْسُوْرِيَّة (<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>) al-Jumhūriyyah al-ʿArabiyyah as-Sūriyyah</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div class="noresize" style="display:table; width:100%;"> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding-left:5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Syrian_revolution.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Flag of Syria"><img alt="Flag of Syria" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Flag_of_the_Syrian_revolution.svg/250px-Flag_of_the_Syrian_revolution.svg.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="83" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></div> <div><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Syria" title="Flag of Syria">Flag</a></div> </div> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding: 0px 5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_arms_of_Syria.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Coat_of_arms_of_Syria.svg/120px-Coat_of_arms_of_Syria.svg.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="86" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Coat_of_arms_of_Syria.svg/250px-Coat_of_arms_of_Syria.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="491" /></a></div> <div><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Syria" title="Coat of arms of Syria">Coat of arms</a><a href="#cite_note-1">[a]</a></div> </div> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data anthem">Anthem: فِي سَبِيلِ المَجد Fī Sabīli al-Majd "<a href="/wiki/F%C4%AB_Sab%C4%ABli_al-Majd" title="Fī Sabīli al-Majd">In Pursuit of Glory</a>" (de facto)<a href="#cite_note-2">[1]</a> حُمَاةَ الدَّيَّارِ Ḥumāt ad-Diyār "<a href="/wiki/Guardians_of_the_Homeland" class="mw-redirect" title="Guardians of the Homeland">Guardians of the Homeland</a>" (de jure)<a href="#cite_note-3">[b]</a><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" style="width:220px;" data-durationhint="67" data-mwtitle="National_Anthem_of_Syria.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/National_Anthem_of_Syria.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/f/fc/National_Anthem_of_Syria.ogg/National_Anthem_of_Syria.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ANational_Anthem_of_Syria.ogg&lang=ar&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="ar" label="العربية ‪(ar)‬" data-dir="rtl" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ANational_Anthem_of_Syria.ogg&lang=de&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="de" label="Deutsch ‪(de)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ANational_Anthem_of_Syria.ogg&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ANational_Anthem_of_Syria.ogg&lang=es&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="es" label="español ‪(es)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ANational_Anthem_of_Syria.ogg&lang=fa&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="fa" label="فارسی ‪(fa)‬" data-dir="rtl" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ANational_Anthem_of_Syria.ogg&lang=id&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="id" label="Bahasa Indonesia ‪(id)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ANational_Anthem_of_Syria.ogg&lang=th&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="th" label="ไทย ‪(th)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ANational_Anthem_of_Syria.ogg&lang=vi&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="vi" label="Tiếng Việt ‪(vi)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ANational_Anthem_of_Syria.ogg&lang=zh-tw&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="zh-Hant-TW" label="中文（臺灣） ‪(zh-tw)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></audio></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><div class="switcher-container"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Syria_(orthographic_projection)_disputed.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Syria_%28orthographic_projection%29_disputed.svg/220px-Syria_%28orthographic_projection%29_disputed.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Syria_%28orthographic_projection%29_disputed.svg/330px-Syria_%28orthographic_projection%29_disputed.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Syria_%28orthographic_projection%29_disputed.svg/440px-Syria_%28orthographic_projection%29_disputed.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="553" data-file-height="553" /></a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend">  Location of Syria</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959" /><div class="legend">  Territory <a href="/wiki/Golan_Heights" title="Golan Heights">claimed but not controlled</a></div>Show globe</div><div><a href="/wiki/File:Syria_-_Location_Map_(2024)_-_SYR_-_UNOCHA.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Syria_-_Location_Map_%282024%29_-_SYR_-_UNOCHA.svg/250px-Syria_-_Location_Map_%282024%29_-_SYR_-_UNOCHA.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Syria_-_Location_Map_%282024%29_-_SYR_-_UNOCHA.svg/375px-Syria_-_Location_Map_%282024%29_-_SYR_-_UNOCHA.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Syria_-_Location_Map_%282024%29_-_SYR_-_UNOCHA.svg/500px-Syria_-_Location_Map_%282024%29_-_SYR_-_UNOCHA.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="254" data-file-height="254" /></a>Show map of Syria</div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital<div class="ib-country-largest">and largest city</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Syria&params=33_30_N_36_18_E_type:city">33°30′N 36°18′E / 33.500°N 36.300°E / 33.500; 36.300</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Official languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">Arabic</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[2]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic group">Ethnic groups</a> <div class="ib-country-ethnic"> (2021)<a href="#cite_note-CIA_-_The_World_Factbook-5">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Khalifa2013-8">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-Shoup-9">[7]</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data">80–90% <a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arabs</a> 9–10% <a href="/wiki/Kurds" title="Kurds">Kurds</a> 1–10% <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Syria" title="Ethnic groups in Syria">others</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Religion <div class="ib-country-religion"> (2024)<a href="#cite_note-:4-10">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[9]</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1116488514">.mw-parser-output .treeview ul{padding:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .treeview li{padding:0;margin:0;list-style-type:none;list-style-image:none}.mw-parser-output .treeview li li{background:url("https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Treeview-grey-line.png")no-repeat 0 -2981px;padding-left:21px;text-indent:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .treeview li li:last-child{background-position:0 -5971px}.mw-parser-output .treeview li.emptyline>ul>.mw-empty-elt:first-child+.emptyline,.mw-parser-output .treeview li.emptyline>ul>li:first-child{background-position:0 9px}</style><div class="treeview"> <ul><li>94.17% <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Syria" title="Islam in Syria">Islam</a> <ul><li>79.19% <a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni</a></li> <li>14.10% <a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shia</a> <ul><li>10–13% <a href="/wiki/Alawites" title="Alawites">Alawism</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>3% <a href="/wiki/Druze" title="Druze">Druze</a></li> <li>2.5–3.84% <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Syria" title="Christianity in Syria">Christianity</a></li> <li>1.99% <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Syria" title="Religion in Syria">other</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Demonym" title="Demonym">Demonym(s)</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Syrian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian people">Syrian</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Politics of Syria">Government</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Unitary <a href="/wiki/Presidential_system" title="Presidential system">presidential republic</a> under a <a href="/wiki/Syrian_transitional_government" title="Syrian transitional government">transitional government</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/President_of_Syria" title="President of Syria">President</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_al-Sharaa" title="Ahmed al-Sharaa">Ahmed al-Sharaa</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Syria" title="Prime Minister of Syria">Prime Minister</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Mohammed_al-Bashir" title="Mohammed al-Bashir">Mohammed al-Bashir</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Legislature</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Assembly_of_Syria" title="People's Assembly of Syria">People's Assembly</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Establishment</th></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Arab_Kingdom_of_Syria" title="Arab Kingdom of Syria">Arab Kingdom of Syria</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">8 March 1920</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/State_of_Syria" title="State of Syria">State of Syria</a> under <a href="/wiki/Mandate_for_Syria_and_the_Lebanon" title="Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon">French mandate</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1 December 1924</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/First_Syrian_Republic" title="First Syrian Republic">First Syrian Republic</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">14 May 1930</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• End of the <a href="/wiki/Mandate_for_Syria_and_the_Lebanon" title="Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon">French mandate</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">17 April 1946</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Part of the <a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Republic" title="United Arab Republic">United Arab Republic</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">22 February 1958 – 28 September 1961</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/1963_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1963 Syrian coup d'état">Beginning of Ba'athist rule</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">8 March 1963</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Assad_regime" title="Fall of the Assad regime">Ba'athist regime overthrown</a> and <a href="/wiki/Syrian_transitional_government" title="Syrian transitional government">transitional government</a> established </div></th><td class="infobox-data">8 December 2024</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/2025_Interim_Constitution_of_Syria" title="2025 Interim Constitution of Syria">Current Interim Constitution</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">13 March 2025</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Syria" title="Geography of Syria">Area </a></th></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• Total</div></th><td class="infobox-data">185,180<a href="#cite_note-12">[10]</a> km2 (71,500 sq mi) (<a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_and_dependencies_by_area" title="List of countries and dependencies by area">87th</a>)</td></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• Water (%)</div></th><td class="infobox-data">1.1</td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Syria" title="Demographics of Syria">Population</a></th></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• 2025 estimate</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><img alt="Neutral increase" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Increase_Neutral.svg/11px-Increase_Neutral.svg.png" decoding="async" width="11" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Increase_Neutral.svg/17px-Increase_Neutral.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Increase_Neutral.svg/22px-Increase_Neutral.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="347" data-file-height="346" /> 25,255,139<a href="#cite_note-World-o-metre-13">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[12]</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_and_dependencies_by_population" title="List of countries and dependencies by population">57th</a>)</td></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• Density</div></th><td class="infobox-data">118.3/km2 (306.4/sq mi) (<a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_and_dependencies_by_population_density" title="List of countries and dependencies by population density">70th</a>)</td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Gross_domestic_product" title="Gross domestic product">GDP</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style>(<a href="/wiki/Purchasing_power_parity" title="Purchasing power parity">PPP</a>)</th><td class="infobox-data">2021 estimate</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• Total</div></th><td class="infobox-data">$50.28 billion<a href="#cite_note-CIA-15">[13]</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• Per capita</div></th><td class="infobox-data">$3,300<a href="#cite_note-CIA-15">[13]</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Gross_domestic_product" title="Gross domestic product">GDP</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488" />(nominal)</th><td class="infobox-data">2022 estimate</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• Total</div></th><td class="infobox-data">$9.8 billion<a href="#cite_note-CIA-15">[13]</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• Per capita</div></th><td class="infobox-data">$800</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Gini_coefficient" title="Gini coefficient">Gini</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488" />(2022)</th><td class="infobox-data"><img alt="Positive decrease" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Decrease_Positive.svg/20px-Decrease_Positive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="11" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Decrease_Positive.svg/40px-Decrease_Positive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /> 26.6<a href="#cite_note-16">[14]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239334494">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style>low inequality</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Human_Development_Index" title="Human Development Index">HDI</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488" />(2022)</th><td class="infobox-data"><img alt="Steady" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Steady2.svg/11px-Steady2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="11" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Steady2.svg/17px-Steady2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Steady2.svg/22px-Steady2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /> 0.557<a href="#cite_note-17">[15]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494" />medium (<a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_Human_Development_Index" title="List of countries by Human Development Index">157th</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Currency</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Syrian_pound" title="Syrian pound">Syrian pound</a> (<a href="/wiki/ISO_4217" title="ISO 4217">SYP</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Time zone</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Coordinated_Universal_Time" title="Coordinated Universal Time">UTC</a>+3 (<a href="/wiki/Arabia_Standard_Time" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabia Standard Time">Arabia Standard Time</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Telephone_numbers_in_Syria" title="Telephone numbers in Syria">Calling code</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Telephone_numbers_in_Syria" title="Telephone numbers in Syria">+963</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/ISO_3166" title="ISO 3166">ISO 3166 code</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/ISO_3166-2:SY" title="ISO 3166-2:SY">SY</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Country_code_top-level_domain" title="Country code top-level domain">Internet TLD</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/.sy" title=".sy">.sy</a> <a href="/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7." class="mw-redirect" title="سوريا.">سوريا.</a></td></tr></tbody></table> Syria,<a href="#cite_note-18">[c]</a> officially the Syrian Arab Republic,<a href="#cite_note-19">[d]</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[16]</a> is a country in <a href="/wiki/West_Asia" title="West Asia">West Asia</a> located in the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Mediterranean" title="Eastern Mediterranean">Eastern Mediterranean</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>. It borders the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a> to the west, <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a> to <a href="/wiki/Syria%E2%80%93Turkey_border" title="Syria–Turkey border">the north</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> to <a href="/wiki/Iraq%E2%80%93Syria_border" title="Iraq–Syria border">the east and southeast</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a> to <a href="/wiki/Jordan%E2%80%93Syria_border" title="Jordan–Syria border">the south</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a> to <a href="/wiki/Lebanon%E2%80%93Syria_border" title="Lebanon–Syria border">the southwest</a>. It is a <a href="/wiki/Republic" title="Republic">republic</a> under <a href="/wiki/Syrian_transitional_government" title="Syrian transitional government">a transitional government</a> and comprises <a href="/wiki/Governorates_of_Syria" title="Governorates of Syria">14 governorates</a>. <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a> is the capital and largest city. With a population of 25 million across an area of 185,180 square kilometres (71,500 sq mi), it is the <a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_and_dependencies_by_population" title="List of countries and dependencies by population">57th-most</a> populous and <a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_and_dependencies_by_area" title="List of countries and dependencies by area">87th-largest</a> country. The name "Syria" historically referred to a <a href="/wiki/Syria_(region)" title="Syria (region)">wider region</a>. The modern state encompasses the sites of several ancient kingdoms and empires, including the <a href="/wiki/Ebla" title="Ebla">Eblan</a> civilization. Damascus was the seat of the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a> and a provincial capital under the <a href="/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate" title="Mamluk Sultanate">Mamluk Sultanate</a>. The modern Syrian state was established in the mid-20th century <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Syria" title="Ottoman Syria">after centuries of Ottoman rule</a>, as a <a href="/wiki/Mandate_for_Syria_and_the_Lebanon" title="Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon">French Mandate</a>. The state represented the largest Arab state to emerge from the formerly <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a>-ruled <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Syria" title="Ottoman Syria">Syrian provinces</a>. It gained de jure independence as a <a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_republic" title="Parliamentary republic">parliamentary republic</a> in 1945 when the <a href="/wiki/First_Syrian_Republic" title="First Syrian Republic">First Syrian Republic</a> became a founding member of the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>, an act which legally ended the French Mandate. French troops <a href="/wiki/Levant_Crisis" title="Levant Crisis">withdrew</a> in April 1946, granting the nation de facto independence. The post-independence period was tumultuous, with <a href="/wiki/Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Syrian coup d'état (disambiguation)">multiple coup attempts</a> between 1949 and 1971. In 1958, Syria entered a <a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Republic" title="United Arab Republic">brief pan-Arab union</a> with <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, which was terminated following a <a href="/wiki/1961_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1961 Syrian coup d'état">1961 coup d'état</a>. The <a href="/wiki/1963_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1963 Syrian coup d'état">1963 coup d'état</a> carried out by the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Syria_Region#Military_Bureau" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region">military committee</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Syria_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region">Ba'ath Party</a> established a <a href="/wiki/One-party_state" title="One-party state">one-party state</a>, which <a href="/wiki/Ba%27athist_Syria" title="Ba'athist Syria">ran Syria</a> under martial law from 1963 to 2011. Internal power-struggles within <a href="/wiki/Ba%27athism" title="Ba'athism">Ba'athist</a> factions caused further coups in <a href="/wiki/1966_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1966 Syrian coup d'état">1966</a> and <a href="/wiki/Corrective_Movement_(Syria)" title="Corrective Movement (Syria)">1970</a>, the latter of which saw <a href="/wiki/Hafez_al-Assad" title="Hafez al-Assad">Hafez al-Assad</a> come to power. Under Assad, Syria became a <a href="/wiki/Dynasty" title="Dynasty">hereditary dictatorship</a>. <a href="/wiki/Death_and_state_funeral_of_Hafez_al-Assad" title="Death and state funeral of Hafez al-Assad">Assad died</a> in 2000, and he was succeeded by his son, <a href="/wiki/Bashar_al-Assad" title="Bashar al-Assad">Bashar</a>. Since the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Spring" title="Arab Spring">Arab Spring</a> in 2011, Syria has been embroiled in a <a href="/wiki/Syrian_civil_war" title="Syrian civil war">multi-sided civil war</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Foreign_involvement_in_the_Syrian_civil_war" title="Foreign involvement in the Syrian civil war">involvement of several countries</a>, leading to a <a href="/wiki/Refugees_of_the_Syrian_civil_war" title="Refugees of the Syrian civil war">refugee crisis</a> in which more than 6 million refugees were displaced from the country. In response to rapid territorial gains made by the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_State" title="Islamic State">Islamic State</a> during the civil war in 2014 and 2015, <a href="/wiki/War_against_the_Islamic_State" title="War against the Islamic State">several countries intervened</a> on behalf of various factions opposing it, leading to its territorial defeat in 2017 in both <a href="/wiki/Central_Syria_campaign" title="Central Syria campaign">central</a> and <a href="/wiki/Raqqa_campaign_(2016%E2%80%932017)" title="Raqqa campaign (2016–2017)">eastern</a> Syria. Thereafter, three political entities – the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Interim_Government" title="Syrian Interim Government">Syrian Interim Government</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Salvation_Government" title="Syrian Salvation Government">Syrian Salvation Government</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Autonomous_Administration_of_North_and_East_Syria" title="Democratic Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria">Democratic Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria</a> – emerged in Syrian territory to challenge Assad's rule. In late 2024, <a href="/wiki/2024_Syrian_opposition_offensives" title="2024 Syrian opposition offensives">a series of offensives</a> from a coalition of <a href="/wiki/Syrian_opposition_to_Bashar_al-Assad" title="Syrian opposition to Bashar al-Assad">opposition forces</a> led to the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Damascus_(2024)" title="Fall of Damascus (2024)">capture of Damascus</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Assad_regime" title="Fall of the Assad regime">fall of Assad's regime</a>. In early 2025, the war has left <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Syria" title="Economy of Syria">Syria's economy</a> in a poor state, exacerbated by many still-remaining <a href="/wiki/International_sanctions_against_Syria" title="International sanctions against Syria">international sanctions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-21">[17]</a> A country of fertile plains, high mountains, and deserts, Syria is home to <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Syria" title="Ethnic groups in Syria">diverse ethnic and religious groups</a>. <a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arabs</a> are the largest ethnic group, and <a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni Muslims</a> are the largest religious group. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Name_of_Syria" title="Name of Syria">Name of Syria</a></div> Several sources indicate that the name Syria is derived from the 8th century BC <a href="/wiki/Luwian" class="mw-redirect" title="Luwian">Luwian</a> term "Sura/i", and the derivative <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">ancient Greek</a> name: Σύριοι, Sýrioi, or Σύροι, Sýroi, both of which originally derived from Aššūr (<a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a>) in northern <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> (present-day Iraq and north-eastern Syria).<a href="#cite_note-22">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-23">[19]</a> However, from the <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a> (323–150 BC), this term was also applied to the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>,<a href="#cite_note-24">[20]</a> and from this point the Greeks applied the term without distinction between the <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_people" title="Assyrian people">Assyrians</a> of Mesopotamia and <a href="/wiki/Arameans" title="Arameans">Arameans</a> of the Levant.<a href="#cite_note-25">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-26">[22]</a> Mainstream modern academic opinion strongly favors the argument that the Greek word is related to the cognate Ἀσσυρία, <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a>, ultimately derived from the <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian</a> <a href="/wiki/Assur" title="Assur">Aššur</a>.<a href="#cite_note-27">[23]</a> The Greek name appears to correspond to <a href="/wiki/Phoenician_language" title="Phoenician language">Phoenician</a> ʾšr "Assur", ʾšrym "Assyrians", recorded in the 8th-century BC <a href="/wiki/%C3%87inek%C3%B6y_inscription" title="Çineköy inscription">Çineköy inscription</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Rollinger-28">[24]</a> The area designated by the word has changed over time. Classically, Syria lies at the eastern end of the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean">Mediterranean</a>, between <a href="/wiki/Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabia">Arabia</a> to the south and <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a> to the north, stretching inland to include parts of Iraq, and having an uncertain border to the northeast that <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a> describes as including, from west to east, <a href="/wiki/Commagene" title="Commagene">Commagene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sophene" title="Sophene">Sophene</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Adiabene" title="Adiabene">Adiabene</a>.<a href="#cite_note-29">[25]</a> By Pliny's time, however, this larger Syria had been divided into a number of provinces under the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> (but politically independent from each other): <a href="/wiki/Judaea_(Roman_province)" title="Judaea (Roman province)">Judaea</a>, later renamed <a href="/wiki/Palestine_(region)" title="Palestine (region)">Palaestina</a> in AD 135 (the region corresponding to modern-day <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a>, the Palestinian territories, and Jordan) in the extreme southwest; <a href="/wiki/Phoenice_(Roman_province)" title="Phoenice (Roman province)">Phoenice</a> (established in 194) corresponding to modern Lebanon, Damascus and Homs regions; <a href="/wiki/Coele-Syria" title="Coele-Syria">Coele-Syria</a> (or "Hollow Syria") and south of the <a href="/wiki/An_Nahr_al_Kabir" class="mw-redirect" title="An Nahr al Kabir">Eleutheris river</a>.<a href="#cite_note-30">[26]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Syria" title="History of Syria">History of Syria</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_antiquity">Ancient antiquity</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tell_Halaf_Raubvogel_Seitenansicht.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Tell_Halaf_Raubvogel_Seitenansicht.jpg/170px-Tell_Halaf_Raubvogel_Seitenansicht.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="422" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Tell_Halaf_Raubvogel_Seitenansicht.jpg/255px-Tell_Halaf_Raubvogel_Seitenansicht.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Tell_Halaf_Raubvogel_Seitenansicht.jpg/340px-Tell_Halaf_Raubvogel_Seitenansicht.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1248" data-file-height="3099" /></a><figcaption>Reconstructed sculpture of a bird from <a href="/wiki/Tell_Halaf" title="Tell Halaf">Tell Halaf</a></figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Natufian_culture" title="Natufian culture">Natufian culture</a> was the first to become sedentary around the 11th millennium BC<a href="#cite_note-31">[27]</a> and became one of the centers of <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a> culture (known as <a href="/wiki/PPNA" class="mw-redirect" title="PPNA">Pre-Pottery Neolithic A</a>), where agriculture and cattle breeding first began to appear. The site of <a href="/wiki/Tell_Qaramel" title="Tell Qaramel">Tell Qaramel</a> has several round stone towers dated to 10650 BC, making them the oldest structures of this kind in the world.<a href="#cite_note-32">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-33">[29]</a> The Neolithic period (<a href="/wiki/Pre-Pottery_Neolithic_B" title="Pre-Pottery Neolithic B">Pre-Pottery Neolithic B</a>) is represented by rectangular houses of <a href="/wiki/Mureybet" title="Mureybet">Mureybet</a> culture. At the time, people used containers made of stone, gyps, and burnt lime (<a href="/wiki/White_Ware" title="White Ware">Vaisselle blanche</a>). The discovery of <a href="/wiki/Obsidian" title="Obsidian">obsidian</a> tools from <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a> are evidence of early trade. The ancient cities of <a href="/wiki/Hamoukar" title="Hamoukar">Hamoukar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Emar" title="Emar">Emar</a> played an important role during the late Neolithic and Bronze Age. Archaeologists have demonstrated that civilization in Syria was one of the most ancient on earth, perhaps preceded by only that of <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ishqi-Mari_(dark_background).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Ishqi-Mari_%28dark_background%29.jpg/170px-Ishqi-Mari_%28dark_background%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="299" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Ishqi-Mari_%28dark_background%29.jpg/255px-Ishqi-Mari_%28dark_background%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Ishqi-Mari_%28dark_background%29.jpg/340px-Ishqi-Mari_%28dark_background%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3250" data-file-height="5716" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ishqi-Mari" title="Ishqi-Mari">Ishqi-Mari</a>, king of the Second Kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">Mari</a>, circa 2300 BC</figcaption></figure>The earliest recorded indigenous civilization in the region was the Kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Ebla" title="Ebla">Ebla</a><a href="#cite_note-34">[30]</a> near present-day <a href="/wiki/Idlib" title="Idlib">Idlib</a>, northern Syria. Ebla appears to have been founded around 3500 BC<a href="#cite_note-35">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-36">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-37">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-38">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-39">[35]</a> and gradually built its fortune through trade with the Mesopotamian states of <a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Akkad_(city)" title="Akkad (city)">Akkad</a>, as well as with the <a href="/wiki/Hurrian" class="mw-redirect" title="Hurrian">Hurrian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hattians" title="Hattians">Hattian</a> peoples to the northwest, in <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a>.<a href="#cite_note-LibraryofCongress-40">[36]</a> Gifts from <a href="/wiki/Pharaoh" title="Pharaoh">Pharaohs</a>, found during excavations, confirm Ebla's contact with <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egypt</a>. One of the earliest written texts from Syria is a trading agreement between Vizier <a href="/wiki/Ibrium" title="Ibrium">Ibrium</a> of Ebla and an ambiguous kingdom called <a href="/wiki/Abarsal" title="Abarsal">Abarsal</a> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2300 BC. This is known as the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_between_Ebla_and_Abarsal" title="Treaty between Ebla and Abarsal">Treaty between Ebla and Abarsal</a>.<a href="#cite_note-41">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-42">[38]</a> Scholars believe the <a href="/wiki/Eblaite_language" title="Eblaite language">language of Ebla</a> to be among the oldest known written <a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic languages</a> after <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian</a>. Recent classifications of the Eblaite language have shown that it was an <a href="/wiki/East_Semitic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="East Semitic language">East Semitic language</a>, closely related to the <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian language</a>.<a href="#cite_note-43">[39]</a> Ebla was weakened by a long war with <a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">Mari</a>, and the whole of Syria became part of the Mesopotamian <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian Empire</a> after <a href="/wiki/Sargon_of_Akkad" title="Sargon of Akkad">Sargon of Akkad</a> and his grandson <a href="/wiki/Naram-Sin_of_Akkad" title="Naram-Sin of Akkad">Naram-Sin</a>'s conquests ended Eblan domination over Syria in the first half of the 23rd century BC.<a href="#cite_note-44">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[41]</a> By the 21st century BC, Hurrians settled in the northern east parts of Syria while the rest of the region was dominated by the <a href="/wiki/Amorites" title="Amorites">Amorites</a>. Syria was called the Land of the Amurru (Amorites) by their Assyro-Babylonian neighbors. The Northwest Semitic <a href="/wiki/Amorite_language" title="Amorite language">Amorite language</a> is the earliest attested of the <a href="/wiki/Canaanite_languages" title="Canaanite languages">Canaanite languages</a>. <a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">Mari</a> reemerged during this period until conquered by <a href="/wiki/Hammurabi" title="Hammurabi">Hammurabi</a> of Babylon. <a href="/wiki/Ugarit" title="Ugarit">Ugarit</a> also arose during this time, circa 1800 BC, close to modern <a href="/wiki/Latakia" title="Latakia">Latakia</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ugaritic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ugaritic language">Ugaritic</a> was a Semitic language loosely related to the Canaanite languages and developed the <a href="/wiki/Ugaritic_alphabet" title="Ugaritic alphabet">Ugaritic alphabet</a>,<a href="#cite_note-46">[42]</a> considered to be the world's earliest known alphabet. The Ugaritic kingdom survived until its destruction at the hands of the marauding Indo-European <a href="/wiki/Sea_Peoples" title="Sea Peoples">Sea Peoples</a> in the 12th century BC in what was known as the Late <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Collapse" class="mw-redirect" title="Bronze Age Collapse">Bronze Age Collapse</a>. <a href="/wiki/Aleppo" title="Aleppo">Aleppo</a> and Damascus are among the <a href="/wiki/List_of_oldest_continuously_inhabited_cities" title="List of oldest continuously inhabited cities">oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world</a>.<a href="#cite_note-47">[43]</a> <a href="/wiki/Yamhad" title="Yamhad">Yamhad</a> (modern Aleppo) dominated northern Syria for two centuries,<a href="#cite_note-google44-48">[44]</a> although eastern Syria was occupied in the 19th and 18th centuries BC by the <a href="/wiki/Old_Assyrian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Assyrian Empire">Old Assyrian Empire</a> ruled by the Amorite dynasty of <a href="/wiki/Shamshi-Adad_I" title="Shamshi-Adad I">Shamshi-Adad I</a>, and by the <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Babylonian Empire">Babylonian Empire</a> which was founded by Amorites. Yamhad was described in the tablets of Mari as the mightiest state in the near east and as having more vassals than Hammurabi.<a href="#cite_note-google44-48">[44]</a> Yamhad imposed its authority over <a href="/wiki/Alalakh" title="Alalakh">Alalakh</a>,<a href="#cite_note-49">[45]</a> <a href="/wiki/Qatna" title="Qatna">Qatna</a>,<a href="#cite_note-50">[46]</a> the Hurrians states, and the <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a> valley down to the borders with Babylon.<a href="#cite_note-51">[47]</a> The army of Yamhad campaigned as far away as <a href="/wiki/Der_(Sumer)" title="Der (Sumer)">Dēr</a> on the border of <a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elam</a> (modern Iran).<a href="#cite_note-52">[48]</a> Yamhad was conquered and destroyed, along with Ebla, by the <a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittites</a> from <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a> circa 1600 BC.<a href="#cite_note-53">[49]</a> From this time, Syria became a battle ground for various foreign empires, these being the <a href="/wiki/Hittite_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Hittite Empire">Hittite Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mitanni" title="Mitanni">Mitanni</a> Empire, <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Egyptian Empire">Egyptian Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Middle Assyrian Empire</a>, and to a lesser degree <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a>. The Egyptians initially occupied much of the south, while the Hittites and the Mitanni occupied much of the north. However, Assyria eventually gained the upper hand, destroying the Mitanni Empire and annexing huge swathes of territory previously held by the Hittites and Babylon. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:392px;max-width:392px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:390px;max-width:390px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:52px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Syrians_bringing_presents_in_the_tomb_of_Rekhmire_(actual).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Syrians_bringing_presents_in_the_tomb_of_Rekhmire_%28actual%29.jpg/500px-Syrians_bringing_presents_in_the_tomb_of_Rekhmire_%28actual%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="388" height="53" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Syrians_bringing_presents_in_the_tomb_of_Rekhmire_%28actual%29.jpg/960px-Syrians_bringing_presents_in_the_tomb_of_Rekhmire_%28actual%29.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="10696" data-file-height="1450" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:390px;max-width:390px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:49px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Syrians_bringing_presents_in_the_tomb_of_Rekhmire.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Syrians_bringing_presents_in_the_tomb_of_Rekhmire.jpg/500px-Syrians_bringing_presents_in_the_tomb_of_Rekhmire.jpg" decoding="async" width="388" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Syrians_bringing_presents_in_the_tomb_of_Rekhmire.jpg/960px-Syrians_bringing_presents_in_the_tomb_of_Rekhmire.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="10696" data-file-height="1368" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Syrians bringing presents to Pharaoh <a href="/wiki/Tuthmosis_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Tuthmosis III">Tuthmosis III</a>, as depicted in the tomb of <a href="/wiki/Rekhmire" title="Rekhmire">Rekhmire</a>, circa 1450 BCE (actual painting and interpretational drawing). They are labeled "Chiefs of <a href="/wiki/Retjenu" title="Retjenu">Retjenu</a>".<a href="#cite_note-54">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-55">[51]</a></div></div></div></div> Around the 14th century BC, various <a href="/wiki/Semitic_people" title="Semitic people">Semitic people</a> appeared in the area, such as the semi-nomadic <a href="/wiki/Suteans" title="Suteans">Suteans</a> who came into an unsuccessful conflict with Babylonia to the east, and the <a href="/wiki/West_Semitic_languages" title="West Semitic languages">West Semitic</a> speaking <a href="/wiki/Arameans" title="Arameans">Arameans</a> who subsumed the earlier Amorites. They too were subjugated by Assyria and the Hittites for centuries. The Egyptians fought the Hittites for control over western Syria; the fighting reached its zenith in 1274 BC with the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kadesh" title="Battle of Kadesh">Battle of Kadesh</a>.<a href="#cite_note-56">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-57">[53]</a> The west remained part of the Hittite empire until its destruction <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1200 BC,<a href="#cite_note-58">[54]</a> while eastern Syria largely became part of the Middle Assyrian Empire,<a href="#cite_note-59">[55]</a> who also annexed much of the west during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Tiglath-Pileser_I" title="Tiglath-Pileser I">Tiglath-Pileser I</a> 1114–1076 BC. With the destruction of the Hittites and the decline of Assyria in the late 11th century BC, the Aramean tribes gained control of much of the interior, founding states such as <a href="/wiki/Bit_Bahiani" title="Bit Bahiani">Bit Bahiani</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aram-Damascus" title="Aram-Damascus">Aram-Damascus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hamath" class="mw-redirect" title="Hamath">Hamath</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aram-Rehob" class="mw-redirect" title="Aram-Rehob">Aram-Rehob</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aram-Naharaim" title="Aram-Naharaim">Aram-Naharaim</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Luhuti" title="Luhuti">Luhuti</a>. From this point, the region became known as <a href="/wiki/Aramea" class="mw-redirect" title="Aramea">Aramea</a> or <a href="/wiki/Aram_(biblical_region)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aram (biblical region)">Aram</a>. There was also a synthesis between the Semitic Arameans and the remnants of the Indo-European Hittites, with the founding of a number of <a href="/wiki/Syro-Hittite" class="mw-redirect" title="Syro-Hittite">Syro-Hittite</a> states centered in north central Aram (Syria) and south central Asia Minor (modern Turkey), including <a href="/wiki/Palistin" title="Palistin">Palistin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carchemish" title="Carchemish">Carchemish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sam%27al" class="mw-redirect" title="Sam'al">Sam'al</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Amrit01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Amrit01.jpg/250px-Amrit01.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Amrit01.jpg/375px-Amrit01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Amrit01.jpg/500px-Amrit01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1258" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Amrit" title="Amrit">Amrit</a> Phoenician Temple</figcaption></figure> A <a href="/wiki/Canaanite_languages" title="Canaanite languages">Canaanite</a> group known as the <a href="/wiki/Phoenicians" class="mw-redirect" title="Phoenicians">Phoenicians</a> came to dominate the coasts of Syria, (and also Lebanon and northern <a href="/wiki/Palestine_(region)" title="Palestine (region)">Palestine</a>) from the 13th century BC, founding <a href="/wiki/City_states" class="mw-redirect" title="City states">city states</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Amrit" title="Amrit">Amrit</a>, <a href="/wiki/Simyra" class="mw-redirect" title="Simyra">Simyra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arwad" title="Arwad">Arwad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arab_al-Mulk" title="Arab al-Mulk">Paltos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latakia#Ancient_settlement_and_founding" title="Latakia">Ramitha</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tell_Sukas" title="Tell Sukas">Shuksi</a>. From these coastal regions, they eventually spread their influence throughout the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean">Mediterranean</a>, including building colonies in <a href="/wiki/Malta" title="Malta">Malta</a>, Sicily, the <a href="/wiki/Iberian_peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Iberian peninsula">Iberian peninsula</a>, and the coasts of North Africa and most significantly, founding the major city-state of <a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a> in the 9th century BC, which was much later to become the center of a major empire, rivaling the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a>. Syria and the western half of <a href="/wiki/Near_East" title="Near East">Near East</a> then fell to the vast <a href="/wiki/Neo_Assyrian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo Assyrian Empire">Neo Assyrian Empire</a> (911 BC – 605 BC). The Assyrians introduced <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Aramaic" title="Imperial Aramaic">Imperial Aramaic</a> as the <a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a> of their empire. This language was to remain dominant in Syria and the entire <a href="/wiki/Near_East" title="Near East">Near East</a> until after the <a href="/wiki/Islamic" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic">Islamic</a> conquest in the 7th and 8th centuries AD, and was to be a vehicle for the spread of Christianity. The Assyrians named their colonies of Syria and Lebanon <a href="/wiki/Eber-Nari" title="Eber-Nari">Eber-Nari</a>. Assyrian domination ended after the Assyrians greatly weakened themselves in a series of brutal internal civil wars, followed by attacks from: the <a href="/wiki/Medes" title="Medes">Medes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Babylonians" class="mw-redirect" title="Babylonians">Babylonians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chaldea" title="Chaldea">Chaldeans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Persian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian people">Persians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scythians" title="Scythians">Scythians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cimmerians" title="Cimmerians">Cimmerians</a>. During the fall of Assyria, the <a href="/wiki/Scythians" title="Scythians">Scythians</a> ravaged and plundered much of Syria. The last stand of the Assyrian army was at <a href="/wiki/Carchemish" title="Carchemish">Carchemish</a> in northern Syria in 605 BC. The Assyrian Empire was followed by the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a> (605 BC – 539 BC). During this period, Syria became a battle ground between Babylonia and another former Assyrian colony, that of Egypt. The Babylonians, like their Assyrian relations, were victorious over Egypt. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classical_antiquity">Classical antiquity</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Eber-Nari" title="Eber-Nari">Eber-Nari</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coele-Syria" title="Coele-Syria">Coele-Syria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_Syria" title="Roman Syria">Roman Syria</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Syria_Palaestina" title="Syria Palaestina">Syria Palaestina</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_story_of_the_ancient_nations_-_a_text-book_for_high_schools_(1912)_(14766210391).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/The_story_of_the_ancient_nations_-_a_text-book_for_high_schools_%281912%29_%2814766210391%29.jpg/220px-The_story_of_the_ancient_nations_-_a_text-book_for_high_schools_%281912%29_%2814766210391%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/The_story_of_the_ancient_nations_-_a_text-book_for_high_schools_%281912%29_%2814766210391%29.jpg/330px-The_story_of_the_ancient_nations_-_a_text-book_for_high_schools_%281912%29_%2814766210391%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/The_story_of_the_ancient_nations_-_a_text-book_for_high_schools_%281912%29_%2814766210391%29.jpg/440px-The_story_of_the_ancient_nations_-_a_text-book_for_high_schools_%281912%29_%2814766210391%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3056" data-file-height="1826" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a> in Syria became the capital of the Hellenistic <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a> in 240 BC</figcaption></figure> Lands that constitute modern-day Syria were part of the Neo-Babylonian Empire and had been annexed by the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a> in 539 BC. Led by <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_the_Great" title="Cyrus the Great">Cyrus the Great</a>, the Achaemenid Persians retained <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Aramaic" title="Imperial Aramaic">Imperial Aramaic</a> as one of the diplomatic languages of their empire, as well as the Assyrian name for the new <a href="/wiki/Satrapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Satrapy">satrapy</a> of Aram/Syria <a href="/wiki/Eber-Nari" title="Eber-Nari">Eber-Nari</a>. Syria was conquered by the <a href="/wiki/Macedonian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Macedonian Empire">Macedonian Empire</a> which was ruled by <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 330 BC and consequently became <a href="/wiki/Coele-Syria" title="Coele-Syria">Coele-Syria</a> province of the <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a> (323 BC – 64 BC), with the Seleucid kings styling themselves "King of Syria" and the city of Antioch being its capital starting from 240 BC. Thus, it was the Greeks who introduced the name "Syria" to the region. Originally an Indo-European corruption of "Assyria" in northern Mesopotamia (Iraq), the Greeks used this term to describe not only Assyria itself but also the lands to the west which had for centuries been under Assyrian dominion.<a href="#cite_note-60">[56]</a> Thus in the <a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman" class="mw-redirect" title="Greco-Roman">Greco-Roman</a> world both the <a href="/wiki/Arameans" title="Arameans">Arameans</a> of Syria and the <a href="/wiki/Old_Assyrian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Assyrian Empire">Assyrians</a> of Mesopotamia (modern day <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>) to the east were referred to as "Syrians" or "Syriacs", despite these being distinct peoples in their own right, a confusion which would continue into the modern world. Eventually parts of southern <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid</a> Syria were taken by the <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jewish</a> <a href="/wiki/Hasmonean_dynasty" title="Hasmonean dynasty">Hasmonean dynasty</a> upon the slow disintegration of the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic</a> Empire. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Palmyra_03.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Palmyra_03.jpg/220px-Palmyra_03.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Palmyra_03.jpg/330px-Palmyra_03.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Palmyra_03.jpg/440px-Palmyra_03.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3260" data-file-height="2201" /></a><figcaption>Ancient city of <a href="/wiki/Palmyra" title="Palmyra">Palmyra</a> before the war</figcaption></figure> Syria briefly came under <a href="/wiki/Armenians" title="Armenians">Armenian</a> control from 83 BC, with the conquests of the Armenian king <a href="/wiki/Tigranes_the_Great" title="Tigranes the Great">Tigranes the Great</a>, who was welcomed as a savior from the Seleucids and Romans by the Syrian people. However, <a href="/wiki/Pompey_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Pompey the Great">Pompey the Great</a>, a general of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>, rode to Syria and captured Antioch and turned Syria into a <a href="/wiki/Roman_Syria" title="Roman Syria">Roman province</a> in 64 BC, thus ending Armenian control over the region which had lasted two decades. Syria prospered under Roman rule, being strategically located on the <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a>, which gave it massive wealth and importance, making it the battleground for the rivaling Romans and Persians. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bosra_pano_Syria.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Bosra_pano_Syria.jpg/220px-Bosra_pano_Syria.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Bosra_pano_Syria.jpg/330px-Bosra_pano_Syria.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Bosra_pano_Syria.jpg/440px-Bosra_pano_Syria.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Roman_Theatre_at_Bosra" title="Roman Theatre at Bosra">Roman Theatre at Bosra</a> in the province of <a href="/wiki/Arabia_Petraea" title="Arabia Petraea">Arabia</a>, present-day Syria</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Jupiter_temple_in_Damascus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/The_Jupiter_temple_in_Damascus.jpg/220px-The_Jupiter_temple_in_Damascus.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/The_Jupiter_temple_in_Damascus.jpg/330px-The_Jupiter_temple_in_Damascus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/The_Jupiter_temple_in_Damascus.jpg/440px-The_Jupiter_temple_in_Damascus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="900" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Jupiter,_Damascus" title="Temple of Jupiter, Damascus">Temple of Jupiter, Damascus</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Palmyra" title="Palmyra">Palmyra</a>, a rich and sometimes powerful native Aramaic-speaking kingdom, arose in northern Syria in the 2nd century; the Palmyrene established a trade network that made the city one of the richest in the Roman Empire. In the late 3rd century the Palmyrene king <a href="/wiki/Odaenathus" title="Odaenathus">Odaenathus</a> defeated the Persian emperor <a href="/wiki/Shapur_I" title="Shapur I">Shapur I</a> and controlled the entirety of the Roman East while his successor and widow <a href="/wiki/Zenobia" title="Zenobia">Zenobia</a> established the <a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_Empire" title="Palmyrene Empire">Palmyrene Empire</a>, which briefly conquered Egypt, Syria, Palestine, much of Asia Minor, Judah and Lebanon, before being finally brought under Roman control in 273. The northern Mesopotamian <a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Assyrian">Assyrian</a> kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Adiabene" title="Adiabene">Adiabene</a> controlled areas of north east Syria between 10 and 117, before it was conquered by Rome.<a href="#cite_note-61">[57]</a> The Aramaic language has been found as far afield as <a href="/wiki/Hadrian%27s_Wall" title="Hadrian's Wall">Hadrian's Wall</a> in <a href="/wiki/Roman_Britain" title="Roman Britain">Roman Britain</a>,<a href="#cite_note-62">[58]</a> with an inscription written by a Palmyrene emigrant at the site of Fort <a href="/wiki/Arbeia" title="Arbeia">Arbeia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-63">[59]</a> Control of Syria eventually passed from the Romans to the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantines</a> with the split in the Roman Empire.<a href="#cite_note-LibraryofCongress-40">[36]</a> The largely Aramaic-speaking population of Syria during the heyday of the Byzantine Empire was probably not exceeded again until the 19th century. Prior to the <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Arab Islamic Conquest</a> in the 7th century, the bulk of the population were Arameans, but Syria was also home to <a href="/wiki/Greek_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek people">Greek</a> and Roman ruling classes, Assyrians still dwelt in the north east, Phoenicians along the coasts, and Jewish and Armenian communities were also extant in major cities, with Nabateans and pre-Islamic <a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arabs</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Lakhmids" class="mw-redirect" title="Lakhmids">Lakhmids</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ghassanids" title="Ghassanids">Ghassanids</a> dwelling in the deserts of southern Syria. <a href="/wiki/Syriac_Christianity" title="Syriac Christianity">Syriac Christianity</a> had taken hold as the major religion, although others still followed <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Manicheanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Manicheanism">Manicheanism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Classical_mythology" title="Classical mythology">Greco-Roman Religion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Canaanite_Religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Canaanite Religion">Canaanite Religion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesopotamian Religion">Mesopotamian Religion</a>. Syria's large and prosperous population made Syria one of the most important of the Roman and Byzantine provinces, particularly during the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD.<a href="#cite_note-Cavendish_Corporation_2006_183-64">[60]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Apamea_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Apamea_02.jpg/220px-Apamea_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Apamea_02.jpg/330px-Apamea_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Apamea_02.jpg/440px-Apamea_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3424" data-file-height="2283" /></a><figcaption>The ancient city of <a href="/wiki/Apamea,_Syria" title="Apamea, Syria">Apamea</a>, an important commercial center and one of Syria's most prosperous cities in classical antiquity</figcaption></figure> Syrians held considerable power during the <a href="/wiki/Severan_dynasty" title="Severan dynasty">Severan dynasty</a>. The matriarch of the family and empress of Rome as wife of emperor <a href="/wiki/Septimius_Severus" title="Septimius Severus">Septimius Severus</a> was <a href="/wiki/Julia_Domna" title="Julia Domna">Julia Domna</a>, a Syrian from the city of <a href="/wiki/Emesa" class="mw-redirect" title="Emesa">Emesa</a> (modern day <a href="/wiki/Homs" title="Homs">Homs</a>), <a href="/wiki/Royal_family_of_Emesa" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal family of Emesa">whose family</a> held hereditary rights to the priesthood of the god <a href="/wiki/El-Gabal" class="mw-redirect" title="El-Gabal">El-Gabal</a>. Her great nephews, also Arabs from Syria, would also become Roman emperors, the first being <a href="/wiki/Elagabalus" title="Elagabalus">Elagabalus</a> and the second his cousin <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Severus" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander Severus">Alexander Severus</a>. Another Roman emperor who was a Syrian was <a href="/wiki/Philip_the_Arab" title="Philip the Arab">Philip the Arab</a> (Marcus Julius Philippus), who was born in <a href="/wiki/Arabia_Petraea" title="Arabia Petraea">Roman Arabia</a>. He was emperor from 244 to 249<a href="#cite_note-Cavendish_Corporation_2006_183-64">[60]</a> and ruled briefly during the <a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">Crisis of the Third Century</a>. During his reign, he focused on his home town of Philippopolis (modern day <a href="/wiki/Shahba" title="Shahba">Shahba</a>) and began many construction projects to improve the city, most of which were halted after his death. Syria is significant in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">history of Christianity</a>; Saul of Tarsus, better known as the <a href="/wiki/Apostle_Paul" class="mw-redirect" title="Apostle Paul">Apostle Paul</a>, was <a href="/wiki/Conversion_of_Paul_the_Apostle" title="Conversion of Paul the Apostle">converted on the road to Damascus</a> and emerged as a significant figure in the Christian Church at Antioch in ancient Syria. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Middle_Ages">Middle Ages</h3></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Caliphate_740-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Caliphate_740-en.svg/240px-Caliphate_740-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="240" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Caliphate_740-en.svg/360px-Caliphate_740-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Caliphate_740-en.svg/480px-Caliphate_740-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="3516" data-file-height="1904" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a> (green) with its capital in Damascus around 740</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a>'s first interaction with the people of Syria was during the <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Dumatul_Jandal" class="mw-redirect" title="Invasion of Dumatul Jandal">invasion of Dumatul Jandal</a> in July 626<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated2-65">[61]</a> where he ordered his followers to invade Duma, because Muhammad received intelligence that some tribes there were involved in highway robbery and were preparing to attack <a href="/wiki/Medina" title="Medina">Medina</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Mubarakpuri,_The_Sealed_Nectar_pp._193-194-66">[62]</a> <a href="/wiki/William_Montgomery_Watt" class="mw-redirect" title="William Montgomery Watt">William Montgomery Watt</a> claims that this was the most significant expedition Muhammad ordered at the time, even though it received little notice in the primary sources. <a href="/wiki/Dumat_Al-Jandal" class="mw-redirect" title="Dumat Al-Jandal">Dumat Al-Jandal</a> was 800 kilometres (500 mi) from Medina, and Watt says that there was no immediate threat to Muhammad, other than the possibility that his communications to Syria and supplies to Medina would be interrupted. Watt says "It is tempting to suppose that Muhammad was already envisaging something of the expansion which took place after his death", and that the rapid march of his troops must have "impressed all those who heard of it".<a href="#cite_note-Muhammad_at_Medina-67">[63]</a> <a href="/wiki/William_Muir" title="William Muir">William Muir</a> also believes that the expedition was important as Muhammad followed by 1,000 men reached the confines of Syria, where distant tribes had learnt his name, while the political horizon of Muhammad was extended.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated2-65">[61]</a> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Umayyad_Mosque-Dome_of_the_Treasury211099.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Umayyad_Mosque-Dome_of_the_Treasury211099.jpg/210px-Umayyad_Mosque-Dome_of_the_Treasury211099.jpg" decoding="async" width="210" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Umayyad_Mosque-Dome_of_the_Treasury211099.jpg/315px-Umayyad_Mosque-Dome_of_the_Treasury211099.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Umayyad_Mosque-Dome_of_the_Treasury211099.jpg/420px-Umayyad_Mosque-Dome_of_the_Treasury211099.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Qubbat_al-Khazna" title="Qubbat al-Khazna">Qubbat al-Khazna</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Mosque" title="Umayyad Mosque">Umayyad Mosque</a>, built under orders from the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid</a> governor of Damascus, <a href="/wiki/Fadl_ibn_Salih" class="mw-redirect" title="Fadl ibn Salih">Fadl ibn Salih</a>, in 789.<a href="#cite_note-68">[64]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arabischer_Maler_um_730_002.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Arabischer_Maler_um_730_002.jpg/220px-Arabischer_Maler_um_730_002.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="241" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Arabischer_Maler_um_730_002.jpg/330px-Arabischer_Maler_um_730_002.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Arabischer_Maler_um_730_002.jpg/440px-Arabischer_Maler_um_730_002.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2024" data-file-height="2219" /></a><figcaption>Umayyad <a href="/wiki/Fresco" title="Fresco">fresco</a> from <a href="/wiki/Qasr_al-Hayr_al-Gharb%C3%AE" class="mw-redirect" title="Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbî">Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbî</a>, built in the early 7th century</figcaption></figure> By 640, Syria <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Levant" title="Muslim conquest of the Levant">was conquered</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_army" title="Rashidun army">Rashidun army</a> led by <a href="/wiki/Khalid_ibn_al-Walid" title="Khalid ibn al-Walid">Khalid ibn al-Walid</a>. In the mid-7th century, the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_dynasty" title="Umayyad dynasty">Umayyad dynasty</a> placed the capital of the empire in Damascus. The country's power declined during later Umayyad rule; this was mainly through totalitarianism, corruption and the resulting revolutions. The Umayyad dynasty was overthrown in 750 by the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_dynasty" title="Abbasid dynasty">Abbasid dynasty</a>, which moved the capital of empire to <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>. <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a> – made official under Umayyad rule<a href="#cite_note-69">[65]</a> – became the dominant language, replacing <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aramaic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Aramaic language">Aramaic</a> of the Byzantine era. In 887, the Egypt-based <a href="/wiki/Tulunids" title="Tulunids">Tulunids</a> annexed Syria from the Abbasids and were later replaced by the Egypt-based <a href="/wiki/Ikhshidid_dynasty" title="Ikhshidid dynasty">Ikhshidids</a> and then by the <a href="/wiki/Hamdanid" class="mw-redirect" title="Hamdanid">Hamdanids</a> originating in Aleppo founded by <a href="/wiki/Sayf_al-Dawla" title="Sayf al-Dawla">Sayf al-Dawla</a>.<a href="#cite_note-70">[66]</a> Sections of Syria were held by French, English, Italian and German overlords between 1098 and 1189 during the <a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a> and were known collectively as the <a href="/wiki/Crusader_states" title="Crusader states">Crusader states</a>, among which the primary one in Syria was the <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Antioch" title="Principality of Antioch">Principality of Antioch</a>. The coastal mountainous region was occupied in part by the <a href="/wiki/Nizaris" class="mw-redirect" title="Nizaris">Nizari Ismailis</a>, the so-called <a href="/wiki/Order_of_Assassins" title="Order of Assassins">Assassins</a>, who had intermittent confrontations and truces with the Crusader States. Later in history when "the Nizaris faced renewed Frankish hostilities, they received timely assistance from the Ayyubids."<a href="#cite_note-71">[67]</a> After a century of Seljuk rule, Syria was largely conquered (1175–1185) by the <a href="/wiki/Kurdish_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurdish people">Kurdish</a> liberator <a href="/wiki/Saladin" title="Saladin">Salah ad-Din</a>, founder of the <a href="/wiki/Ayyubid" class="mw-redirect" title="Ayyubid">Ayyubid</a> dynasty of Egypt. <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Aleppo_(1260)" title="Siege of Aleppo (1260)">Aleppo fell</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Mongols" title="Mongols">Mongols</a> of <a href="/wiki/Hulegu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hulegu">Hulegu</a> in January 1260; Damascus fell in March, but then Hulegu was forced to break off his attack to return to China to deal with a succession dispute. A few months later, the <a href="/wiki/Mamluk" title="Mamluk">Mamluks</a> arrived with an army from Egypt and defeated the Mongols in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ain_Jalut" title="Battle of Ain Jalut">Battle of Ain Jalut</a> in <a href="/wiki/Galilee" title="Galilee">Galilee</a>. The Mamluk leader, <a href="/wiki/Baibars" class="mw-redirect" title="Baibars">Baibars</a>, made Damascus a provincial capital. When he died, power was taken by <a href="/wiki/Qalawun" title="Qalawun">Qalawun</a>. In the meantime, an emir named <a href="/wiki/Sunqur_al-Ashqar" title="Sunqur al-Ashqar">Sunqur al-Ashqar</a> had tried to declare himself ruler of Damascus, but he was defeated by Qalawun on 21 June 1280 and fled to northern Syria. Al-Ashqar, who had married a Mongol woman, appealed for help from the Mongols. The Mongols of the <a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a> took Aleppo in October 1280, but Qalawun persuaded Al-Ashqar to join him, and they fought against the Mongols on 29 October 1281 in the <a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Homs" title="Second Battle of Homs">Second Battle of Homs</a>, which was won by the Mamluks.<a href="#cite_note-72">[68]</a> In 1400, the Muslim <a href="/wiki/Turco-Mongol_tradition" title="Turco-Mongol tradition">Turco-Mongol</a> conqueror <a href="/wiki/Tamurlane" class="mw-redirect" title="Tamurlane">Tamurlane</a> invaded Syria, in which he <a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Aleppo_(1400)" title="Sack of Aleppo (1400)">sacked Aleppo</a><a href="#cite_note-73">[69]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Damascus_(1400)" title="Siege of Damascus (1400)">captured Damascus</a> after defeating the Mamluk army. The city's inhabitants were massacred, except for the artisans who were deported to <a href="/wiki/Samarkand" title="Samarkand">Samarkand</a>.<a href="#cite_note-74">[70]</a> Tamurlane conducted massacres of the Assyrian Christian population, greatly reducing their numbers.<a href="#cite_note-75">[71]</a> By the end of the 15th century, the discovery of a sea route from Europe to the <a href="/wiki/Far_East" title="Far East">Far East</a> ended the need for an <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">overland trade route</a> through Syria. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ottoman_Syria">Ottoman Syria</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Syria" title="Ottoman Syria">Ottoman Syria</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Illustration_from_Views_in_the_Ottoman_Dominions_by_Luigi_Mayer,_digitally_enhanced_by_rawpixel-com_57.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Illustration_from_Views_in_the_Ottoman_Dominions_by_Luigi_Mayer%2C_digitally_enhanced_by_rawpixel-com_57.jpg/220px-Illustration_from_Views_in_the_Ottoman_Dominions_by_Luigi_Mayer%2C_digitally_enhanced_by_rawpixel-com_57.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Illustration_from_Views_in_the_Ottoman_Dominions_by_Luigi_Mayer%2C_digitally_enhanced_by_rawpixel-com_57.jpg/330px-Illustration_from_Views_in_the_Ottoman_Dominions_by_Luigi_Mayer%2C_digitally_enhanced_by_rawpixel-com_57.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Illustration_from_Views_in_the_Ottoman_Dominions_by_Luigi_Mayer%2C_digitally_enhanced_by_rawpixel-com_57.jpg/440px-Illustration_from_Views_in_the_Ottoman_Dominions_by_Luigi_Mayer%2C_digitally_enhanced_by_rawpixel-com_57.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2500" data-file-height="1774" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Tartus" title="Tartus">Tartus</a> in Ottoman Syria, from an 1810 illustration by <a href="/wiki/Luigi_Mayer" title="Luigi Mayer">Luigi Mayer</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gustav_Bauernfeind_-_The_Gate_Of_The_Great_Umayyad_Mosque,_Damascus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Gustav_Bauernfeind_-_The_Gate_Of_The_Great_Umayyad_Mosque%2C_Damascus.jpg/220px-Gustav_Bauernfeind_-_The_Gate_Of_The_Great_Umayyad_Mosque%2C_Damascus.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="282" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Gustav_Bauernfeind_-_The_Gate_Of_The_Great_Umayyad_Mosque%2C_Damascus.jpg/330px-Gustav_Bauernfeind_-_The_Gate_Of_The_Great_Umayyad_Mosque%2C_Damascus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Gustav_Bauernfeind_-_The_Gate_Of_The_Great_Umayyad_Mosque%2C_Damascus.jpg/440px-Gustav_Bauernfeind_-_The_Gate_Of_The_Great_Umayyad_Mosque%2C_Damascus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2517" data-file-height="3226" /></a><figcaption>"The Gate Of The Great <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Mosque" title="Umayyad Mosque">Umayyad Mosque</a>, Damascus" by <a href="/wiki/Gustav_Bauernfeind" title="Gustav Bauernfeind">Gustav Bauernfeind</a>, 1890</figcaption></figure> In 1516, the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> invaded the <a href="/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate" title="Mamluk Sultanate">Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt</a>, conquering Syria and incorporating it into its empire. The Ottoman system was not burdensome to Syrians because the Turks respected Arabic as the language of the <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a> and accepted the mantle of defenders of the faith. Damascus was made the major entrepot for <a href="/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca">Mecca</a>, and as such it acquired a holy character to Muslims, because of the beneficial results of the countless pilgrims who passed through on the <a href="/wiki/Hajj" title="Hajj">hajj</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Syria_–_Ottoman_Empire-76">[72]</a> Ottoman administration followed a system that led to peaceful coexistence. Each ethno-religious minority—Arab <a href="/wiki/Shia_Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Shia Muslim">Shia Muslim</a>, Arab <a href="/wiki/Sunni_Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunni Muslim">Sunni Muslim</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syriac_Orthodox" class="mw-redirect" title="Syriac Orthodox">Syriac Orthodox</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greek_Orthodox" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek Orthodox">Greek Orthodox</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maronite_Christians" class="mw-redirect" title="Maronite Christians">Maronite Christians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Christians" class="mw-redirect" title="Assyrian Christians">Assyrian Christians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Armenians" title="Armenians">Armenians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kurds" title="Kurds">Kurds</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a>—constituted a <a href="/wiki/Millet_(Ottoman_Empire)" title="Millet (Ottoman Empire)">millet</a>.<a href="#cite_note-77">[73]</a> The religious heads of each community administered all personal status laws and performed certain civil functions as well.<a href="#cite_note-Syria_–_Ottoman_Empire-76">[72]</a> In 1831, <a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_Pasha_of_Egypt" title="Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt">Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt</a> renounced his loyalty to the empire and overran <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Syria" title="Ottoman Syria">Ottoman Syria</a>, capturing Damascus. His short-term rule over the domain attempted to change the demographics and social structure of the region: he brought thousands of Egyptian villagers to populate the plains of <a href="/wiki/Southern_Syria" title="Southern Syria">southern Syria</a>, rebuilt <a href="/wiki/Jaffa" title="Jaffa">Jaffa</a> and settled it with veteran Egyptian soldiers aiming to turn it into a regional capital, and he crushed peasant and Druze rebellions and deported non-loyal tribesmen. By 1840, however, he had to surrender the area back to the Ottomans. From 1864, <a href="/wiki/Tanzimat" title="Tanzimat">Tanzimat</a> reforms were applied on Ottoman Syria, carving out the provinces (vilayets) of <a href="/wiki/Aleppo_Vilayet" class="mw-redirect" title="Aleppo Vilayet">Aleppo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sanjak_of_Zor" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanjak of Zor">Zor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beirut_Vilayet" class="mw-redirect" title="Beirut Vilayet">Beirut</a> and <a href="/wiki/Damascus_Vilayet" class="mw-redirect" title="Damascus Vilayet">Damascus Vilayet</a>; <a href="/wiki/Mutasarrifate_of_Mount_Lebanon" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutasarrifate of Mount Lebanon">Mutasarrifate of Mount Lebanon</a> was created, and soon after the <a href="/wiki/Mutasarrifate_of_Jerusalem" title="Mutasarrifate of Jerusalem">Mutasarrifate of Jerusalem</a> was given a separate status. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Armenian_woman_kneeling_beside_dead_child_in_field.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Armenian_woman_kneeling_beside_dead_child_in_field.png/220px-Armenian_woman_kneeling_beside_dead_child_in_field.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Armenian_woman_kneeling_beside_dead_child_in_field.png/330px-Armenian_woman_kneeling_beside_dead_child_in_field.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Armenian_woman_kneeling_beside_dead_child_in_field.png/440px-Armenian_woman_kneeling_beside_dead_child_in_field.png 2x" data-file-width="2479" data-file-height="1551" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Armenians" title="Armenians">Armenian</a> deportees near Aleppo during the <a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide" title="Armenian genocide">Armenian genocide</a>, 1915</figcaption></figure> During <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, the Ottoman Empire entered the conflict as a <a href="/wiki/Central_Powers" title="Central Powers">Central Power</a>. It ultimately suffered defeat and loss of control of the entire <a href="/wiki/Near_East" title="Near East">Near East</a> to the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French Empire</a>. During the conflict, genocide against indigenous Christian peoples was carried out by the Ottomans and their allies in the form of the <a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide" title="Armenian genocide">Armenian genocide</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sayfo" title="Sayfo">Assyrian genocide</a>, of which <a href="/wiki/Deir_ez-Zor" title="Deir ez-Zor">Deir ez-Zor</a> in Ottoman Syria was the final destination of these death marches.<a href="#cite_note-78">[74]</a> In the midst of World War I, two <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I" title="Allies of World War I">Allied</a> diplomats (Frenchman <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Georges-Picot" title="François Georges-Picot">François Georges-Picot</a> and <a href="/wiki/British_people" title="British people">Briton</a> <a href="/wiki/Mark_Sykes" title="Mark Sykes">Mark Sykes</a>) secretly agreed on the post-war division of the Ottoman Empire into respective zones of influence in the <a href="/wiki/Sykes-Picot_Agreement" class="mw-redirect" title="Sykes-Picot Agreement">Sykes-Picot Agreement</a> of 1916. Initially, the two territories were separated by a border that ran in an almost straight line from Jordan to Iran. However, the discovery of oil in the region of <a href="/wiki/Mosul" title="Mosul">Mosul</a> just before the end of the war led to yet <a href="/wiki/1918_Clemenceau%E2%80%93Lloyd_George_Agreement_(Middle_East)" title="1918 Clemenceau–Lloyd George Agreement (Middle East)">another negotiation with France in 1918</a> to cede this region to the British zone of influence, which was to become Iraq. The fate of the intermediate province of Zor was left unclear; its <a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Zor" title="Occupation of Zor">occupation by Arab nationalists resulted in its attachment to Syria</a>. This border was recognized internationally when Syria became a <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a> mandate in 1920<a href="#cite_note-79">[75]</a> and has not changed to date. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="French_Mandate">French Mandate</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Mandate_for_Syria_and_the_Lebanon" title="Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon">Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mandatory_Syrian_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Mandatory Syrian Republic">Mandatory Syrian Republic</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hashim_Atassi_Inauguration_1936.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Hashim_Atassi_Inauguration_1936.jpg/220px-Hashim_Atassi_Inauguration_1936.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Hashim_Atassi_Inauguration_1936.jpg/330px-Hashim_Atassi_Inauguration_1936.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Hashim_Atassi_Inauguration_1936.jpg/440px-Hashim_Atassi_Inauguration_1936.jpg 2x" data-file-width="594" data-file-height="406" /></a><figcaption>The inauguration of President <a href="/wiki/Hashim_al-Atassi" title="Hashim al-Atassi">Hashim al-Atassi</a> in 1936</figcaption></figure> In 1920, a short-lived independent <a href="/wiki/Arab_Kingdom_of_Syria" title="Arab Kingdom of Syria">Kingdom of Syria</a> was established under <a href="/wiki/Faisal_I_of_Iraq" title="Faisal I of Iraq">Faisal I</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Hashemites" title="Hashemites">Hashemite</a> family. However, his rule over Syria ended after only a few months, following the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Maysalun" title="Battle of Maysalun">Battle of Maysalun</a>. French troops occupied Syria later that year after the <a href="/wiki/San_Remo_conference" title="San Remo conference">San Remo conference</a> proposed that the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a> put Syria under a French mandate. General Gouraud had according to his secretary de Caix two options: "Either build a Syrian nation that does not exist... by smoothing the rifts which still divide it" or "cultivate and maintain all the phenomena, which require our arbitration that these divisions give". De Caix added "I must say only the second option interests me". This is what Gouraud did.<a href="#cite_note-80">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-81">[77]</a> In 1925, <a href="/wiki/Sultan_al-Atrash" title="Sultan al-Atrash">Sultan al-Atrash</a> led <a href="/wiki/Great_Syrian_Revolt" title="Great Syrian Revolt">a revolt</a> that broke out in the <a href="/wiki/Jabal_al-Druze" title="Jabal al-Druze">Druze Mountain</a> and spread to engulf the whole of Syria and parts of Lebanon. Al-Atrash won several battles against the French, notably the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_al-Kafr" title="Battle of al-Kafr">Battle of al-Kafr</a> on 21 July 1925, the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_al-Mazraa" title="Battle of al-Mazraa">Battle of al-Mazraa</a> on 2–3 August 1925, and the battles of Salkhad, <a href="/wiki/Al-Musayfirah" title="Al-Musayfirah">al-Musayfirah</a> and Suwayda. France sent thousands of troops from Morocco and Senegal, leading the French to regain many cities, although resistance lasted until the spring of 1927. The French sentenced al-Atrash to death, but he had escaped with the rebels to Transjordan and was eventually pardoned. He returned to Syria in 1937 after the signing of the Syrian-French Treaty. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ghouta_rebels_in_1925.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Ghouta_rebels_in_1925.jpg/220px-Ghouta_rebels_in_1925.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Ghouta_rebels_in_1925.jpg/330px-Ghouta_rebels_in_1925.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Ghouta_rebels_in_1925.jpg/440px-Ghouta_rebels_in_1925.jpg 2x" data-file-width="622" data-file-height="422" /></a><figcaption>Syrian rebels in <a href="/wiki/Ghouta" class="mw-redirect" title="Ghouta">Ghouta</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Great_Syrian_Revolt" title="Great Syrian Revolt">Great Syrian Revolt</a> against French colonial rule in the 1920s</figcaption></figure> Syria and France negotiated a <a href="/wiki/Franco-Syrian_Treaty_of_Independence_(1936)" class="mw-redirect" title="Franco-Syrian Treaty of Independence (1936)">treaty of independence</a> in September 1936, and <a href="/wiki/Hashim_al-Atassi" title="Hashim al-Atassi">Hashim al-Atassi</a> was the first president to be elected under the first incarnation of the modern republic of Syria. However, the treaty never came into force because the French Legislature refused to ratify it. With the fall of France in 1940 during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, Syria came under the control of <a href="/wiki/Vichy_France" title="Vichy France">Vichy France</a> until the British and Free French occupied the country in the <a href="/wiki/Syria-Lebanon_campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Syria-Lebanon campaign">Syria-Lebanon campaign</a> in July 1941. Continuing pressure from Syrian nationalists and the British <a href="/wiki/Levant_Crisis" title="Levant Crisis">forced the French</a> to evacuate their troops in April 1946, leaving the country in the hands of a republican government that had been formed during the mandate.<a href="#cite_note-USDoS-82">[78]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Independent_Syrian_Republic">Independent Syrian Republic</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Second_Syrian_Republic" title="Second Syrian Republic">Second Syrian Republic</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Republic" title="United Arab Republic">United Arab Republic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/1963_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1963 Syrian coup d'état">1963 Syrian coup d'état</a></div> Upheaval dominated Syrian politics from independence through the late 1960s. In May 1948, Syrian forces invaded <a href="/wiki/Palestine_(region)" title="Palestine (region)">Palestine</a>, together with other Arab states, and immediately <a href="/wiki/Battles_of_the_Kinarot_Valley" title="Battles of the Kinarot Valley">attacked Jewish settlements</a>.<a href="#cite_note-83">[79]</a> President <a href="/wiki/Shukri_al-Quwatli" title="Shukri al-Quwatli">Shukri al-Quwwatli</a> instructed his troops in the front, "to destroy the Zionists".<a href="#cite_note-84">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-85">[81]</a> The invasion purpose was to prevent the establishment of the state of Israel.<a href="#cite_note-Britan-86">[82]</a> Toward this end, the Syrian government engaged in an active process of recruiting former <a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazis</a>, including several former members of the <a href="/wiki/Schutzstaffel" title="Schutzstaffel">Schutzstaffel</a>, to build up their armed forces and military intelligence capabilities.<a href="#cite_note-87">[83]</a> Defeat in this war was one of several trigger factors for the <a href="/wiki/March_1949_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="March 1949 Syrian coup d'état">March 1949 Syrian coup d'état</a> by Colonel <a href="/wiki/Husni_al-Za%27im" title="Husni al-Za'im">Husni al-Za'im</a>, described as the first military overthrow of the <a href="/wiki/Arab_World" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab World">Arab World</a><a href="#cite_note-Britan-86">[82]</a> since the start of the Second World War. This was soon followed by another overthrow, by Colonel <a href="/wiki/Sami_al-Hinnawi" title="Sami al-Hinnawi">Sami al-Hinnawi</a>, who was quickly deposed by Colonel <a href="/wiki/Adib_Shishakli" title="Adib Shishakli">Adib Shishakli</a>, all within the same year.<a href="#cite_note-Britan-86">[82]</a><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Syrien_1961_Aleppol_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Syrien_1961_Aleppol_1.jpg/250px-Syrien_1961_Aleppol_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Syrien_1961_Aleppol_1.jpg/330px-Syrien_1961_Aleppol_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Syrien_1961_Aleppol_1.jpg/500px-Syrien_1961_Aleppol_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="427" /></a><figcaption>Aleppo in 1961</figcaption></figure>Shishakli eventually abolished multipartyism altogether but was overthrown in a <a href="/wiki/1954_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1954 Syrian coup d'état">1954 coup</a>, and the parliamentary system was restored.<a href="#cite_note-Britan-86">[82]</a> However, by this time, power was increasingly concentrated in the military and security establishment.<a href="#cite_note-Britan-86">[82]</a> The weakness of Parliamentary institutions and the mismanagement of the economy led to unrest and the influence of <a href="/wiki/Nasserism" title="Nasserism">Nasserism</a> and other ideologies. There was fertile ground for various <a href="/wiki/Arab_nationalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab nationalist">Arab nationalist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syrian_nationalism" title="Syrian nationalism">Syrian nationalist</a>, and socialist movements, which represented disaffected elements of society. Notably included were religious minorities, who demanded radical reform.<a href="#cite_note-Britan-86">[82]</a> In November 1956, as a direct result of the <a href="/wiki/Suez_Crisis" title="Suez Crisis">Suez Crisis</a>,<a href="#cite_note-88">[84]</a> Syria signed a pact with the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>. This gave a foothold for communist influence within the government in exchange for military equipment.<a href="#cite_note-Britan-86">[82]</a> <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a> then became worried about this increase in the strength of Syrian military technology, as it seemed feasible that Syria might attempt to retake <a href="/wiki/%C4%B0skenderun" title="İskenderun">İskenderun</a>. Only heated debates in the United Nations lessened the threat of war.<a href="#cite_note-89">[85]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_Arab_Republic">United Arab Republic</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nasser_addresses_Aleppo,_1960.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Nasser_addresses_Aleppo%2C_1960.jpg/220px-Nasser_addresses_Aleppo%2C_1960.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Nasser_addresses_Aleppo%2C_1960.jpg/330px-Nasser_addresses_Aleppo%2C_1960.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Nasser_addresses_Aleppo%2C_1960.jpg/440px-Nasser_addresses_Aleppo%2C_1960.jpg 2x" data-file-width="499" data-file-height="420" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser" title="Gamal Abdel Nasser">Gamal Abdel Nasser</a> at <a href="/wiki/Aleppo" title="Aleppo">Aleppo</a>, 1960</figcaption></figure> On 1 February 1958, Syrian President <a href="/wiki/Shukri_al-Quwatli" title="Shukri al-Quwatli">Shukri al-Quwatli</a> and Egypt's Nasser announced the merging of Egypt and Syria, creating the <a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Republic" title="United Arab Republic">United Arab Republic</a>, and all Syrian political parties, as well as the communists therein, ceased overt activities.<a href="#cite_note-USDoS-82">[78]</a> Meanwhile, a group of Syrian Ba'athist officers, alarmed by the party's poor position and the increasing fragility of the union, decided to form a secret Military Committee; its initial members were Lieutenant-Colonel <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Umran" title="Muhammad Umran">Muhammad Umran</a>, Major <a href="/wiki/Salah_Jadid" title="Salah Jadid">Salah Jadid</a> and Captain Hafez al-Assad. Syria seceded from the union with Egypt on 28 September 1961, after a <a href="/wiki/1961_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1961 Syrian coup d'état">coup</a> and terminated the political union. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Land_reform">Land reform</h4></div> Agrarian reform measures were introduced which consisted of three interrelated programs: legislation regulating the relationship between agriculture laborers and landowners; legislation governing the ownership and use of private and state domain land and directing the economic organization of peasants; and measures reorganizing agricultural production under state control.<a href="#cite_note-90">[86]</a> Despite high levels of inequality in land ownership these reforms allowed for more progress in redistribution of land from 1958 to 1961 than any other reforms in Syria's history, since independence. The first law passed (Law 134; passed 4 September 1958) was in response to concern about peasant mobilization and expanding peasants' rights.<a href="#cite_note-Heydemann,_Steven_19992-91">[87]</a> This was designed to strengthen the position of sharecroppers and agricultural laborers in relation to land owners.<a href="#cite_note-Heydemann,_Steven_19992-91">[87]</a> This law led to the creation of the Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs, which announced the implementation of new laws that would allow the regulation of working condition especially for women and adolescents, set hours of work, and introduce the principle of minimum wage for paid laborers and an equitable division of harvest for sharecroppers.<a href="#cite_note-92">[88]</a> Furthermore, it obligated landlords to honor both written and oral contracts, established collective bargaining, contained provisions for workers' compensation, health, housing, and employment services.<a href="#cite_note-Heydemann,_Steven_19992-91">[87]</a> Law 134 was not designed strictly to protect workers. It also acknowledged the rights of landlords to form their own syndicates.<a href="#cite_note-Heydemann,_Steven_19992-91">[87]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ba'athist_Syria">Ba'athist Syria</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ba%27athist_Syria" title="Ba'athist Syria">Ba'athist Syria</a></div> The instability which followed the <a href="/wiki/1961_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1961 Syrian coup d'état">1961 coup</a> culminated in the <a href="/wiki/1963_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1963 Syrian coup d'état">8 March 1963 Ba'athist coup</a>. The takeover was engineered by members of the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Syria_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region">Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party</a>, led by <a href="/wiki/Michel_Aflaq" title="Michel Aflaq">Michel Aflaq</a> and <a href="/wiki/Salah_al-Din_al-Bitar" title="Salah al-Din al-Bitar">Salah al-Din al-Bitar</a>. The new Syrian cabinet was dominated by Ba'ath members.<a href="#cite_note-USDoS-82">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-Britan-86">[82]</a> From the <a href="/wiki/1963_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1963 Syrian coup d'état">1963 seizure of power</a> by its <a href="/wiki/Military_Committee_(Syria)" class="mw-redirect" title="Military Committee (Syria)">Military Committee</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Assad%27s_regime" class="mw-redirect" title="Fall of Assad's regime">fall of the regime</a> in 2024, the Ba'ath party ruled Syria as a dictatorship which has been frequently described as <a href="/wiki/Totalitarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Totalitarian">totalitarian</a>,<a href="#cite_note-tots-93">[e]</a> although some scholars have rejected this description.<a href="#cite_note-nt1-94">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-nt2-95">[90]</a> Ba'athists took control over country's politics, education, culture, religion and surveilled all aspects of civil society through its powerful <a href="/wiki/Military_Intelligence_Directorate_(Syria)" title="Military Intelligence Directorate (Syria)">Mukhabarat</a> (secret police). <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Arab_Armed_Forces" title="Syrian Arab Armed Forces">Syrian Arab Armed forces</a> and secret police were integrated with the Ba'ath party apparatus; after the purging of traditional civilian and military elites by the regime.<a href="#cite_note-96">[91]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:General_Hafez_al-Assad_(1930-2000),_the_new_president_of_Syria_in_November_1970.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/General_Hafez_al-Assad_%281930-2000%29%2C_the_new_president_of_Syria_in_November_1970.png/250px-General_Hafez_al-Assad_%281930-2000%29%2C_the_new_president_of_Syria_in_November_1970.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="259" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/General_Hafez_al-Assad_%281930-2000%29%2C_the_new_president_of_Syria_in_November_1970.png/330px-General_Hafez_al-Assad_%281930-2000%29%2C_the_new_president_of_Syria_in_November_1970.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/General_Hafez_al-Assad_%281930-2000%29%2C_the_new_president_of_Syria_in_November_1970.png/500px-General_Hafez_al-Assad_%281930-2000%29%2C_the_new_president_of_Syria_in_November_1970.png 2x" data-file-width="820" data-file-height="1251" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hafez_al-Assad" title="Hafez al-Assad">Hafez al-Assad</a>, president of Syria (1970–2000)</figcaption></figure> The 1963 Ba'athist coup marked a "radical break" in <a href="/wiki/History_of_Syria#Modern_history" title="History of Syria">modern Syrian history</a>, after which Ba'ath party monopolised power in the country to establish a <a href="/wiki/One-party_state" title="One-party state">one-party state</a> and shaped a socio-political order by enforcing its <a href="/wiki/Neo-Ba%27athism" title="Neo-Ba'athism">state ideology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-97">[92]</a> On 23 February 1966, the neo-Ba'athist Military Committee carried out an <a href="/wiki/1966_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1966 Syrian coup d'état">intra-party rebellion</a> against the Ba'athist Old Guard (<a href="/wiki/Michel_Aflaq" title="Michel Aflaq">Aflaq</a> and <a href="/wiki/Salah_al-Din_al-Bitar" title="Salah al-Din al-Bitar">Bitar</a>), imprisoned President <a href="/wiki/Amin_al-Hafiz" title="Amin al-Hafiz">Amin al-Hafiz</a> and designated a regionalist, civilian Ba'ath government on 1 March.<a href="#cite_note-Britan-86">[82]</a> Although <a href="/wiki/Nureddin_al-Atassi" title="Nureddin al-Atassi">Nureddin al-Atassi</a> became the formal head of state, <a href="/wiki/Salah_Jadid" title="Salah Jadid">Salah Jadid</a> was Syria's effective ruler from 1966 until November 1970,<a href="#cite_note-98">[93]</a> when he was deposed by <a href="/wiki/Hafez_al-Assad" title="Hafez al-Assad">Hafez al-Assad</a>, who at the time was Minister of Defense.<a href="#cite_note-ps-99">[94]</a> The coup led to the schism within the original pan-Arab Ba'ath Party: one <a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Iraqi-dominated_faction)" title="Ba'ath Party (Iraqi-dominated faction)">Iraqi-led ba'ath movement</a> (ruled Iraq from 1968 to 2003) and one <a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Syrian-dominated_faction)" title="Ba'ath Party (Syrian-dominated faction)">Syrian-led ba'ath movement</a> was established. In the first half of 1967, a low-key state of war existed between Syria and Israel. Conflict over Israeli cultivation of land in the <a href="/wiki/Israel%E2%80%93Syria_Mixed_Armistice_Commission" title="Israel–Syria Mixed Armistice Commission">Demilitarized Zone</a> led to <a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_Six-Day_War#Israel_and_Syria" title="Origins of the Six-Day War">7 April pre-war aerial clashes</a> between Israel and Syria.<a href="#cite_note-Tessler1994-100">[95]</a> When the <a href="/wiki/Six-Day_War" title="Six-Day War">Six-Day War</a> broke out between Egypt and Israel, Syria joined the war and attacked Israel as well. In the final days of the war, Israel turned its attention to Syria, capturing two-thirds of the <a href="/wiki/Golan_Heights" title="Golan Heights">Golan Heights</a> in under 48 hours.<a href="#cite_note-101">[96]</a> The defeat caused a split between Jadid and Assad over what steps to take next.<a href="#cite_note-Khatib2012-102">[97]</a> Disagreement developed between Jadid, who controlled the party apparatus, and Assad, who controlled the military. The 1970 retreat of Syrian forces sent to aid the <a href="/wiki/Palestine_Liberation_Organization" title="Palestine Liberation Organization">Palestine Liberation Organization</a> led by <a href="/wiki/Yasser_Arafat" title="Yasser Arafat">Yasser Arafat</a> during the "<a href="/wiki/Black_September_in_Jordan" class="mw-redirect" title="Black September in Jordan">Black September</a> (also known as the Jordan Civil War of 1970)" hostilities with Jordan reflected this disagreement.<a href="#cite_note-103">[98]</a> The power struggle culminated in the November <a href="/wiki/1970_Syrian_Corrective_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="1970 Syrian Corrective Revolution">1970 Syrian Corrective movement</a>, a bloodless military coup that installed Hafez al-Assad as the strongman of the government.<a href="#cite_note-ps-99">[94]</a> Assad transformed a Ba'athist party state into a dictatorship marked by his pervasive grip on the party, <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Arab_Armed_Forces" title="Syrian Arab Armed Forces">armed forces</a>, <a href="/wiki/Military_Intelligence_Directorate_(Syria)" title="Military Intelligence Directorate (Syria)">secret police</a>, media, education sector, religious and cultural spheres and all aspects of civil society. He assigned <a href="/wiki/Alawites" title="Alawites">Alawite</a> loyalists to key posts in the military forces, bureaucracy, <a href="/wiki/Military_Intelligence_Directorate_(Syria)" title="Military Intelligence Directorate (Syria)">intelligence</a> and the ruling elite. A cult of personality revolving around Hafez and his family became a core tenet of <a href="/wiki/Assadism" title="Assadism">Ba'athist ideology</a>,<a href="#cite_note-The_Sturdy_House_That_Assad_Built2-104">[99]</a> which espoused that <a href="/wiki/Assad_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Assad dynasty">Assad dynasty</a> was destined to rule perennially.<a href="#cite_note-105">[100]</a> On 6 October 1973, Syria and Egypt initiated the <a href="/wiki/Yom_Kippur_War" title="Yom Kippur War">Yom Kippur War</a> against Israel. The <a href="/wiki/Israel_Defense_Forces" title="Israel Defense Forces">Israel Defense Forces</a> reversed the initial Syrian gains and pushed deeper into Syrian territory.<a href="#cite_note-106">[101]</a> The village of <a href="/wiki/Quneitra" title="Quneitra">Quneitra</a> was largely destroyed by the Israeli army. In the late 1970s, an <a href="/wiki/Islamist_uprising_in_Syria" title="Islamist uprising in Syria">Islamist uprising</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_Brotherhood_of_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim Brotherhood of Syria">Muslim Brotherhood</a> was aimed against the government. Islamists attacked civilians and off-duty military personnel, leading security forces to also kill civilians in retaliatory strikes. The uprising had reached its climax in the 1982 <a href="/wiki/1982_Hama_massacre" title="1982 Hama massacre">Hama massacre</a>,<a href="#cite_note-107">[102]</a> when more than 2,000 to 25,000<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarréMichaud1983159-108">[103]</a>-40,000 people (islamist and civilians) were killed by <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Armed_Forces" title="Syrian Armed Forces">Syrian military</a> troops and Ba'athist paramilitaries.<a href="#cite_note-wright2008-109">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-Amos-110">[105]</a> It has been described as the "single deadliest act" of violence perpetrated by any state upon its own population in <a href="/wiki/Modern_Middle_East" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern Middle East">modern Arab history</a><a href="#cite_note-wright2008-109">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-Amos-110">[105]</a> In a major shift in relations with both other <a href="/wiki/Arab_states" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab states">Arab states</a> and the Western world, Syria participated in the United States-led <a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a> against <a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a>. The country participated in the multilateral <a href="/wiki/Madrid_Conference_of_1991" title="Madrid Conference of 1991">Madrid Conference of 1991</a>, and during the 1990s engaged in negotiations with Israel along with Palestine and Jordan. These negotiations failed, and there have been no further direct Syrian-Israeli talks since Assad's meeting with U.S. President <a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a> in <a href="/wiki/Geneva" title="Geneva">Geneva</a> in 2000.<a href="#cite_note-111">[106]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Involvement_of_Lebanese_war">Involvement of Lebanese war</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Syrian_occupation_of_Lebanon" title="Syrian occupation of Lebanon">Syrian occupation of Lebanon</a></div> Hafez al-Assad died on 10 June 2000. His son, <a href="/wiki/Bashar_al-Assad" title="Bashar al-Assad">Bashar al-Assad</a>, was elected president in <a href="/wiki/Syrian_presidential_election,_2000" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian presidential election, 2000">an election</a> in which he ran unopposed.<a href="#cite_note-USDoS-82">[78]</a> His election saw the birth of the <a href="/wiki/Damascus_Spring" title="Damascus Spring">Damascus Spring</a> and hopes of reform, but by autumn 2001 the authorities had suppressed the movement, imprisoning some of its leading intellectuals.<a href="#cite_note-Alan-112">[107]</a> Instead, reforms have been limited to some market reforms.<a href="#cite_note-The_Sturdy_House_That_Assad_Built2-104">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[108]</a> On 5 October 2003 Israel <a href="/wiki/Ain_es_Saheb_airstrike" title="Ain es Saheb airstrike">bombed a site near Damascus</a>, claiming it was a terrorist training facility for members of <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Jihad_Movement_in_Palestine" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic Jihad Movement in Palestine">Islamic Jihad</a>.<a href="#cite_note-114">[109]</a> In March 2004, <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Kurds" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian Kurds">Syrian Kurds</a> and Arabs <a href="/wiki/2004_Al-Qamishli_riots" class="mw-redirect" title="2004 Al-Qamishli riots">clashed</a> in <a href="/wiki/Al-Qamishli" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Qamishli">al-Qamishli</a>. Signs of rioting were seen in Qamishli and <a href="/wiki/Al-Hasakah" title="Al-Hasakah">Hasakeh</a>.<a href="#cite_note-115">[110]</a> In 2005, Syria ended its military presence in Lebanon.<a href="#cite_note-116">[111]</a> <a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Rafic_Hariri" class="mw-redirect" title="Killing of Rafic Hariri">Assassination</a> of <a href="/wiki/Rafic_Hariri" title="Rafic Hariri">Rafic Hariri</a> in 2005 led to international condemnation and triggered a popular <a href="/wiki/Cedar_Revolution" title="Cedar Revolution">Intifada</a> in <a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a>, known as "the Cedar Revolution", which forced the <a href="/wiki/Assad_regime" class="mw-redirect" title="Assad regime">Assad regime</a> to end its 29-year-old <a href="/wiki/Syrian_occupation_of_Lebanon" title="Syrian occupation of Lebanon">military occupation in Lebanon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-The_Los_Angeles_Times-117">[112]</a> On 6 September 2007, foreign jet fighters, suspected as Israeli, reportedly carried out <a href="/wiki/Operation_Orchard" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Orchard">Operation Orchard</a> against a suspected nuclear reactor under construction by <a href="/wiki/North_Korea" title="North Korea">North Korean</a> technicians.<a href="#cite_note-118">[113]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Syrian_Revolution_and_Civil_War">Syrian Revolution and Civil War</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian Revolution">Syrian Revolution</a> and <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian Civil War">Syrian Civil War</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Syrian_civil_war_01_12_2015.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Syrian_civil_war_01_12_2015.png/220px-Syrian_civil_war_01_12_2015.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Syrian_civil_war_01_12_2015.png/330px-Syrian_civil_war_01_12_2015.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Syrian_civil_war_01_12_2015.png/440px-Syrian_civil_war_01_12_2015.png 2x" data-file-width="2502" data-file-height="2107" /></a><figcaption>Military situation in December 2015. <a href="/wiki/Islamic_State" title="Islamic State">Islamic State</a>-<a href="/wiki/Territory_of_the_Islamic_State" title="Territory of the Islamic State">controlled territory</a> is in grey.</figcaption></figure> Nepotism of ruling elites and <a href="/wiki/Authoritarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Authoritarian">authoritarian</a> regime caused <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian Revolution">Syrian Revolution</a> as part of the wider <a href="/wiki/Arab_Spring" title="Arab Spring">Arab Spring</a>. Public demonstrations across Syria began on 26 January 2011 and developed into a nationwide uprising. Protesters demanded the resignation of Assad, the overthrow of his government, and an end to nearly five decades of Ba'ath Party rule. Since spring 2011, the Syrian government deployed the Syrian Army to quell the uprising, and several cities were besieged,<a href="#cite_note-119">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-http-120">[115]</a> though the unrest continued. According to some witnesses, soldiers, who refused to open fire on civilians, were summarily executed by the Syrian Army.<a href="#cite_note-defect-121">[116]</a> The Syrian government denied reports of defections, and blamed armed gangs for causing trouble.<a href="#cite_note-crackdown-122">[117]</a> Since early autumn 2011, civilians and army defectors began forming fighting units, which began an <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian Civil War">insurgency campaign</a> against the Syrian Army. The insurgents unified under the banner of the <a href="/wiki/Free_Syrian_Army" title="Free Syrian Army">Free Syrian Army</a> and fought in an increasingly organized fashion; however, the civilian component of the armed opposition lacked an organized leadership.<a href="#cite_note-:2-123">[118]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pro-government_Syrians_demonstration_in_Damascus_after_US_missile_strike_06.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Pro-government_Syrians_demonstration_in_Damascus_after_US_missile_strike_06.jpg/250px-Pro-government_Syrians_demonstration_in_Damascus_after_US_missile_strike_06.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Pro-government_Syrians_demonstration_in_Damascus_after_US_missile_strike_06.jpg/330px-Pro-government_Syrians_demonstration_in_Damascus_after_US_missile_strike_06.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Pro-government_Syrians_demonstration_in_Damascus_after_US_missile_strike_06.jpg/500px-Pro-government_Syrians_demonstration_in_Damascus_after_US_missile_strike_06.jpg 2x" data-file-width="789" data-file-height="483" /></a><figcaption>Pro-Assad demonstration in the capital Damascus after <a href="/wiki/April_2018_missile_strikes_against_Syria" title="April 2018 missile strikes against Syria">US-led missile strikes</a> in April 2018</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Arab_League" title="Arab League">Arab League</a>, the United States, the European Union states, the <a href="/wiki/Cooperation_Council_for_the_Arab_States_of_the_Gulf" class="mw-redirect" title="Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf">Gulf Cooperation Council states</a>, and other countries have condemned the use of violence against the protesters.<a href="#cite_note-:2-123">[118]</a> China and Russia have avoided condemning the government or applying sanctions, saying that such methods could escalate into foreign intervention. However, military intervention has been ruled out by most countries.<a href="#cite_note-124">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-125">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-:3-126">[121]</a> The Arab League suspended Syria's membership over the government's response to the crisis,<a href="#cite_note-127">[122]</a> but sent an <a href="/wiki/Arab_League_Monitors_in_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab League Monitors in Syria">observer mission</a> in December 2011, as part of its <a href="/wiki/Syrian_conflict_peace_proposals" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian conflict peace proposals">proposal for peaceful resolution</a> of the crisis.<a href="#cite_note-:3-126">[121]</a> By 2024, the Syrian civil war had resulted in more than 600,000 deaths,<a href="#cite_note-128">[123]</a> with pro-Assad forces causing more than 90% of the <a href="/wiki/Casualties_of_the_Syrian_civil_war" title="Casualties of the Syrian civil war">total civilian casualties</a>.<a href="#cite_note-138">[f]</a> Between March 2011 and March 2021, more than 306,000 civilians were killed in the civil war.<a href="#cite_note-139">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-140">[134]</a> The war led to a <a href="/wiki/Refugees_of_the_Syrian_civil_war" title="Refugees of the Syrian civil war">massive refugee crisis</a>, with an estimated 7.6 million <a href="/wiki/Forced_displacement" title="Forced displacement">internally displaced people</a> (July 2015 <a href="/wiki/UNHCR" class="mw-redirect" title="UNHCR">UNHCR</a> figure) and over 5 million refugees (July 2017 registered by <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_High_Commissioner_for_Refugees" title="United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees">UNHCR</a>).<a href="#cite_note-141">[135]</a> The war has also worsened economic conditions, with more than 90% of the population living in poverty and 80% facing food insecurity.<a href="#cite_note-146">[g]</a><a href="#cite_note-148">[h]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rise_and_fall_of_Islamic_State,_intervention_of_foreign_countries_and_creation_of_several_rebel_factions">Rise and fall of Islamic State, intervention of foreign countries and creation of several rebel factions</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/War_against_the_Islamic_State" title="War against the Islamic State">War against the Islamic State</a> and <a href="/wiki/Foreign_involvement_in_the_Syrian_civil_war" title="Foreign involvement in the Syrian civil war">Foreign involvement in the Syrian civil war</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Destroyed_neighborhood_in_Raqqa.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Destroyed_neighborhood_in_Raqqa.png/250px-Destroyed_neighborhood_in_Raqqa.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Destroyed_neighborhood_in_Raqqa.png/330px-Destroyed_neighborhood_in_Raqqa.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Destroyed_neighborhood_in_Raqqa.png/500px-Destroyed_neighborhood_in_Raqqa.png 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="865" /></a><figcaption>IS's capital <a href="/wiki/Raqqa" title="Raqqa">Raqqa</a> suffered extensive damage during the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Raqqa_(2017)" title="Battle of Raqqa (2017)">battle of Raqqa</a> in June–October 2017</figcaption></figure> Taking an advantage of ongoing civil war, the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_State_of_Iraq_and_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic State of Iraq and Syria">Islamic State of Iraq and Syria</a> (ISIS) won many battles against the rebel factions and the Syrian government in 2014. ISIS was able to seize control of large parts of Eastern Syria, prompting a United States-led coalition to launch an <a href="/wiki/War_against_the_Islamic_State" title="War against the Islamic State">aerial bombing campaign</a> against ISIS, while providing <a href="/wiki/US_intervention_in_the_Syrian_civil_war" title="US intervention in the Syrian civil war">ground support</a> and supplies to the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Democratic_Forces" title="Syrian Democratic Forces">Syrian Democratic Forces</a> (SDF), a Kurdish-dominated coalition led by the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Defense_Units" title="People's Defense Units">People's Defense Units</a> (YPG). In August 2016, Turkey launched a <a href="/wiki/Turkish_intervention_in_the_Syrian_civil_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Turkish intervention in the Syrian civil war">multi-pronged invasion</a> of northern Syria, in response to the creation of the Kurdish-led <a href="/wiki/Autonomous_Administration_of_North_and_East_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria">Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria</a>, also known as Rojava, while also fighting ISIS and government forces in the process. During this time, Turkey helped establish the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_National_Army" title="Syrian National Army">Syrian National Army</a> (SNA) out of remnants of the Free Syrian Army. <a href="/wiki/Iranian_intervention_in_the_Syrian_civil_war" title="Iranian intervention in the Syrian civil war">Iran</a> and later Russia also <a href="/wiki/Russian_intervention_in_the_Syrian_civil_war" title="Russian intervention in the Syrian civil war">intervened</a> the civil war in behalf of Assad government to defeat ISIS and attack both SDF and SNA. The ISIS eventually lost its territory after the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Mosul" title="Fall of Mosul">fall of IS in Mosul</a> and increasingly resorted to more terror bombings and insurgency operations that continues in present. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rebel_offensive_and_fall_of_the_Ba'athist_regime">Rebel offensive and fall of the Ba'athist regime</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/2024_Syrian_opposition_offensives" title="2024 Syrian opposition offensives">2024 Syrian opposition offensives</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Assad_regime" title="Fall of the Assad regime">Fall of the Assad regime</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Syrian_Civil_War_map_(November_24,_2023).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Syrian_Civil_War_map_%28November_24%2C_2023%29.svg/220px-Syrian_Civil_War_map_%28November_24%2C_2023%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Syrian_Civil_War_map_%28November_24%2C_2023%29.svg/330px-Syrian_Civil_War_map_%28November_24%2C_2023%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Syrian_Civil_War_map_%28November_24%2C_2023%29.svg/440px-Syrian_Civil_War_map_%28November_24%2C_2023%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="922" data-file-height="762" /></a><figcaption>Military situation before the <a href="/wiki/2024_Syrian_opposition_offensives" title="2024 Syrian opposition offensives">opposition offensives</a> in late 2024. Territories controlled by the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Democratic_Forces" title="Syrian Democratic Forces">SDF</a> and the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> (yellow), <a href="/wiki/Islamic_State" title="Islamic State">IS</a> (grey), the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Arab_Armed_Forces" title="Syrian Arab Armed Forces">Syrian Arab Armed Forces</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a> (red), <a href="/wiki/Syrian_National_Army" title="Syrian National Army">SNA</a> and <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a> (light green), <a href="/wiki/Hay%27at_Tahrir_al-Sham" title="Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham">Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham</a> (white), <a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Commando_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Revolutionary Commando Army">SFA</a> and the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> (teal).</figcaption></figure> In December 2024, violence flared up once again. Rebel factions, led by the Islamist group Hayat <a href="/wiki/Tahrir_al-Sham" class="mw-redirect" title="Tahrir al-Sham">Tahrir al-Sham</a> (HTS), <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Aleppo_(2024)" title="Battle of Aleppo (2024)">took control of Aleppo</a> in a lightning offensive, prompting a retaliatory airstrike campaign by Syrian regime forces, supported by <a href="/wiki/Russian_Aerospace_Forces" title="Russian Aerospace Forces">Russian aviation assets</a>. The strikes, which targeted population centers and several hospitals in <a href="/wiki/Insurgency_in_Idlib" class="mw-redirect" title="Insurgency in Idlib">rebel-held</a> city of <a href="/wiki/Idlib" title="Idlib">Idlib</a>, resulted in at least 25 deaths according to the White Helmets rescue group. NATO issued a joint statement calling for the protection of civilians and critical infrastructure to prevent further displacement and ensure humanitarian access. They stressed the urgent need for a Syrian-led political solution, in accordance with UN Security Council Resolution 2254, which advocates for dialogue between the Syrian government and opposition forces. The <a href="/wiki/2024_Syrian_opposition_offensives" title="2024 Syrian opposition offensives">rebel offensive</a>, which had begun on 27 November, continued its <a href="/wiki/2024_Hama_offensive" title="2024 Hama offensive">advance into Hama province</a> following their capture of Aleppo.<a href="#cite_note-149">[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-150">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-151">[143]</a> On 4 December, fierce clashes erupted in Hama province as the Syrian army engaged rebel forces in a bid to halt their advance on the key city of <a href="/wiki/Hama" title="Hama">Hama</a>. Government forces claimed to have launched a counteroffensive with air support, pushing back rebel factions, including HTS, around six miles from the city. However, despite reinforcements, the rebels captured the city on 5 December.<a href="#cite_note-152">[144]</a> The fighting led to widespread displacement, with nearly 50,000 people fleeing the area and over 600 casualties reported, including 104 civilians.<a href="#cite_note-153">[145]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Syrian_Civil_War_map_(ISW-CTP).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Syrian_Civil_War_map_%28ISW-CTP%29.svg/250px-Syrian_Civil_War_map_%28ISW-CTP%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Syrian_Civil_War_map_%28ISW-CTP%29.svg/330px-Syrian_Civil_War_map_%28ISW-CTP%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Syrian_Civil_War_map_%28ISW-CTP%29.svg/500px-Syrian_Civil_War_map_%28ISW-CTP%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="922" data-file-height="762" /></a><figcaption>Military situation after the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Assad_regime" title="Fall of the Assad regime">fall of the Assad regime</a> in December 2024. Territories controlled by the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Armed_Forces" title="Syrian Armed Forces">Syrian Armed Forces</a> (white) and <a href="/wiki/Southern_Operations_Room" title="Southern Operations Room">SOR</a> (pink), <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a> and <a href="/wiki/Syrian_National_Army" title="Syrian National Army">SNA</a> (light green), the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> and <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Democratic_Forces" title="Syrian Democratic Forces">SDF</a> (yellow), <a href="/wiki/Islamic_State" title="Islamic State">IS</a> (grey), the <a href="/wiki/Syrian" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian">Syrian uncertain/mixed</a> (red/light grey), the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> and <a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Commando_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Revolutionary Commando Army">SFA</a> (teal).</figcaption></figure> Rebel forces reached the outskirts of <a href="/wiki/Homs" title="Homs">Homs</a> on 5 December, beginning a <a href="/wiki/2024_Homs_offensive" title="2024 Homs offensive">three-day battle</a> for the city. Simultaneously, an HTS-coordinated<a href="#cite_note-154">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-:32-155">[147]</a> <a href="/wiki/Southern_Syria_offensive_(2024)" title="Southern Syria offensive (2024)">mass uprising</a> led by a <a href="/wiki/Southern_Operations_Room" title="Southern Operations Room">coalition of Druze tribes and opposition forces</a> captured the southern cities of <a href="/wiki/Suwayda" title="Suwayda">Suwayda</a> and <a href="/wiki/Daraa_insurgency" title="Daraa insurgency">Daraa</a> by 6 December,<a href="#cite_note-156">[148]</a> and rapidly advanced northwards to encircle Damascus over the following day.<a href="#cite_note-Al-Khalidi_&_Azhari_2024-12-07-157">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-158">[150]</a> Homs was captured by rebel forces by the early morning of 8 December, leaving no major regime strongholds between the rebel advance and Damascus itself.<a href="#cite_note-Captured-159">[151]</a> Cut off from the <a href="/wiki/Alawites" title="Alawites">Alawite</a> heartland of <a href="/wiki/Tartus_Governorate" title="Tartus Governorate">Tartus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Latakia_Governorate" title="Latakia Governorate">Latakia</a> governorates, faced with a rebel pincer from both north and south bearing down on Damascus, and with no hope of foreign intervention from the regime's Russian and Iranian benefactors, Assadist authority over remaining regime-held territories rapidly disintegrated.<a href="#cite_note-160">[152]</a><a href="#cite_note-reuters-161">[153]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Armed_Forces" title="Syrian Armed Forces">Syrian Arab Armed Forces</a> melted away as its soldiers abandoned their weapons and uniforms,<a href="#cite_note-guard2024-162">[154]</a> many <a href="/wiki/Desertion" title="Desertion">deserting</a> across the border to <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a>. Opposition forces <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Damascus_(2024)" title="Fall of Damascus (2024)">captured</a> the capital Damascus on 8 December, toppling Bashar al-Assad's government and ending the Assad family's 53-year-long rule over the country.<a href="#cite_note-fall-163">[155]</a> Assad fled to <a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a> with his family, where he was granted asylum.<a href="#cite_note-164">[156]</a><a href="#cite_note-165">[157]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transitional_Government_Syria:_Interim_Period">Transitional Government Syria: Interim Period</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Syrian_rebels_in_Aleppo,_30_November_2024.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Syrian_rebels_in_Aleppo%2C_30_November_2024.png/250px-Syrian_rebels_in_Aleppo%2C_30_November_2024.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Syrian_rebels_in_Aleppo%2C_30_November_2024.png/330px-Syrian_rebels_in_Aleppo%2C_30_November_2024.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Syrian_rebels_in_Aleppo%2C_30_November_2024.png/500px-Syrian_rebels_in_Aleppo%2C_30_November_2024.png 2x" data-file-width="1180" data-file-height="723" /></a><figcaption>Syrian revolutionaries toppling a statue of <a href="/wiki/Bassel_al-Assad" title="Bassel al-Assad">Bassel al-Assad</a> in <a href="/wiki/New_Aleppo" title="New Aleppo">New Aleppo</a>, 30 November 2024</figcaption></figure> Following the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Assad_regime" title="Fall of the Assad regime">fall of the Assad regime</a>, Assad's ninth prime minister <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Ghazi_al-Jalali" title="Mohammad Ghazi al-Jalali">Mohammad Ghazi al-Jalali</a>, with support from the opposition and <a href="/wiki/Ahmed_al-Sharaa" title="Ahmed al-Sharaa">Ahmed al-Sharaa</a>, remained at his post in a caretaker capacity until a <a href="/wiki/Syrian_transitional_government" title="Syrian transitional government">transitional government</a> led by <a href="/wiki/Mohammed_al-Bashir" title="Mohammed al-Bashir">Mohammed al-Bashir</a> was formed the following day.<a href="#cite_note-166">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-ilkha.com-167">[159]</a> Al-Jalali called for fresh elections so that the Syrian people may choose their new leaders.<a href="#cite_note-168">[160]</a><a href="#cite_note-169">[161]</a> Prior to the fall of the Assad regime, Mohammed al-Bashir headed the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Salvation_Government" title="Syrian Salvation Government">Syrian Salvation Government</a> (SSG) formed in the province of <a href="/wiki/Idlib" title="Idlib">Idlib</a> by <a href="/wiki/Hay%27at_Tahrir_al-Sham" title="Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham">Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham</a> (HTS), the Islamist militant organization which led the overthrow of Assad in December 2024. In general, the formation of the Transitional Government was scaling of the SSG "to the whole of Syria", as the composition of the new government was almost the same as of the one of the SSG. According to a report by the Syrian Network for Human Rights, critics and opponents of the HTS were subject to repression in forms of enforced disappearances and tortures.<a href="#cite_note-170">[162]</a><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Syrian_Transitional_Government_(Shahada).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_the_Syrian_Transitional_Government_%28Shahada%29.svg/220px-Flag_of_the_Syrian_Transitional_Government_%28Shahada%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_the_Syrian_Transitional_Government_%28Shahada%29.svg/330px-Flag_of_the_Syrian_Transitional_Government_%28Shahada%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_the_Syrian_Transitional_Government_%28Shahada%29.svg/440px-Flag_of_the_Syrian_Transitional_Government_%28Shahada%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Islamic_flag" title="Islamic flag">Tawhid flag</a> is sometimes displayed by the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_transitional_government" title="Syrian transitional government">transitional government</a> in addition to the Independence Flag;<a href="#cite_note-flag1-171">[163]</a><a href="#cite_note-flag2-172">[164]</a> prior to the formation of the government, Tawhid flags were used by <a href="/wiki/Hay%27at_Tahrir_al-Sham" title="Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham">HTS</a><a href="#cite_note-173">[165]</a><a href="#cite_note-174">[166]</a></figcaption></figure>Shortly after the fall of the Assad regime, <a href="/wiki/2024_Israeli_invasion_of_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="2024 Israeli invasion of Syria">Israel commenced a ground invasion</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Purple_Line_(ceasefire_line)" title="Purple Line (ceasefire line)">Purple Line</a> buffer zone near the Golan Heights, as well as commencing a series of airstrikes against Syrian military depots and naval bases.<a href="#cite_note-NYT_12-8-175">[167]</a><a href="#cite_note-176">[168]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Israel_Defense_Forces" title="Israel Defense Forces">Israeli Defense Forces</a> claims that it is destroying Ba'athist military infrastructure, including chemical weapons plants, so that the rebels cannot use them.<a href="#cite_note-NYT_12-8-175">[167]</a> Despite the collapse of the Assad regime, Turkish-backed <a href="/wiki/Syrian_National_Army" title="Syrian National Army">Syrian National Army</a> fighters in northern Syria continued their <a href="/wiki/2024_Manbij_offensive" class="mw-redirect" title="2024 Manbij offensive">offensive</a> against U.S.-backed <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Democratic_Forces" title="Syrian Democratic Forces">Syrian Democratic Forces</a> (SDF) forces until a ceasefire was reached on 11 December.<a href="#cite_note-177">[169]</a><a href="#cite_note-178">[170]</a> In February 2025, the SDF, the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Autonomous_Administration_of_North_and_East_Syria" title="Democratic Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria">Autonomous Administration</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Democratic_Council" title="Syrian Democratic Council">Syrian Democratic Council</a> decided in a meeting that SDF would merge with the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Armed_Forces" title="Syrian Armed Forces">Syrian Armed Forces</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Operation_Inherent_Resolve" title="Operation Inherent Resolve">International Coalition against ISIS</a> voiced support for continued dialogue between the SDF and the new Syrian government as well.<a href="#cite_note-179">[171]</a> The prime minister of the transitional government, Mohammed al-Bashir, has promised to allow Christians and other minorities to continue practicing their religion without interference. However, this has been met with doubts as many rebel forces had previous connections to <a href="/wiki/Al-Qaeda" title="Al-Qaeda">al-Qaeda</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_State" title="Islamic State">Islamic State</a>.<a href="#cite_note-180">[172]</a><a href="#cite_note-181">[173]</a><a href="#cite_note-182">[174]</a> The use of a variation of the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_flag" title="Islamic flag">Tawhid flag</a> by the new government alongside <a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Syria" title="Flag of Syria">the opposition flag</a> also raised worries, as it implies that the new state may be <a href="/wiki/Islam_and_secularism" title="Islam and secularism">less secular</a>.<a href="#cite_note-flag1-171">[163]</a><a href="#cite_note-flag2-172">[164]</a> <a href="/wiki/Aisha_al-Dibs" title="Aisha al-Dibs">Aisha al-Dibs</a> was appointed as the Minister of Women's Affairs on 22 December 2024.<a href="#cite_note-183">[175]</a> On 12 December 2024, a spokesman of the transitional government speaking to <a href="/wiki/Agence_France-Presse" title="Agence France-Presse">Agence France-Presse</a> said that during the government's three-month term, the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Syria" title="Constitution of Syria">constitution</a> and <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Assembly_of_Syria" title="People's Assembly of Syria">parliament</a> would be suspended and that a 'judicial and human rights committee' would be established to review the constitution, prior to making amendments.<a href="#cite_note-184">[176]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ahmed_al-Sharaa_and_Mazloum_Abdi_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Ahmed_al-Sharaa_and_Mazloum_Abdi_2.jpg/220px-Ahmed_al-Sharaa_and_Mazloum_Abdi_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Ahmed_al-Sharaa_and_Mazloum_Abdi_2.jpg/330px-Ahmed_al-Sharaa_and_Mazloum_Abdi_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Ahmed_al-Sharaa_and_Mazloum_Abdi_2.jpg/440px-Ahmed_al-Sharaa_and_Mazloum_Abdi_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1150" /></a><figcaption>Syrian President Ahmed al-Sharaa and SDF leader Mazloum Abdi agree to integrate the SDF into the Syrian transitional government.</figcaption></figure>On 29 January 2025, during the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Revolution_Victory_Conference" title="Syrian Revolution Victory Conference">Syrian Revolution Victory Conference</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hassan_Abdel_Ghani" title="Hassan Abdel Ghani">Hassan Abdel Ghani</a>, the spokesman of the rebels' <a href="/wiki/Military_Operations_Command" title="Military Operations Command">Military Operations Command</a>, announced the appointment of <a href="/wiki/Ahmed_al-Sharaa" title="Ahmed al-Sharaa">Ahmed al-Sharaa</a> as the <a href="/wiki/President_of_Syria" title="President of Syria">President of Syria</a> by the General Command of Syria.<a href="#cite_note-185">[177]</a> On 8 March 2025, the UK-based <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Observatory_for_Human_Rights" title="Syrian Observatory for Human Rights">SOHR</a> reported that Syrian security forces and pro-government fighters had committed a <a href="/wiki/2025_massacres_of_Syrian_Alawites" title="2025 massacres of Syrian Alawites">massacre of more than 700 Alawite civilians</a> during <a href="/wiki/March_2025_Western_Syria_clashes" title="March 2025 Western Syria clashes">clashes in western Syria</a>.<a href="#cite_note-186">[178]</a> On 10 March 2025, the SDF agreed to merge with the Syrian Armed Forces after SDF leader <a href="/wiki/Mazloum_Abdi" title="Mazloum Abdi">Mazloum Abdi</a> met with Syrian transitional president <a href="/wiki/Ahmed_al-Sharaa" title="Ahmed al-Sharaa">Ahmed al-Sharaa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-187">[179]</a> Three days later al-Sharaa signed an <a href="/wiki/2025_Interim_Constitution_of_Syria" title="2025 Interim Constitution of Syria">interim constitution</a> covering a five-year transitional period.<a href="#cite_note-188">[180]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geography">Geography</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Syria" title="Geography of Syria">Geography of Syria</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Water_Stress,_Top_Countries_(2020).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Water_Stress%2C_Top_Countries_%282020%29.svg/220px-Water_Stress%2C_Top_Countries_%282020%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="114" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Water_Stress%2C_Top_Countries_%282020%29.svg/330px-Water_Stress%2C_Top_Countries_%282020%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Water_Stress%2C_Top_Countries_%282020%29.svg/440px-Water_Stress%2C_Top_Countries_%282020%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="265" /></a><figcaption>Syria is the twelfth most water-stressed country in the world.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Deir_Ez-Zor_Euphrates_9929.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Deir_Ez-Zor_Euphrates_9929.jpg/250px-Deir_Ez-Zor_Euphrates_9929.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Deir_Ez-Zor_Euphrates_9929.jpg/330px-Deir_Ez-Zor_Euphrates_9929.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Deir_Ez-Zor_Euphrates_9929.jpg/500px-Deir_Ez-Zor_Euphrates_9929.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4256" data-file-height="2832" /></a><figcaption>The Euphrates is the longest and one of the oldest rivers in Western Asia</figcaption></figure> Syria's climate varies from the humid Mediterranean coast, through a semi-arid steppe zone, to arid desert in the east. The country consists mostly of arid plateau, although the northwest part bordering the Mediterranean is fairly green. <a href="/wiki/Upper_Mesopotamia" title="Upper Mesopotamia">Al-Jazira</a> in the northeast and <a href="/wiki/Hauran" title="Hauran">Hawran</a> in the south are important agricultural areas. The <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a>, Syria's most important river, crosses the country in the east. Syria is one of the fifteen states that comprise the so-called "<a href="/wiki/Cradle_of_civilization" title="Cradle of civilization">cradle of civilization</a>".<a href="#cite_note-189">[181]</a> Its land straddles the northwest of the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_plate" title="Arabian plate">Arabian plate</a>.<a href="#cite_note-190">[182]</a> Petroleum in commercial quantities was first discovered in the northeast in 1956. The most important oil fields are those of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Suwaydiyah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Suwaydiyah (page does not exist)">al-Suwaydiyah</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Karatchok_Field&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Karatchok Field (page does not exist)">Karatchok</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rmelan" title="Rmelan">Rmelan</a> near <a href="/wiki/Al-Hasakah" title="Al-Hasakah">al-Hasakah</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Al-Omar_field" title="Al-Omar field">al-Omar</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Taym_Field&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Taym Field (page does not exist)">al-Taym</a> fields near <a href="/wiki/Deir_ez-Zor" title="Deir ez-Zor">Dayr az–Zawr</a>. The fields are a natural extension of the Iraqi fields of <a href="/wiki/Mosul" title="Mosul">Mosul</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kirkuk" title="Kirkuk">Kirkuk</a>. Petroleum became Syria's leading natural resource and chief export after 1974. Natural gas was discovered at the field of Jbessa in 1940.<a href="#cite_note-USDoS-82">[78]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_Syria" title="Wildlife of Syria">Wildlife of Syria</a></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_Syria" title="Environmental issues in Syria">Environmental issues in Syria</a></div> Syria contains four terrestrial ecoregions: <a href="/wiki/Syrian_xeric_grasslands_and_shrublands" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian xeric grasslands and shrublands">Syrian xeric grasslands and shrublands</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Mediterranean_conifer-sclerophyllous-broadleaf_forests" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Mediterranean conifer-sclerophyllous-broadleaf forests">Eastern Mediterranean conifer-sclerophyllous-broadleaf forests</a>, <a href="/wiki/Southern_Anatolian_montane_conifer_and_deciduous_forests" title="Southern Anatolian montane conifer and deciduous forests">Southern Anatolian montane conifer and deciduous forests</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_shrub_desert" title="Mesopotamian shrub desert">Mesopotamian shrub desert</a>.<a href="#cite_note-DinersteinOlson2017-191">[183]</a> The country had a 2019 <a href="/wiki/Forest_Landscape_Integrity_Index" title="Forest Landscape Integrity Index">Forest Landscape Integrity Index</a> mean score of 3.64/10, ranking it 144th globally out of 172 countries.<a href="#cite_note-FLII-Supplementary-192">[184]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Government_and_politics">Government and politics</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Politics of Syria">Politics of Syria</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Syria" title="Elections in Syria">Elections in Syria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Syrian_civil_war" title="Syrian civil war">Syrian civil war</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Post-Ba'athist_Syria">Post-Ba'athist Syria</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%CE%95%CF%80%CE%AF%CF%83%CE%BA%CE%B5%CF%88%CE%B7_%CE%A5%CF%80%CE%BF%CF%85%CF%81%CE%B3%CE%BF%CF%8D_%CE%95%CE%BE%CF%89%CF%84%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8E%CE%BD,_%CE%93%CE%B9%CF%8E%CF%81%CE%B3%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%93%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%80%CE%B5%CF%84%CF%81%CE%AF%CF%84%CE%B7,_%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B7_%CE%A3%CF%85%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1_(%CE%94%CE%B1%CE%BC%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%82,_09.02.2025)_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/%CE%95%CF%80%CE%AF%CF%83%CE%BA%CE%B5%CF%88%CE%B7_%CE%A5%CF%80%CE%BF%CF%85%CF%81%CE%B3%CE%BF%CF%8D_%CE%95%CE%BE%CF%89%CF%84%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8E%CE%BD%2C_%CE%93%CE%B9%CF%8E%CF%81%CE%B3%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%93%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%80%CE%B5%CF%84%CF%81%CE%AF%CF%84%CE%B7%2C_%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B7_%CE%A3%CF%85%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1_%28%CE%94%CE%B1%CE%BC%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%82%2C_09.02.2025%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/250px-%CE%95%CF%80%CE%AF%CF%83%CE%BA%CE%B5%CF%88%CE%B7_%CE%A5%CF%80%CE%BF%CF%85%CF%81%CE%B3%CE%BF%CF%8D_%CE%95%CE%BE%CF%89%CF%84%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8E%CE%BD%2C_%CE%93%CE%B9%CF%8E%CF%81%CE%B3%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%93%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%80%CE%B5%CF%84%CF%81%CE%AF%CF%84%CE%B7%2C_%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B7_%CE%A3%CF%85%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1_%28%CE%94%CE%B1%CE%BC%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%82%2C_09.02.2025%29_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/%CE%95%CF%80%CE%AF%CF%83%CE%BA%CE%B5%CF%88%CE%B7_%CE%A5%CF%80%CE%BF%CF%85%CF%81%CE%B3%CE%BF%CF%8D_%CE%95%CE%BE%CF%89%CF%84%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8E%CE%BD%2C_%CE%93%CE%B9%CF%8E%CF%81%CE%B3%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%93%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%80%CE%B5%CF%84%CF%81%CE%AF%CF%84%CE%B7%2C_%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B7_%CE%A3%CF%85%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1_%28%CE%94%CE%B1%CE%BC%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%82%2C_09.02.2025%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-%CE%95%CF%80%CE%AF%CF%83%CE%BA%CE%B5%CF%88%CE%B7_%CE%A5%CF%80%CE%BF%CF%85%CF%81%CE%B3%CE%BF%CF%8D_%CE%95%CE%BE%CF%89%CF%84%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8E%CE%BD%2C_%CE%93%CE%B9%CF%8E%CF%81%CE%B3%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%93%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%80%CE%B5%CF%84%CF%81%CE%AF%CF%84%CE%B7%2C_%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B7_%CE%A3%CF%85%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1_%28%CE%94%CE%B1%CE%BC%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%82%2C_09.02.2025%29_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/%CE%95%CF%80%CE%AF%CF%83%CE%BA%CE%B5%CF%88%CE%B7_%CE%A5%CF%80%CE%BF%CF%85%CF%81%CE%B3%CE%BF%CF%8D_%CE%95%CE%BE%CF%89%CF%84%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8E%CE%BD%2C_%CE%93%CE%B9%CF%8E%CF%81%CE%B3%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%93%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%80%CE%B5%CF%84%CF%81%CE%AF%CF%84%CE%B7%2C_%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B7_%CE%A3%CF%85%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1_%28%CE%94%CE%B1%CE%BC%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%82%2C_09.02.2025%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/500px-%CE%95%CF%80%CE%AF%CF%83%CE%BA%CE%B5%CF%88%CE%B7_%CE%A5%CF%80%CE%BF%CF%85%CF%81%CE%B3%CE%BF%CF%8D_%CE%95%CE%BE%CF%89%CF%84%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8E%CE%BD%2C_%CE%93%CE%B9%CF%8E%CF%81%CE%B3%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%93%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%80%CE%B5%CF%84%CF%81%CE%AF%CF%84%CE%B7%2C_%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B7_%CE%A3%CF%85%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1_%28%CE%94%CE%B1%CE%BC%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%82%2C_09.02.2025%29_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="735" data-file-height="515" /></a><figcaption>Syrian President <a href="/wiki/Ahmed_al-Sharaa" title="Ahmed al-Sharaa">Ahmed al-Sharaa</a> with Greek Foreign Minister <a href="/wiki/Giorgos_Gerapetritis" title="Giorgos Gerapetritis">Giorgos Gerapetritis</a> in Syria on 9 February 2025</figcaption></figure> Syria is currently undergoing a political transition following the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Assad_regime" title="Fall of the Assad regime">fall of the Assad regime</a> on 8 December 2024. A <a href="/wiki/Syrian_transitional_government" title="Syrian transitional government">transitional government</a>, led by <a href="/wiki/Mohammed_al-Bashir" title="Mohammed al-Bashir">Mohammed al-Bashir</a> has been formed to govern the country, initially until 1 March 2025. The Syrian <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Syria" title="Constitution of Syria">constitution</a> and <a href="/wiki/Syrian_parliament" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian parliament">parliament</a> were suspended on 12 December 2024 for the duration of the transitional period. On 29 January 2025, during the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Revolution_Victory_Conference" title="Syrian Revolution Victory Conference">Syrian Revolution Victory Conference</a> in <a href="/wiki/Presidential_Palace,_Damascus" title="Presidential Palace, Damascus">Presidential Palace</a>, the Syrian General Command appointed <a href="/wiki/Ahmed_al-Sharaa" title="Ahmed al-Sharaa">Ahmed al-Sharaa</a> as president for the transitional period after he had served as the <a href="/wiki/De_facto" title="De facto">de facto</a> leader following the fall of the Assad regime.<a href="#cite_note-193">[185]</a> An interim legislative council is expected to be formed to serve as Syria's legislature until a new constitution is adopted.<a href="#cite_note-194">[186]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ba'athist_Syria_(1963–2024)">Ba'athist Syria (1963–2024)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Ba%27athist_Syria" title="Ba'athist Syria">Ba'athist Syria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Ba%27athist_Syria" title="Politics of Ba'athist Syria">Politics of Ba'athist Syria</a></div> The Syrian Arab Republic was a <a href="/wiki/Presidential_republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Presidential republic">presidential state</a><a href="#cite_note-195">[187]</a> that nominally permitted the candidacy of individuals who were not part of the Ba'ath-controlled <a href="/wiki/National_Progressive_Front_(Syria)" title="National Progressive Front (Syria)">National Progressive Front</a>.<a href="#cite_note-196">[188]</a><a href="#cite_note-197">[189]</a> Despite this, Syria remained a one-party state with an extensive <a href="/wiki/General_Intelligence_Directorate_(Syria)" title="General Intelligence Directorate (Syria)">secret police</a> apparatus that curtailed any independent political activity.<a href="#cite_note-auto1-198">[190]</a><a href="#cite_note-199">[191]</a> The constitution introduced unilaterally by the Assad regime, without the participation of the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_opposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian opposition">Syrian opposition</a>, had bolstered its authoritarian character by bestowing extraordinary powers on the presidency, and a Ba'athist political committee continued to be responsible for authorization of political parties.<a href="#cite_note-200">[192]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ali_Khamenei_meets_Bashar_al-Assad_in_Tehran_20190225_03.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Ali_Khamenei_meets_Bashar_al-Assad_in_Tehran_20190225_03.jpg/220px-Ali_Khamenei_meets_Bashar_al-Assad_in_Tehran_20190225_03.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Ali_Khamenei_meets_Bashar_al-Assad_in_Tehran_20190225_03.jpg/330px-Ali_Khamenei_meets_Bashar_al-Assad_in_Tehran_20190225_03.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Ali_Khamenei_meets_Bashar_al-Assad_in_Tehran_20190225_03.jpg/440px-Ali_Khamenei_meets_Bashar_al-Assad_in_Tehran_20190225_03.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="644" /></a><figcaption>Syrian President <a href="/wiki/Bashar_al-Assad" title="Bashar al-Assad">Bashar al-Assad</a> with Ayatollah <a href="/wiki/Ali_Khamenei" title="Ali Khamenei">Ali Khamenei</a> in Tehran, Iran, 25 February 2019</figcaption></figure> The ruling Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party governed Syria as a <a href="/wiki/Police_state" title="Police state">police state</a> through its control of the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Arab_Armed_Forces" title="Syrian Arab Armed Forces">Syrian military</a> and security apparatus;<a href="#cite_note-201">[193]</a> this system has frequently been described as <a href="/wiki/Totalitarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Totalitarian">totalitarian</a>,<a href="#cite_note-tots-93">[e]</a> although some scholars have preferred the term <a href="/wiki/Authoritarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Authoritarian">authoritarian</a>.<a href="#cite_note-nt1-94">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-nt2-95">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-Heydemann,_Steven_19992-91">[87]</a> The 50th edition of <a href="/wiki/Freedom_in_the_World" title="Freedom in the World">Freedom in the World</a>, published by <a href="/wiki/Freedom_House" title="Freedom House">Freedom House</a> in 2023, designated Syria as "Worst of the Worst" among the "Not Free" countries and gave it the lowest score (1/100) alongside <a href="/wiki/South_Sudan" title="South Sudan">South Sudan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-auto1-198">[190]</a><a href="#cite_note-202">[194]</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Syria#Constitution_of_2012" title="Constitution of Syria">2012 Syrian constitution</a>, the <a href="/wiki/President_of_Syria" title="President of Syria">President of Syria</a> was the head of the Syrian state, while the <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Syria" title="Prime Minister of Syria">Prime Minister of Syria</a> was nominally the head of government,<a href="#cite_note-203">[195]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Reliable sources">unreliable source?</a>] although real power in the system lay with the presidency.<a href="#cite_note-204">[196]</a> The legislature, the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Assembly_of_Syria" title="People's Assembly of Syria">People's Assembly</a>, was the body responsible for passing laws, approving government <a href="/wiki/Appropriation_(law)" title="Appropriation (law)">appropriations</a> and debating policy.<a href="#cite_note-205">[197]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Reliable sources">unreliable source?</a>] In the event of a <a href="/wiki/Vote_of_no_confidence" class="mw-redirect" title="Vote of no confidence">vote of no confidence</a> by a simple majority, the prime minister was required to tender the resignation of their government to the president.<a href="#cite_note-206">[198]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Reliable sources">unreliable source?</a>] Since the rule of Hafez al-Assad, the Ba'athist political system was centered around a comprehensive <a href="/wiki/Al-Assad_family#Cult_of_Personality" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Assad family">cult of personality</a> focused on the <a href="/wiki/Al-Assad_family" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Assad family">al-Assad family</a>;<a href="#cite_note-207">[199]</a><a href="#cite_note-208">[200]</a><a href="#cite_note-209">[201]</a><a href="#cite_note-210">[202]</a> with Alawite loyalists of the Ba'ath party dominating key positions in the military apparatus, secret police, and political establishment.<a href="#cite_note-The_Sturdy_House_That_Assad_Built2-104">[99]</a> The executive branch consisted of the president, two <a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_Syria" title="Vice President of Syria">vice presidents</a>, the prime minister, and the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ministers_of_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Council of Ministers of Syria">Council of Ministers</a> (cabinet). The constitution required the president to be a Muslim but did not make Islam the state religion.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-211">[203]</a><a href="#cite_note-const-212">[204]</a> On 31 January 1973, Hafez al-Assad implemented a new constitution, which led to a national crisis. Unlike previous constitutions, this one did not require that the President of Syria be a Muslim, leading to fierce demonstrations in Hama, Homs, and Aleppo organized by the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_Brotherhood" title="Muslim Brotherhood">Muslim Brotherhood</a> and the traditional <a href="/wiki/Ulama" title="Ulama">ulama</a>. They labelled Assad the "enemy of <a href="/wiki/Allah" title="Allah">Allah</a>" and called for a <a href="/wiki/Jihad" title="Jihad">jihad</a> against his rule.<a href="#cite_note-213">[205]</a> The government survived a series of <a href="/wiki/Islamist_uprising_in_Syria" title="Islamist uprising in Syria">armed revolts</a> led mostly by <a href="/wiki/Islamist" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamist">Islamists</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_Brotherhood" title="Muslim Brotherhood">Muslim Brotherhood</a>, between 1976 and 1982, through a series of repressions and massacres. The constitution gave the president the right to appoint ministers, to declare war and <a href="/wiki/State_of_emergency" title="State of emergency">state of emergency</a>, to issue laws (which, except in the case of emergency, require ratification by the People's Council), to declare amnesty, to amend the constitution, and to appoint civil servants and military personnel.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-211">[203]</a> According to the 2012 constitution, the president was elected by Syrian citizens in a direct election. Syria's legislative branch was the unicameral People's Council. The People's Council primarily served as an institution to validate Syria's one-party system and re-affirm the legislative proceedings of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath party.<a href="#cite_note-214">[206]</a> There was no independent judiciary in Syria, since all judges and prosecutors were required to be Ba'athist appointees.<a href="#cite_note-auto1-198">[190]</a> Syria's judicial branches include the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Constitutional_Court_of_Syria" title="Supreme Constitutional Court of Syria">Supreme Constitutional Court</a>, the <a href="/wiki/High_Judicial_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="High Judicial Council">High Judicial Council</a>, the Court of Cassation, and the <a href="/wiki/Security_agency" title="Security agency">State Security</a> Courts. <a href="/wiki/Islamic" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic">Islamic</a> jurisprudence was a main source of legislation and Syria's judicial system had elements of <a href="/wiki/Mecelle" title="Mecelle">Ottoman</a>, <a href="/wiki/French_law" class="mw-redirect" title="French law">French</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Islamic</a> laws. Syria had three levels of courts: courts of first instance, courts of appeals, and the constitutional court, the highest <a href="/wiki/Tribunal" title="Tribunal">tribunal</a>. Religious courts handled questions of personal and family law.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-211">[203]</a> The Supreme State Security Court was abolished by Bashar al-Assad in 2011.<a href="#cite_note-decree53-215">[207]</a> As a result of the ongoing civil war, various alternative governments were formed, including the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Interim_Government" title="Syrian Interim Government">Syrian Interim Government</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Union_Party_(Syria)" title="Democratic Union Party (Syria)">Democratic Union Party</a> and localized regions governed by sharia. Representatives of the Syrian Interim government were invited to take up Syria's seat at the Arab League in 2013 and<a href="#cite_note-guardian.co.uk-216">[208]</a> was recognised as the "sole representative of the Syrian people" by several nations including the United States, United Kingdom, and France.<a href="#cite_note-bbc.co.uk-217">[209]</a><a href="#cite_note-bbc-218">[210]</a><a href="#cite_note-usatoday.com-219">[211]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bab_Dreeb_Demonstration,_Homs.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Bab_Dreeb_Demonstration%2C_Homs.jpg/220px-Bab_Dreeb_Demonstration%2C_Homs.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Bab_Dreeb_Demonstration%2C_Homs.jpg/330px-Bab_Dreeb_Demonstration%2C_Homs.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Bab_Dreeb_Demonstration%2C_Homs.jpg/440px-Bab_Dreeb_Demonstration%2C_Homs.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Syrian_revolution" title="Syrian revolution">Protest against the Assad regime</a> in the city of <a href="/wiki/Homs" title="Homs">Homs</a>, 3 February 2012</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Syria" title="Elections in Syria">Syria's elections</a> are conducted through a <a href="/wiki/Sham_election" class="mw-redirect" title="Sham election">sham process</a>; characterised by wide-scale <a href="/wiki/Rigging_election" class="mw-redirect" title="Rigging election">rigging</a>, repetitive voting and absence of <a href="/wiki/Voter_registration" title="Voter registration">voter registration</a> and verification systems.<a href="#cite_note-220">[212]</a><a href="#cite_note-221">[213]</a><a href="#cite_note-auto2-222">[214]</a> Parliamentary elections were held on 13 April 2016 in the government-controlled areas of Syria, for all 250 seats of Syria's unicameral legislature, the Majlis al-Sha'ab, or the People's Council of Syria.<a href="#cite_note-223">[215]</a> Even before results had been announced, several nations, including Germany, the United States and the United Kingdom, have declared their refusal to accept the results, largely citing it "not representing the will of the Syrian people."<a href="#cite_note-224">[216]</a> However, representatives of the Russian Federation have voiced their support of this election's results. Various independent observers and international organizations have denounced the Assad regime's electoral conduct as a scam; with the United Nations condemning it as illegitimate elections with "no mandate".<a href="#cite_note-225">[217]</a><a href="#cite_note-226">[218]</a><a href="#cite_note-227">[219]</a><a href="#cite_note-auto2-222">[214]</a> <a href="/wiki/Electoral_Integrity_Project" title="Electoral Integrity Project">Electoral Integrity Project</a>'s 2022 Global report designated Syrian elections as a "facade" with the worst electoral integrity in the world alongside <a href="/wiki/Comoros" title="Comoros">Comoros</a> and <a href="/wiki/Central_African_Republic" title="Central African Republic">Central African Republic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-228">[220]</a><a href="#cite_note-229">[221]</a> Three alternative governments formed during the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_civil_war" title="Syrian civil war">Syrian civil war</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Interim_Government" title="Syrian Interim Government">Syrian Interim Government</a> (formed in 2013), <a href="/wiki/Autonomous_Administration_of_North_and_East_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria">Rojava</a> (formed in 2016) and the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Salvation_Government" title="Syrian Salvation Government">Syrian Salvation Government</a> (formed in 2017), control northern areas of the country and operated independently of the Syrian Arab Republic. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Administrative_divisions">Administrative divisions</h3></div> Syria is divided into 14 <a href="/wiki/Governorates_of_Syria" title="Governorates of Syria">governorates</a>, which are subdivided into 61 <a href="/wiki/Districts_of_Syria" title="Districts of Syria">districts</a>, which are further divided into sub-districts. <table border="0" cellpadding="3"> <tbody><tr> <th>No.</th> <th>Governorate</th> <th>Capital </th></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="15"><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Syria,_administrative_divisions_-_Nmbrs_-_colored.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Syria%2C_administrative_divisions_-_Nmbrs_-_colored.svg/440px-Syria%2C_administrative_divisions_-_Nmbrs_-_colored.svg.png" decoding="async" width="440" height="364" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Syria%2C_administrative_divisions_-_Nmbrs_-_colored.svg/660px-Syria%2C_administrative_divisions_-_Nmbrs_-_colored.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Syria%2C_administrative_divisions_-_Nmbrs_-_colored.svg/880px-Syria%2C_administrative_divisions_-_Nmbrs_-_colored.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="922" data-file-height="762" /></a><figcaption>Governorates of Syria</figcaption></figure> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Latakia_Governorate" title="Latakia Governorate">Latakia</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Latakia" title="Latakia">Latakia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Idlib_Governorate" title="Idlib Governorate">Idlib</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Idlib" title="Idlib">Idlib</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>3</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Aleppo_Governorate" title="Aleppo Governorate">Aleppo</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Aleppo" title="Aleppo">Aleppo</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>4</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Raqqa_Governorate" title="Raqqa Governorate">Raqqa</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Raqqa" title="Raqqa">Raqqa</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>5</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Al-Hasakah_Governorate" title="Al-Hasakah Governorate">Al-Hasakah</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Al-Hasakah" title="Al-Hasakah">Al-Hasakah</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>6</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tartus_Governorate" title="Tartus Governorate">Tartus</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tartus" title="Tartus">Tartus</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>7</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hama_Governorate" title="Hama Governorate">Hama</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hama" title="Hama">Hama</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>8</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Deir_ez-Zor_Governorate" title="Deir ez-Zor Governorate">Deir ez-Zor</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Deir_ez-Zor" title="Deir ez-Zor">Deir ez-Zor</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>9</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Homs_Governorate" title="Homs Governorate">Homs</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Homs" title="Homs">Homs</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>10</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Damascus_Governorate" title="Damascus Governorate">Damascus</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>11</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Rif_Dimashq_Governorate" title="Rif Dimashq Governorate">Rif Dimashq</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Douma,_Syria" title="Douma, Syria">Douma</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>12</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Quneitra_Governorate" title="Quneitra Governorate">Quneitra</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Quneitra" title="Quneitra">Quneitra</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>13</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Daraa_Governorate" title="Daraa Governorate">Daraa</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Daraa" title="Daraa">Daraa</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>14</td> <td><a href="/wiki/As-Suwayda_Governorate" class="mw-redirect" title="As-Suwayda Governorate">Al-Suwayda</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Al-Suwayda" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Suwayda">Al-Suwayda</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Autonomous_Administration_of_North_and_East_Syria">Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria</h4></div> The <a href="/wiki/Autonomous_Administration_of_North_and_East_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria">Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria</a> (AANES), while de facto autonomous, is not recognized by the country as such. The AANES, also known as Rojava,<a href="#cite_note-233">[i]</a> consists of self-governing <a href="/wiki/Regions_of_North_and_East_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Regions of North and East Syria">sub-regions</a> in the areas of <a href="/wiki/Afrin_Region" title="Afrin Region">Afrin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jazira_Region" title="Jazira Region">Jazira</a>, <a href="/wiki/Euphrates_Region" title="Euphrates Region">Euphrates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Raqqa" title="Raqqa">Raqqa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Al-Thawrah" title="Al-Thawrah">Tabqa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Manbij" title="Manbij">Manbij</a> and <a href="/wiki/Deir_ez-Zor_Governorate" title="Deir ez-Zor Governorate">Deir Ez-Zor</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllsoppvan_Wilgenburg201997–98-234">[225]</a><a href="#cite_note-Second_conference_of_Shahba_region-235">[226]</a> The region gained its de facto autonomy in 2012 in the context of the ongoing <a href="/wiki/Rojava_conflict" title="Rojava conflict">Rojava conflict</a> and the wider Syrian civil war, in which its official military force, the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Democratic_Forces" title="Syrian Democratic Forces">Syrian Democratic Forces</a> (SDF), has taken part.<a href="#cite_note-236">[227]</a><a href="#cite_note-237">[228]</a> While entertaining <a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_North_and_East_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreign relations of North and East Syria">some foreign relations</a>, the region is not officially recognized as autonomous by the government of Syria or any state<a href="#cite_note-russia-mediates-238">[229]</a> though it has been recognized by the regional <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Catalonia" title="Parliament of Catalonia">Catalan Parliament</a>.<a href="#cite_note-239">[230]</a><a href="#cite_note-240">[231]</a> The AANES has widespread support for its universal democratic, sustainable, autonomous pluralist, equal, and feminist policies in dialogues with other parties and organizations.<a href="#cite_note-tandfonline.com-241">[232]</a><a href="#cite_note-242">[233]</a><a href="#cite_note-243">[234]</a><a href="#cite_note-244">[235]</a> Northeastern Syria is polyethnic and home to sizeable ethnic Kurdish, Arab and Assyrian populations, with smaller communities of ethnic <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Turkmen" title="Syrian Turkmen">Turkmen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Armenians_in_Syria" title="Armenians in Syria">Armenians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Circassians" title="Circassians">Circassians</a>,<a href="#cite_note-245">[236]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yazidis" title="Yazidis">Yazidis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllsoppvan_Wilgenburg2019xviii,_112-246">[237]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZabad2017219,_228–229-247">[238]</a><a href="#cite_note-248">[239]</a> The supporters of the region's administration state that it is an officially secular polity<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllsoppvan_Wilgenburg2019xviii,_66,_200-249">[240]</a><a href="#cite_note-marriage-250">[241]</a> with direct democratic ambitions based on an anarchistic, feminist, and libertarian socialist ideology promoting decentralization, gender equality,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZabad2017219-251">[242]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllsoppvan_Wilgenburg2019156–163-252">[243]</a> environmental sustainability, social ecology and pluralistic tolerance for religious, cultural and political diversity, and that these values are mirrored in <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_North_and_East_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution of North and East Syria">its constitution</a>, society, and politics, stating it to be a model for a <a href="/wiki/Federalization_of_Syria" title="Federalization of Syria">federalized Syria</a> as a whole, rather than outright independence.<a href="#cite_note-253">[244]</a><a href="#cite_note-utopia-254">[245]</a><a href="#cite_note-255">[246]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jongerden-256">[247]</a> The region's administration has also been accused by some partisan and non-partisan sources of authoritarianism and support of the Syrian government.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllsoppvan_Wilgenburg201994,_130–131,_184-257">[248]</a> However, despite this the AANES has been the most democratic system in Syria, with direct open elections, universal equality, respecting human rights within the region, as well as defense of minority and religious rights within Syria.<a href="#cite_note-258">[249]</a><a href="#cite_note-259">[250]</a><a href="#cite_note-260">[251]</a><a href="#cite_note-tandfonline.com-241">[232]</a><a href="#cite_note-261">[252]</a><a href="#cite_note-262">[253]</a><a href="#cite_note-263">[254]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Bundling_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">excessive citations</a>] In 2019, the SDF announced that it had reached an agreement with the Syrian Army which allowed the latter to enter the SDF-held cities of <a href="/wiki/Manbij" title="Manbij">Manbij</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kobani" title="Kobani">Kobani</a> in order to dissuade a Turkish attack on those cities as part of the cross-border offensive by Turkish and Turkish-backed Syrian rebels.<a href="#cite_note-264">[255]</a> The Syrian Army also deployed in the north of Syria together with the SDF along the Syrian-Turkish border and entered into several SDF-held cities such as Ayn Issa and Tell Tamer.<a href="#cite_note-265">[256]</a><a href="#cite_note-266">[257]</a> Following the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Second_Northern_Syria_Buffer_Zone" title="Second Northern Syria Buffer Zone">Second Northern Syria Buffer Zone</a> the SDF stated that it was ready to work cooperatively with the Syrian Army if a political settlement between the Syrian government and the SDF was achieved.<a href="#cite_note-267">[258]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Foreign_relations">Foreign relations</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Syria" title="Foreign relations of Syria">Foreign relations of Syria</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Diplomatic_relations_of_Syria.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Diplomatic_relations_of_Syria.svg/220px-Diplomatic_relations_of_Syria.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Diplomatic_relations_of_Syria.svg/330px-Diplomatic_relations_of_Syria.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Diplomatic_relations_of_Syria.svg/440px-Diplomatic_relations_of_Syria.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1104" data-file-height="566" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/List_of_diplomatic_missions_of_Syria" title="List of diplomatic missions of Syria">Diplomatic relations of Syria</a></figcaption></figure> <dl><dt>Ba'athist era</dt></dl> Ensuring national security, increasing influence among its Arab neighbors, and securing the return of the <a href="/wiki/Golan_Heights" title="Golan Heights">Golan Heights</a>, have been the primary goals of Syria's foreign policy. At many points in its history, Syria has seen virulent tension with its geographically cultural neighbors, such as Turkey, Israel, Iraq, and Lebanon. Syria enjoyed an improvement in relations with several of the states in its region in the 21st century, prior to the Arab Spring and the Syrian civil war. Since the ongoing civil war of 2011 and associated killings and human rights abuses, Syria has been increasingly isolated from the countries in the region and the wider international community. Diplomatic relations have been severed with several countries including: Britain, Canada, France, Italy, Germany, Tunisia, Egypt, Libya, United States, Belgium, Spain, and the Arab states of the Persian Gulf.<a href="#cite_note-268">[259]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Syria_military_involvement.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Syria_military_involvement.svg/250px-Syria_military_involvement.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Syria_military_involvement.svg/375px-Syria_military_involvement.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Syria_military_involvement.svg/500px-Syria_military_involvement.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="863" data-file-height="443" /></a><figcaption>Map of world and Syria (red) with military involvement:<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959" /><div class="legend">  Countries that supported the government of Bashar al-Assad</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959" /><div class="legend">  Countries that supported the Syrian opposition</div></figcaption></figure> From the Arab league, Syria continues to maintain diplomatic relations with Algeria, Egypt, Iraq, Lebanon, Sudan and Yemen. Following its violent suppression of the Arab Spring protests of the 2011 Syrian Revolution, the Syrian government was suspended from the Arab League in November 2011 for over 11 years, until its reinstatement in 2023.<a href="#cite_note-NYT_Arab_League-269">[260]</a> Syria also quit the <a href="/wiki/Union_for_the_Mediterranean" title="Union for the Mediterranean">Union for the Mediterranean</a>.<a href="#cite_note-270">[261]</a> After 11 years, the Arab League readmitted Syria.<a href="#cite_note-271">[262]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation" title="Organisation of Islamic Cooperation">Organisation of Islamic Cooperation</a> suspended Syria in August 2012 citing "deep concern at the <a href="/wiki/List_of_massacres_in_Syria" title="List of massacres in Syria">massacres</a> and inhuman acts" perpetrated by forces loyal to Bashar al-Assad.<a href="#cite_note-CNN_OIC-147">[140]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="International_disputes">International disputes</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Turkish_occupation_of_northern_Syria" title="Turkish occupation of northern Syria">Turkish occupation of northern Syria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Israeli_occupation_of_the_Golan_Heights" title="Israeli occupation of the Golan Heights">Israeli occupation of the Golan Heights</a></div> In 1939, while Syria was still a French mandate the French allowed a plebiscite regarding the <a href="/wiki/Sanjak_of_Alexandretta" title="Sanjak of Alexandretta">Sanjak of Alexandretta</a> joining to Turkey as part of a treaty of friendship in World War II. In order to facilitate this, a faulty election was done in which ethnic Turks who were originally from the Sanjak but lived in <a href="/wiki/Adana" title="Adana">Adana</a> and other areas near the border in Turkey came to vote in the elections, shifting the election in favor of secession. Through this, the <a href="/wiki/Hatay_Province" title="Hatay Province">Hatay Province</a> of Turkey was formed. The move by the French was very controversial in Syria, and only five years later Syria became independent.<a href="#cite_note-Morris9-272">[263]</a> Despite the Turkish annexation of the Sanjak of Alexandretta, the Syrian government has refused to recognize Turkish sovereignty over the region since Independence, except for a short period in 1949.<a href="#cite_note-AlexandrettaTurkeyRelations-273">[264]</a><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Golan_heights_border.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Golan_heights_border.jpg/220px-Golan_heights_border.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Golan_heights_border.jpg/330px-Golan_heights_border.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Golan_heights_border.jpg/440px-Golan_heights_border.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="1728" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Golan_Heights" title="Golan Heights">Golan Heights</a> was occupied by Israel since the <a href="/wiki/Six-Day_War" title="Six-Day War">Six-Day War</a>.</figcaption></figure>The western two-thirds of Syria's Golan Heights region are since 1967 <a href="/wiki/Israeli-occupied_territories" title="Israeli-occupied territories">occupied by Israel</a> and were in 1981 <a href="/wiki/Golan_Heights_Law" title="Golan Heights Law">effectively annexed</a> by <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a>,<a href="#cite_note-occupiedSyrian-274">[265]</a><a href="#cite_note-InternationalCommunityOccupiedTerritory-275">[266]</a> whereas the eastern third is controlled by Syria, with the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Disengagement_Observer_Force" title="United Nations Disengagement Observer Force">UNDOF</a> maintaining a buffer zone in between, to implement the ceasefire of the <a href="/wiki/Purple_Line_(ceasefire_line)" title="Purple Line (ceasefire line)">Purple Line</a>. Israel's 1981 Golan annexation law is not recognized in international law. The UN Security Council condemned it in Resolution 497 (1981) as "null and void and without international legal effect." Since then, General Assembly resolutions on "The Occupied Syrian Golan" reaffirm the illegality of Israeli occupation and annexation.<a href="#cite_note-276">[267]</a> The Syrian government continues to demand the return of this territory.<a href="#cite_note-277">[268]</a> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2024_Israeli_invasion_of_Syria.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/2024_Israeli_invasion_of_Syria.png/190px-2024_Israeli_invasion_of_Syria.png" decoding="async" width="190" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/2024_Israeli_invasion_of_Syria.png/285px-2024_Israeli_invasion_of_Syria.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/2024_Israeli_invasion_of_Syria.png/380px-2024_Israeli_invasion_of_Syria.png 2x" data-file-width="2189" data-file-height="2118" /></a><figcaption>Israeli-occupied <a href="/wiki/Golan_Heights" title="Golan Heights">Golan Heights</a> and <a href="/wiki/2024_Israeli_invasion_of_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="2024 Israeli invasion of Syria">Israeli invasion of Syria</a> in December 2024</figcaption></figure> During <a href="/wiki/2024_Israeli_invasion_of_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="2024 Israeli invasion of Syria">its invasion of Syria</a> in December 2024, Israel took control of the U.N.-patrolled buffer zone on Syrian territory, a move that violated the <a href="/wiki/Agreement_on_Disengagement_between_Israel_and_Syria" title="Agreement on Disengagement between Israel and Syria">1974 disengagement agreement</a> with Syria.<a href="#cite_note-278">[269]</a> On 23 February 2025, Israeli Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Netanyahu" title="Benjamin Netanyahu">Benjamin Netanyahu</a> demanded the complete demilitarization of southern Syria in the provinces of <a href="/wiki/Quneitra_Governorate" title="Quneitra Governorate">Quneitra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Daraa_Governorate" title="Daraa Governorate">Daraa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Suwayda_Governorate" title="Suwayda Governorate">Suweyda</a>, and the withdrawal of Syrian forces from Syrian territory south of Damascus.<a href="#cite_note-279">[270]</a> Israeli Defense Minister <a href="/wiki/Israel_Katz" title="Israel Katz">Israel Katz</a> said that Israeli forces would remain in southern Syria "for an indefinite period of time to protect our communities and thwart any threat."<a href="#cite_note-280">[271]</a> Syria's new regime under transitional President <a href="/wiki/Ahmed_al-Sharaa" title="Ahmed al-Sharaa">Ahmed al-Sharaa</a> condemned Israel's occupation of Syrian lands and demanded Israel's withdrawal.<a href="#cite_note-281">[272]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Turkish_Armed_Forces" title="Turkish Armed Forces">Turkish Armed Forces</a> and its ally the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_National_Army" title="Syrian National Army">Syrian National Army</a> have <a href="/wiki/Turkish_occupation_of_northern_Syria" title="Turkish occupation of northern Syria">occupied areas of northern Syria</a> since 2016, during the Syrian civil war.<a href="#cite_note-282">[273]</a> In early 1976, Syria entered Lebanon, beginning their 29-year <a href="/wiki/Syrian_occupation_of_Lebanon" title="Syrian occupation of Lebanon">military presence</a>. Syria entered on the invitation of Suleiman Franjieh, the Maronite Christian president at the time to help aid the Lebanese Christian militias against the Palestinian militias.<a href="#cite_note-St._Petersburg_Times-283">[274]</a><a href="#cite_note-284">[275]</a> Over the following 15 years of <a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Civil_War" title="Lebanese Civil War">Lebanese civil war</a>, Syria fought for control over Lebanon. The Syrian military remained in Lebanon until 2005 in response to domestic and international pressure after the assassination of Lebanese Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Rafik_Hariri" class="mw-redirect" title="Rafik Hariri">Rafik Hariri</a>.<a href="#cite_note-BBC-285">[276]</a> Another disputed territory is the <a href="/wiki/Shebaa_farms" class="mw-redirect" title="Shebaa farms">Shebaa farms</a>, located in the intersection of the <a href="/wiki/Lebanese-Syrian_border" class="mw-redirect" title="Lebanese-Syrian border">Lebanese-Syrian border</a> and the Israeli-occupied Golan Heights. The farms, which are 11 km long and about 3 kilometers wide were occupied by Israel in 1981, along with rest of the Golan Heights.<a href="#cite_note-286">[277]</a> Yet following Syrian army advances the Israeli occupation ended and Syria became the de facto ruling power over the farms. Yet after Israeli withdrawal from Lebanon in 2000, <a href="/wiki/Hezbollah" title="Hezbollah">Hezbollah</a> claimed that the withdrawal was not complete because Shebaa was on Lebanese – not Syrian – territory.<a href="#cite_note-287">[278]</a> After studying 81 maps, the United Nations concluded that there is no evidence of the abandoned farmlands being Lebanese.<a href="#cite_note-288">[279]</a> Nevertheless, Lebanon has continued to claim ownership of the territory. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Military">Military</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Damascus_Checkpoint.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Damascus_Checkpoint.jpeg/250px-Damascus_Checkpoint.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Damascus_Checkpoint.jpeg/330px-Damascus_Checkpoint.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Damascus_Checkpoint.jpeg/500px-Damascus_Checkpoint.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="657" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Army" title="Syrian Army">Syrian Army</a> soldier manning a checkpoint outside of <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a> shortly after the outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_civil_war" title="Syrian civil war">Syrian civil war</a>, 2012</figcaption></figure> The President of Syria is commander in chief of the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Arab_Armed_Forces" title="Syrian Arab Armed Forces">Syrian Armed Forces</a>, comprising some 400,000 troops upon mobilization.The military is a conscripted force; males serve 30 months in the military upon reaching the age of 18.<a href="#cite_note-289">[280]</a> The obligatory military service period is being decreased over time, in 2005 from two and a half years to two years, in 2008 to 21 months and in 2011 to year and a half.<a href="#cite_note-290">[281]</a> The breakup of the Soviet Union—long the principal source of training, material, and credit for the Syrian forces—may have slowed Syria's ability to acquire modern military equipment. It has an arsenal of surface-to-surface missiles. In the early 1990s, <a href="/wiki/Scud" class="mw-redirect" title="Scud">Scud</a>-C missiles with a 500-kilometre (310-mile) range were procured from North Korea, and Scud-D, with a range of up to 700 kilometres (430 miles), is allegedly being developed by Syria with the help of North Korea and Iran, according to Zisser.<a href="#cite_note-291">[282]</a> Syria received significant financial aid from <a href="/wiki/Arab_states_of_the_Persian_Gulf" title="Arab states of the Persian Gulf">Arab states of the Persian Gulf</a> as a result of its participation in the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Persian Gulf War</a>, with a sizable portion of these funds earmarked for military spending. Iran and Russia are biggest suppliers of military aid to the Assad-led Syrian Government. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Human_rights">Human rights</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Ba%27athist_Syria" title="Human rights in Ba'athist Syria">Human rights in Ba'athist Syria</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wounded_civilians_arrive_at_hospital_Aleppo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Wounded_civilians_arrive_at_hospital_Aleppo.jpg/220px-Wounded_civilians_arrive_at_hospital_Aleppo.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Wounded_civilians_arrive_at_hospital_Aleppo.jpg/330px-Wounded_civilians_arrive_at_hospital_Aleppo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Wounded_civilians_arrive_at_hospital_Aleppo.jpg/440px-Wounded_civilians_arrive_at_hospital_Aleppo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1277" data-file-height="718" /></a><figcaption>Wounded civilians arrive at a hospital in Aleppo, October 2012.</figcaption></figure> Prior to the fall of the Assad regime, the situation for <a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Syria" title="Human rights in Syria">human rights in Syria</a> has long been a significant concern among independent organizations such as <a href="/wiki/Human_Rights_Watch" title="Human Rights Watch">Human Rights Watch</a>, who in 2010 referred to the country's record as "among the worst in the world."<a href="#cite_note-292">[283]</a> The 2011 <a href="/wiki/Freedom_House" title="Freedom House">Freedom House</a> report<a href="#cite_note-debate-293">[284]</a> ranked Syria "Not Free" in its annual <a href="/wiki/Freedom_in_the_World" title="Freedom in the World">Freedom in the World</a> survey.<a href="#cite_note-294">[285]</a> The Ba'ath regime was a totalitarian dictatorship that has been internationally condemned for its domestic and political repression, including <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_in_Syria" title="Capital punishment in Syria">summary executions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Internet_censorship_in_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Internet censorship in Syria">massive censorship</a>,<a href="#cite_note-295">[286]</a><a href="#cite_note-296">[287]</a> <a href="/wiki/Enforced_disappearance" title="Enforced disappearance">forced disappearances</a>,<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-297">[288]</a><a href="#cite_note-ohchr.org-298">[289]</a> etc. as well as numerous crimes against Syrian civilians perpetrated during the civil war, such as massacres, <a href="/wiki/List_of_Syrian_civil_war_barrel_bomb_attacks" title="List of Syrian civil war barrel bomb attacks">barrel-bombings</a>, chemical attacks, etc.<a href="#cite_note-299">[290]</a><a href="#cite_note-press.un.org-300">[291]</a> The authorities are accused of arresting democracy and human rights activists, censoring websites, detaining bloggers, and imposing travel bans. Arbitrary detention, torture, and disappearances are widespread.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-297">[288]</a><a href="#cite_note-ohchr.org-298">[289]</a><a href="#cite_note-hrw.org-301">[292]</a> Although Syria's constitution guarantees gender equality, critics say that personal statutes laws and the penal code discriminate against women and girls. Moreover, it also grants leniency for so-called honour killing.<a href="#cite_note-hrw.org-301">[292]</a> As of 9 November 2011 during the uprising against President Bashar al-Assad, the United Nations reported that of the over 3,500 deaths, over 250 deaths were children as young as two years old, and that boys as young as 11 years old have been gang-raped by security services officers.<a href="#cite_note-302">[293]</a><a href="#cite_note-303">[294]</a> <a href="/wiki/Free_Syrian_Army" title="Free Syrian Army">People opposing President Assad's rule</a> claim that more than 200, mostly civilians, were massacred and about 300 injured in Hama in shelling by the government forces on 12 July 2012.<a href="#cite_note-304">[295]</a> In August 2013, the government was suspected of using chemical weapons against its civilians. U.S. Secretary of State <a href="/wiki/John_Kerry" title="John Kerry">John Kerry</a> said it was "undeniable" that chemical weapons had been used in the country and that al-Assad's forces had committed a "moral obscenity" against his own people. "Make no mistake," Kerry said. "President Obama believes there must be accountability for those who would use the world's most heinous weapon against the world's most vulnerable people. Nothing today is more serious, and nothing is receiving more serious scrutiny".<a href="#cite_note-305">[296]</a> The Emergency Law, effectively suspending most constitutional protections, was in effect from 1963 until 21 April 2011. It was justified by the government in the light of the continuing war with Israel over the Golan Heights.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-211">[203]</a><a href="#cite_note-decree53-215">[207]</a> In August 2014, <a href="/wiki/Office_of_the_United_Nations_High_Commissioner_for_Human_Rights" title="Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights">UN Human Rights</a> chief <a href="/wiki/Navi_Pillay" title="Navi Pillay">Navi Pillay</a> criticized the international community over its "paralysis" in dealing with the civil war gripping the country, which by 2014 had resulted in 191,369 deaths with war crimes, according to Pillay, being committed with total impunity on all sides in the conflict. Minority Alawites and Christians were targeted by Islamists and other groups.<a href="#cite_note-306">[297]</a><a href="#cite_note-307">[298]</a><a href="#cite_note-308">[299]</a><a href="#cite_note-press.un.org-300">[291]</a> Three years later in April 2017, the U.S. Navy carried out a <a href="/wiki/2017_Shayrat_missile_strike" title="2017 Shayrat missile strike">missile attack</a> against a Syrian air base<a href="#cite_note-309">[300]</a> which had allegedly been used to conduct a <a href="/wiki/Khan_Shaykhun_chemical_attack" title="Khan Shaykhun chemical attack">chemical weapons attack</a> on Syrian civilians, according to the U.S. government.<a href="#cite_note-310">[301]</a> In November 2021, the U.S. Central Command called a 2019 airstrike that killed civilians in Syria "legitimate". The acknowledgement came after a New York Times investigation said the military had concealed the death of dozens of non-combatants.<a href="#cite_note-311">[302]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economy">Economy</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Syria" title="Economy of Syria">Economy of Syria</a></div><figure class="mw-default-size skin-invert-image" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GDP_per_capita_development_of_Syria.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/GDP_per_capita_development_of_Syria.svg/220px-GDP_per_capita_development_of_Syria.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/GDP_per_capita_development_of_Syria.svg/330px-GDP_per_capita_development_of_Syria.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/GDP_per_capita_development_of_Syria.svg/440px-GDP_per_capita_development_of_Syria.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="850" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Historical development of real GDP per capita in Syria, since 1820</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Damascus,_Syria,_The_city_square.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Damascus%2C_Syria%2C_The_city_square.jpg/220px-Damascus%2C_Syria%2C_The_city_square.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Damascus%2C_Syria%2C_The_city_square.jpg/330px-Damascus%2C_Syria%2C_The_city_square.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Damascus%2C_Syria%2C_The_city_square.jpg/440px-Damascus%2C_Syria%2C_The_city_square.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a> before the war, 2008</figcaption></figure> The ongoing civil war have left a negative impact on Syria's economy. However, Syria's economy began changing much before the beginning of the war. Syria's share in global exports has eroded gradually since 2001.<a href="#cite_note-wbgrowth10-312">[303]</a> The real per capita GDP growth was just 2.5% per year in the 2000–2008 period.<a href="#cite_note-wbgrowth10-312">[303]</a> Poverty rates increased from 11% in 2004 to 12.3% in 2007.<a href="#cite_note-wbgrowth10-312">[303]</a> In 2007, main exports included crude oil, refined products, raw cotton, clothing, fruits, and grains. The bulk of imports are raw materials essential for industry, vehicles, agricultural equipment, and heavy machinery. Earnings from oil exports as well as remittances from Syrian workers are the government's most important sources of foreign exchange.<a href="#cite_note-USDoS-82">[78]</a><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Al-Hamidiyah_Souq_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Al-Hamidiyah_Souq_02.jpg/220px-Al-Hamidiyah_Souq_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Al-Hamidiyah_Souq_02.jpg/330px-Al-Hamidiyah_Souq_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Al-Hamidiyah_Souq_02.jpg/440px-Al-Hamidiyah_Souq_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Al-Hamidiyah_Souq" title="Al-Hamidiyah Souq">Al-Hamidiyah Souq</a> in Damascus in 2010</figcaption></figure>Despite this, prior to the war, Syria was one of the most dynamic markets in the Middle East.<a href="#cite_note-:7-313">[304]</a> The government visioned a transition of Syria into a free market economy.<a href="#cite_note-:7-313">[304]</a> The rising oil reserves triggered rapid growth in the economy, creating business opportunities for foreign firms and investments, as the booming oil and gas industry and infrastructure projects made Syria an attractive market.<a href="#cite_note-:7-313">[304]</a> Prior to the war the government hoped to attract new investment in the tourism, natural gas, and service sectors to diversify its economy and reduce its dependence on oil and agriculture.<a href="#cite_note-:7-313">[304]</a> The government began to institute economic reforms aimed at liberalizing most markets, but those reforms were slow and ad hoc, and were completely reversed since the outbreak of conflict.<a href="#cite_note-314">[305]</a> The <a href="/wiki/UNDP" class="mw-redirect" title="UNDP">UNDP</a> announced in 2005 that 30% of the population lived in poverty, and 11.4% live below the subsistence level.<a href="#cite_note-USDoS-82">[78]</a> At the outset of the civil war, Syria was classified by the <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a> as a "lower middle income country,"<a href="#cite_note-data.worldbank.org-315">[306]</a> though in 2010 Syria remained dependent on the oil and <a href="/wiki/Agriculture_sector" class="mw-redirect" title="Agriculture sector">agriculture sectors</a>.<a href="#cite_note-wbbrief-316">[307]</a> The oil sector provided about 40% of export earnings.<a href="#cite_note-wbbrief-316">[307]</a> During the civil war, the <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Syria" title="Economy of Syria">Syrian economy</a> relied upon dwindling customs and income taxes which are heavily bolstered by lines of credit from Iran,<a href="#cite_note-revenues_shrink-317">[308]</a> Russia and China.<a href="#cite_note-economycrumble-318">[309]</a> Iran is believed to have spent between $6 billion and US$20 billion per year on Syria during the first four years of the civil war.<a href="#cite_note-319">[310]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Syrian_pound" title="Syrian pound">Syrian pound</a> lost 80% of its value, with the economy becoming part <a href="/wiki/State-owned_enterprise" title="State-owned enterprise">state-owned</a> and part <a href="/wiki/War_economy" title="War economy">war economy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-320">[311]</a> Proven <a href="/wiki/Offshore_drilling" title="Offshore drilling">offshore</a> expeditions have indicated that large sums of oil exist on the Mediterranean Sea floor between Syria and Cyprus.<a href="#cite_note-321">[312]</a> The agriculture sector contributes to about 20% of GDP and 20% of employment. Oil reserves are expected to decrease in the coming years, and Syria has become a net oil importer.<a href="#cite_note-wbbrief-316">[307]</a> As of 2012<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Syria&action=edit">[update]</a>, the value of overall exports was slashed by two-thirds, from the figure of US$12 billion in 2010 to only US$4 billion in 2012.<a href="#cite_note-AFP_economy-322">[313]</a> Since 2012, oil and tourism industries in particular have been devastated, with $5 billion lost.<a href="#cite_note-AFP_economy-322">[313]</a> Sanctions have sapped the government's finances. U.S. and European Union bans on oil imports, which went into effect in 2012, are estimated to cost Syria about $400 million per month.<a href="#cite_note-shortap-323">[314]</a> Around 40% of all employees in the tourism sector lost their jobs since the beginning of the war.<a href="#cite_note-economyhang-324">[315]</a> In May 2015, <a href="/wiki/ISIS" class="mw-redirect" title="ISIS">ISIS</a> captured Syria's phosphate mines, one of the Syrian government's last chief sources of income.<a href="#cite_note-325">[316]</a> The following month, ISIS blew up a gas pipeline to Damascus that was used to generate heating and electricity in Damascus and Homs; "the name of its game for now is denial of key resources to the regime" an analyst stated.<a href="#cite_note-326">[317]</a> In addition, ISIS was closing in on Shaer gas field and three other facilities in the area—Hayan, Jihar and Ebla—with the loss of these western gas fields having the potential to cause Iran to further subsidize the Syrian government.<a href="#cite_note-327">[318]</a> Reconstruction will cost as much as $10 billion.<a href="#cite_note-AFP_economy-322">[313]</a> <a href="/wiki/Aleppo_soap" title="Aleppo soap">Aleppo soap</a> is a popular product of Syria. The economy was highly regulated by the government, which increased subsidies and tightened trade controls to assuage protesters and protect <a href="/wiki/Foreign_currency_reserve" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreign currency reserve">foreign currency reserves</a>.<a href="#cite_note-CIA-15">[13]</a> Long-run economic constraints include foreign trade barriers, declining oil production, high unemployment, rising budget deficits, and increasing pressure on water supplies caused by heavy use in agriculture, rapid population growth, industrial expansion, and water pollution.<a href="#cite_note-CIA-15">[13]</a> In 2024, the World Bank estimated that the Syrian GDP had contracted by 84% from 2010 to 2023. As of 2023, its GDP was $6.2 billion. Syria's new government has vowed to stamp out the production of captagon, which makes up a major portion of the informal economy. The new government will also face challenges in securing and resuming the production of oil, as rebuilding the industry will require significant investments with no guarantee of a return.<a href="#cite_note-328">[319]</a><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Beach_Latakia_4.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Beach_Latakia_4.jpg/220px-Beach_Latakia_4.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Beach_Latakia_4.jpg/330px-Beach_Latakia_4.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Beach_Latakia_4.jpg/440px-Beach_Latakia_4.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption> A cove in <a href="/wiki/Latakia" title="Latakia">Latakia</a> in 2014</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Energy">Energy</h3></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Syria" title="Energy in Syria">Energy in Syria</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Energy_in_Syria&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E6%95%98%E5%88%A9%E4%BA%9E%E5%8F%A4%E8%B9%9F137.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/%E6%95%98%E5%88%A9%E4%BA%9E%E5%8F%A4%E8%B9%9F137.jpg/220px-%E6%95%98%E5%88%A9%E4%BA%9E%E5%8F%A4%E8%B9%9F137.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/%E6%95%98%E5%88%A9%E4%BA%9E%E5%8F%A4%E8%B9%9F137.jpg/330px-%E6%95%98%E5%88%A9%E4%BA%9E%E5%8F%A4%E8%B9%9F137.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/%E6%95%98%E5%88%A9%E4%BA%9E%E5%8F%A4%E8%B9%9F137.jpg/440px-%E6%95%98%E5%88%A9%E4%BA%9E%E5%8F%A4%E8%B9%9F137.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption>Pumpjack</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Primary_energy" title="Primary energy">Energy</a> in Syria is mostly based on <a href="/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum">oil</a> and <a href="/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">gas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Energy_in_Syria_:1-329">[320]</a> Some energy infrastructure was damaged by the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_civil_war" title="Syrian civil war">Syrian civil war</a>. There is high reliance on <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">fossil fuels</a> for energy in Syria,<a href="#cite_note-330">[321]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Electricity_in_Syria" title="Electricity in Syria">electricity</a> demand is projected to increase by 2030, especially for industry activity such as <a href="/wiki/Automation" title="Automation">automation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-331">[322]</a> However, conflict in Syria has caused electricity generation to decrease by nearly 40% in recent years due to plant destruction and fuel shortages.<a href="#cite_note-332">[323]</a> Electricity access in daily life for Syrians has also been altered due to conflict. Electricity to residents of Syria is largely provided by private <a href="/wiki/Diesel_generator" title="Diesel generator">diesel generators</a>, which is costly and limited in hours of use.<a href="#cite_note-Energy_in_Syria_:13-333">[324]</a> Conflict has increased household electricity expenditures while also decreasing <a href="/wiki/Disposable_household_and_per_capita_income" title="Disposable household and per capita income">household income</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Energy_in_Syria_:13-333">[324]</a> Some households have since turned to <a href="/wiki/Solar_Energy_Generating_Systems" title="Solar Energy Generating Systems">solar energy</a> as a supplementary source of energy, though high costs limit widespread adoption.<a href="#cite_note-Energy_in_Syria_:13-333">[324]</a></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Agriculture">Agriculture</h3></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Syria" title="Agriculture in Syria">Agriculture in Syria</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agriculture_in_Syria&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> Despite the crisis in Syria, agriculture remains a key part of the economy. The sector still accounts for an estimated 26 percent of gross domestic product (GDP) and represents a critical safety net for the 6.7 million Syrians – including those internally displaced – who still remain in rural areas. However, agriculture and the livelihoods that depend on it have suffered massive losses. Today, food production is at a record low and around half the population remaining in Syria are unable to meet their daily food needs.<a href="#cite_note-334">[325]</a> Until the mid-1970s, <a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Syria" title="Agriculture in Syria">agriculture in Syria</a> was the primary <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Syria" title="Economy of Syria">economic activity in Syria</a>. At independence in 1946, <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a> (including minor <a href="/wiki/Forestry" title="Forestry">forestry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fishing" title="Fishing">fishing</a>) was the most important sector of the economy, and in the 1940s and early 1950s, agriculture was the fastest growing sector. Wealthy merchants from urban centers such as Aleppo invested in <a href="/wiki/Land_development" title="Land development">land development</a> and irrigation. The rapid expansion of the cultivated area and increased output stimulated the rest of the economy. However, by the late 1950s, there was little land left that could easily be brought under cultivation. During the 1960s, <a href="/wiki/Agricultural_productivity" title="Agricultural productivity">agricultural output</a> stagnated because of political instability and <a href="/wiki/Land_reform" title="Land reform">land reform</a>. Between 1953 and 1976, agriculture's contribution to <a href="/wiki/GDP" class="mw-redirect" title="GDP">GDP</a> increased (in constant prices) by only 3.2%, approximately the rate of population growth. From 1976 to 1984 growth in agriculture declined to 2% a year, and its importance in the economy declined as other sectors grew more rapidly. In 1981, as in the 1970s, 53% of the population was still classified as <a href="/wiki/Rural" class="mw-redirect" title="Rural">rural</a>, although movement to the cities continued to accelerate. However, in contrast to the 1970s, when 50% of the <a href="/wiki/Labor_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Labor force">labor force</a> was employed in agriculture, by 1983 agriculture employed only 30% of the labor force. Furthermore, by the mid-1980s, unprocessed farm products accounted for only 4% of exports, equivalent to 7% of non-petroleum exports. Industry, commerce, and transportation still depended on <a href="/wiki/Produce" title="Produce">farm produce</a> and related <a href="/wiki/Agro-business" class="mw-redirect" title="Agro-business">agro-business</a>, but agriculture's preeminent position had clearly eroded. By 1985 agriculture (including a little forestry and fishing) contributed only 16.5% to GDP, down from 22.1% in 1976. By the mid-1980s, the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian government">Syrian government</a> had taken measures to revitalize agriculture. The 1985 investment budget saw a sharp rise in allocations for agriculture, including <a href="/wiki/Land_reclamation" title="Land reclamation">land reclamation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">irrigation</a>. The government's renewed commitment to agricultural development in the 1980s, by expanding cultivation and extending irrigation, promised brighter prospects for Syrian agriculture in the 1990s. During the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian Civil War">Syrian Civil War</a>, the agricultural sector has witnessed a drop in producing all kinds of commodities such as wheat, cotton and olives,<a href="#cite_note-335">[326]</a> due to the lack of security and immigration of agricultural workforce,<a href="#cite_note-336">[327]</a> especially in <a href="/wiki/Al-Hasakah_Governorate" title="Al-Hasakah Governorate">Al-Hasakah Governorate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aleppo_Governorate" title="Aleppo Governorate">Aleppo Governorate</a>.</div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transport">Transport</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Syria" title="Transport in Syria">Transport in Syria</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D8%AC%D8%B3%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/%D8%AC%D8%B3%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B1.jpg/220px-%D8%AC%D8%B3%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/%D8%AC%D8%B3%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B1.jpg/330px-%D8%AC%D8%B3%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/%D8%AC%D8%B3%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B1.jpg/440px-%D8%AC%D8%B3%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Expressway M5 near <a href="/wiki/Al-Rastan" title="Al-Rastan">Al-Rastan</a>,.<a href="/wiki/Homs_Governorate" title="Homs Governorate">Homs</a>.</figcaption></figure> Syria has four international airports (<a href="/wiki/Damascus_International_Airport" title="Damascus International Airport">Damascus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aleppo_International_Airport" title="Aleppo International Airport">Aleppo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bassel_Al-Assad_International_Airport" class="mw-redirect" title="Bassel Al-Assad International Airport">Lattakia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Qamishli_Airport" title="Qamishli Airport">Qamishli</a>), which serve as hubs for <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Air" title="Syrian Air">Syrian Air</a> and are also served by a variety of foreign carriers.<a href="#cite_note-337">[328]</a> The majority of Syrian cargo is carried by <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Railways" title="Syrian Railways">Syrian Railways</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] As of 2024 there are no international rail services, but <a href="/wiki/High-speed_rail_in_Turkey" title="High-speed rail in Turkey">high-speed rail in Turkey</a> is being extended close to the border.<a href="#cite_note-338">[329]</a> The road network in Syria is 69,873 kilometres (43,417 miles) long, including 1,103 kilometres (685 miles) of expressways. The country also has 900 kilometres (560 miles) of navigable but not economically significant waterways.<a href="#cite_note-CIA-15">[13]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Internet_and_telecommunications">Internet and telecommunications</h3></div> <a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Syria" title="Telecommunications in Syria">Telecommunications in Syria</a> are overseen by the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Communications_and_Technology_(Syria)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of Communications and Technology (Syria)">Ministry of Communications and Technology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-339">[330]</a> In addition, <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Telecom" title="Syrian Telecom">Syrian Telecom</a> plays an integral role in the distribution of government internet access.<a href="#cite_note-340">[331]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Electronic_Army" title="Syrian Electronic Army">Syrian Electronic Army</a> serves as a pro-government military faction in cyberspace and has been long considered an enemy of the <a href="/wiki/Hacktivism" title="Hacktivism">hacktivist</a> group <a href="/wiki/Anonymous_(group)" class="mw-redirect" title="Anonymous (group)">Anonymous</a>.<a href="#cite_note-341">[332]</a> Because of <a href="/wiki/Internet_censorship" title="Internet censorship">internet censorship</a> laws, 13,000 internet activists were arrested in 2011 and 2012.<a href="#cite_note-342">[333]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Water_supply_and_sanitation">Water supply and sanitation</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Syria" title="Water supply and sanitation in Syria">Water supply and sanitation in Syria</a></div> Syria is a semiarid country with scarce water resources. The largest water consuming sector in Syria is agriculture. Domestic water use stands at only about 9% of total water use.<a href="#cite_note-Agriculutre-343">[334]</a> A big challenge for Syria before the civil war was its high population growth (in 2006 the growth rate was 2.7%<a href="#cite_note-344">[335]</a>), leading to rapidly increasing demand for urban and industrial water.<a href="#cite_note-World_Bank-345">[336]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Drug_industry">Drug industry</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Captagon_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian Captagon industry">Syrian Captagon industry</a></div> Prior to the fall of the Ba'athist regime on 8 December 2024, Syria was home to a burgeoning <a href="/wiki/Prohibition_of_drugs" class="mw-redirect" title="Prohibition of drugs">illegal drugs</a> industry run by associates and relatives of Bashar al-Assad.<a href="#cite_note-:0-346">[337]</a> It mainly produced <a href="/wiki/Captagon" class="mw-redirect" title="Captagon">captagon</a>, an addictive <a href="/wiki/Amphetamine" title="Amphetamine">amphetamine</a> popular in the Arab world. As of 2021, the export of illegal drugs eclipsed the country's legal exports, leading the New York Times to call Syria "the world's newest <a href="/wiki/Narco-state" title="Narco-state">narcostate</a>".<a href="#cite_note-:0-346">[337]</a> The drug exports allow the government to generate hard currency and bypass <a href="/wiki/International_sanctions_against_Syria" title="International sanctions against Syria">international sanctions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-346">[337]</a><a href="#cite_note-347">[338]</a><a href="#cite_note-auto-348">[339]</a> Captagon was Syria's primary export, valued at a minimum of US$3.4 billion annually, surpassing the country's largest legal export, olive oil, which is valued at around US$122 million per year.<a href="#cite_note-349">[340]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Demographics">Demographics</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Syria" title="Demographics of Syria">Demographics of Syria</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Syria" title="List of cities in Syria">List of cities in Syria</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Syrians" title="Syrians">Syrians</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1261442011">.mw-parser-output .abbr-header{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .caption-purple{border:1px #a2a9b1 solid;border-bottom:none;background-color:lavender}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .caption-purple{background:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .caption-purple{background:inherit!important}}.mw-parser-output .table-pale{border:1px #a2a9b1 solid;border-top:none;background-color:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);padding:5px}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .table-pale{border-top:1px #a2a9b1 solid!important}.mw-parser-output .caption-purple{border:none}}</style><table class="table-pale" style="width:15em;border-top-width:0;border-spacing: 0;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 0.5em;"><caption class="caption-purple" style="padding:0.25em;font-weight:bold">Historical populations</caption><tbody><tr style="font-size:95%"><th style="border-bottom:1px solid var(--color-base, #000000);padding:1px;width:3em">Year</th><th style="border-bottom:1px solid var(--color-base, #000000);padding:1px 2px;text-align:right"><abbr title="Population" class="abbr-header">Pop.</abbr></th><th style="border-bottom:1px solid var(--color-base, #000000);padding:1px;text-align:right"><abbr title="Per annum growth rate" class="abbr-header">±% p.a.</abbr></th></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px"> 1960 </th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">4,565,000</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">—    </td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px"> 1970 </th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">6,305,000</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">+3.28%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px"> 1981 </th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">9,046,000</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">+3.34%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px"> 1994 </th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">13,782,000</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">+3.29%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px;border-bottom:1px solid #bbbbbb"> 2004 </th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px;border-bottom:1px solid #bbbbbb">17,921,000</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px;border-bottom:1px solid #bbbbbb">+2.66%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px"> 2011 </th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">21,124,000</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">+2.38%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px"> 2015 </th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">18,734,987</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">−2.96%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px"> 2019 </th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">18,528,105</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">−0.28%</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="border-top:1px solid var(--color-base, #000000);font-size:85%;text-align:left">2019 estimate<a href="#cite_note-350">[341]</a> Source: <a href="/wiki/Central_Bureau_of_Statistics_(Syria)" title="Central Bureau of Statistics (Syria)">Central Bureau of Statistics</a> of the Syrian Arab Republic, 2011<a href="#cite_note-cbspop-351">[342]</a></td></tr></tbody></table> Most people live in the <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates River valley</a> and along the coastal plain, a fertile strip between the coastal mountains and the desert. Overall population density before the civil war was about 99 per square kilometre (258 per square mile).<a href="#cite_note-352">[343]</a> According to the World Refugee Survey 2008, published by the U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants, Syria hosted a population of refugees and asylum seekers numbering approximately 1,852,300. The vast majority of this population was from Iraq (1,300,000), but sizeable populations from <a href="/wiki/Palestine_(region)" title="Palestine (region)">Palestine</a> (543,400) and <a href="/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia">Somalia</a> (5,200) also lived in the country.<a href="#cite_note-World_Refugee_Survey_2008-353">[344]</a> In what the UN has described as "the biggest humanitarian emergency of our era",<a href="#cite_note-354">[345]</a> by 2014 about 9.5 million Syrians, half the population, had been displaced since March 2011;<a href="#cite_note-Reuters_Half-355">[346]</a> 4 million were outside the country as refugees.<a href="#cite_note-356">[347]</a> By 2020, the UN estimated that over 5.5 million Syrians were living as refugees in the region, and 6.1 million others were internally displaced.<a href="#cite_note-The_Refugee_Brief_2020-357">[348]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Largest_cities">Largest cities</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1219497266">.mw-parser-output .largestCities-table-background{background:#f9f9f9;color:#222}.mw-parser-output .largestCities-cell-background{background:#f0f0f0;color:#222}</style> <div> <table style="font-size:88%;margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 100%; border: 1px solid darkgray;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="10" style="padding:0.3em 0.75em;"><div style="float:right; width:6em; height:2.6em"> </div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output 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.navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini" style="float: left;height:2.6em;"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Largest_cities_of_Syria" title="Template:Largest cities of Syria"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Largest_cities_of_Syria" title="Template talk:Largest cities of Syria"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Largest_cities_of_Syria" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Largest cities of Syria"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div> <div style="height:2.6em;line-height:1.3em;">Largest cities or towns in Syria <div style="display:inline;font-weight:normal;">Syria Central Bureau of Statistics (2004 Census)</div></div> </th></tr> <tr> <th></th> <th>Rank </th> <th><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Syria" title="List of cities in Syria">Name</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Provinces_of_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Provinces of Syria">Province</a> </th> <th>Pop. </th> <th>Rank </th> <th><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Syria" title="List of cities in Syria">Name</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Provinces_of_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Provinces of Syria">Province</a> </th> <th>Pop.</th> <th> </th></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="11" style="text-align: center"><a href="/wiki/File:Aleppo_city.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Aleppo"><img alt="Aleppo" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Aleppo_city.jpg/120px-Aleppo_city.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Aleppo_city.jpg/180px-Aleppo_city.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Aleppo_city.jpg/240px-Aleppo_city.jpg 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="480" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Aleppo" title="Aleppo">Aleppo</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Umayyad_Mosque,_Damascus.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Damascus"><img alt="Damascus" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Umayyad_Mosque%2C_Damascus.jpg/120px-Umayyad_Mosque%2C_Damascus.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="81" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Umayyad_Mosque%2C_Damascus.jpg/180px-Umayyad_Mosque%2C_Damascus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Umayyad_Mosque%2C_Damascus.jpg/240px-Umayyad_Mosque%2C_Damascus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3056" data-file-height="2054" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a> </td> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">1</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Aleppo" title="Aleppo">Aleppo</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Aleppo_Governorate" title="Aleppo Governorate">Aleppo Governorate</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">2,132,100</td> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">11</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Tartus" title="Tartus">Tartus</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Tartus_Governorate" title="Tartus Governorate">Tartus Governorate</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">115,769 </td> <td rowspan="11" style="text-align: center"><a href="/wiki/File:Waer_7.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Homs"><img alt="Homs" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Waer_7.jpg/120px-Waer_7.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Waer_7.jpg/250px-Waer_7.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="1383" data-file-height="899" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Homs" title="Homs">Homs</a> <a href="/wiki/File:LatakiaSkyline.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Latakia"><img alt="Latakia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/LatakiaSkyline.png/120px-LatakiaSkyline.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="68" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/LatakiaSkyline.png/180px-LatakiaSkyline.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/LatakiaSkyline.png/240px-LatakiaSkyline.png 2x" data-file-width="3840" data-file-height="2160" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Latakia" title="Latakia">Latakia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">2</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">1,552,161</td> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">12</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Jaramana" title="Jaramana">Jaramana</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Rif_Dimashq_Governorate" title="Rif Dimashq Governorate">Rif Dimashq Governorate</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">114,363 </td></tr> <tr> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">3</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Homs" title="Homs">Homs</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Homs_Governorate" title="Homs Governorate">Homs Governorate</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">652,609</td> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">13</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Douma,_Syria" title="Douma, Syria">Douma, Syria</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Rif_Dimashq_Governorate" title="Rif Dimashq Governorate">Rif Dimashq Governorate</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">110,893 </td></tr> <tr> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">4</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Latakia" title="Latakia">Latakia</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Latakia_Governorate" title="Latakia Governorate">Latakia Governorate</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">383,786</td> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">14</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Manbij" title="Manbij">Manbij</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Aleppo_Governorate" title="Aleppo Governorate">Aleppo Governorate</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">99,497 </td></tr> <tr> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">5</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Hama" title="Hama">Hama</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Hama_Governorate" title="Hama Governorate">Hama Governorate</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">312,994</td> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">15</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Idlib" title="Idlib">Idlib</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Idlib_Governorate" title="Idlib Governorate">Idlib Governorate</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">98,791 </td></tr> <tr> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">6</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Raqqa" title="Raqqa">Raqqa</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Raqqa_Governorate" title="Raqqa Governorate">Raqqa Governorate</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">220,488</td> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">16</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Daraa" title="Daraa">Daraa</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Daraa_Governorate" title="Daraa Governorate">Daraa Governorate</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">97,969 </td></tr> <tr> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">7</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Deir_ez-Zor" title="Deir ez-Zor">Deir ez-Zor</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Deir_ez-Zor_Governorate" title="Deir ez-Zor Governorate">Deir ez-Zor Governorate</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">211,857</td> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">17</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Al-Hajar_al-Aswad" title="Al-Hajar al-Aswad">Al-Hajar al-Aswad</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Rif_Dimashq_Governorate" title="Rif Dimashq Governorate">Rif Dimashq Governorate</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">84,948 </td></tr> <tr> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">8</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Hasakah" class="mw-redirect" title="Hasakah">Hasakah</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Al-Hasakah_Governorate" title="Al-Hasakah Governorate">Al-Hasakah Governorate</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">188,160</td> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">18</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Darayya" title="Darayya">Darayya</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Rif_Dimashq_Governorate" title="Rif Dimashq Governorate">Rif Dimashq Governorate</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">78,763 </td></tr> <tr> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">9</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Qamishli" title="Qamishli">Qamishli</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Al-Hasakah_Governorate" title="Al-Hasakah Governorate">Al-Hasakah Governorate</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">184,231</td> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">19</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Suwayda" title="Suwayda">Suwayda</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/As-Suwayda_Governorate" class="mw-redirect" title="As-Suwayda Governorate">As-Suwayda Governorate</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">73,641 </td></tr> <tr> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">10</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Sayyidah_Zaynab" title="Sayyidah Zaynab">Sayyidah Zaynab</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Rif_Dimashq_Governorate" title="Rif Dimashq Governorate">Rif Dimashq Governorate</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">136,427</td> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">20</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Al-Thawrah" title="Al-Thawrah">Al-Thawrah</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Raqqa_Governorate" title="Raqqa Governorate">Raqqa Governorate</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">69,425 </td></tr> </tbody></table></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethnic_groups">Ethnic groups</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Syrians" title="Syrians">Syrians</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Damascus,_traditional_clothing_(6364877017).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Damascus%2C_traditional_clothing_%286364877017%29.jpg/220px-Damascus%2C_traditional_clothing_%286364877017%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Damascus%2C_traditional_clothing_%286364877017%29.jpg/330px-Damascus%2C_traditional_clothing_%286364877017%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Damascus%2C_traditional_clothing_%286364877017%29.jpg/440px-Damascus%2C_traditional_clothing_%286364877017%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4272" data-file-height="2848" /></a><figcaption>Damascus, traditional clothing</figcaption></figure> Syrians are an overall indigenous <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levantine</a> people, closely related to their immediate neighbors, such as <a href="/wiki/Lebanese_people" title="Lebanese people">Lebanese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palestinians" title="Palestinians">Palestinians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Jordan" title="Demographics of Jordan">Jordanians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a>.<a href="#cite_note-358">[349]</a><a href="#cite_note-359">[350]</a> Syria has a population of approximately 18,500,000 (2019 estimate). <a href="/wiki/Syrian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian people">Syrian Arabs</a>, together with some 600,000 <a href="/wiki/Palestinians_in_Syria" title="Palestinians in Syria">Palestinian</a> not including the 6 million refugees outside the country make up roughly 74% of the population.<a href="#cite_note-CIA-15">[13]</a> The indigenous <a href="/wiki/Assyrians_in_Syria" title="Assyrians in Syria">Assyrians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_Neo-Aramaic" title="Western Neo-Aramaic">Western Aramaic</a>-speakers number around 400,000 people,<a href="#cite_note-360">[351]</a> with the Western Aramaic-speakers living mainly in the villages of <a href="/wiki/Ma%27loula" class="mw-redirect" title="Ma'loula">Ma'loula</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jubb%27adin" title="Jubb'adin">Jubb'adin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Al-Sarkha_(Bakhah)" title="Al-Sarkha (Bakhah)">Bakh'a</a>, while the Assyrians mainly reside in the north and northeast (Homs, Aleppo, Qamishli, Hasakah). Many (particularly the Assyrian group) still retain several <a href="/wiki/Neo-Aramaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Aramaic">Neo-Aramaic</a> dialects as spoken and written languages.<a href="#cite_note-361">[352]</a> The second-largest ethnic group in Syria are the <a href="/wiki/Kurds_in_Syria" title="Kurds in Syria">Kurds</a>. They constitute about 9%<a href="#cite_note-SyriaKurds-362">[353]</a> to 10%<a href="#cite_note-Khalifa2013-8">[6]</a> of the population, or approximately 2 million people (including 40,000 <a href="/wiki/Yazidis_in_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Yazidis in Syria">Yazidis</a><a href="#cite_note-Khalifa2013-8">[6]</a>). Most Kurds reside in the northeastern corner of Syria and most speak the <a href="/wiki/Kurmanji" title="Kurmanji">Kurmanji</a> variant of the <a href="/wiki/Kurdish_language" title="Kurdish language">Kurdish language</a>.<a href="#cite_note-SyriaKurds-362">[353]</a> The third largest ethnic group are the <a href="/wiki/Turkish_language" title="Turkish language">Turkish</a>-speaking <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Turkmen" title="Syrian Turkmen">Syrian Turkmen</a>/Turkoman. There are no reliable estimates of their total population, with estimates ranging from several hundred thousand to 3.5 million.<a href="#cite_note-363">[354]</a><a href="#cite_note-364">[355]</a><a href="#cite_note-Turkmenistan-365">[356]</a> The fourth largest ethnic group are the <a href="/wiki/Syrian-Assyrians" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian-Assyrians">Assyrians</a> (3–4%),<a href="#cite_note-Khalifa2013-8">[6]</a> followed by the <a href="/wiki/Circassians_in_Syria" title="Circassians in Syria">Circassians</a> (1.5%)<a href="#cite_note-Khalifa2013-8">[6]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Armenians_in_Syria" title="Armenians in Syria">Armenians</a> (1%),<a href="#cite_note-Khalifa2013-8">[6]</a> most of which are the descendants of refugees who arrived in Syria during the <a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide" title="Armenian genocide">Armenian genocide</a>. Syria holds the <a href="/wiki/Armenian_diaspora" title="Armenian diaspora">7th largest Armenian population in the world</a>. They are mainly gathered in Aleppo, <a href="/wiki/Qamishli" title="Qamishli">Qamishli</a>, Damascus and <a href="/wiki/Kesab" class="mw-redirect" title="Kesab">Kesab</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Syria_Ethno-religious_composition..jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Syria_Ethno-religious_composition..jpg/220px-Syria_Ethno-religious_composition..jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Syria_Ethno-religious_composition..jpg/330px-Syria_Ethno-religious_composition..jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Syria_Ethno-religious_composition..jpg/440px-Syria_Ethno-religious_composition..jpg 2x" data-file-width="899" data-file-height="769" /></a><figcaption>The ethno-religious composition of Syria</figcaption></figure> There are also smaller ethnic minority groups, such as the <a href="/wiki/Albanians" title="Albanians">Albanians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bosnians" title="Bosnians">Bosnians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Georgians" title="Georgians">Georgians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greeks_in_Syria" title="Greeks in Syria">Greeks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Persians" title="Persians">Persians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pashtuns" title="Pashtuns">Pashtuns</a> and <a href="/wiki/Russians" title="Russians">Russians</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Khalifa2013-8">[6]</a> However, most of these ethnic minorities have become <a href="/wiki/Arabized" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabized">Arabized</a> to some degree, particularly those who practice the <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslim</a> faith.<a href="#cite_note-Khalifa2013-8">[6]</a> The largest concentration of the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_diaspora" title="Syrian diaspora">Syrian diaspora</a> outside the <a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab world</a> is in <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a>, which has millions of people of Arab and other Near Eastern ancestries.<a href="#cite_note-366">[357]</a> Brazil is the first country in the Americas to offer humanitarian visas to Syrian refugees.<a href="#cite_note-367">[358]</a> The majority of <a href="/wiki/Arab_Argentine" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab Argentine">Arab Argentines</a> are from either Lebanese or Syrian background.<a href="#cite_note-368">[359]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Languages">Languages</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Syria" title="Languages of Syria">Languages of Syria</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">Arabic</a> is the <a href="/wiki/Official_language" title="Official language">official language</a> of the country.<a href="#cite_note-CoSAR-369">[360]</a> Several modern <a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Arabic" title="Varieties of Arabic">Arabic dialects</a> are used in everyday life, most notably <a href="/wiki/Levantine_Arabic" title="Levantine Arabic">Levantine</a> in the west and <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="Mesopotamian Arabic">Mesopotamian</a> in the northeast. According to The Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics, in addition to Arabic, the following languages are spoken in the country, in order of the number of speakers: <a href="/wiki/Kurdish_language" title="Kurdish language">Kurdish</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Behnstedt-370">[361]</a> <a href="/wiki/Turkish_language" title="Turkish language">Turkish</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Behnstedt-370">[361]</a> <a href="/wiki/Neo-Aramaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Aramaic">Neo-Aramaic</a> (four dialects),<a href="#cite_note-Behnstedt-370">[361]</a> <a href="/wiki/Circassian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Circassian language">Circassian</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Behnstedt-370">[361]</a> <a href="/wiki/Chechen_language" title="Chechen language">Chechen</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Behnstedt-370">[361]</a> <a href="/wiki/Armenian_language" title="Armenian language">Armenian</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Behnstedt-370">[361]</a> and finally <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Behnstedt-370">[361]</a> However, none of these minority languages have official status.<a href="#cite_note-Behnstedt-370">[361]</a> <a href="/wiki/Aramaic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Aramaic language">Aramaic</a> was the <a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a> of the region before the advent of <a href="/wiki/Classical_Arabic" title="Classical Arabic">Arabic</a>, and is still spoken among <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_people" title="Assyrian people">Assyrians</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Classical Syriac</a> is still used as the liturgical language of <a href="/wiki/Syriac_Christianity" title="Syriac Christianity">various Syriac Christian denominations</a>. Most remarkably, <a href="/wiki/Western_Neo-Aramaic" title="Western Neo-Aramaic">Western Neo-Aramaic</a> is still spoken in the village of <a href="/wiki/Ma%27loula" class="mw-redirect" title="Ma'loula">Ma'loula</a> as well as two neighboring villages, 56 km (35 mi) northeast of Damascus. English and French are widely spoken as second languages, but English is more often used.<a href="#cite_note-371">[362]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion">Religion</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Syria" title="Religion in Syria">Religion in Syria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Syria" title="Islam in Syria">Islam in Syria</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Syria" title="Christianity in Syria">Christianity in Syria</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Omayad_Mosque_of_Aleppo_Syria.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Omayad_Mosque_of_Aleppo_Syria.jpg/220px-Omayad_Mosque_of_Aleppo_Syria.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Omayad_Mosque_of_Aleppo_Syria.jpg/330px-Omayad_Mosque_of_Aleppo_Syria.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Omayad_Mosque_of_Aleppo_Syria.jpg/440px-Omayad_Mosque_of_Aleppo_Syria.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Great_Mosque_of_Aleppo" title="Great Mosque of Aleppo">Great Mosque of Aleppo</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Syria" title="Islam in Syria">Islam</a> is the largest and predominant religion in Syria, comprising 87% of the population. <a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni Muslims</a> make up around 74% of the population<a href="#cite_note-CIA-15">[13]</a> and Sunni Arabs account for 59–60%. Most Kurds (8.5%)<a href="#cite_note-Drysdale&Hinnebusch1991-372">[363]</a> and most Turkmens (3%)<a href="#cite_note-Drysdale&Hinnebusch1991-372">[363]</a> are Sunni, while 3% of Syrians are <a href="/wiki/Shia_Muslims" class="mw-redirect" title="Shia Muslims">Shia Muslims</a> (particularly <a href="/wiki/Ismailis" class="mw-redirect" title="Ismailis">Ismailis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Twelvers" class="mw-redirect" title="Twelvers">Twelvers</a> but there are also Arabs, Kurds and Turkmens), 10% are <a href="/wiki/Alawites" title="Alawites">Alawites</a>, 10% are <a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">Christians</a><a href="#cite_note-CIA-15">[13]</a> (the majority are Antiochian Greek Orthodox, the rest are Syriac Orthodox, Greek Catholic and other Catholic Rites, Armenian Orthodox, Assyrian Church of the East, Protestants and other denominations), and 3% <a href="/wiki/Druzes" class="mw-redirect" title="Druzes">Druzes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-CIA-15">[13]</a> Druze number around 500,000 and concentrate mainly in the southern area of <a href="/wiki/Jabal_al-Druze" title="Jabal al-Druze">Jabal al-Druze</a>.<a href="#cite_note-book-373">[364]</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/Association_of_Religion_Data_Archives" title="Association of Religion Data Archives">Association of Religion Data Archives</a> (ARDA), 94.17% of Syrians are Muslims–79.19% are Sunnis and 14.10% are Shias (including Alawites)–and 3.84% of Syrians are Christians as of 2020<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Syria&action=edit">[update]</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:4-10">[8]</a> Because the <a href="/wiki/Assad_family" title="Assad family">Assad family</a> is Alawite, Alawites have historically dominated key government and military positions.<a href="#cite_note-The_Sturdy_House_That_Assad_Built2-104">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-374">[365]</a><a href="#cite_note-375">[366]</a> Christians numbering 1.2 million, a sizable number of whom are found among Syria's population of Palestinian and Iraqi refugees, are divided into several sects. The <a href="/wiki/Greek_Orthodox_Church_of_Antioch" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch">Greek Orthodox</a> make up 45.7% of the Christian population; the <a href="/wiki/Syriac_Orthodox_Church" title="Syriac Orthodox Church">Syriac Orthodox</a> make up 22.4%; the <a href="/wiki/Armenian_Apostolic_Church" title="Armenian Apostolic Church">Armenian Orthodox</a> make up 10.9%; the Catholics (including <a href="/wiki/Melkite_Greek_Catholic_Church" title="Melkite Greek Catholic Church">Greek Catholic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syriac_Catholic_Church" title="Syriac Catholic Church">Syriac Catholic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Armenian_Catholic_Church" title="Armenian Catholic Church">Armenian Catholic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maronite_Church" title="Maronite Church">Maronite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chaldean_Catholic_Church" title="Chaldean Catholic Church">Chaldean Catholic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Latin_liturgical_rites" title="Latin liturgical rites">Latin</a>) make up 16.2%; <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Church_of_the_East" title="Assyrian Church of the East">Assyrian Church of the East</a> and several smaller Christian denominations account for the remainder. Many Christian <a href="/wiki/List_of_Monasteries_in_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Monasteries in Syria">monasteries</a> also exist. Many Christian Syrians belong to a high socio-economic class.<a href="#cite_note-376">[367]</a> As per one estimate, the count of Christians affiliated with established denominations in Syria has dropped from approximately 2.5 million before the civil war, to about 500,000 in 2023.<a href="#cite_note-377">[368]</a> Syria was once home to a substantial population of <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Syria" title="History of the Jews in Syria">Jews</a>, with large communities in Damascus, Aleppo, and <a href="/wiki/Qamishli" title="Qamishli">Qamishii</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:5-378">[369]</a> Due to a combination of persecution in Syria and opportunities elsewhere, the Jews began to emigrate in the second half of the 19th century to Great Britain, the United States, and Israel.<a href="#cite_note-:5-378">[369]</a> The process was completed with the establishment of Israel in 1948.<a href="#cite_note-:5-378">[369]</a> The remaining Jewish population dwindled as a result of the civil war. Today 100 Jews live in Syria.<a href="#cite_note-:5-378">[369]</a> The United States is home to a large Syrian Jewish community, which is still considered as Syrian citizens by the Syrian government. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Education">Education</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Education_in_Syria" title="Education in Syria">Education in Syria</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aleppo_University,_Faculty_of_Arts_and_Humanities.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Aleppo_University%2C_Faculty_of_Arts_and_Humanities.jpg/220px-Aleppo_University%2C_Faculty_of_Arts_and_Humanities.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Aleppo_University%2C_Faculty_of_Arts_and_Humanities.jpg/330px-Aleppo_University%2C_Faculty_of_Arts_and_Humanities.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Aleppo_University%2C_Faculty_of_Arts_and_Humanities.jpg/440px-Aleppo_University%2C_Faculty_of_Arts_and_Humanities.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3645" data-file-height="1943" /></a><figcaption>Faculty of Arts and Humanities in <a href="/wiki/Aleppo_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Aleppo University">Aleppo University</a></figcaption></figure> Education is free and compulsory from ages 6 to 12. Schooling consists of six years of primary education followed by a three-year general or <a href="/wiki/Vocational" class="mw-redirect" title="Vocational">vocational</a> training period and a three-year academic or vocational program. The second three-year period of academic training is required for university <a href="/wiki/University_and_college_admissions" class="mw-redirect" title="University and college admissions">admission</a>. Total enrollment at <a href="/wiki/Post-secondary" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-secondary">post-secondary</a> schools is over 150,000. The <a href="/wiki/Literacy" title="Literacy">literacy</a> rate of Syrians aged 15 and older is 90.7% for males and 82.2% for females.<a href="#cite_note-US_department_of_States-379">[370]</a><a href="#cite_note-impact-se-380">[371]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left skin-invert-image" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:UIS_Literacy_Rate_Syria_population_plus15_1980_2015.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/UIS_Literacy_Rate_Syria_population_plus15_1980_2015.png/220px-UIS_Literacy_Rate_Syria_population_plus15_1980_2015.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/UIS_Literacy_Rate_Syria_population_plus15_1980_2015.png/330px-UIS_Literacy_Rate_Syria_population_plus15_1980_2015.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/UIS_Literacy_Rate_Syria_population_plus15_1980_2015.png 2x" data-file-width="397" data-file-height="317" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/UNESCO_Institute_for_Statistics" title="UNESCO Institute for Statistics">UIS</a> adult literacy rate of Syria</figcaption></figure> There are six state universities in Syria<a href="#cite_note-381">[372]</a> and 15 private universities.<a href="#cite_note-382">[373]</a> The top two state universities are <a href="/wiki/Damascus_University" title="Damascus University">Damascus University</a> (210,000 students as of 2014)<a href="#cite_note-383">[374]</a> and <a href="/wiki/University_of_Aleppo" title="University of Aleppo">University of Aleppo</a>.<a href="#cite_note-384">[375]</a> The top private universities in Syria are: <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Private_University" title="Syrian Private University">Syrian Private University</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arab_International_University" title="Arab International University">Arab International University</a>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Kalamoon" title="University of Kalamoon">University of Kalamoon</a> and <a href="/wiki/International_University_for_Science_and_Technology" title="International University for Science and Technology">International University for Science and Technology</a>. There are also many higher institutes in Syria, like the Higher Institute of Business Administration, which offer undergraduate and graduate programs in business.<a href="#cite_note-385">[376]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Health">Health</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Health_in_Syria" title="Health in Syria">Health in Syria</a></div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Update plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Update" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_current_red_Asia_Australia.svg/60px-Ambox_current_red_Asia_Australia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="42" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_current_red_Asia_Australia.svg/120px-Ambox_current_red_Asia_Australia.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="290" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (December 2024)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> In 2010, spending on healthcare accounted for 3.4% of the GDP. In 2008, there were 14.9 physicians and 18.5 nurses per 10,000 inhabitants.<a href="#cite_note-386">[377]</a> The life expectancy at birth was 75.7 years in 2010, or 74.2 years for males and 77.3 years for females.<a href="#cite_note-387">[378]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Culture">Culture</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Syria" title="Culture of Syria">Culture of Syria</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dabke2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Dabke2.jpg/250px-Dabke2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Dabke2.jpg/330px-Dabke2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Dabke2.jpg/500px-Dabke2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Dabke" title="Dabke">Dabke</a> combines circle dance and line dancing and is widely performed at weddings and other joyous occasions.</figcaption></figure> Syria is a traditional society with a long cultural history.<a href="#cite_note-388">[379]</a> Importance is placed on family, religion, education, self-discipline and respect. Syrians' taste for the traditional arts is expressed in dances such as the al-Samah, the <a href="/wiki/Dabkeh" class="mw-redirect" title="Dabkeh">Dabkeh</a> in all their variations, and the sword dance. Marriage ceremonies and the births of children are occasions for the lively demonstration of folk customs.<a href="#cite_note-traditional-389">[380]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literature">Literature</h3></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Adonis_Cracow_Poland_May12_2011_Fot_Mariusz_Kubik_08.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Adonis_Cracow_Poland_May12_2011_Fot_Mariusz_Kubik_08.JPG/250px-Adonis_Cracow_Poland_May12_2011_Fot_Mariusz_Kubik_08.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Adonis_Cracow_Poland_May12_2011_Fot_Mariusz_Kubik_08.JPG/330px-Adonis_Cracow_Poland_May12_2011_Fot_Mariusz_Kubik_08.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Adonis_Cracow_Poland_May12_2011_Fot_Mariusz_Kubik_08.JPG/500px-Adonis_Cracow_Poland_May12_2011_Fot_Mariusz_Kubik_08.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2448" data-file-height="3264" /></a><figcaption>Poet, essayist and translator <a href="/wiki/Adunis" class="mw-redirect" title="Adunis">Adunis</a></figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Syrian_literature" title="Syrian literature">literature of Syria</a> has contributed to <a href="/wiki/Arabic_literature" title="Arabic literature">Arabic literature</a> and has a proud tradition of oral and written poetry. Syrian writers, many of whom migrated to Egypt, played a crucial role in the <a href="/wiki/Nahda" title="Nahda">nahda</a> or Arab literary and cultural revival of the 19th century. Prominent contemporary Syrian writers include, among others, <a href="/wiki/Ali_Ahmad_Said" class="mw-redirect" title="Ali Ahmad Said">Adonis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_al-Maghut" title="Muhammad al-Maghut">Muhammad Maghout</a>, <a href="/wiki/Haidar_Haidar" title="Haidar Haidar">Haidar Haidar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ghada_al-Samman" title="Ghada al-Samman">Ghada al-Samman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nizar_Qabbani" title="Nizar Qabbani">Nizar Qabbani</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zakariyya_Tamer" class="mw-redirect" title="Zakariyya Tamer">Zakariyya Tamer</a>. Ba'ath Party rule has brought about renewed censorship.<a href="#cite_note-:1-390">[381]</a><a href="#cite_note-391">[382]</a> In this context, the genre of the historical novel, spearheaded by Nabil Sulayman, <a href="/wiki/Fawwaz_Haddad" title="Fawwaz Haddad">Fawwaz Haddad</a>, Khyri al-Dhahabi and Nihad Siris, is sometimes used as a means of expressing dissent, critiquing the present through a depiction of the past. Syrian <a href="/wiki/List_of_folklores" class="mw-redirect" title="List of folklores">folk narrative</a>, as a subgenre of historical fiction, is imbued with <a href="/wiki/Magical_realism" title="Magical realism">magical realism</a>, and is also used as a means of veiled criticism of the present. <a href="/wiki/Salim_Barakat" title="Salim Barakat">Salim Barakat</a>, a Syrian émigré living in Sweden, is one of the leading figures of the genre. Contemporary Syrian literature also encompasses science fiction and futuristic <a href="/wiki/Utopia" title="Utopia">utopiae</a> (Nuhad Sharif, Talib Umran), which may also serve as media of dissent. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Music">Music</h3></div> The <a href="/wiki/Music_of_Syria" title="Music of Syria">Syrian music</a> scene, in particular that of Damascus, has long been among the Arab world's most important, especially in the field of <a href="/wiki/Classical_Arab_music" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Arab music">classical Arab music</a>. Syria has produced several pan-Arab stars, including <a href="/wiki/Asmahan" title="Asmahan">Asmahan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Farid_al-Atrash" title="Farid al-Atrash">Farid al-Atrash</a> and singer <a href="/wiki/Lena_Chamamyan" title="Lena Chamamyan">Lena Chamamyan</a>. The city of Aleppo is known for its <a href="/wiki/Muwashshah" title="Muwashshah">muwashshah</a>, a form of <a href="/wiki/Andalous" class="mw-redirect" title="Andalous">Andalous</a> sung poetry popularized by <a href="/wiki/Sabri_Moudallal" title="Sabri Moudallal">Sabri Moudallal</a>, as well as for popular stars like <a href="/wiki/Sabah_Fakhri" title="Sabah Fakhri">Sabah Fakhri</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Media">Media</h3></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Suzan_Najm_Aldeen_-_Sep_10,_2018.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Suzan_Najm_Aldeen_-_Sep_10%2C_2018.jpg/170px-Suzan_Najm_Aldeen_-_Sep_10%2C_2018.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="232" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Suzan_Najm_Aldeen_-_Sep_10%2C_2018.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="215" data-file-height="294" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Suzan_Najm_Aldeen" title="Suzan Najm Aldeen">Suzan Najm Aldeen</a>, Syrian actress</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Television_in_Syria" title="Television in Syria">Television was introduced to Syria</a> and Egypt in 1960, when both were part of the <a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Republic" title="United Arab Republic">United Arab Republic</a>. It broadcast in black and white until 1976.<a href="#cite_note-:6-392">[383]</a> <a href="/wiki/Syrian_soap_operas" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian soap operas">Syrian soap operas</a> have considerable market penetration throughout the eastern Arab world.<a href="#cite_note-:6-392">[383]</a> Nearly all of <a href="/wiki/Media_of_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Media of Syria">Syria's media</a> outlets are state-owned.<a href="#cite_note-393">[384]</a> The authorities operate several intelligence agencies,<a href="#cite_note-394">[385]</a> among them <a href="/wiki/Military_Intelligence_(Syria)" class="mw-redirect" title="Military Intelligence (Syria)">Shu'bat al-Mukhabarat al-'Askariyya</a>, employing many operatives.<a href="#cite_note-395">[386]</a> During the civil war many of Syria's artists, poets, writers and activists have been incarcerated, and some have been killed, including famed cartoonist <a href="/wiki/Akram_Raslam" class="mw-redirect" title="Akram Raslam">Akram Raslan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-396">[387]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cuisine">Cuisine</h3></div> <a href="/wiki/Syrian_cuisine" title="Syrian cuisine">Syrian cuisine</a> is rich and varied in its ingredients, linked to the regions where a specific dish has originated. Syrian food mostly consists of southern Mediterranean, Greek, and Southwest Asian dishes. Some Syrian dishes also evolved from Turkish and French cooking: dishes like <a href="/wiki/Kebab" title="Kebab">shish kebab</a>, stuffed zucchini/courgette, and <a href="/wiki/Dolma" title="Dolma">yabraʾ</a> (stuffed grape leaves, the word yabraʾ deriving from the Turkish word yaprak, meaning leaf). The main dishes are <a href="/wiki/Kibbeh" title="Kibbeh">kibbeh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hummus" title="Hummus">hummus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tabbouleh" title="Tabbouleh">tabbouleh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fattoush" title="Fattoush">fattoush</a>, <a href="/wiki/Strained_yogurt" title="Strained yogurt">labneh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shawarma" title="Shawarma">shawarma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mujaddara" title="Mujaddara">mujaddara</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shanklish" title="Shanklish">shanklish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Past%C4%B1rma" class="mw-redirect" title="Pastırma">pastırma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sujuk" title="Sujuk">sujuk</a> and baklava. <a href="/wiki/Baklava" title="Baklava">Baklava</a> is made of <a href="/wiki/Filo" title="Filo">filo</a> pastry filled with chopped nuts and soaked in <a href="/wiki/Honey" title="Honey">honey</a>. Syrians often serve selections of appetizers, known as <a href="/wiki/Meze" title="Meze">meze</a>, before the main course. <a href="/wiki/Za%27atar" title="Za'atar">Za'atar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Minced_beef" class="mw-redirect" title="Minced beef">minced beef</a>, and cheese <a href="/wiki/Manakish" title="Manakish">manakish</a> are popular <a href="/wiki/Hors_d%27%C5%93uvres" class="mw-redirect" title="Hors d'œuvres">hors d'œuvres</a>. The Arabic flatbread <a href="/wiki/Khubz" title="Khubz">khubz</a> is always eaten together with meze. Drinks vary, depending on the time of day and the occasion. <a href="/wiki/Arabic_coffee" title="Arabic coffee">Arabic coffee</a> is the most well-known hot drink, usually prepared in the morning at breakfast or in the evening. It is usually served for guests or after food. <a href="/wiki/Arak_(distilled_beverage)" class="mw-redirect" title="Arak (distilled beverage)">Arak</a>, an alcoholic drink, is a well-known beverage, served mostly on special occasions. Other Syrian beverages include <a href="/wiki/Ayran" title="Ayran">ayran</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jallab" title="Jallab">jallab</a>, <a href="/wiki/White_coffee" title="White coffee">white coffee</a>, and a locally manufactured beer called Al Shark.<a href="#cite_note-397">[388]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Syria-related_articles" title="Index of Syria-related articles">Index of Syria-related articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Syria" title="Outline of Syria">Outline of Syria</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> Although widely used in Syrian transitional government websites and documents, the coat of arms of Syria is unofficial since the fall of the Assad regime and therefore is de facto. </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> After the fall of the Assad regime, it was briefly relinquished. Shortly thereafter, it was reinstated by the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_transitional_government" title="Syrian transitional government">Syrian transitional government</a>. However, on 18 January 2025, a de facto new anthem, In Pursuit of Glory, was played in a football match after the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Football_Association" title="Syrian Football Association">Syrian Football Association</a> notified <a href="/wiki/FIFA" title="FIFA">FIFA</a> that they were using a new anthem. Ever since then, it has been unclear whether this anthem will still be used. </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: سُورِيَة, <a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Arabic" title="Romanization of Arabic">romanized</a>: Sūriyah, or سُورِيَا, Sūriyā </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> Arabic: اَلْجُمْهُورِيَّةُ ٱلْعَرَبِيَّةُ ٱلْسُوْرِيَّة, romanized: al-Jumhūriyyah al-ʿArabiyyah as-Sūriyyah </li> <li id="cite_note-tots-93">^ <a href="#cite_ref-tots_93-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-tots_93-1">b</a> Sources describing Syria as a totalitarian state: <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFKhamis,_B._Gold,_Vaughn2013" class="citation book cs1">Khamis, B. Gold, Vaughn, Sahar, Paul, Katherine (2013). "22. Propaganda in Egypt and Syria's "Cyberwars": Contexts, Actors, Tools, and Tactics". In Auerbach, Castronovo, Jonathan, Russ (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Propaganda Studies. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. p. 422. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-976441-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-976441-9"><bdi>978-0-19-976441-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=22.+Propaganda+in+Egypt+and+Syria%27s+%22Cyberwars%22%3A+Contexts%2C+Actors%2C+Tools%2C+and+Tactics&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Propaganda+Studies&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pages=422&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-19-976441-9&rft.aulast=Khamis%2C+B.+Gold%2C+Vaughn&rft.aufirst=Sahar%2C+Paul%2C+Katherine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWieland2018" class="citation book cs1">Wieland, Carsten (2018). "6: De-neutralizing Aid: All Roads Lead to Damascus". Syria and the Neutrality Trap: The Dilemmas of Delivering Humanitarian Aid Through Violent Regimes. London: I. B. Tauris. p. 68. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7556-4138-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7556-4138-3"><bdi>978-0-7556-4138-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=6%3A+De-neutralizing+Aid%3A+All+Roads+Lead+to+Damascus&rft.btitle=Syria+and+the+Neutrality+Trap%3A+The+Dilemmas+of+Delivering+Humanitarian+Aid+Through+Violent+Regimes&rft.place=London&rft.pages=68&rft.pub=I.+B.+Tauris&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0-7556-4138-3&rft.aulast=Wieland&rft.aufirst=Carsten&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMeininghaus2016" class="citation book cs1">Meininghaus, Esther (2016). "Introduction". Creating Consent in Ba'thist Syria: Women and Welfare in a Totalitarian State. I. B. Tauris. pp. 1–33. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78453-115-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78453-115-7"><bdi>978-1-78453-115-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=Creating+Consent+in+Ba%27thist+Syria%3A+Women+and+Welfare+in+a+Totalitarian+State&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E33&rft.pub=I.+B.+Tauris&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-78453-115-7&rft.aulast=Meininghaus&rft.aufirst=Esther&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSadikiFares2014" class="citation book cs1">Sadiki, Larbi; Fares, Obaida (2014). "12: The Arab Spring Comes to Syria: Internal Mobilization for Democratic Change, Militarization and Internationalization". Routledge Handbook of the Arab Spring: Rethinking Democratization. Routledge. p. 147. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-52391-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-52391-2"><bdi>978-0-415-52391-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=12%3A+The+Arab+Spring+Comes+to+Syria%3A+Internal+Mobilization+for+Democratic+Change%2C+Militarization+and+Internationalization&rft.btitle=Routledge+Handbook+of+the+Arab+Spring%3A+Rethinking+Democratization&rft.pages=147&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-415-52391-2&rft.aulast=Sadiki&rft.aufirst=Larbi&rft.au=Fares%2C+Obaida&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a> Sources:<a href="#cite_note-129">[124]</a><a href="#cite_note-130">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-131">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-132">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-133">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-134">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-135">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-136">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-137">[132]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> <a href="#cite_note-142">[136]</a><a href="#cite_note-143">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-144">[138]</a><a href="#cite_note-145">[139]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> Sources: <ul><li><a href="#cite_note-CNN_OIC-147">[140]</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180627112504/http://www.dw.com/en/islamic-bloc-suspends-syria-membership-over-crisis/a-16169355">"Islamic bloc suspends Syria membership over crisis"</a>. DW News. 16 August 2012. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dw.com/en/islamic-bloc-suspends-syria-membership-over-crisis/a-16169355">the original</a> on 27 June 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=DW+News&rft.atitle=Islamic+bloc+suspends+Syria+membership+over+crisis&rft.date=2012-08-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dw.com%2Fen%2Fislamic-bloc-suspends-syria-membership-over-crisis%2Fa-16169355&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180701041619/https://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/2/8/50565/World/Region/Organisation-of-Islamic-Cooperation-suspends-Syria.aspx">"Organisation of Islamic Cooperation suspends Syria"</a>. Ahram Online. 16 August 2012. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/2/8/50565/World/Region/Organisation-of-Islamic-Cooperation-suspends-Syria.aspx">the original</a> on 1 July 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ahram+Online&rft.atitle=Organisation+of+Islamic+Cooperation+suspends+Syria&rft.date=2012-08-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fenglish.ahram.org.eg%2FNewsContent%2F2%2F8%2F50565%2FWorld%2FRegion%2FOrganisation-of-Islamic-Cooperation-suspends-Syria.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230208075035/https://www.rferl.org/amp/oic-suspends-syria/24678392.html">"OIC Suspends Syria Over Crackdown"</a>. RFE/RL. 16 August 2012. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rferl.org/a/oic-suspends-syria/24678392.html">the original</a> on 8 February 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=RFE%2FRL&rft.atitle=OIC+Suspends+Syria+Over+Crackdown&rft.date=2012-08-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rferl.org%2Fa%2Foic-suspends-syria%2F24678392.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-233"><a href="#cite_ref-233">^</a> The name "Rojava" ("The West") was initially used by the region's <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Union_Party_(Syria)" title="Democratic Union Party (Syria)">PYD</a>-led government, before its usage was dropped in 2016.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELister2015154-230">[222]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllsoppvan_Wilgenburg201989-231">[223]</a><a href="#cite_note-232">[224]</a> Since then, the name is still used by locals and international observers. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626" /><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://almashhad.com/article/773112298002792-News/191647995589717-%D8%AD%D9%82%D9%8A%D9%82%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%B4%D9%8A%D8%AF-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B7%D9%86%D9%8A-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%AF-%D8%AA%D8%AA%D8%B5%D8%AF%D8%B1-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%AF/">"حقيقة النشيد الوطني السوري الجديد تتصدر الترند"</a>. 9 December 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%D8%AD%D9%82%D9%8A%D9%82%D8%A9+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%B4%D9%8A%D8%AF+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B7%D9%86%D9%8A+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%AF+%D8%AA%D8%AA%D8%B5%D8%AF%D8%B1+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%AF&rft.date=2024-12-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Falmashhad.com%2Farticle%2F773112298002792-News%2F191647995589717-%25D8%25AD%25D9%2582%25D9%258A%25D9%2582%25D8%25A9-%25D8%25A7%25D9%2584%25D9%2586%25D8%25B4%25D9%258A%25D8%25AF-%25D8%25A7%25D9%2584%25D9%2588%25D8%25B7%25D9%2586%25D9%258A-%25D8%25A7%25D9%2584%25D8%25B3%25D9%2588%25D8%25B1%25D9%258A-%25D8%25A7%25D9%2584%25D8%25AC%25D8%25AF%25D9%258A%25D8%25AF-%25D8%25AA%25D8%25AA%25D8%25B5%25D8%25AF%25D8%25B1-%25D8%25A7%25D9%2584%25D8%25AA%25D8%25B1%25D9%2586%25D8%25AF%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/syria/#people-and-society">"Syria"</a>, The World Factbook, Central Intelligence Agency, 3 March 2025, retrieved 6 March 2025</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+World+Factbook&rft.atitle=Syria&rft.date=2025-03-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cia.gov%2Fthe-world-factbook%2Fcountries%2Fsyria%2F%23people-and-society&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-CIA_-_The_World_Factbook-5"><a href="#cite_ref-CIA_-_The_World_Factbook_5-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/syria/#people-and-society">"Syria: People and society"</a>. 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Retrieved 7 March 2025.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economist&rft.atitle=Syria%27s+economy%2C+still+strangled+by+sanctions%2C+is+on+its+knees&rft.issn=0013-0613&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.economist.com%2Fbriefing%2F2025%2F03%2F06%2Fsyrias-economy-still-strangled-by-sanctions-is-on-its-knees&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRollinger2006" class="citation journal cs1">Rollinger, Robert (2006). "The terms "Assyria" and "Syria" again". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 65 (4): 284–287. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F511103">10.1086/511103</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-2968">0022-2968</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162760021">162760021</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Near+Eastern+Studies&rft.atitle=The+terms+%22Assyria%22+and+%22Syria%22+again&rft.volume=65&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E284-%3C%2Fspan%3E287&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162760021%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0022-2968&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F511103&rft.aulast=Rollinger&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFrye1992" class="citation journal cs1">Frye, R. N. (1992). "Assyria and Syria: Synonyms". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 51 (4): 281–285. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F373570">10.1086/373570</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161323237">161323237</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Near+Eastern+Studies&rft.atitle=Assyria+and+Syria%3A+Synonyms&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E281-%3C%2Fspan%3E285&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F373570&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161323237%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Frye&rft.aufirst=R.+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAdam781" class="citation book cs1">Adam (781). "Translation of the Nestorian Inscription". <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Nestorian_Monument:_An_Ancient_Record_of_Christianity_in_China/Translation_of_the_Nestorian_Inscription">Stele to the Propagation in China of the Jingjiao of Daqin</a>. Translated by <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Wylie_(missionary)" title="Alexander Wylie (missionary)">Wylie, Alexander</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230326023958/https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Nestorian_Monument:_An_Ancient_Record_of_Christianity_in_China/Translation_of_the_Nestorian_Inscription">Archived</a> from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved 2 March 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Translation+of+the+Nestorian+Inscription&rft.btitle=Stele+to+the+Propagation+in+China+of+the+Jingjiao+of+Daqin&rft.date=781&rft.au=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikisource.org%2Fwiki%2FThe_Nestorian_Monument%3A_An_Ancient_Record_of_Christianity_in_China%2FTranslation_of_the_Nestorian_Inscription&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHerodotus" class="citation book cs1">Herodotus. <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/History_of_Herodotus/Book_7">The History of Herodotus (Rawlinson)</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221004183722/https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/History_of_Herodotus/Book_7">Archived</a> from the original on 4 October 2022. Retrieved 19 January 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Herodotus+%28Rawlinson%29&rft.au=Herodotus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikisource.org%2Fwiki%2FHistory_of_Herodotus%2FBook_7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJoseph2008" class="citation web cs1">Joseph, John (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jaas.org/edocs/v11n2/JohnJoseph.pdf">"Assyria and Syria: Synonyms?"</a> (PDF). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130521091130/http://www.jaas.org/edocs/v11n2/JohnJoseph.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 21 May 2013. Retrieved 21 July 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Assyria+and+Syria%3A+Synonyms%3F&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Joseph&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jaas.org%2Fedocs%2Fv11n2%2FJohnJoseph.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> First proposed by <a href="/wiki/Theodor_N%C3%B6ldeke" title="Theodor Nöldeke">Theodor Nöldeke</a> in 1881; cf. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHarper2001" class="citation web cs1">Harper, Douglas (November 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Syria">"Syria"</a>. Online Etymology Dictionary. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130513183105/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Syria">Archived</a> from the original on 13 May 2013. Retrieved 13 June 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Online+Etymology+Dictionary&rft.atitle=Syria&rft.date=2001-11&rft.aulast=Harper&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2Findex.php%3Fterm%3DSyria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rollinger-28"><a href="#cite_ref-Rollinger_28-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRollinger2006" class="citation journal cs1">Rollinger, Robert (1 October 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/511103">"The Terms "Assyria" and "Syria" Again"</a>. Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 65 (4): 283–287. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F511103">10.1086/511103</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-2968">0022-2968</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162760021">162760021</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230119094915/https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/511103">Archived</a> from the original on 19 January 2023. Retrieved 19 January 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Near+Eastern+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Terms+%22Assyria%22+and+%22Syria%22+Again&rft.volume=65&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E283-%3C%2Fspan%3E287&rft.date=2006-10-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162760021%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0022-2968&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F511103&rft.aulast=Rollinger&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.journals.uchicago.edu%2Fdoi%2F10.1086%2F511103&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPliny1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny</a> (March 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Pliny_the_Elder/5*.html">"Book 5 Section 66"</a>. Natural History. 77AD. University of Chicago. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-84-249-1901-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-84-249-1901-6"><bdi>978-84-249-1901-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240206025205/https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Pliny_the_Elder/5%2A.html">Archived</a> from the original on 6 February 2024. Retrieved 20 February 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Book+5+Section+66&rft.btitle=Natural+History&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago&rft.date=1998-03&rft.isbn=978-84-249-1901-6&rft.au=Pliny&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpenelope.uchicago.edu%2FThayer%2FL%2FRoman%2FTexts%2FPliny_the_Elder%2F5%2A.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/578856/Syria/29905/Roman-provincial-organization#default">"Syria :: Roman provincial organization"</a>. Britannica Online Encyclopedia. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091219035534/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/578856/Syria/29905/Roman-provincial-organization#default">Archived</a> from the original on 19 December 2009. Retrieved 25 October 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Syria+%3A%3A+Roman+provincial+organization&rft.btitle=Britannica+Online+Encyclopedia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F578856%2FSyria%2F29905%2FRoman-provincial-organization%23default&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLieberman1991" class="citation journal cs1">Lieberman, Daniel E. (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.persee.fr/doc/paleo_0153-9345_1991_num_17_1_4538">"Seasonality and gazelle hunting at Hayonim Cave : new evidence for "sedentism" during the Natufian"</a>. Paléorient. 17 (1): 47–57. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3406%2Fpaleo.1991.4538">10.3406/paleo.1991.4538</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Pal%C3%A9orient&rft.atitle=Seasonality+and+gazelle+hunting+at+Hayonim+Cave+%3A+new+evidence+for+%22sedentism%22+during+the+Natufian&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E47-%3C%2Fspan%3E57&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3406%2Fpaleo.1991.4538&rft.aulast=Lieberman&rft.aufirst=Daniel+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.persee.fr%2Fdoc%2Fpaleo_0153-9345_1991_num_17_1_4538&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTobolczyk2020" class="citation book cs1">Tobolczyk, Marta (18 September 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5PUBEAAAQBAJ&dq=..+oldest+known+masonry+structures+in+the+world.+Some+journals+have+already+declared+the+site+Tell+Qaramel+to+be+the+oldest+city+or+the+oldest+proto+city.+Further+excavations+need+to+be+carried+out+to+ascertain+whether+this+assumption+is&pg=PA79">The Art of Building at the Dawn of Human Civilization: The Ontogenesis of Architecture</a>. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5275-5971-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5275-5971-4"><bdi>978-1-5275-5971-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Art+of+Building+at+the+Dawn+of+Human+Civilization%3A+The+Ontogenesis+of+Architecture&rft.pub=Cambridge+Scholars+Publishing&rft.date=2020-09-18&rft.isbn=978-1-5275-5971-4&rft.aulast=Tobolczyk&rft.aufirst=Marta&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5PUBEAAAQBAJ%26dq%3D..%2Boldest%2Bknown%2Bmasonry%2Bstructures%2Bin%2Bthe%2Bworld.%2BSome%2Bjournals%2Bhave%2Balready%2Bdeclared%2Bthe%2Bsite%2BTell%2BQaramel%2Bto%2Bbe%2Bthe%2Boldest%2Bcity%2Bor%2Bthe%2Boldest%2Bproto%2Bcity.%2BFurther%2Bexcavations%2Bneed%2Bto%2Bbe%2Bcarried%2Bout%2Bto%2Bascertain%2Bwhether%2Bthis%2Bassumption%2Bis%26pg%3DPA79&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pcma.uw.edu.pl/en/2019/01/11/tell-qaramel-2/">"Tell Qaramel"</a>. pcma.uw.edu.pl. 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Routledge. p. 239. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-52062-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-52062-6"><bdi>978-1-134-52062-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Warfare+in+the+Ancient+Near+East+to+1600+BC%3A+Holy+Warriors+at+the+Dawn+of+History&rft.pages=239&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-134-52062-6&rft.aulast=Hamblin&rft.aufirst=William+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbiyDDd0uKGMC%26pg%3DPT239&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFShawJameson2008" class="citation book cs1">Shaw, Ian; Jameson, Robert (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8HKDtlPuM2oC&pg=PA211">A Dictionary of Archaeology</a>. 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(2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=biyDDd0uKGMC&pg=PT254">Warfare in the Ancient Near East to 1600 BC</a>. Routledge. p. 259. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-52062-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-52062-6"><bdi>978-1-134-52062-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Warfare+in+the+Ancient+Near+East+to+1600+BC&rft.pages=259&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-134-52062-6&rft.aulast=Hamblin&rft.aufirst=William+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbiyDDd0uKGMC%26pg%3DPT254&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSasson1969" class="citation book cs1">Sasson, Jack M. (1969). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=J8GgNzv1LfsC&pg=PA2">The Military Establishments at Mari</a>. p. 2+3.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Military+Establishments+at+Mari&rft.pages=2%2B3&rft.date=1969&rft.aulast=Sasson&rft.aufirst=Jack+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJ8GgNzv1LfsC%26pg%3DPA2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> Relations between God and Man in the Hurro-Hittite Song of Release, Mary R. Bachvarova, Journal of the American Oriental Society, Jan–Mar SAAD 2005 </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> "The foreigners of the fourth register, with long hairstyles and calf-length fringed robes, are labeled Chiefs of Retjenu, the ancient name tor the Syrian region. Like the Nubians, they come with animals, in this case horses, an elephant, and a bear; they also offer weapons and vessels most likely filled with precious substance." in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHawassVannini2009" class="citation book cs1">Hawass, Zahi A.; Vannini, Sandro (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YjZZAAAAYAAJ">The lost tombs of Thebes: life in paradise</a>. Thames & Hudson. p. 120. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780500051597" title="Special:BookSources/9780500051597"><bdi>9780500051597</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+lost+tombs+of+Thebes%3A+life+in+paradise&rft.pages=120&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780500051597&rft.aulast=Hawass&rft.aufirst=Zahi+A.&rft.au=Vannini%2C+Sandro&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYjZZAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFZakrzewskiShortlandRowland2015" class="citation book cs1">Zakrzewski, Sonia; Shortland, Andrew; Rowland, Joanne (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=w6pACwAAQBAJ&pg=PA268">Science in the Study of Ancient Egypt</a>. Routledge. p. 268. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-39195-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-39195-1"><bdi>978-1-317-39195-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+in+the+Study+of+Ancient+Egypt&rft.pages=268&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-317-39195-1&rft.aulast=Zakrzewski&rft.aufirst=Sonia&rft.au=Shortland%2C+Andrew&rft.au=Rowland%2C+Joanne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dw6pACwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA268&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLange2006" class="citation book cs1">Lange, John (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WOxnM3WJYJgC&pg=PA475">The Philosophy of Historiography</a>. Open Road Integrated Media, Incorporated. p. 475. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61756-132-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61756-132-0"><bdi>978-1-61756-132-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Philosophy+of+Historiography&rft.pages=475&rft.pub=Open+Road+Integrated+Media%2C+Incorporated&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-61756-132-0&rft.aulast=Lange&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWOxnM3WJYJgC%26pg%3DPA475&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFVelikovsky2010" class="citation book cs1">Velikovsky, Immanuel (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EClaAtUb2TAC&pg=PA23">Ramses II and His Time</a>. Paradigma. p. 23. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-906833-74-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-906833-74-9"><bdi>978-1-906833-74-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ramses+II+and+His+Time&rft.pages=23&rft.pub=Paradigma&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-906833-74-9&rft.aulast=Velikovsky&rft.aufirst=Immanuel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEClaAtUb2TAC%26pg%3DPA23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFrayne1981" class="citation book cs1">Frayne, Douglas (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1A0OgvXfHlQC&pg=PA24">Ugarit in Retrospect</a>. Eisenbrauns. p. 23,24,25. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-931464-07-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-931464-07-2"><bdi>978-0-931464-07-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ugarit+in+Retrospect&rft.pages=23%2C24%2C25&rft.pub=Eisenbrauns&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-0-931464-07-2&rft.aulast=Frayne&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1A0OgvXfHlQC%26pg%3DPA24&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> Georges Roux, Ancient Iraq, 3rd ed., Penguin Books, London, 1991, p.381 </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRollinger2006" class="citation journal cs1">Rollinger, Robert (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/511103">"The terms "Assyria" and "Syria" again""</a>. Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 65 (4): 284–287. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F511103">10.1086/511103</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162760021">162760021</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230119094915/https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/511103">Archived</a> from the original on 19 January 2023. Retrieved 19 January 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Near+Eastern+Studies&rft.atitle=The+terms+%22Assyria%22+and+%22Syria%22+again%22&rft.volume=65&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E284-%3C%2Fspan%3E287&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F511103&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162760021%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Rollinger&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.journals.uchicago.edu%2Fdoi%2F10.1086%2F511103&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> Hist. xviii., vii. 1 </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHiggins2009" class="citation web cs1">Higgins, Charlotte (13 October 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/culture/charlottehigginsblog/2009/oct/13/hadrians-wall">"When Syrians, Algerians and Iraqis patrolled Hadrian's Wall"</a>. The Guardian. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130908040020/https://www.theguardian.com/culture/charlottehigginsblog/2009/oct/13/hadrians-wall">Archived</a> from the original on 8 September 2013. Retrieved 13 December 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=When+Syrians%2C+Algerians+and+Iraqis+patrolled+Hadrian%27s+Wall&rft.date=2009-10-13&rft.aulast=Higgins&rft.aufirst=Charlotte&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fculture%2Fcharlottehigginsblog%2F2009%2Foct%2F13%2Fhadrians-wall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> Palmyra: Mirage in the Desert, Joan Aruz, 2018, page 78. </li> <li id="cite_note-Cavendish_Corporation_2006_183-64">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cavendish_Corporation_2006_183_64-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cavendish_Corporation_2006_183_64-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCavendish_Corporation2006" class="citation book cs1">Cavendish Corporation, Marshall (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/worlditspeoplesm0000unse/page/183">World and Its Peoples</a>. <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Cavendish" title="Marshall Cavendish">Marshall Cavendish</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/worlditspeoplesm0000unse/page/183">183</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7614-7571-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7614-7571-2"><bdi>978-0-7614-7571-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=World+and+Its+Peoples&rft.pages=183&rft.pub=Marshall+Cavendish&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-7614-7571-2&rft.aulast=Cavendish+Corporation&rft.aufirst=Marshall&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fworlditspeoplesm0000unse%2Fpage%2F183&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated2-65">^ <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated2_65-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated2_65-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMuir1861" class="citation cs2">Muir, William (1861), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YDwBAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA225">The life of Mahomet</a>, Smith, Elder & Co, pp. 225–226</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+life+of+Mahomet&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E225-%3C%2Fspan%3E226&rft.pub=Smith%2C+Elder+%26+Co&rft.date=1861&rft.aulast=Muir&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYDwBAAAAQAAJ%26pg%3DPA225&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mubarakpuri,_The_Sealed_Nectar_pp._193-194-66"><a href="#cite_ref-Mubarakpuri,_The_Sealed_Nectar_pp._193-194_66-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110623154138/http://www.witness-pioneer.org/vil/Books/SM_tsn/ch4s8.html">"Military Platoons and Missions between the Battle of Uhud and the Battle of the Confederates"</a>. 23 June 2011. pp. 193–194. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.witness-pioneer.org/vil/Books/SM_tsn/ch4s8.html">the original</a> on 23 June 2011. Retrieved 19 January 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Military+Platoons+and+Missions+between+the+Battle+of+Uhud+and+the+Battle+of+the+Confederates&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E193-%3C%2Fspan%3E194&rft.date=2011-06-23&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.witness-pioneer.org%2Fvil%2FBooks%2FSM_tsn%2Fch4s8.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Muhammad_at_Medina-67"><a href="#cite_ref-Muhammad_at_Medina_67-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMontgomery_Watt_W.1956" class="citation book cs1">Montgomery Watt W. (1956). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/muhammadatmedina029655mbp">Muhammad At Medina</a>. Osmania University, Digital Library Of India. Oxford At The Clarendon Press. p. 35. <q>This expedition receives scant notice in the sources, but in some ways it is the most significant so far. As Dumah was some 800 km (500 mi) from Medina there can have been no immediate threat to Muhammad, but it may be, as Caetani suggests, 1 that communications with Syria were being interrupted and supplies to Medina stopped. It is tempting to suppose that was already envisaging something of the expansion which took place after his death.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Muhammad+At+Medina&rft.pages=35&rft.pub=Oxford+At+The+Clarendon+Press.&rft.date=1956&rft.au=Montgomery+Watt+W.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmuhammadatmedina029655mbp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCobb2001" class="citation book cs1">Cobb, Paul M. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2C6KIBw4F9YC&q=Fadl+Salih+Ali">White banners: contention in ʻAbbāsid Syria, 750-880</a>. SUNY Press. p. 151. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7914-4880-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-7914-4880-0"><bdi>0-7914-4880-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=White+banners%3A+contention+in+%CA%BBAbb%C4%81sid+Syria%2C+750-880&rft.pages=151&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-7914-4880-0&rft.aulast=Cobb&rft.aufirst=Paul+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2C6KIBw4F9YC%26q%3DFadl%2BSalih%2BAli&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/umay/hd_umay.htm">"The Art of the Umayyad Period (661–750)"</a>. Met Museum. October 2001. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200920005127/https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/umay/hd_umay.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 20 September 2020. Retrieved 21 July 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Art+of+the+Umayyad+Period+%28661%E2%80%93750%29&rft.pub=Met+Museum&rft.date=2001-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.metmuseum.org%2Ftoah%2Fhd%2Fumay%2Fhd_umay.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/578856/Syria">"Syria: History"</a>. Encyclopædia Britannica. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150525033119/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/578856/Syria">Archived</a> from the original on 25 May 2015. Retrieved 25 January 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Syria%3A+History&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F578856%2FSyria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> Farhad Daftary. A Short History of the Ismailis. 1998, Edinburg, UK. Edinburg University Press. Page 146. </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mongolconquestst00time/page/59">Timeframe AD 1200–1300: The Mongol Conquests</a>. 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Everything2.com. 22 February 2003. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070626194212/http://www.everything2.com/index.pl?node_id=1433425">Archived</a> from the original on 26 June 2007. Retrieved 25 January 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Battle+of+Aleppo&rft.pub=Everything2.com&rft.date=2003-02-22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.everything2.com%2Findex.pl%3Fnode_id%3D1433425&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090428055820/http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/08/wae/ht08wae.htm">"The Eastern Mediterranean, 1400–1600 A.D"</a>. Metmuseum.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/08/wae/ht08wae.htm">the original</a> on 28 April 2009. Retrieved 23 April 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Eastern+Mediterranean%2C+1400%E2%80%931600+A.D&rft.pub=Metmuseum.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.metmuseum.org%2Ftoah%2Fht%2F08%2Fwae%2Fht08wae.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/26/magazine/is-this-the-end-of-christianity-in-the-middle-east.html">"Is This the End of Christianity in the Middle East?"</a>. The New York Times. 22 July 2015. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150722154939/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/26/magazine/is-this-the-end-of-christianity-in-the-middle-east.html">Archived</a> from the original on 22 July 2015. Retrieved 8 January 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Is+This+the+End+of+Christianity+in+the+Middle+East%3F&rft.date=2015-07-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2015%2F07%2F26%2Fmagazine%2Fis-this-the-end-of-christianity-in-the-middle-east.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Syria_–_Ottoman_Empire-76">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Syria_–_Ottoman_Empire_76-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Syria_–_Ottoman_Empire_76-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://countrystudies.us/syria/7.htm">"Syria – Ottoman"</a>. Library of Congress Country Studies. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151105005145/http://countrystudies.us/syria/7.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 5 November 2015. Retrieved 25 January 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Syria+%E2%80%93+Ottoman&rft.pub=Library+of+Congress+Country+Studies&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcountrystudies.us%2Fsyria%2F7.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"><img alt="Public Domain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/12px-PD-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/18px-PD-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/24px-PD-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="196" /> This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> a b Stanford J. Shaw, "Dynamics of Ottoman Society and administration", in "History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey" </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> "Pouring a People into the Desert:The "Definitive Solution" of the Unionists to the Armenian Question", Fuat Dundar, A Question of Genocide, ed. Ronald Grigor Suny, Fatma Muge Gocek and Norman M. Naimark, (Oxford University Press, 2011), 280–281. </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080626065208/http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/fr/IMG/pdf/III_-_Protmand_modifie_mandat.pdf">"Mandat Syrie-Liban"</a> (PDF) (in French). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/fr/IMG/pdf/III_-_Protmand_modifie_mandat.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 26 June 2008. Retrieved 25 January 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Mandat+Syrie-Liban&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.diplomatie.gouv.fr%2Ffr%2FIMG%2Fpdf%2FIII_-_Protmand_modifie_mandat.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBarr2011" class="citation book cs1">Barr, James (2011). a line in the sand. Britain, France and the struggle that shaped the Middle East. Simon & Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84737-453-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84737-453-0"><bdi>978-1-84737-453-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=a+line+in+the+sand.+Britain%2C+France+and+the+struggle+that+shaped+the+Middle+East&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-84737-453-0&rft.aulast=Barr&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFStearnsLanger2001" class="citation book cs1">Stearns, Peter N.; Langer, William Leonard (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MziRd4ddZz4C">"The Middle East, p. 761"</a>. The Encyclopedia of World History. Houghton Mifflin Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-395-65237-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-395-65237-4"><bdi>978-0-395-65237-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Middle+East%2C+p.+761&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+World+History&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin+Books&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-395-65237-4&rft.aulast=Stearns&rft.aufirst=Peter+N.&rft.au=Langer%2C+William+Leonard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMziRd4ddZz4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-USDoS-82">^ <a href="#cite_ref-USDoS_82-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-USDoS_82-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-USDoS_82-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-USDoS_82-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-USDoS_82-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-USDoS_82-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-USDoS_82-6">g</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://2009-2017.state.gov/outofdate/bgn/syria/85051.htm">"Background Note: Syria"</a>. <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_State" title="United States Department of State">United States Department of State</a>, Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs, May 2007. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190722082421/https://2009-2017.state.gov/outofdate/bgn/syria/85051.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 22 July 2019. Retrieved 21 May 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=United+States+Department+of+State%2C+Bureau+of+Near+Eastern+Affairs%2C+May+2007&rft.atitle=Background+Note%3A+Syria&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2F2009-2017.state.gov%2Foutofdate%2Fbgn%2Fsyria%2F85051.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"><img alt="Public Domain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/12px-PD-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/18px-PD-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/24px-PD-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="196" /> This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> Gelber, 2006, pp. 138 </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> Morris, 2008, pp. 253, 254 </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> Tal, 2004, pp. 251 </li> <li id="cite_note-Britan-86">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Britan_86-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Britan_86-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Britan_86-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Britan_86-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Britan_86-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Britan_86-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Britan_86-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Britan_86-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Britan_86-8">i</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/578856/Syria/29922/World-War-II-and-independence">"Syria: World War II and independence"</a>. Britannica Online Encyclopedia. 23 May 2023. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100926105853/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/578856/Syria/29922/World-War-II-and-independence">Archived</a> from the original on 26 September 2010. Retrieved 23 October 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Syria%3A+World+War+II+and+independence&rft.pub=Britannica+Online+Encyclopedia&rft.date=2023-05-23&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F578856%2FSyria%2F29922%2FWorld-War-II-and-independence&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFChen2018" class="citation journal cs1">Chen, Chern (8 August 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080/07075332.2017.1367705">"Former Nazi Officers in the Near East: German Military Advisors in Syria, 1949–56"</a>. The International History Review. 40 (4): 732–751. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F07075332.2017.1367705">10.1080/07075332.2017.1367705</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0707-5332">0707-5332</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:158837784">158837784</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+International+History+Review&rft.atitle=Former+Nazi+Officers+in+the+Near+East%3A+German+Military+Advisors+in+Syria%2C+1949%E2%80%9356&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E732-%3C%2Fspan%3E751&rft.date=2018-08-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A158837784%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0707-5332&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F07075332.2017.1367705&rft.aulast=Chen&rft.aufirst=Chern&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%2F07075332.2017.1367705&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRobson2012" class="citation news cs1">Robson, John (10 February 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.torontosun.com/2012/02/10/syria-hasnt-changed-but-the-world-has">"Syria hasn't changed, but the world has"</a>. Toronto Sun. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160118010341/http://www.torontosun.com/2012/02/10/syria-hasnt-changed-but-the-world-has">Archived</a> from the original on 18 January 2016. Retrieved 25 January 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Toronto+Sun&rft.atitle=Syria+hasn%27t+changed%2C+but+the+world+has&rft.date=2012-02-10&rft.aulast=Robson&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.torontosun.com%2F2012%2F02%2F10%2Fsyria-hasnt-changed-but-the-world-has&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBrecherWilkenfeld1997" class="citation book cs1">Brecher, Michael; Wilkenfeld, Jonathan (1997). A Study of Crisis. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan_Press" title="University of Michigan Press">University of Michigan Press</a>. pp. 345–346. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-472-10806-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-472-10806-0"><bdi>978-0-472-10806-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Study+of+Crisis&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E345-%3C%2Fspan%3E346&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-472-10806-0&rft.aulast=Brecher&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.au=Wilkenfeld%2C+Jonathan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> Heydemann, Steven. Authoritarianism in Syria. Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1999. Print. Pg.110 </li> <li id="cite_note-Heydemann,_Steven_19992-91">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Heydemann,_Steven_19992_91-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Heydemann,_Steven_19992_91-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Heydemann,_Steven_19992_91-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Heydemann,_Steven_19992_91-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Heydemann,_Steven_19992_91-4">e</a> Heydemann, Steven. Authoritarianism in Syria. Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1999. Print. </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> Heydemann, Steven. Authoritarianism in Syria. Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1999. Print. Pg 111. </li> <li id="cite_note-nt1-94">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nt1_94-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-nt1_94-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1">Creating Consent in Ba'thist Syria: Women and Welfare in a Totalitarian State. 2016. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1784531157" title="Special:BookSources/978-1784531157"><bdi>978-1784531157</bdi></a>. <q>Exceptionally, Perthes explicitly rejects the notion of Syria being totalitarian, stating that: [...] The state, under Asad's regime, has become authoritarian, not totalitarian.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Creating+Consent+in+Ba%27thist+Syria%3A+Women+and+Welfare+in+a+Totalitarian+State&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1784531157&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-nt2-95">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nt2_95-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-nt2_95-1">b</a> "As Lisa Weeden (1999, 27-30) argues, this system was not totalitarian but rather an authoritarian regime..." // Matthieu Rey. 2003: A Turning Point in the Formation in the Syrian Youth. Protests and Generations: Legacies and Emergences in the Middle East, North Africa and the Mediterranean, Brill, pp. 99-121, 2017, 9789004338159 </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWieland2021" class="citation book cs1">Wieland, Carsten (2021). Syria and the Neutrality Trap. New York: I.B. 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Time. 1 September 1967. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,837237,00.html">the original</a> on 15 December 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Time&rft.atitle=A+Campaign+for+the+Books&rft.date=1967-09-01&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.time.com%2Ftime%2Fmagazine%2Farticle%2F0%2C9171%2C837237%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Khatib2012-102"><a href="#cite_ref-Khatib2012_102-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKhatib2012" class="citation book cs1">Khatib, Line (23 May 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=S6FMnCyvCu4C&pg=PA34">Islamic Revivalism in Syria: The Rise and Fall of Ba'thist Secularism</a>. Routledge. p. 34. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-78203-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-78203-6"><bdi>978-0-415-78203-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islamic+Revivalism+in+Syria%3A+The+Rise+and+Fall+of+Ba%27thist+Secularism&rft.pages=34&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2012-05-23&rft.isbn=978-0-415-78203-6&rft.aulast=Khatib&rft.aufirst=Line&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DS6FMnCyvCu4C%26pg%3DPA34&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://edition.cnn.com/2007/POLITICS/11/28/nixon.papers/index.html">"Jordan asked Nixon to attack Syria, declassified papers show"</a>. 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Foreign Affairs. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110507025111/http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/67561/michael-broening/the-sturdy-house-that-assad-built">Archived</a> from the original on 7 May 2011. Retrieved 10 March 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Foreign+Affairs&rft.atitle=The+Sturdy+House+That+Assad+Built&rft.date=2011-03-07&rft.aulast=Br%C3%B6ning&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.foreignaffairs.com%2Farticles%2F67561%2Fmichael-broening%2Fthe-sturdy-house-that-assad-built&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFP._Miller,_H._Rand2020" class="citation book cs1">P. Miller, H. Rand, Andrew, Dafna (2020). "2: The Syrian Crucible and Future U.S. Options". Re-Engaging the Middle East. Washington D.C.: Brookings Institution Press. p. 28. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780815737629" title="Special:BookSources/9780815737629"><bdi>9780815737629</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=2%3A+The+Syrian+Crucible+and+Future+U.S.+Options&rft.btitle=Re-Engaging+the+Middle+East&rft.place=Washington+D.C.&rft.pages=28&rft.pub=Brookings+Institution+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=9780815737629&rft.aulast=P.+Miller%2C+H.+Rand&rft.aufirst=Andrew%2C+Dafna&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRabinovich2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Rabinovich" title="Abraham Rabinovich">Rabinovich, Abraham</a> (2005). The Yom Kippur War: The Epic Encounter That Transformed the Middle East. New York City: <a href="/wiki/Schocken_Books" title="Schocken Books">Schocken Books</a>. p. 302. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8052-4176-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8052-4176-1"><bdi>978-0-8052-4176-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Yom+Kippur+War%3A+The+Epic+Encounter+That+Transformed+the+Middle+East&rft.place=New+York+City&rft.pages=302&rft.pub=Schocken+Books&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-8052-4176-1&rft.aulast=Rabinovich&rft.aufirst=Abraham&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWeismann" class="citation web cs1">Weismann, Itzchak. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ou.edu/mideast/Additional%20pages%20-%20non-catagory/Sufism%20in%20Syriawebpage.htm">"Sufism and Sufi Brotherhoods in Syria and Palestine"</a>. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/israel-launches-strikes-on-syria-in-retaliation-for-bomb-attack-582373.html">the original</a> on 15 May 2011. Retrieved 23 October 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Independent&rft.atitle=Israel+launches+strikes+on+Syria+in+retaliation+for+bomb+attack&rft.date=2003-10-06&rft.aulast=Huggler&rft.aufirst=Justin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.independent.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fworld%2Fmiddle-east%2Fisrael-launches-strikes-on-syria-in-retaliation-for-bomb-attack-582373.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.naharnet.com/domino/tn/Newsdesk.nsf/Story/8A24116B9C5C2F34C2256E59002D08F0?OpenDocument&PRINT">"Naharnet Newsdesk – Syria Curbs Kurdish Riots for a Merger with Iraq's Kurdistan"</a>. 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Retrieved 25 October 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Naharnet+Newsdesk+%E2%80%93+Syria+Curbs+Kurdish+Riots+for+a+Merger+with+Iraq%27s+Kurdistan&rft.pub=Naharnet.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.naharnet.com%2Fdomino%2Ftn%2FNewsdesk.nsf%2FStory%2F8A24116B9C5C2F34C2256E59002D08F0%3FOpenDocument%26PRINT&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGuerin2005" class="citation news cs1">Guerin, Orla (6 March 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4322477.stm">"Syria sidesteps Lebanon demands"</a>. 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Retrieved 17 March 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Los+Angeles+Times&rft.atitle=Last+Syrian+troops+out+of+Lebanon&rft.date=2005-04-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newspapers.com%2Fsearch%2F%23query%3DLast%2BSyrian%2Btroops%2Bout%2Bof%2Blebanon%26dr_year%3D2005-2005&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSanger2007" class="citation news cs1">Sanger, David (14 October 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/14/washington/14weapons.html">"Israel Struck Syrian Nuclear Project, Analysts Say"</a>. The New York Times. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090416205816/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/14/washington/14weapons.html">Archived</a> from the original on 16 April 2009. Retrieved 15 October 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Israel+Struck+Syrian+Nuclear+Project%2C+Analysts+Say&rft.date=2007-10-14&rft.aulast=Sanger&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2007%2F10%2F14%2Fwashington%2F14weapons.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-13343540">"Syrian army tanks 'moving towards Hama'"</a>. 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Edinburgh, United Kingdom: Edinburgh University Press. pp. 132–133, 414–417. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4744-1528_6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4744-1528 6"><bdi>978-1-4744-1528 6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Political+Change+in+the+Middle+East+and+North+Africa%3A+After+the+Arab+Spring&rft.place=Edinburgh%2C+United+Kingdom&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E132-%3C%2Fspan%3E133%2C+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E414-%3C%2Fspan%3E417&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-4744-15286&rft.aulast=Szmolk&rft.aufirst=Inmaculada&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-201"><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a> *<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKhamis,_B._Gold,_Vaughn2013" class="citation book cs1">Khamis, B. 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New York: Oxford University Press. p. 422. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-976441-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-976441-9"><bdi>978-0-19-976441-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=22.+Propaganda+in+Egypt+and+Syria%27s+%22Cyberwars%22%3A+Contexts%2C+Actors%2C+Tools%2C+and+Tactics&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Propaganda+Studies&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=422&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-19-976441-9&rft.aulast=Khamis%2C+B.+Gold%2C+Vaughn&rft.aufirst=Sahar%2C+Paul%2C+Katherine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>) <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWieland2018" class="citation book cs1">Wieland, Carsten (2018). 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Albany, New York: Suny Press. pp. 144, 149. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781438472911" title="Special:BookSources/9781438472911"><bdi>9781438472911</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Totalitarian+Space+and+the+Destruction+of+Aura&rft.place=Albany%2C+New+York&rft.pages=144%2C+149&rft.pub=Suny+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=9781438472911&rft.aulast=Ahmed&rft.aufirst=Saladdin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHensman2018" class="citation book cs1">Hensman, Rohini (2018). "7: The Syrian Uprising". Indefensible: Democracy, Counterrevolution, and the Rhetoric of Anti-Imperialism. 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Article 77(2)"</a>. 15 February 2012. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200502203942/https://www.scribd.com/doc/81771718/Qordoba-Translation-of-the-Syrian-Constitution-Modifications-15-2-2012">Archived</a> from the original on 2 May 2020. Retrieved 30 January 2013 – via Scribd.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Constitution+of+Syria.+Article+77%282%29&rft.date=2012-02-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scribd.com%2Fdoc%2F81771718%2FQordoba-Translation-of-the-Syrian-Constitution-Modifications-15-2-2012&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-207"><a href="#cite_ref-207">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWedeen2015" class="citation book cs1">Wedeen, Lisa (2015). Ambiguities of Domination: Politics, Rhetoric, and Symbols in Contemporary Syria. 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Geopolitics. 26 (4): 1023–1045. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14650045.2018.1531283">10.1080/14650045.2018.1531283</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1887%2F87090">1887/87090</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geopolitics&rft.atitle=Gender+Revolution+in+Rojava%3A+The+Voices+beyond+Tabloid+Geopolitics&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1023-%3C%2Fspan%3E1045&rft.date=2018-10-29&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1887%2F87090&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F14650045.2018.1531283&rft.aulast=%C5%9Eim%C5%9Fek&rft.aufirst=Bahar&rft.au=Jongerden%2C+Joost&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%252F14650045.2018.1531283&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-244"><a href="#cite_ref-244">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBurç2020" class="citation journal cs1">Burç, Rosa (22 May 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.doiserbia.nb.rs/img/doi/0353-5738/2020/0353-57382003319B.pdf">"Non-territorial autonomy and gender equality: The case of the Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria – Rojava"</a> (PDF). Philosophy and Society. 31 (3): 277–448. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2298%2FFID2003319B">10.2298/FID2003319B</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:226412887">226412887</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220617192825/http://www.doiserbia.nb.rs/img/doi/0353-5738/2020/0353-57382003319B.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 17 June 2022. Retrieved 14 October 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophy+and+Society&rft.atitle=Non-territorial+autonomy+and+gender+equality%3A+The+case+of+the+Autonomous+Administration+of+North+and+East+Syria+%E2%80%93+Rojava&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E277-%3C%2Fspan%3E448&rft.date=2020-05-22&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2298%2FFID2003319B&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A226412887%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Bur%C3%A7&rft.aufirst=Rosa&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.doiserbia.nb.rs%2Fimg%2Fdoi%2F0353-5738%2F2020%2F0353-57382003319B.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-245"><a href="#cite_ref-245">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGammer2004" class="citation book cs1">Gammer, Moshe (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5CVBWjMAtLEC">The Caspian Region: The Caucasus</a>. Vol. 2. Routledge. p. 64. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-203-00512-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-203-00512-5"><bdi>978-0-203-00512-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230211033935/https://books.google.com/books?id=5CVBWjMAtLEC">Archived</a> from the original on 11 February 2023. Retrieved 22 October 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Caspian+Region%3A+The+Caucasus&rft.pages=64&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-203-00512-5&rft.aulast=Gammer&rft.aufirst=Moshe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5CVBWjMAtLEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllsoppvan_Wilgenburg2019xviii,_112-246"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllsoppvan_Wilgenburg2019xviii,_112_246-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllsoppvan_Wilgenburg2019">Allsopp & van Wilgenburg (2019)</a>, pp. xviii, 112. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZabad2017219,_228–229-247"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZabad2017219,_228–229_247-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFZabad2017">Zabad (2017)</a>, pp. 219, 228–229. </li> <li id="cite_note-248"><a href="#cite_ref-248">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSchmidinger2019" class="citation book cs1">Schmidinger, Thomas (2019). The Battle for the Mountain of the Kurds. Translated by Schiffmann, Thomas. Oakland, CA: PM Press, Kairos. p. 12. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-62963-651-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-62963-651-1"><bdi>978-1-62963-651-1</bdi></a>. <q>Afrin was the home to the largest Ezidi minority in Syria.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Battle+for+the+Mountain+of+the+Kurds&rft.place=Oakland%2C+CA&rft.pages=12&rft.pub=PM+Press%2C+Kairos&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-1-62963-651-1&rft.aulast=Schmidinger&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllsoppvan_Wilgenburg2019xviii,_66,_200-249"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllsoppvan_Wilgenburg2019xviii,_66,_200_249-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllsoppvan_Wilgenburg2019">Allsopp & van Wilgenburg (2019)</a>, pp. xviii, 66, 200. </li> <li id="cite_note-marriage-250"><a href="#cite_ref-marriage_250-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160222111444/http://aranews.net/2016/02/syria-kurds-challenging-traditions-promote-civil-marriage/">"Syria Kurds challenging traditions, promote civil marriage"</a>. <a href="/wiki/ARA_News" title="ARA News">ARA News</a>. 20 February 2016. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://aranews.net/2016/02/syria-kurds-challenging-traditions-promote-civil-marriage/">the original</a> on 22 February 2016. Retrieved 23 August 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Syria+Kurds+challenging+traditions%2C+promote+civil+marriage&rft.pub=ARA+News&rft.date=2016-02-20&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Faranews.net%2F2016%2F02%2Fsyria-kurds-challenging-traditions-promote-civil-marriage%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZabad2017219-251"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZabad2017219_251-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFZabad2017">Zabad (2017)</a>, p. 219. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllsoppvan_Wilgenburg2019156–163-252"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllsoppvan_Wilgenburg2019156–163_252-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllsoppvan_Wilgenburg2019">Allsopp & van Wilgenburg (2019)</a>, pp. 156–163. </li> <li id="cite_note-253"><a href="#cite_ref-253">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161001094203/http://aranews.net/2016/05/poyd-leader-current-sdf-operation-recapture-northern-countryside-raqqa-not-city/">"PYD leader: SDF operation for Raqqa countryside in progress, Syria can only be secular"</a>. <a href="/wiki/ARA_News" title="ARA News">ARA News</a>. 28 May 2016. 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Retrieved 20 May 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=The+Kurds%27+Democratic+Experiment&rft.date=2015-09-30&rft.aulast=Ross&rft.aufirst=Carne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2015%2F09%2F30%2Fopinion%2Fthe-kurds-democratic-experiment.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-255"><a href="#cite_ref-255">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFIn_der_MaurStaal2015" class="citation book cs1">In der Maur, Renée; Staal, Jonas (2015). "Introduction". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161025095239/http://newworldsummit.eu/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/NWA5-Stateless-Democracy1.pdf">Stateless Democracy</a> (PDF). Utrecht: BAK. p. 19. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-77288-22-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-77288-22-1"><bdi>978-90-77288-22-1</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://newworldsummit.eu/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/NWA5-Stateless-Democracy1.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 25 October 2016. 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Geopolitics. 26 (4): 1–25. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14650045.2018.1508016">10.1080/14650045.2018.1508016</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:150297675">150297675</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220427094729/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14650045.2018.1508016">Archived</a> from the original on 27 April 2022. Retrieved 14 October 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geopolitics&rft.atitle=When+%C3%96calan+met+Bookchin%3A+The+Kurdish+Freedom+Movement+and+the+Political+Theory+of+Democratic+Confederalism&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E25&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F14650045.2018.1508016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A150297675%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Gerber&rft.aufirst=Damian&rft.au=Brincat%2C+Shannon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfonline.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1080%2F14650045.2018.1508016&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-262"><a href="#cite_ref-262">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.imemo.ru/files/File/magazines/puty_miru/2016/02/04Moberg.pdf">"NATION-BUILDING IN ROJAVA: PARTICIPATORY DEMOCRACY AMIDST THE SYRIAN CIVL WAR"</a> (PDF). Imemo.ru. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220622151413/https://www.imemo.ru/files/File/magazines/puty_miru/2016/02/04Moberg.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 22 June 2022. Retrieved 4 December 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Imemo.ru&rft.atitle=NATION-BUILDING+IN+ROJAVA%3A+PARTICIPATORY+DEMOCRACY+AMIDST+THE+SYRIAN+CIVL+WAR&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.imemo.ru%2Ffiles%2FFile%2Fmagazines%2Fputy_miru%2F2016%2F02%2F04Moberg.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-263"><a href="#cite_ref-263">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://repository.bilkent.edu.tr/bitstream/handle/11693/36653/bilkent-research-paper.pdf?sequence=1">"RUPTURES AND RIPPLE EFFECTS IN THE MIDDLE EAST AND BEYOND"</a> (PDF). Repository.bilkent.edu.tr. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210718174324/http://repository.bilkent.edu.tr/bitstream/handle/11693/36653/bilkent-research-paper.pdf?sequence=1">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 18 July 2021. Retrieved 4 December 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Repository.bilkent.edu.tr&rft.atitle=RUPTURES+AND+RIPPLE+EFFECTS+IN+THE+MIDDLE+EAST+AND+BEYOND&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frepository.bilkent.edu.tr%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F11693%2F36653%2Fbilkent-research-paper.pdf%3Fsequence%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-264"><a href="#cite_ref-264">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-security-towns-report-idUSKBN1WS0K0">"Report: Syrian army to enter SDF-held Kobani, Manbij"</a>. Reuters. 14 October 2019. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191013164335/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-security-towns-report-idUSKBN1WS0K0">Archived</a> from the original on 13 October 2019. Retrieved 1 November 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Reuters&rft.atitle=Report%3A+Syrian+army+to+enter+SDF-held+Kobani%2C+Manbij&rft.date=2019-10-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Farticle%2Fus-syria-security-towns-report-idUSKBN1WS0K0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-265"><a href="#cite_ref-265">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-security-government-sdf-idUSKBN1WS0PF">"Syrian army to deploy along Turkish border in deal with Kurdish-led forces"</a>. Reuters. 14 October 2019. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191022053311/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-security-government-sdf-idUSKBN1WS0PF">Archived</a> from the original on 22 October 2019. Retrieved 1 November 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reuters&rft.atitle=Syrian+army+to+deploy+along+Turkish+border+in+deal+with+Kurdish-led+forces&rft.date=2019-10-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Farticle%2Fus-syria-security-government-sdf-idUSKBN1WS0PF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-266"><a href="#cite_ref-266">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.timesofisrael.com/syrian-army-moves-to-confront-turkish-forces-as-us-withdraws/">"Syrian army moves to confront Turkish forces as US withdraws"</a>. Times of Israel. 14 October 2019. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191014110752/https://www.timesofisrael.com/syrian-army-moves-to-confront-turkish-forces-as-us-withdraws/">Archived</a> from the original on 14 October 2019. Retrieved 1 November 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Times+of+Israel&rft.atitle=Syrian+army+moves+to+confront+Turkish+forces+as+US+withdraws&rft.date=2019-10-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.timesofisrael.com%2Fsyrian-army-moves-to-confront-turkish-forces-as-us-withdraws%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-267"><a href="#cite_ref-267">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191024140036/https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-syria-security-idUKKBN1X319A">"Syrian Kurds accuse Turkey of violations, Russia says peace plan on track"</a>. Reuters. 24 October 2019. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-syria-security-idUKKBN1X319A">the original</a> on 24 October 2019. Retrieved 1 November 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Reuters&rft.atitle=Syrian+Kurds+accuse+Turkey+of+violations%2C+Russia+says+peace+plan+on+track&rft.date=2019-10-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fuk.reuters.com%2Farticle%2Fuk-syria-security-idUKKBN1X319A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-268"><a href="#cite_ref-268">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFStrenger2012" class="citation web cs1">Strenger, Carlo (8 February 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.haaretz.com/news/middle-east/assad-takes-a-page-out-of-russia-s-book-in-his-war-against-rebels-1.411789">"Assad takes a page out of Russia's book in his war against rebels"</a>. Haaretz. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120209101845/http://www.haaretz.com/news/middle-east/assad-takes-a-page-out-of-russia-s-book-in-his-war-against-rebels-1.411789">Archived</a> from the original on 9 February 2012. Retrieved 15 January 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Haaretz&rft.atitle=Assad+takes+a+page+out+of+Russia%27s+book+in+his+war+against+rebels&rft.date=2012-02-08&rft.aulast=Strenger&rft.aufirst=Carlo&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.haaretz.com%2Fnews%2Fmiddle-east%2Fassad-takes-a-page-out-of-russia-s-book-in-his-war-against-rebels-1.411789&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-NYT_Arab_League-269"><a href="#cite_ref-NYT_Arab_League_269-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMacFarquhar2011" class="citation news cs1">MacFarquhar, Neil (12 November 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/13/world/middleeast/arab-league-votes-to-suspend-syria-over-its-crackdown-on-protesters.html">"Arab League Votes to Suspend Syria"</a>. The New York Times. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111113011207/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/13/world/middleeast/arab-league-votes-to-suspend-syria-over-its-crackdown-on-protesters.html">Archived</a> from the original on 13 November 2011. Retrieved 12 November 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Arab+League+Votes+to+Suspend+Syria&rft.date=2011-11-12&rft.aulast=MacFarquhar&rft.aufirst=Neil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2011%2F11%2F13%2Fworld%2Fmiddleeast%2Farab-league-votes-to-suspend-syria-over-its-crackdown-on-protesters.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-270"><a href="#cite_ref-270">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111206201635/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/world/2011-12/01/c_131282989.htm">"Syria suspends its membership in Mediterranean union"</a>. Xinhua News Agency. 1 December 2012. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/world/2011-12/01/c_131282989.htm">the original</a> on 6 December 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Syria+suspends+its+membership+in+Mediterranean+union&rft.date=2012-12-01&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.xinhuanet.com%2Fenglish2010%2Fworld%2F2011-12%2F01%2Fc_131282989.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-271"><a href="#cite_ref-271">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230507172435/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/5/7/arab-league-agrees-to-bring-syria-back-into-its-fold">"Arab League brings Syria back into its fold after 12 years"</a>. Al Jazeera. 7 May 2023. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/5/7/arab-league-agrees-to-bring-syria-back-into-its-fold">the original</a> on 7 May 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Al+Jazeera&rft.atitle=Arab+League+brings+Syria+back+into+its+fold+after+12+years&rft.date=2023-05-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aljazeera.com%2Fnews%2F2023%2F5%2F7%2Farab-league-agrees-to-bring-syria-back-into-its-fold&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Morris9-272"><a href="#cite_ref-Morris9_272-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMorris,_Chris2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Chris_Morris_(journalist)" title="Chris Morris (journalist)">Morris, Chris</a> (2005). "<a href="/wiki/The_New_Turkey#Chapter_9:_Crossroads" title="The New Turkey">Chapter 9: Crossroads</a>". <a href="/wiki/The_New_Turkey" title="The New Turkey">The New Turkey</a>. London: <a href="/wiki/Granta_Books" class="mw-redirect" title="Granta Books">Granta Books</a>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/newturkeyquietre0000morr_l7s3/page/203">203–227</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-86207-865-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-86207-865-9"><bdi>978-1-86207-865-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+9%3A+Crossroads&rft.btitle=The+New+Turkey&rft.place=London&rft.pages=203-227&rft.pub=Granta+Books&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-86207-865-9&rft.au=Morris%2C+Chris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-AlexandrettaTurkeyRelations-273"><a href="#cite_ref-AlexandrettaTurkeyRelations_273-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSanjian1956" class="citation journal cs1">Sanjian, Avedis K. (1956). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4322848">"The Sanjak of Alexandretta (Hatay): Its Impact on Turkish-Syrian Relations (1939–1956)"</a>. The Middle East Journal. 10 (4): 379–394. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4322848">4322848</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221222083853/https://www.jstor.org/stable/4322848">Archived</a> from the original on 22 December 2022. Retrieved 22 December 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Middle+East+Journal&rft.atitle=The+Sanjak+of+Alexandretta+%28Hatay%29%3A+Its+Impact+on+Turkish-Syrian+Relations+%281939%E2%80%931956%29&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E379-%3C%2Fspan%3E394&rft.date=1956&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4322848%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Sanjian&rft.aufirst=Avedis+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4322848&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-occupiedSyrian-274"><a href="#cite_ref-occupiedSyrian_274-0">^</a> *"The international community maintains that the Israeli decision to impose its laws, jurisdiction and administration in the occupied Syrian Golan is null and void and without international legal effect." <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFInternational_Labour_Office2009" class="citation book cs1">International Labour Office (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DqIv03qWPc0C">The situation of workers of the occupied Arab territories</a> (International government publication ed.). International Labour Office. p. 23. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-2-120630-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-92-2-120630-9"><bdi>978-92-2-120630-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+situation+of+workers+of+the+occupied+Arab+territories&rft.pages=23&rft.edition=International+government+publication&rft.pub=International+Labour+Office&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-92-2-120630-9&rft.au=International+Labour+Office&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDqIv03qWPc0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988">. * "...occupied Syrian Golan Heights..." (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.al-bab.com/arab/docs/league/peace02.htm">The Arab Peace Initiative, 2002</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090604091304/http://www.al-bab.com/arab/docs/league/peace02.htm">Archived</a> 4 June 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, www.al-bab.com. Retrieved 1 August 2010.) <ul><li>In 2008, a plenary session of the United Nations General Assembly voted by 161–1 in favor of a motion on the "occupied Syrian Golan" that reaffirmed support for UN Resolution 497. (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2008/ga10794.doc.htm">General Assembly adopts broad range of texts, 26 in all, on recommendation of its fourth Committee, including on decolonization, information, Palestine refugees</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110628235312/http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2008/ga10794.doc.htm">Archived</a> 28 June 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, United Nations, 5 December 2008.)</li> <li>"the Syrian Golan Heights territory, which Israel has occupied since 1967". Also, "the Golan Heights, a 450-square mile portion of southwestern Syria that Israel occupied during the 1967 Arab-Israeli war." (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fpc.state.gov/documents/organization/62681.pdf">CRS Issue Brief for Congress: Syria: U.S. Relations and Bilateral Issues</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180918231125/https://fpc.state.gov/documents/organization/62681.pdf">Archived</a> 18 September 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Congressional Research Service. 19 January 2006)</li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-InternationalCommunityOccupiedTerritory-275"><a href="#cite_ref-InternationalCommunityOccupiedTerritory_275-0">^</a> Occupied territory: <ul><li>"Israeli-occupied Golan Heights" (Central Intelligence Agency. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pqanFyF6nI0C&pg=PA339">CIA World Factbook 2010</a>, Skyhorse Publishing Inc., 2009. p. 339. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-60239-727-9" title="Special:BookSources/1-60239-727-9">1-60239-727-9</a>.)</li> <li>"...the United States considers the Golan Heights to be occupied territory subject to negotiation and Israeli withdrawal..." (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fpc.state.gov/documents/organization/9570.pdf">"CRS Issue Brief for Congress: Israeli-United States Relations"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20030424042458/https://fpc.state.gov/documents/organization/9570.pdf">Archived</a> 24 April 2003 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Congressional Research Service, 5 April 2002. pg. 5. Retrieved 1 August 2010.)</li> <li>"Occupied Golan Heights" (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/travelling-and-living-overseas/travel-advice-by-country/middle-east-north-africa/israel-occupied">Travel advice: Israel and the Occupied Palestinian Territories</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090720052803/http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/travelling-and-living-overseas/travel-advice-by-country/middle-east-north-africa/israel-occupied">Archived</a> 20 July 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, UK Foreign and Commonwealth Office. Retrieved 1 August 2010.)</li> <li>"In the ICRC's view, the Golan is an occupied territory." 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Retrieved 23 April 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Today%27s+Zaman&rft.atitle=Turkey-Syria+deal+allows+Syriacs+to+cross+border+for+religious+holidays&rft.date=2008-04-26&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.todayszaman.com%2FnewsDetail_getNewsById.action%3Fload%3Ddetay%26link%3D140085&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-SyriaKurds-362">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SyriaKurds_362-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SyriaKurds_362-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://countrystudies.us/syria/23.htm">"Syria – Kurds"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Country_Studies" title="Library of Congress Country Studies">Library of Congress Country Studies</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Library+of+Congress+Country+Studies&rft.atitle=Syria+%E2%80%93+Kurds&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcountrystudies.us%2Fsyria%2F23.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-363"><a href="#cite_ref-363">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-34910389">"Who are the Turkmen in Syria?"</a>. 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Freedom House. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.freedomhouse.org/uploads/pfs/371.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 27 December 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Freedom+House+report+on+Syria+%282010%29&rft.pub=Freedom+House&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.freedomhouse.org%2Fuploads%2Fpfs%2F371.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-394"><a href="#cite_ref-394">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWright2008" class="citation book cs1">Wright, Robin (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dreamsshadowsfut00wrig">Dreams and shadows, the Future of the Middle East</a>. Penguin Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dreamsshadowsfut00wrig/page/214">214</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781594201110" title="Special:BookSources/9781594201110"><bdi>9781594201110</bdi></a>. <q>more than one dozen intelligence agencies</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dreams+and+shadows%2C+the+Future+of+the+Middle+East&rft.pages=214&rft.pub=Penguin+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9781594201110&rft.aulast=Wright&rft.aufirst=Robin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdreamsshadowsfut00wrig&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-395"><a href="#cite_ref-395">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWright2008" class="citation book cs1">Wright, Robin (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dreamsshadowsfut00wrig">Dreams and shadows, the Future of the Middle East</a>. Penguin Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dreamsshadowsfut00wrig/page/230">230</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781594201110" title="Special:BookSources/9781594201110"><bdi>9781594201110</bdi></a>. <q>hundreds of thousands of mukhabarat according to dissident Riad Seif</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dreams+and+shadows%2C+the+Future+of+the+Middle+East&rft.pages=230&rft.pub=Penguin+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9781594201110&rft.aulast=Wright&rft.aufirst=Robin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdreamsshadowsfut00wrig&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-396"><a href="#cite_ref-396">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.syriauntold.com/en/creative/akram-raslan-how-caricatures-shake-tyranny">"Akram Raslan: How Caricatures Shake Tyranny"</a>. Syria Untold. 13 April 2015. Retrieved 23 September 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Akram+Raslan%3A+How+Caricatures+Shake+Tyranny&rft.pub=Syria+Untold&rft.date=2015-04-13&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.syriauntold.com%2Fen%2Fcreative%2Fakram-raslan-how-caricatures-shake-tyranny&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-397"><a href="#cite_ref-397">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091204125219/http://www.rte.ie/travel/2009/1015/damascus.html">"Damascus"</a>. Raidió Teilifís Éireann. 15 October 2009. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rte.ie/travel/2009/1015/damascus.html">the original</a> on 4 December 2009. Retrieved 26 November 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Damascus&rft.date=2009-10-15&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rte.ie%2Ftravel%2F2009%2F1015%2Fdamascus.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAllsoppvan_Wilgenburg2019" class="citation book cs1">Allsopp, Harriet; van Wilgenburg, Wladimir (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9vWlDwAAQBAJ">The Kurds of Northern Syria. Volume 2: Governance, Diversity and Conflicts</a>. London; New York City; etc.: <a href="/wiki/I.B._Tauris" title="I.B. Tauris">I.B. Tauris</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-8386-0445-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-8386-0445-5"><bdi>978-1-8386-0445-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Kurds+of+Northern+Syria.+Volume+2%3A+Governance%2C+Diversity+and+Conflicts&rft.place=London%3B+New+York+City%3B+etc.&rft.pub=I.B.+Tauris&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-1-8386-0445-5&rft.aulast=Allsopp&rft.aufirst=Harriet&rft.au=van+Wilgenburg%2C+Wladimir&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9vWlDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Boczek, Boleslaw Adam (2006). International Law: A Dictionary. Scarecrow Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8108-5078-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8108-5078-8">0-8108-5078-8</a></li> <li>Karoubi, Mohammad Taghi (2004). Just or Unjust War? Ashgate Publishing <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7546-2375-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-7546-2375-0">0-7546-2375-0</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLister2015" class="citation book cs1">Lister, Charles R. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/CharlesR.ListerTheSyrianJihadAlQaedaTheIslamicStateAndTheEvolutionOfAnInsurgency.">The Syrian Jihad: Al-Qaeda, the Islamic State and the Evolution of an Insurgency</a>. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780190462475" title="Special:BookSources/9780190462475"><bdi>9780190462475</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Syrian+Jihad%3A+Al-Qaeda%2C+the+Islamic+State+and+the+Evolution+of+an+Insurgency&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9780190462475&rft.aulast=Lister&rft.aufirst=Charles+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FCharlesR.ListerTheSyrianJihadAlQaedaTheIslamicStateAndTheEvolutionOfAnInsurgency.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20031128015512/http://www.fw-magazine.com/">Forward Magazine</a> (Syria's English monthly since 2007), archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://fw-magazine.com/">the original</a> on 28 November 2003</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Forward+Magazine&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffw-magazine.com%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988">.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">dead link</a>‍]</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121224231822/http://www.orsam.org.tr/tr/trUploads/Yazilar/Dosyalar/2011113_inceleme4.pdf">Orsam Suriye Türkleri Raporu-Orsam Syria Turks</a></li> <li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">.mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style><cite class="citation wikicite" id="Reference-Wright-2008">Wright, Robin. 2008. Dreams and Shadows : the Future of the Middle East. Penguin.</cite></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFZabad2017" class="citation book cs1">Zabad, Ibrahim (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XiAlDwAAQBAJ">Middle Eastern Minorities: The Impact of the Arab Spring</a>. London; New York City: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-472-47441-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-472-47441-4"><bdi>978-1-472-47441-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Middle+Eastern+Minorities%3A+The+Impact+of+the+Arab+Spring&rft.place=London%3B+New+York+City&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-472-47441-4&rft.aulast=Zabad&rft.aufirst=Ibrahim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXiAlDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316" /><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFvan_Dam2011" class="citation cs2">van Dam, Nikolaos (2011), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.themontrealreview.com/2009/The-struggle-for-power-in-Syria-Nikolaos-van-Dam.php">The Struggle for Power in Syria: Politics and Society under Asad and the Ba'ath Party</a>, I. B. Tauris</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Struggle+for+Power+in+Syria%3A+Politics+and+Society+under+Asad+and+the+Ba%27ath+Party&rft.pub=I.+B.+Tauris&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=van+Dam&rft.aufirst=Nikolaos&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.themontrealreview.com%2F2009%2FThe-struggle-for-power-in-Syria-Nikolaos-van-Dam.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988">.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDawisha1980" class="citation book cs1">Dawisha, A. I. (1980). Syria and the Lebanese Crisis. St. Martin's Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-312-78203-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-312-78203-0"><bdi>978-0-312-78203-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Syria+and+the+Lebanese+Crisis&rft.pub=St.+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0-312-78203-0&rft.aulast=Dawisha&rft.aufirst=A.+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLawson2010" class="citation cs2">Lawson, Fred H (2010), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.themontrealreview.com/2009/Demystifying-Syria.php">Demystifying Syria</a>, Saqi</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Demystifying+Syria&rft.pub=Saqi&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Lawson&rft.aufirst=Fred+H&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.themontrealreview.com%2F2009%2FDemystifying-Syria.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988">.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMaoz1986" class="citation book cs1">Maoz, M. (1986). Yaniv, A (ed.). Syria Under Assad. St. Martin's Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-312-78206-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-312-78206-1"><bdi>978-0-312-78206-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Syria+Under+Assad&rft.pub=St.+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-312-78206-1&rft.aulast=Maoz&rft.aufirst=M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPaton1981" class="citation book cs1">Paton, L. B. (1981). The Early History of Syria and Palestine. BiblioBazaar. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-113-53822-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-113-53822-2"><bdi>978-1-113-53822-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Early+History+of+Syria+and+Palestine&rft.pub=BiblioBazaar&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-1-113-53822-2&rft.aulast=Paton&rft.aufirst=L.+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSahner2014" class="citation book cs1">Sahner, Christian C. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://global.oup.com/academic/product/among-the-ruins-9780199396702;jsessionid=096DE7B7596EB6555D9A4B94D99A8333?cc=us&lang=en&">Among the Ruins: Syria Past and Present</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-939670-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-939670-2"><bdi>978-0-19-939670-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Among+the+Ruins%3A+Syria+Past+and+Present&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-19-939670-2&rft.aulast=Sahner&rft.aufirst=Christian+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fglobal.oup.com%2Facademic%2Fproduct%2Famong-the-ruins-9780199396702%3Bjsessionid%3D096DE7B7596EB6555D9A4B94D99A8333%3Fcc%3Dus%26lang%3Den%26&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSchlicht1980" class="citation cs2">Schlicht, Alfred (1980), "The role of foreign powers in the history of Lebanon and Syria from 1799 to 1861", Journal of Asian History, 14</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Asian+History&rft.atitle=The+role+of+foreign+powers+in+the+history+of+Lebanon+and+Syria+from+1799+to+1861&rft.volume=14&rft.date=1980&rft.aulast=Schlicht&rft.aufirst=Alfred&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988">.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSeale1987" class="citation book cs1">Seale, Patrick (1987). The Struggle for Syria. Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-03944-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-03944-3"><bdi>978-0-300-03944-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Struggle+for+Syria&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-300-03944-3&rft.aulast=Seale&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1250146164">.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow{padding:0.75em 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow>b{display:block}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul{border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.75em 0;width:217px;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul>li{min-height:31px}.mw-parser-output .sister-logo{display:inline-block;width:31px;line-height:31px;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-link{display:inline-block;margin-left:4px;width:182px;vertical-align:middle}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div role="navigation" aria-labelledby="sister-projects" class="side-box metadata side-box-right sister-box sistersitebox plainlinks"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> Syria at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Syria_-_%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7" class="extiw" title="c:Syria - سوريا">Media</a> from Commons</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/27px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/41px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/54px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="759" data-file-height="415" /><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Category:Syria" class="extiw" title="n:Category:Syria">News</a> from Wikinews</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/35px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/46px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Syria" class="extiw" title="q:Syria">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/27px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/41px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/54px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Pinyin/Syria" class="extiw" title="b:Pinyin/Syria">Textbooks</a> from Wikibooks</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/27px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/41px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/54px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="193" data-file-height="193" /><a href="https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Syria" class="extiw" title="voy:Syria">Travel information</a> from Wikivoyage</li></ul></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985" /><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about Syria <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Syria">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Syria&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Syria_articles527" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Syria_topics" title="Template:Syria topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Syria_topics" title="Template talk:Syria topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Syria_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Syria topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Syria_articles527" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Syria</a> <a href="/wiki/Index_of_Syria-related_articles" title="Index of Syria-related articles">articles</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Syria" title="History of Syria">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Syrian_history" title="Timeline of Syrian history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_Syria" title="List of years in Syria">Years in Syria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Prehistorical Syria</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Levantine_corridor" title="Levantine corridor">Levantine corridor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natufian_culture" title="Natufian culture">Natufian culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halaf_culture" title="Halaf culture">Halaf culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uruk_period" title="Uruk period">Uruk period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Hureyra" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu Hureyra">Abu Hureyra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tell_Aswad" title="Tell Aswad">Aswad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yarmukian_culture" title="Yarmukian culture">Yarmukian culture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Syria">Ancient Syria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amorites" title="Amorites">Amorites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arameans" title="Arameans">Arameans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canaanites" class="mw-redirect" title="Canaanites">Canaanites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Middle Assyrian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ebla" title="Ebla">Ebla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamhad" title="Yamhad">Yamhad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qatna" title="Qatna">Qatna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">Mari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugarit" title="Ugarit">Ugarit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aram-Damascus" title="Aram-Damascus">Aram-Damascus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syro-Hittite_states" title="Syro-Hittite states">Syro-Hittite states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eber-Nari" title="Eber-Nari">Achaemenid Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Seleucid Syria">Seleucid Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Syria" title="Roman Syria">Roman Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_Empire" title="Palmyrene Empire">Palmyrene Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Syria">Byzantine Syria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval Syria">Medieval Syria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Levant" title="Muslim conquest of the Levant">Muslim conquest</a> (636)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bilad_al-Sham" title="Bilad al-Sham">Caliphal Syria (Bilad al-Sham)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulunid_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Tulunid dynasty">Tulunid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ikhshidid_dynasty" title="Ikhshidid dynasty">Ikhshidid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zangid_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Zangid dynasty">Zangid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamdanid_dynasty" title="Hamdanid dynasty">Hamdanid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirdasid_dynasty" title="Mirdasid dynasty">Mirdasid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatimid Syria">Fatimid Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saljuqid_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Saljuqid Syria">Saljuqid Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusader_states" title="Crusader states">Crusader states</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Edessa" title="County of Edessa">County of Edessa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Antioch" title="Principality of Antioch">Principality of Antioch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Tripoli" title="County of Tripoli">County of Tripoli</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayyubid_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Ayyubid Syria">Ayyubid Syria</a> (1174–1260)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mamluk_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Mamluk Syria">Mamluk Syria</a> (1260–1516)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Early modern Syria</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Syria" title="Ottoman Syria">Ottoman Syria</a> (1516–1918)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Modern_history_of_Syria" title="Modern history of Syria">Modern Syria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Kingdom_of_Syria" title="Arab Kingdom of Syria">Arab kingdom</a> (1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haj_Fadel_Government" title="Haj Fadel Government">Haj Fadel Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandate_for_Syria_and_Lebanon" class="mw-redirect" title="Mandate for Syria and Lebanon">French Mandate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Federation" title="Syrian Federation">Syrian Federation</a> (1922–25)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_Syria_(1925%E2%80%931930)" class="mw-redirect" title="State of Syria (1925–1930)">State of Syria</a> (1925–30)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandatory_Syrian_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Mandatory Syrian Republic">Mandatory Republic</a> (1930–46)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_First_Syrian_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Independent First Syrian Republic">independent First Republic</a> (1946–50)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Syrian_Republic" title="Second Syrian Republic">Second Republic</a> (1950–1963)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27athist_Syria" title="Ba'athist Syria">Ba'athist Syria</a> (1963–2024) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_civil_war" title="Syrian civil war">Civil war</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_transitional_government" title="Syrian transitional government">Post-Assad Syria</a> (2024–present)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Syria" title="Geography of Syria">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Borders_of_Syria" title="Template:Borders of Syria">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Syria" title="List of cities in Syria">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Districts_of_Syria" title="Districts of Syria">Districts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorates_of_Syria" title="Governorates of Syria">Governorates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Syria" title="List of rivers of Syria">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_volcanoes_in_Syria" title="List of volcanoes in Syria">Volcanoes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Features</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Jazira,_Mesopotamia" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Jazira, Mesopotamia">Al-Jazira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Lebanon_Mountains" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Lebanon Mountains">Anti-Lebanon Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golan_Heights" title="Golan Heights">Golan Heights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hauran" title="Hauran">Hauran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Hermon" title="Mount Hermon">Hermon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orontes_River" title="Orontes River">Orontes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Desert" title="Syrian Desert">Syrian Desert</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syria_(region)" title="Syria (region)">Syria (region)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Syria" title="Southern Syria">Southern Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fertile_Crescent" title="Fertile Crescent">Fertile Crescent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Government_of_Syria" title="Government of Syria">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Syria" title="Constitution of Syria">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Corruption in Syria">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_Syria" title="President of Syria">President</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_Syria" title="List of presidents of Syria">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_Syria" title="Vice President of Syria">Vice President</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ministers_(Syria)" class="mw-redirect" title="Council of Ministers (Syria)">Council of Ministers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Syria" title="Prime Minister of Syria">Prime Minister</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Prime_Ministers_of_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Prime Ministers of Syria">list</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Syria" title="Elections in Syria">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Syria" title="Foreign relations of Syria">Foreign relations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Golan_Heights#Territorial_claims" title="Golan Heights">Golan Heights claim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hatay_Province#Turkish–Syrian_dispute" title="Hatay Province">Iskandaron</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_ministries_of_Syria" title="Government ministries of Syria">Government ministries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Syria" title="Human rights in Syria">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Syria">LGBT</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Syria" title="Judiciary of Syria">Judiciary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Judicial_Council_of_Syria" title="Supreme Judicial Council of Syria">Supreme Judicial Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Constitutional_Court_of_Syria" title="Supreme Constitutional Court of Syria">Supreme Constitutional Court</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Council_of_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Council of Syria">Parliament</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Speaker_of_the_People%27s_Council_of_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Speaker of the People's Council of Syria">Speakers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Syria" title="List of political parties in Syria">Political parties</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party" title="Ba'ath Party">Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Syrian-dominated_faction)" title="Ba'ath Party (Syrian-dominated faction)">national</a> / <a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Syria_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region">regional command</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Progressive_Front_(Syria)" title="National Progressive Front (Syria)">National Progressive Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_Front_for_Change_and_Liberation" title="Popular Front for Change and Liberation">Popular Front for Change and Liberation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Status_of_the_Golan_Heights" class="mw-redirect" title="Status of the Golan Heights">Political status of the Golan Heights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_nationalism" title="Syrian nationalism">Nationalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syria_(region)" title="Syria (region)">Syria (region)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrorism_in_Syria" title="Terrorism in Syria">Terrorism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Military_of_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Military of Syria">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Army" title="Syrian Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Air_Force" title="Syrian Air Force">Air force</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Air_Defense_Force" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian Air Defense Force">air defense</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Navy" title="Syrian Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_of_the_General_Staff_(Syria)" title="Chief of the General Staff (Syria)">Chief of the General Staff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syria_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Syria and weapons of mass destruction">Weapons of mass destruction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Syria" title="Economy of Syria">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Syria" title="Agriculture in Syria">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Bank_of_Syria" title="Central Bank of Syria">Central Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_Syria" title="List of companies of Syria">Companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industry_in_Syria" title="Industry in Syria">Industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_rankings_of_Syria" title="International rankings of Syria">International rankings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_pound" title="Syrian pound">Pound (currency)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damascus_Securities_Exchange" title="Damascus Securities Exchange">Securities Exchange (stock exchange)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Infrastructure</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Syria#Energy_and_mineral_resources" title="Economy of Syria">Energy and mineral resources</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electricity_in_Syria" title="Electricity in Syria">Electricity sector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_industry_in_Syria" title="Petroleum industry in Syria">Petroleum industry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Syria" title="Telecommunications in Syria">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Syria" title="Transport in Syria">Transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Syria" title="Water supply and sanitation in Syria">Water supply and sanitation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Syria" title="Category:Society of Syria">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Censorship in Syria">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Syria" title="Demographics of Syria">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Syria" title="Education in Syria">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_Syria" title="Health in Syria">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunger_in_Syria" title="Hunger in Syria">Hunger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrians" title="Syrians">People</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_diaspora" title="Syrian diaspora">diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refugees_of_the_Syrian_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Refugees of the Syrian Civil War">refugees (2011–present)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Syria" title="Women in Syria">women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Syria" title="Public holidays in Syria">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scouts_of_Syria" title="Scouts of Syria">Scouting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squatting_in_Syria" title="Squatting in Syria">Squatting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Syria" title="Culture of Syria">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E1%B8%A4um%C4%81t_ad-Diy%C4%81r" title="Ḥumāt ad-Diyār">Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Syria" title="Coat of arms of Syria">Coat of arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_cuisine" title="Syrian cuisine">Cuisine</a> (<a href="/wiki/Syrian_wine" title="Syrian wine">wine</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Syrian_films" title="List of Syrian films">Films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Syria" title="Flag of Syria">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass media in Syria">Media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_Organization_of_Radio_and_TV_(Syria)" title="General Organization of Radio and TV (Syria)">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_Syria" title="Television in Syria">television</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Syria" title="Music of Syria">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Syria" title="Religion in Syria">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoking_in_Syria" title="Smoking in Syria">Smoking</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Syria" title="Outline of Syria">Outline</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Syria-related_articles" title="Index of Syria-related articles">Index</a></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Syria" title="Category:Syria">Category</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Geographic_locale84" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#e8e8ff;"><div id="Geographic_locale84" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Geographic locale</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-size:114%"><div style="padding:0px"> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Countries_and_territories_of_the_Mediterranean_Sea249" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Countries_and_territories_of_the_Mediterranean_Sea" title="Template:Countries and territories of the Mediterranean Sea"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Countries_and_territories_of_the_Mediterranean_Sea" title="Template talk:Countries and territories of the Mediterranean Sea"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Countries_and_territories_of_the_Mediterranean_Sea" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Countries and territories of the Mediterranean Sea"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Countries_and_territories_of_the_Mediterranean_Sea249" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Countries and territories of the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states" title="List of sovereign states">Sovereign states</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albania" title="Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Croatia" title="Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libya" title="Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malta" title="Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monaco" title="Monaco">Monaco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montenegro" title="Montenegro">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovenia" title="Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_states_with_limited_recognition" title="List of states with limited recognition">States with limited recognition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Cyprus" title="Northern Cyprus">Northern Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestine" title="Palestine">Palestine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">Dependencies</a> and other territories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akrotiri_and_Dhekelia" title="Akrotiri and Dhekelia">Akrotiri and Dhekelia</a> (<a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">UK</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gibraltar" title="Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a> (UK)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceuta" title="Ceuta">Ceuta</a> and <a href="/wiki/Melilla" title="Melilla">Melilla</a> (Spain)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marginal_seas" class="mw-redirect" title="Marginal seas">Marginal seas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adriatic_Sea" title="Adriatic Sea">Adriatic Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea" title="Aegean Sea">Aegean Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alboran_Sea" title="Alboran Sea">Alboran Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balearic_Sea" title="Balearic Sea">Balearic Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_Sea" title="Ionian Sea">Ionian Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levantine_Sea" title="Levantine Sea">Levantine Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libyan_Sea" title="Libyan Sea">Libyan Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ligurian_Sea" title="Ligurian Sea">Ligurian Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_of_Crete" title="Sea of Crete">Sea of Crete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_of_Marmara" title="Sea of Marmara">Sea of Marmara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_of_Sardinia" title="Sea of Sardinia">Sea of Sardinia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thracian_Sea" title="Thracian Sea">Thracian Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyrrhenian_Sea" title="Tyrrhenian Sea">Tyrrhenian Sea</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Middle_East150" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Middle_East" title="Template:Middle East"><abbr title="View this 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href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kurdistan_Region" title="Kurdistan Region">Iraqi Kurdistan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuwait" title="Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Cyprus" title="Northern Cyprus">Northern Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oman" title="Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestine" title="Palestine">Palestine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gaza_Strip" title="Gaza Strip">Gaza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Bank" title="West Bank">West Bank</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qatar" title="Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Syria</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_Administration_of_North_and_East_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria">Rojava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_occupation_of_northern_Syria" title="Turkish occupation of northern Syria">Turkish occupation of northern Syria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates" title="United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Middle_East_and_North_Africa" title="Climate change in the Middle East and North Africa">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_the_Middle_East_and_North_Africa" title="Democracy in the Middle East and North Africa">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Middle_East" title="Economy of the Middle East">Economy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_the_Middle_East" title="Energy in the Middle East">Energy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Middle_East" title="History of the Middle East">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Middle_Eastern_history" title="Timeline of Middle Eastern history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_modern_conflicts_in_the_Middle_East" title="List of modern conflicts in the Middle East">Modern conflicts</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_Middle_East" title="Human rights in the Middle East">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_politics_in_the_Middle_East" title="Water politics in the Middle East">Water politics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Water_conflict_in_the_Middle_East_and_North_Africa" title="Water conflict in the Middle East and North Africa">conflict</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_Middle_East" title="Demographics of the Middle East">Demographics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_the_Middle_East" title="Ethnic groups in the Middle East">Ethnic groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_the_Middle_East" title="Genetic history of the Middle East">Genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_metropolitan_areas_of_the_Middle_East" class="mw-redirect" title="List of largest metropolitan areas of the Middle East">Metropolitan areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Middle_East" title="Religion in the Middle East">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Irreligion_in_the_Middle_East" title="Irreligion in the Middle East">Irreligion</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Near_Eastern_archaeology" title="Near Eastern archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_the_Middle_East" title="Cinema of the Middle East">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_cuisine" title="Middle Eastern cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etiquette_in_the_Middle_East" title="Etiquette in the Middle East">Etiquette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_music" title="Middle Eastern music">Music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_dance" title="Middle Eastern dance">Dance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_studies" title="Middle Eastern studies">Studies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related terms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Mediterranean" title="Eastern Mediterranean">Eastern Mediterranean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fertile_Crescent" title="Fertile Crescent">Fertile Crescent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Middle_East" title="Greater Middle East">Greater Middle East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mashriq" title="Mashriq">Mashriq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_East_and_North_Africa" title="Middle East and North Africa">Middle East and North Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Near_East" title="Near East">Near East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syria_(region)" title="Syria (region)">Syria (region)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Asia" title="West Asia">West Asia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Countries_and_regions_in_the_Arabian_plate74" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Countries_and_regions_in_the_Arabian_Plate" title="Template:Countries and regions in the Arabian Plate"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Countries_and_regions_in_the_Arabian_Plate" title="Template talk:Countries and regions in the Arabian Plate"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Countries_and_regions_in_the_Arabian_Plate" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Countries and regions in the Arabian Plate"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Countries_and_regions_in_the_Arabian_plate74" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Countries and regions in the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_plate" title="Arabian plate">Arabian plate</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Country" title="Country">Countries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bahrain" title="Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Djibouti" title="Djibouti">Djibouti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuwait" title="Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oman" title="Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestine" title="Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qatar" title="Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates" title="United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khuzestan_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Khuzestan Province">Khuzestan Province</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeastern_Anatolia_region" title="Southeastern Anatolia region">Southeastern Anatolia region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Denkalya_subregion" title="Southern Denkalya subregion">Southern Denkalya subregion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Awdal" title="Awdal">Awdal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Sinai_Governorate" title="South Sinai Governorate">South Sinai Governorate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Countries_and_dependencies_of_Asia997" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Countries_of_Asia" title="Template:Countries of Asia"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Countries_of_Asia" title="Template talk:Countries of Asia"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Countries_of_Asia" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Countries of Asia"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Countries_and_dependencies_of_Asia997" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states_and_dependent_territories_in_Asia" title="List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Asia">Countries and dependencies</a> of <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sovereign_state" title="Sovereign state">Sovereign states</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a>2</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan" title="Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a>1</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bahrain" title="Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhutan" title="Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brunei" title="Brunei">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodia" title="Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a>2</li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Timor" class="mw-redirect" title="East Timor">East Timor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>1</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgia_(country)" title="Georgia (country)">Georgia</a>1</li> <li><a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>1</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazakhstan" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a>1</li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Korea" title="North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuwait" title="Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyzstan" title="Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laos" title="Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maldives" title="Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolia" title="Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myanmar" title="Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepal" title="Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oman" title="Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qatar" title="Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>1</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tajikistan" title="Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>1</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkmenistan" title="Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates" title="United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uzbekistan" title="Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_states_with_limited_recognition" title="List of states with limited recognition">States with limited recognition</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abkhazia" title="Abkhazia">Abkhazia</a>2</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Cyprus" title="Northern Cyprus">Northern Cyprus</a>2</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestine" title="Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Ossetia" title="South Ossetia">South Ossetia</a>2</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">Dependent territories</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Australia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christmas_Island" title="Christmas Island">Christmas Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cocos_(Keeling)_Islands" title="Cocos (Keeling) Islands">Cocos (Keeling) Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Greece</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kastellorizo" title="Kastellorizo">Kastellorizo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">United Kingdom</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akrotiri_and_Dhekelia" title="Akrotiri and Dhekelia">Akrotiri and Dhekelia</a>2 (Sovereign Base Areas)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Indian_Ocean_Territory" title="British Indian Ocean Territory">British Indian Ocean Territory</a> (<a href="/wiki/British_Overseas_Territories" title="British Overseas Territories">British Overseas Territory</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Special_administrative_regions_of_China" title="Special administrative regions of China">Special administrative regions of China</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macau" title="Macau">Macau</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>1 Spans the conventional boundary between Asia and another continent.</li> <li>2 Considered European for cultural, political and historical reasons but is geographically in West Asia.</li></ul> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Asia" title="Category:Asia">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/20px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/40px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Asia" title="Portal:Asia">Asia portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="International_membership91" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#e8e8ff;"><div id="International_membership91" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">International membership</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-size:114%"><div style="padding:0px"> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Arab_League398" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Arab_League" title="Template:Arab League"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Arab_League" title="Template talk:Arab League"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Arab_League" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Arab League"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Arab_League398" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Arab_League" title="Arab League">Arab League</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Arab_League" title="Category:Arab League">Arab League</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Lists_of_the_Arab_League" title="Lists of the Arab League">Lists</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_Arab_League" title="Politics of the Arab League">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charter_of_the_Arab_League" title="Charter of the Arab League">Charter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_the_Arab_League" title="Council of the Arab League">Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_Arab_League" title="Flag of the Arab League">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_the_Arab_world" title="Geography of the Arab world">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Headquarters_of_the_Arab_League" title="Headquarters of the Arab League">Headquarters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Arab_League" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Arab League">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_of_the_Arab_League" title="Military of the Arab League">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Central_Command" title="United States Central Command">United States Central Command</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_military_bases" class="mw-redirect" title="List of United States military bases">United States military bases</a>)</li> <li>Joint Defence Council</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Parliament" title="Arab Parliament">Parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Union" title="Arab Union">Arab Union</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Emblem_of_the_Arab_League.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Emblem_of_the_Arab_League.svg/55px-Emblem_of_the_Arab_League.svg.png" decoding="async" width="55" height="59" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Emblem_of_the_Arab_League.svg/83px-Emblem_of_the_Arab_League.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Emblem_of_the_Arab_League.svg/110px-Emblem_of_the_Arab_League.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="420" data-file-height="450" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Membership</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Member_states_of_the_Arab_League" title="Member states of the Arab League">Members</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bahrain" title="Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comoros" title="Comoros">Comoros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Djibouti" title="Djibouti">Djibouti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuwait" title="Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libya" title="Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauritania" title="Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oman" title="Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestine" title="Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qatar" title="Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates" title="United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Observers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chad" title="Chad">Chad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eritrea" title="Eritrea">Eritrea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venezuela" title="Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Candidates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_Sudan" title="South Sudan">South Sudan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Diplomacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Peace_Initiative" title="Arab Peace Initiative">Arab Peace Initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_League_monitors_in_Syria" title="Arab League monitors in Syria">Arab League monitors in Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_League%E2%80%93European_Union_relations" title="Arab League–European Union relations">Arab League–European Union relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_Arab_League" title="Foreign relations of the Arab League">Foreign relations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Life</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_Arab_League" class="mw-redirect" title="Demographics of the Arab League">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Arab_League" title="Economy of the Arab League">Economy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Arab_League_countries_by_GDP_(nominal)" title="List of Arab League countries by GDP (nominal)">GDP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_and_Social_Council_(Arab_League)" title="Economic and Social Council (Arab League)">Economic and Social Council</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutions_of_the_Arab_League" title="Institutions of the Arab League">Institutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_policies_of_the_Arab_League" title="Sport policies of the Arab League">Sport</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Arabism" title="Pan-Arabism">Pan-Arabism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_of_Arab_National_Olympic_Committees" title="Union of Arab National Olympic Committees">Union of Arab National Olympic Committees</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pan_Arab_Games" class="mw-redirect" title="Pan Arab Games">Pan Arab Games</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation_(OIC)298" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation" title="Template:Organisation of Islamic Cooperation"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation" title="Template talk:Organisation of Islamic Cooperation"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Organisation of Islamic Cooperation"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation_(OIC)298" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation" title="Organisation of Islamic Cooperation">Organisation of Islamic Cooperation</a> (OIC)</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Secretary-General_of_the_Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation" title="Secretary-General of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation">Secretary-General of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation</a>: <a href="/wiki/Hissein_Brahim_Taha" title="Hissein Brahim Taha">Hissein Brahim Taha</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Member_states_of_the_Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation" title="Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation">Member states</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Members</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albania" title="Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan" title="Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bahrain" title="Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benin" title="Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burkina_Faso" title="Burkina Faso">Burkina Faso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brunei" title="Brunei">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cameroon" title="Cameroon">Cameroon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chad" title="Chad">Chad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comoros" title="Comoros">Comoros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Djibouti" title="Djibouti">Djibouti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabon" title="Gabon">Gabon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Gambia" title="The Gambia">Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guinea" title="Guinea">Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guinea-Bissau" title="Guinea-Bissau">Guinea-Bissau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guyana" title="Guyana">Guyana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivory_Coast" title="Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazakhstan" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuwait" title="Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyzstan" title="Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libya" title="Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maldives" title="Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mali" title="Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauritania" title="Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozambique" title="Mozambique">Mozambique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niger" title="Niger">Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oman" title="Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pakistan_and_the_Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation" title="Pakistan and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation">Pakistan-OIC relations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestine" title="Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qatar" title="Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senegal" title="Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone" title="Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suriname" title="Suriname">Suriname</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tajikistan" title="Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Togo" title="Togo">Togo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkmenistan" title="Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uganda" title="Uganda">Uganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uzbekistan" title="Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates" title="United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Suspended</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Syria</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syria_and_the_Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation" title="Syria and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation">Syria and OIC</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Observers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;padding-right:0.75em;font-weight:normal;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Countries and territories</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_African_Republic" title="Central African Republic">Central African Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Cyprus" title="Northern Cyprus">Northern Cyprus</a>1</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;padding-right:0.75em;font-weight:normal;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Muslim communities</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moro_National_Liberation_Front" title="Moro National Liberation Front">Moro National Liberation Front</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;padding-right:0.75em;font-weight:normal;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">International organizations</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_Cooperation_Organization" title="Economic Cooperation Organization">Economic Cooperation Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Union" title="African Union">African Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_League" title="Arab League">Arab League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-Aligned_Movement" title="Non-Aligned Movement">Non-Aligned Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Declarations195" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Declarations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abuja_Declaration_(1989)" title="Abuja Declaration (1989)">Abuja Declaration (1989)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cairo_Declaration_on_Human_Rights_in_Islam" title="Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam">Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/OIC_Resolution_10/11" title="OIC Resolution 10/11">OIC Resolution 10/11</a> (2008)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/OIC_Council_of_Foreign_Ministers_Resolution_10/37" title="OIC Council of Foreign Ministers Resolution 10/37">OIC Council of Foreign Ministers Resolution 10/37</a> (2010)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sessions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Extraordinary748" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Extraordinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Extraordinary_Session_of_the_Islamic_Summit_Conference" title="First Extraordinary Session of the Islamic Summit Conference">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Extraordinary_Session_of_the_Islamic_Summit_Conference" title="Second Extraordinary Session of the Islamic Summit Conference">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Extraordinary_Session_of_the_Islamic_Summit_Conference" title="Third Extraordinary Session of the Islamic Summit Conference">Third</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Extraordinary_Session_of_the_Islamic_Summit_Conference" title="Fourth Extraordinary Session of the Islamic Summit Conference">Fourth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Extraordinary_Session_of_the_Islamic_Summit_Conference" title="Fifth Extraordinary Session of the Islamic Summit Conference">Fifth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixth_Extraordinary_Session_of_the_Islamic_Summit_Conference" title="Sixth Extraordinary Session of the Islamic Summit Conference">Sixth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seventh_Extraordinary_Session_of_the_Islamic_Summit_Conference" title="Seventh Extraordinary Session of the Islamic Summit Conference">Seventh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighth_Extraordinary_Session_of_the_Islamic_Summit_Conference" title="Eighth Extraordinary Session of the Islamic Summit Conference">Eighth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ninth_Extraordinary_Session_of_the_Islamic_Summit_Conference" title="Ninth Extraordinary Session of the Islamic Summit Conference">Ninth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023_Arab%E2%80%93Islamic_extraordinary_summit" title="2023 Arab–Islamic extraordinary summit">Arab–Islamic (2023)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Demographics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation" title="Economy of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation">Economy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation_member_states_by_GDP_(PPP)" title="List of Organisation of Islamic Cooperation member states by GDP (PPP)">GDP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation_member_states_by_GDP_per_capita_(PPP)" title="List of Organisation of Islamic Cooperation member states by GDP per capita (PPP)">GDP per capita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation_member_states_by_exports" title="List of Organisation of Islamic Cooperation member states by exports">Exports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation_member_states_by_imports" title="List of Organisation of Islamic Cooperation member states by imports">Imports</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation_member_states_by_population" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Organisation of Islamic Cooperation member states by population">Population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_cities_in_Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation_member_countries" class="mw-redirect" title="List of largest cities in Organisation of Islamic Cooperation member countries">Largest cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_member_states_of_the_Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation" title="Education in the member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation">Education</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>1 As the "Turkish Cypriot State".</li></ul> 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class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:<ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><a href="/wiki/File:Asia_(orthographic_projection).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/19px-Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/29px-Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/38px-Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="541" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Asia" title="Portal:Asia">Asia</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/MiddleEast_blacky.svg/21px-MiddleEast_blacky.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/MiddleEast_blacky.svg/32px-MiddleEast_blacky.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/MiddleEast_blacky.svg/42px-MiddleEast_blacky.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1551" data-file-height="1402" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Middle_East" class="mw-redirect" title="Portal:Middle East">Middle East</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><a href="/wiki/File:P_countries-vector.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/P_countries-vector.svg/21px-P_countries-vector.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/P_countries-vector.svg/32px-P_countries-vector.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/P_countries-vector.svg/42px-P_countries-vector.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Countries" title="Portal:Countries">Countries</a></li></ul></div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236088147">.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline;font-size:88%;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em 0 0;padding:0 2em}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;padding:0.2em 0;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px;line-height:22px}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;align-items:baseline;padding:0.2em 0;column-gap:1em;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{display:flex;align-items:baseline;margin:0.15em 0;min-height:24px;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-logo{width:22px;line-height:22px;margin:0 0.2em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-link{margin:0 0.2em;text-align:left}@media screen and (max-width:960px){.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{flex-flow:column wrap;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{flex:0 1}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{flex:1;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{flex:0 0 20em;min-width:20em}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.portal-bar{margin-top:-1px}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="noprint metadata sister-bar" role="navigation" aria-label="sister-projects"><div class="sister-bar-header">Syria at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a>:</div><ul class="sister-bar-content"><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Syria_-_%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7" class="extiw" title="c:Syria - سوريا">Media</a> from Commons</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/21px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/32px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/42px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="759" data-file-height="415" /><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Category:Syria" class="extiw" title="n:Category:Syria">News</a> from Wikinews</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/16px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/24px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/32px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Syria" class="extiw" title="q:Syria">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/19px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/29px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/38px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Pinyin/Syria" class="extiw" title="b:Pinyin/Syria">Textbooks</a> from Wikibooks</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/19px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/29px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/38px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="193" data-file-height="193" /><a href="https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Syria" class="extiw" title="voy:Syria">Travel guides</a> from Wikivoyage</li></ul></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q858#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata2779" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q858#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata2779" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q858#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000123695958">ISNI</a><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/000000012369316X">2</a></li></ul></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/154701530">VIAF</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1208757/">FAST</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4058794-0">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n80061798">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb152411445">France</a><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119851678">2</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11941661s">3</a></li></ul></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb152411445">BnF data</a><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119851678">2</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11941661s">3</a></li></ul></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00571218">Japan</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ge131031&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX451672">Spain</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://katalog.nsk.hr/F/?func=direct&doc_number=000572586&local_base=nsk10">Croatia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007548044105171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Geographic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://musicbrainz.org/area/18086faa-7f75-3ca3-a5bb-a77a83d4b200">MusicBrainz area</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://kulturnav.org/abdea607-b696-4bc6-b5df-f1ed65d34a92">KulturNav</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.parliament.uk/t3LeQ83A">UK Parliament</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/027356949">IdRef</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/fr/articles/003428">Historical Dictionary of Switzerland</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10035790">NARA</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/suriye">İslâm Ansiklopedisi</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1156832818" /><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Syria&params=35_N_38_E_">35°N 38°E / 35°N 38°E / 35; 38</a>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Syria&oldid=1281397294">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Syria&oldid=1281397294</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" 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class="mw-portlet mw-portlet-dock-bottom emptyPortlet" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul> </ul> </div> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.eqiad.main-6d78b94fdf-qcb9h","wgBackendResponseTime":585,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"4.982","walltime":"6.269","ppvisitednodes":{"value":29217,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":1033819,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":104542,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":18,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":87,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":1491859,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 5265.342 1 -total"," 39.87% 2099.296 2 Template:Reflist"," 14.04% 739.029 174 Template:Cite_web"," 11.73% 617.787 1 Template:Infobox_country"," 9.70% 510.571 81 Template:Cite_book"," 6.66% 350.583 85 Template:Cite_news"," 4.13% 217.314 1 Template:Sister_project_links"," 4.12% 216.931 10 Template:Sfnp"," 3.75% 197.272 1 Template:Native_name"," 3.64% 191.604 25 Template:Cite_journal"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"3.058","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":23277992,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAFP2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAbdel_Nour2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAdam781\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAhmed2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAl-KhalidiAzhari2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAl-Shami,_Meckfessel2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlianak2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAllsoppvan_Wilgenburg2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAmos2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAtassi2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAwadFavier2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarkhoda\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarr2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBehari2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBehnstedt2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBennett2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBergman2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBermanLine2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlack2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrecherWilkenfeld1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBryce2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBröning2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurns2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurç2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCavendish_Corporation2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCheeseman2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChen2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChristou2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChristouMichaelson2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCobb2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDalley2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDanna2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDawisha1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDinersteinOlsonJoshiVynne2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDinmore2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDrysdaleHinnebusch1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEissaCho2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFF._A._Schaeffer2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFabian\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFarge2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFateh2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrayne1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrye1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGammer2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGarnett,_S._James,_MacGregor2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGeorge2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGerberBrincat2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGordonRendsburgWinter1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGranthamDuncanEvansJones2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGriffin2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuerin2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGüsten,_Susanne2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHamblin2006\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFHarper2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHawassVannini2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHealey1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHensman2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHerodotus\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHiggins2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHopwood1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHubbardSaad2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHuggler2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIddon2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIn_der_MaurStaal2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFInternational_Labour_Office2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIorwerth_Eiddon_Stephen_Edwards1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJongerden2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJoseph2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKajjo2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaterji2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKenneth_Anderson_Kitchen2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKhalifa2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKhamis,_B._Gold,_Vaughn2013\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFKhatib2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKnappJongerden2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKossaify2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKumar2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKüçükÖzselçuk2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLamb2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLange2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLauria2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLawson2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewisChulovBorgerWatt2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLieberman1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLister2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLoveluck2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLucas2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacFarquhar2011\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMadhani2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaoz1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMatthewsBenjamin1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMatthiaeMarchetti2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMeininghaus2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMinistry_of_Higher_Education2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMontgomery_Watt_W.1956\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorris,_Chris2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMounier-Kuhn2025\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMuir1861\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNaʼaman2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNebehay2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeff2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNorrisMartinez_i_ComaGrömping2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFP._Miller,_H._Rand2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPaton1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPerelman2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeyrouse2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPhillips2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPipes1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPliny1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPoliti2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRabinovich2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRichardsRengoCrucianiGratrix2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobson2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRollinger2006\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFRoseSöderholm2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoss2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoth2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRubin2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSadikiFares2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSahner2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSalamandra2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSalmanMualla2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSalti2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSamia_NakhoulMaya_GebeilyParisa_HafeziSuleiman_Al-Khalidi2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSanger2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSanjian1956\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSasson1969\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchlager,_WeisblattA._Faksh2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchlicht1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchmidinger2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchofield2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSeale1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSeale1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSengupta2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShaar,_Akil2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShaheen2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShahvisi2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShawJameson2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSherlock2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShoup2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStearnsLanger2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStrenger2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSzmolk2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTessler1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTobolczyk2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTullochCetera2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUnited_Nations_High_Commissioner_for_Refugees\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVelikovsky2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVijay_Prashad2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWedeen2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeismann\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWieland2018\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFWieland2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWright2008\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFZabad2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZakrzewskiShortlandRowland2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZisser2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFvan_Dam2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFvan_Wilgenburg2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFŞimşekJongerden2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFΑϊβαλιώτης2016\"] = 1,\n [\"Reference-Wright-2008\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 3,\n [\"Arab League\"] = 1,\n [\"Arabian Plate\"] = 1,\n [\"As of\"] = 2,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"C.\"] = 3,\n [\"Cbignore\"] = 2,\n [\"Center\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation\"] = 12,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 81,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 21,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 85,\n [\"Cite tweet\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 171,\n [\"Convert\"] = 8,\n [\"Coord\"] = 2,\n [\"Countries and territories bordering the Mediterranean Sea\"] = 1,\n [\"Countries and territories of the Middle East\"] = 1,\n [\"Countries of Asia\"] = 1,\n [\"Dead link\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 10,\n [\"Excerpt\"] = 2,\n [\"Excessive citations inline\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 1,\n [\"Historical populations\"] = 1,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 3,\n [\"IncreaseNeutral\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox country\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 7,\n [\"Langx\"] = 3,\n [\"Largest cities of Syria\"] = 1,\n [\"Legend\"] = 4,\n [\"Library resources box\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 27,\n [\"Multiple image\"] = 1,\n [\"Native name\"] = 1,\n [\"Navboxes\"] = 2,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Nowrap\"] = 7,\n [\"Organisation of Islamic Cooperation\"] = 1,\n [\"PD-notice\"] = 3,\n [\"Parabr\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-move\"] = 1,\n [\"Redirect\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 2,\n [\"Refend\"] = 2,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 4,\n [\"Sfnp\"] = 10,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Sister project links\"] = 1,\n [\"Small\"] = 1,\n [\"Spaces\"] = 14,\n [\"Subject bar\"] = 1,\n [\"Subscription required\"] = 1,\n [\"Switcher\"] = 1,\n [\"Syria topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Transliteration\"] = 7,\n [\"Tree list\"] = 1,\n [\"Tree list/end\"] = 1,\n [\"Unreliable source?\"] = 3,\n [\"Update section\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 7,\n [\"Wikicite\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\nno target: CITEREFCarréMichaud1983\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","540","16.3"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","380","11.4"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","320","9.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","300","9.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","160","4.8"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getAllExpandedArguments","140","4.2"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","140","4.2"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::plain","120","3.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpandedArgument","120","3.6"],["gsub","100","3.0"],["[others]","1000","30.1"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.eqiad.main-6d78b94fdf-7276t","timestamp":"20250320220159","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script 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