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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Regio_Esercito" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regio_Esercito"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1.1 Regio Esercito </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regio_Esercito-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regia_Aeronautica" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regia_Aeronautica"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1.2 Regia Aeronautica </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regia_Aeronautica-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regia_Marina" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regia_Marina"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1.3 Regia Marina </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regia_Marina-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mediterranean_and_Middle_East" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mediterranean_and_Middle_East"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 Mediterranean and Middle East </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mediterranean_and_Middle_East-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Middle_East_Command" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Middle_East_Command"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 Middle East Command </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Middle_East_Command-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-East_Africa_Force" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#East_Africa_Force"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3.1 East Africa Force </div> </a> <ul id="toc-East_Africa_Force-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethiopia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethiopia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3.2 Ethiopia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethiopia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Northern_front,_1940" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Northern_front,_1940"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Northern front, 1940 </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Northern_front,_1940-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Northern front, 1940 subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Northern_front,_1940-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-British_Somaliland_1940" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#British_Somaliland_1940"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 British Somaliland 1940 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-British_Somaliland_1940-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Battle_of_Tug_Argan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Battle_of_Tug_Argan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.1 Battle of Tug Argan </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Battle_of_Tug_Argan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anglo-Egyptian_Sudan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anglo-Egyptian_Sudan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Anglo-Egyptian Sudan </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anglo-Egyptian_Sudan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Southern_front,_1940" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Southern_front,_1940"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Southern front, 1940 </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Southern_front,_1940-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Southern front, 1940 subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Southern_front,_1940-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-British_East_Africa_(Kenya)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#British_East_Africa_(Kenya)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 British East Africa (Kenya) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-British_East_Africa_(Kenya)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Italian_strategy,_December_1940" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Italian_strategy,_December_1940"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Italian strategy, December 1940 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Italian_strategy,_December_1940-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-War_in_the_air" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#War_in_the_air"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 War in the air </div> </a> <ul id="toc-War_in_the_air-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-War_at_sea,_1940" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#War_at_sea,_1940"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 War at sea, 1940 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-War_at_sea,_1940-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Red_Sea_convoys" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Red_Sea_convoys"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4.1 Red Sea convoys </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Red_Sea_convoys-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-French_Somaliland_1940–1942" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#French_Somaliland_1940–1942"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 French Somaliland 1940–1942 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-French_Somaliland_1940–1942-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Northern_front,_1941" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Northern_front,_1941"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Northern front, 1941 </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Northern_front,_1941-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Northern front, 1941 subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Northern_front,_1941-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Operation_Camilla" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Operation_Camilla"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Operation Camilla </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Operation_Camilla-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eritrea" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eritrea"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Eritrea </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eritrea-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Battle_of_Agordat,_Barentu" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Battle_of_Agordat,_Barentu"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.1 Battle of Agordat, Barentu </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Battle_of_Agordat,_Barentu-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Battle_of_Keren" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Battle_of_Keren"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.2 Battle of Keren </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Battle_of_Keren-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Massawa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Massawa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Massawa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Massawa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Western_Ethiopia,_1941" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Western_Ethiopia,_1941"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Western Ethiopia, 1941 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Western_Ethiopia,_1941-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Addis_Ababa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Addis_Ababa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4.1 Addis Ababa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Addis_Ababa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Southern_front,_1941" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Southern_front,_1941"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Southern front, 1941 </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Southern_front,_1941-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Southern front, 1941 subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Southern_front,_1941-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Italian_Somaliland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Italian_Somaliland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Italian Somaliland </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Italian_Somaliland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-British_Somaliland_1941" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#British_Somaliland_1941"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 British Somaliland 1941 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-British_Somaliland_1941-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Amba_Alagi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Amba_Alagi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.1 Amba Alagi </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Amba_Alagi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Southern_Ethiopia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Southern_Ethiopia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Southern Ethiopia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Southern_Ethiopia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-War_at_sea,_1941" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#War_at_sea,_1941"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 War at sea, 1941 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-War_at_sea,_1941-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Operations,_May–November_1941" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Operations,_May–November_1941"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Operations, May–November 1941 </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Operations,_May–November_1941-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Operations, May–November 1941 subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Operations,_May–November_1941-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Assab" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Assab"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Assab </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Assab-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kulkaber_(Culqualber)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kulkaber_(Culqualber)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Kulkaber (Culqualber) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kulkaber_(Culqualber)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Battle_of_Gondar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Battle_of_Gondar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Battle of Gondar </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Battle_of_Gondar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aftermath" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aftermath"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Aftermath </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Aftermath-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Aftermath subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Aftermath-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Analysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Analysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Analysis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Analysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Signals_intelligence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Signals_intelligence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Signals intelligence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Signals_intelligence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Casualties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Casualties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Casualties </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Casualties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Subsequent_operations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Subsequent_operations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Subsequent operations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Subsequent_operations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Guerrilla_warfare" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Guerrilla_warfare"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4.1 Guerrilla warfare </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Guerrilla_warfare-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-war" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-war"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4.2 Post-war </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post-war-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Victoria_Cross" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Victoria_Cross"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Victoria Cross </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Victoria_Cross-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Footnotes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Footnotes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Footnotes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Footnotes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Books" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Books"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.1 Books </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Books-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Journals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Journals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.2 Journals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Journals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.3 Theses </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Websites" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Websites"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.4 Websites </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Websites-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Further reading </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Further reading subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Books_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Books_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.1 Books </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Books_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Journal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Journal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.2 Journal </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Journal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theses_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theses_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.3 Theses </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theses_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Website" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Website"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.4 Website </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Website-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">East African campaign (World War II)</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 26 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-26" aria-hidden="true" > 26 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D9%85%D9%84%D8%A9_%D8%B4%D8%B1%D9%82_%D8%A5%D9%81%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%A7_(%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%B1%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AB%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9)" title="حملة شرق إفريقيا (الحرب العالمية الثانية) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="حملة شرق إفريقيا (الحرب العالمية الثانية)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%81%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Усходнеафрыканская кампанія – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Усходнеафрыканская кампанія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B7%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F_(%D0%92%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0_%D1%81%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0)" title="Източноафриканска кампания (Втора световна война) – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Източноафриканска кампания (Втора световна война)" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campanya_de_l%27%C3%80frica_Oriental" title="Campanya de l'Àfrica Oriental – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Campanya de l'Àfrica Oriental" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felttoget_i_%C3%98stafrika_(2._verdenskrig)" title="Felttoget i Østafrika (2. verdenskrig) – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Felttoget i Østafrika (2. verdenskrig)" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostafrikafeldzug" title="Ostafrikafeldzug – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Ostafrikafeldzug" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campa%C3%B1a_de_%C3%81frica_Oriental_(Segunda_Guerra_Mundial)" title="Campaña de África Oriental (Segunda Guerra Mundial) – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Campaña de África Oriental (Segunda Guerra Mundial)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B2%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%B4%D8%B1%D9%82_%D8%A2%D9%81%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%82%D8%A7" title="کارزار شرق آفریقا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کارزار شرق آفریقا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campagne_d%27Afrique_de_l%27Est_(Seconde_Guerre_mondiale)" title="Campagne d'Afrique de l'Est (Seconde Guerre mondiale) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Campagne d'Afrique de l'Est (Seconde Guerre mondiale)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%8F%99%EC%95%84%ED%94%84%EB%A6%AC%EC%B9%B4_%EC%A0%84%EC%97%AD_(%EC%A0%9C2%EC%B0%A8_%EC%84%B8%EA%B3%84_%EB%8C%80%EC%A0%84)" title="동아프리카 전역 (제2차 세계 대전) – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="동아프리카 전역 (제2차 세계 대전)" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kampanye_Afrika_Timur_(Perang_Dunia_II)" title="Kampanye Afrika Timur (Perang Dunia II) – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kampanye Afrika Timur (Perang Dunia II)" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campagna_dell%27Africa_Orientale_Italiana" title="Campagna dell'Africa Orientale Italiana – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Campagna dell'Africa Orientale Italiana" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%9B%D7%94_%D7%91%D7%9E%D7%96%D7%A8%D7%97_%D7%90%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%94_%D7%91%D7%9E%D7%9C%D7%97%D7%9E%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%A2%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%9D_%D7%94%D7%A9%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%99%D7%94" title="המערכה במזרח אפריקה במלחמת העולם השנייה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="המערכה במזרח אפריקה במלחמת העולם השנייה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kempen_Afrika_Timur_(Perang_Dunia_II)" title="Kempen Afrika Timur (Perang Dunia II) – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kempen Afrika Timur (Perang Dunia II)" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9D%B1%E3%82%A2%E3%83%95%E3%83%AA%E3%82%AB%E6%88%A6%E7%B7%9A_(%E7%AC%AC%E4%BA%8C%E6%AC%A1%E4%B8%96%E7%95%8C%E5%A4%A7%E6%88%A6)" title="東アフリカ戦線 (第二次世界大戦) – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="東アフリカ戦線 (第二次世界大戦)" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felttoget_i_%C3%98st-Afrika" title="Felttoget i Øst-Afrika – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Felttoget i Øst-Afrika" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%AE%D8%AA%DB%8C%DA%81%DB%90_%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%82%D8%A7_%D8%B9%D9%85%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA_(%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%87%E2%80%8C%DB%8C%D9%85%D9%87_%D9%86%DA%93%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%87_%D8%AC%DA%AB%DA%93%D9%87)" title="د ختیځې افریقا عملیات (دوه‌یمه نړیواله جګړه) – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د ختیځې افریقا عملیات (دوه‌یمه نړیواله جګړه)" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kampania_wschodnioafryka%C5%84ska_w_czasie_II_wojny_%C5%9Bwiatowej" title="Kampania wschodnioafrykańska w czasie II wojny światowej – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Kampania wschodnioafrykańska w czasie II wojny światowej" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campania_din_Africa_de_Est_(Al_Doilea_R%C4%83zboi_Mondial)" title="Campania din Africa de Est (Al Doilea Război Mondial) – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Campania din Africa de Est (Al Doilea Război Mondial)" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F_(%D0%92%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0)" title="Восточноафриканская кампания (Вторая мировая война) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Восточноафриканская кампания (Вторая мировая война)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%9A%D0%B0_(%D0%94%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%B8_%D1%81%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82)" title="Источноафричка кампања (Други светски рат) – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Источноафричка кампања (Други светски рат)" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a 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Dünya Savaşı) – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Doğu Afrika Savaşı (II. Dünya Savaşı)" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%85%D1%96%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%8F_(%D0%94%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%B0_%D1%81%D0%B2%D1%96%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0)" title="Східноафриканська кампанія (Друга світова війна) – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Східноафриканська кампанія (Друга світова війна)" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%9C%E9%9D%9E%E6%88%98%E5%BD%B9_(%E7%AC%AC%E4%BA%8C%E6%AC%A1%E4%B8%96%E7%95%8C%E5%A4%A7%E6%88%98)" title="东非战役 (第二次世界大战) – Chinese" 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id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=East_African_Campaign_(World_War_II)&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="East African Campaign (World War II)">East African Campaign (World War II)</a>)</div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">World War II campaign against Italy from 1940 to 1941</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r963460841">@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .desktop-float-right{box-sizing:border-box;float:right;clear:right}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.vevent .status>p:first-child{margin:0}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1034237262">.mw-parser-output .stack{box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .stack>div{margin:1px;overflow:hidden}@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-left{float:left;clear:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-right{float:right;clear:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-left{float:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-right{float:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-left{float:left;clear:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-right{float:right;clear:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-left{float:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-right{float:right;margin-left:1em}}</style><div class="stack mw-stack stack-clear-right"><div><table class="infobox vevent" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;"><tbody><tr><th class="summary" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">East African campaign</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_and_Middle_East_theatre" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean and Middle East theatre">Mediterranean and Middle East theatre</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;line-height:1.5em;"><a href="/wiki/File:MoyaleEastAfrica1941.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/MoyaleEastAfrica1941.JPG/250px-MoyaleEastAfrica1941.JPG" decoding="async" width="250" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/MoyaleEastAfrica1941.JPG/375px-MoyaleEastAfrica1941.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/MoyaleEastAfrica1941.JPG/500px-MoyaleEastAfrica1941.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2920" data-file-height="2296" /></a> South African soldiers with a captured Italian flag, 1941</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><table style="width:100%;margin:0;padding:0;border:0;display:inline-table"><tbody><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Date</th><td>10 June 1940 – 27 November 1941 (<a href="/wiki/Italian_guerrilla_war_in_Ethiopia" title="Italian guerrilla war in Ethiopia">Guerrilla war until 8 September 1943</a>)</td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Location</th><td><div class="location"><a href="/wiki/East_Africa" title="East Africa">East Africa</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia">Somalia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Somaliland" title="Somaliland">Somaliland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eritrea" title="Eritrea">Eritrea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Djibouti" title="Djibouti">Djibouti</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kenya" title="Kenya">Kenya</a>)</div></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Result</th><td class="status"> Allied victory</td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Territorial changes</th><td> Dissolution of <a href="/wiki/Italian_East_Africa" title="Italian East Africa">Italian East Africa</a> (AOI) <a href="/wiki/British_Military_Administration_(Eritrea)" class="mw-redirect" title="British Military Administration (Eritrea)">Eritrea</a>, <a href="/wiki/British_Military_Administration_(Somaliland)" title="British Military Administration (Somaliland)">Somaliland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Occupied_Enemy_Territory_Administration_(Ethiopia)" title="Occupied Enemy Territory Administration (Ethiopia)">Ethiopia</a> under British military administration</td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Belligerents</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div><style 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Protectorate">Uganda</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Flag_of_Nyasaland_%281925%E2%80%931964%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Nyasaland_%281925%E2%80%931964%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Flag_of_Nyasaland_%281925%E2%80%931964%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Nyasaland_%281925%E2%80%931964%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Flag_of_Nyasaland_%281925%E2%80%931964%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Nyasaland_%281925%E2%80%931964%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="750" /> <a href="/wiki/Nyasaland" title="Nyasaland">Nyasaland</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="640" /> <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg/23px-Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg/35px-Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg/46px-Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Dominion_of_New_Zealand" title="Dominion of New Zealand">New Zealand</a> </li></ul> </div><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire"><img alt="Ethiopian Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_Ethiopia_%281897%E2%80%931974%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Ethiopia_%281897%E2%80%931974%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_Ethiopia_%281897%E2%80%931974%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Ethiopia_%281897%E2%80%931974%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_Ethiopia_%281897%E2%80%931974%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Ethiopia_%281897%E2%80%931974%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Ethiopian</a> <a href="/wiki/Arbegnoch" title="Arbegnoch">Arbegnoch</a> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Belgian_government_in_exile" title="Belgian government in exile">Belgium</a> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Flag_of_the_Congo_Free_State.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Congo_Free_State.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Flag_of_the_Congo_Free_State.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Congo_Free_State.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Flag_of_the_Congo_Free_State.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Congo_Free_State.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Belgian_Congo" title="Belgian Congo">Congo</a></li></ul> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Flag_of_Free_France_%281940-1944%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Free_France_%281940-1944%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Flag_of_Free_France_%281940-1944%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Free_France_%281940-1944%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Flag_of_Free_France_%281940-1944%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Free_France_%281940-1944%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="341" /> <a href="/wiki/Free_France" title="Free France">Free France</a> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Flag_of_Free_France_%281940-1944%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Free_France_%281940-1944%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Flag_of_Free_France_%281940-1944%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Free_France_%281940-1944%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Flag_of_Free_France_%281940-1944%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Free_France_%281940-1944%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="341" /> <a href="/wiki/French_Equatorial_Africa" title="French Equatorial Africa">Equatorial Africa</a></li></ul></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg/23px-Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg/35px-Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg/45px-Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /> <a href="/wiki/Fascist_Italy" title="Fascist Italy">Italy</a> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg/23px-Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg/35px-Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg/45px-Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /> <a href="/wiki/Italian_East_Africa" title="Italian East Africa">Italian East Africa</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Commanders and leaders</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom"><img alt="United Kingdom" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Archibald_Wavell" class="mw-redirect" title="Archibald Wavell">Archibald Wavell</a> <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom"><img alt="United Kingdom" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Reade_Godwin-Austen" class="mw-redirect" title="Alfred Reade Godwin-Austen">R. Godwin-Austen</a> <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom"><img alt="United Kingdom" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/William_Platt" title="William Platt">William Platt</a> <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom"><img alt="United Kingdom" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Alan_Cunningham" title="Alan Cunningham">Alan Cunningham</a> <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire"><img alt="Ethiopian Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_Ethiopia_%281897%E2%80%931974%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Ethiopia_%281897%E2%80%931974%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_Ethiopia_%281897%E2%80%931974%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Ethiopia_%281897%E2%80%931974%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_Ethiopia_%281897%E2%80%931974%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Ethiopia_%281897%E2%80%931974%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Haile_Selassie_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Haile Selassie I">Haile Selassie I</a> <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire"><img alt="Ethiopian Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_Ethiopia_%281897%E2%80%931974%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Ethiopia_%281897%E2%80%931974%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_Ethiopia_%281897%E2%80%931974%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Ethiopia_%281897%E2%80%931974%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_Ethiopia_%281897%E2%80%931974%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Ethiopia_%281897%E2%80%931974%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Abebe_Aregai" title="Abebe Aregai">Abebe Aregai</a> <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium"><img alt="Belgium" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Auguste_Gilliaert" title="Auguste Gilliaert">Auguste Gilliaert</a></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <a href="/wiki/Fascist_Italy" title="Fascist Italy"><img alt="Fascist Italy" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg/23px-Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg/35px-Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg/45px-Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Amedeo,_3rd_Duke_of_Aosta" class="mw-redirect" title="Amedeo, 3rd Duke of Aosta">Duke of Aosta</a> <a href="/wiki/Surrender_(military)" title="Surrendered"><img alt="Surrendered" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/14px-White_flag_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/21px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/28px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="351" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Fascist_Italy" title="Fascist Italy"><img alt="Fascist Italy" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg/23px-Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg/35px-Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg/45px-Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Pietro_Gazzera" title="Pietro Gazzera">Pietro Gazzera</a> <a href="/wiki/Surrender_(military)" title="Surrendered"><img alt="Surrendered" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/14px-White_flag_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/21px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/28px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="351" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Fascist_Italy" title="Fascist Italy"><img alt="Fascist Italy" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg/23px-Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg/35px-Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg/45px-Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Guglielmo_Nasi" title="Guglielmo Nasi">Guglielmo Nasi</a> <a href="/wiki/Surrender_(military)" title="Surrendered"><img alt="Surrendered" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/14px-White_flag_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/21px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/28px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="351" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Fascist_Italy" title="Fascist Italy"><img alt="Fascist Italy" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg/23px-Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg/35px-Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg/45px-Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Luigi_Frusci" title="Luigi Frusci">Luigi Frusci</a> <a href="/wiki/Surrender_(military)" title="Surrendered"><img alt="Surrendered" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/14px-White_flag_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/21px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/28px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="351" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Fascist_Italy" title="Fascist Italy"><img alt="Fascist Italy" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg/23px-Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg/35px-Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg/45px-Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Carlo_De_Simone" title="Carlo De Simone">Carlo De Simone</a> <a href="/wiki/Surrender_(military)" title="Surrendered"><img alt="Surrendered" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/14px-White_flag_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/21px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/28px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="351" /></a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Strength</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488">~115,000 troops</div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> 77,000<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrock_Katz201734-1">[1]</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_Ethiopia_%281897%E2%80%931974%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Ethiopia_%281897%E2%80%931974%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_Ethiopia_%281897%E2%80%931974%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Ethiopia_%281897%E2%80%931974%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_Ethiopia_%281897%E2%80%931974%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Ethiopia_%281897%E2%80%931974%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> 30,000<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMilkias201158–59_Better_source_needed-2">[2]</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> 6,000<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReybrouck2014132-3">[3]</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Flag_of_Free_France_%281940-1944%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Free_France_%281940-1944%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Flag_of_Free_France_%281940-1944%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Free_France_%281940-1944%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Flag_of_Free_France_%281940-1944%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Free_France_%281940-1944%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="341" /> 2,000 </li></ul> </div> 80+ aircraft 2 cruisers 2 destroyers 2 auxiliary cruisers</td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488">~250,000 troops</div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0">Italian: 50,000<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart2016187-4">[4]</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0">Colonial: 200,000<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaravigna1949191-5">[5]</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/German_Motorized_Company" title="German Motorized Company">German</a>: 140 </li></ul> </div> 323 aircraft 63 tanks 126 armoured cars</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Casualties and losses</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> British Empire: 1,154 killed 74,550 wounded or sick<a href="#cite_note-6">[a]</a> 138 aircraft Ethiopia: 5,000 killed[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Belgium: 462 killed Free France: 2 aircraft</td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> Italy: 16,966 killed 25,098 wounded or sick ~230,000 captured 250 aircraft</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;"> AOI casualties exclude Giuba and the eastern front</td></tr></tbody></table><div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol 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href="/wiki/Italian_invasion_of_British_Somaliland" title="Italian invasion of British Somaliland">British Somaliland (1940)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tug_Argan" title="Battle of Tug Argan">Tug Argan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Somaliland_in_World_War_II" title="French Somaliland in World War II">French Somaliland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Convoy_BN_7" title="Attack on Convoy BN 7">Convoy BN 7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Agordat_(1941)" title="Battle of Agordat (1941)">Agordat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Appearance" title="Operation Appearance">British Somaliland (1941)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Keren" title="Battle of Keren">Keren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Sa%C3%AFo" title="Siege of Saïo">Saïo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Amba_Alagi_(1941)" title="Battle of Amba Alagi (1941)">Amba Alagi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Culqualber" title="Battle of Culqualber">Culqualber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gondar" title="Battle of Gondar">Gondar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_guerrilla_war_in_Ethiopia" title="Italian guerrilla war in Ethiopia">Guerrilla war</a></li></ul> <hr /> Associated articles <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gideon_Force" title="Gideon Force">Gideon Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arbegnoch" title="Arbegnoch">Arbegnoch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Sea_Flotilla" title="Red Sea Flotilla">Red Sea Flotilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desert_Air_Force" title="Desert Air Force">Desert Air Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commander-in-Chief,_East_Indies" class="mw-redirect" title="Commander-in-Chief, East Indies">East Indies Station</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Africa_Command" title="East Africa Command">East Africa Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Order_of_battle,_East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)" class="mw-redirect" title="Order of battle, East African campaign (World War II)">Order of battle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Mediterranean_and_Middle_East_Theatre" style="margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;margin-left:1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a 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Theatre</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adriatic_campaign_of_World_War_II" title="Adriatic campaign of World War II">Adriatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_African_campaign" title="North African campaign">North Africa</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">East Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Mediterranean" title="Battle of the Mediterranean">Mediterranean Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Gibraltar_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Gibraltar during World War II">Gibraltar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Malta_(World_War_II)" title="Siege of Malta (World War II)">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Bahrain_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Bahrain in World War II">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balkans_campaign_(World_War_II)" title="Balkans campaign (World War II)">Balkans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_in_Yugoslavia" title="World War II in Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Iraqi_War" title="Anglo-Iraqi War">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farhud" title="Farhud">Baghdad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syria%E2%80%93Lebanon_campaign" title="Syria–Lebanon campaign">Syria–Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_bombing_of_Mandatory_Palestine_in_World_War_II" title="Italian bombing of Mandatory Palestine in World War II">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Atlas" title="Operation Atlas">Atlas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Soviet_invasion_of_Iran" title="Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Sicily" title="Allied invasion of Sicily">Sicily</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_campaign_(World_War_II)" title="Italian campaign (World War II)">Italian mainland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dodecanese_campaign" title="Dodecanese campaign">Dodecanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_occupation_of_Corsica#Liberation_of_Corsica_(Operation_Vesuvius)" title="Italian occupation of Corsica">Corsica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Dragoon" title="Operation Dragoon">Dragoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_the_Alps" title="Second Battle of the Alps">Alpes-Maritimes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Campaigns_of_World_War_II" style="margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;margin-left:1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_World_War_II" title="Template:Campaignbox World War II"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_World_War_II" title="Template talk:Campaignbox World War II"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_World_War_II" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox World War II"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Campaigns_of_World_War_II" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Campaigns of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/European_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="European theatre of World War II">Europe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland" title="Invasion of Poland">Poland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polish_resistance_movement_in_World_War_II" title="Polish resistance movement in World War II">Polish resistance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoney_War" title="Phoney War">Phoney War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finland_in_World_War_II" title="Finland in World War II">Finland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Winter_War" title="Winter War">Winter War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuation_War" title="Continuation War">Karelia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lapland_War" title="Lapland War">Lapland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Weser%C3%BCbung" title="Operation Weserübung">Denmark and Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Western Front (World War II)">Western Front</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_France" title="Battle of France">1940</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Resistance" title="French Resistance">Resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Front_(World_War_II)#1944–1945:_The_Second_Front" title="Western Front (World War II)">1944–1945</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_invasion_of_France" title="Italian invasion of France">Alps 1940</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_the_Alps" title="Second Battle of the Alps">1944</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Britain" title="Battle of Britain">Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balkans_campaign_(World_War_II)" title="Balkans campaign (World War II)">Balkans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_in_Yugoslavia" title="World War II in Yugoslavia">Yugoslavian Partisans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_resistance" title="Greek resistance">Greek resistance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">Eastern Front</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1940%E2%80%931944_insurgency_in_Chechnya" title="1940–1944 insurgency in Chechnya">Chechnya</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_campaign_(World_War_II)" title="Italian campaign (World War II)">Italy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Sicily" title="Allied invasion of Sicily">Sicily</a></li></ul></li></ul> <a href="/wiki/Pacific_War" title="Pacific War">Asia-Pacific</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean_theater_of_World_War_II" title="Pacific Ocean theater of World War II">Pacific Ocean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_West_Pacific_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="South West Pacific theatre of World War II">South West Pacific</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franco-Thai_War" title="Franco-Thai War">Franco-Thai War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South-East_Asian_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="South-East Asian theatre of World War II">South-East Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burma_campaign" title="Burma campaign">Burma and India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan_campaign" title="Japan campaign">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_War" title="Soviet–Japanese War">Manchuria and Northern Korea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_border_conflicts" title="Soviet–Japanese border conflicts">pre-war border conflicts</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attacks_on_Australia_during_World_War_II" title="Attacks on Australia during World War II">Australia</a></li></ul> <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_and_Middle_East_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="Mediterranean and Middle East theatre of World War II">Mediterranean and Middle East</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_African_campaign" title="North African campaign">North Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Desert_campaign" title="Western Desert campaign">Libya-Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Torch" title="Operation Torch">Morocco-Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_campaign" title="Tunisian campaign">Tunisia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">East Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Mediterranean" title="Battle of the Mediterranean">Mediterranean Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adriatic_campaign_of_World_War_II" title="Adriatic campaign of World War II">Adriatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Malta_(World_War_II)" title="Siege of Malta (World War II)">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Iraqi_War" title="Anglo-Iraqi War">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syria%E2%80%93Lebanon_campaign" title="Syria–Lebanon campaign">Syria–Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Soviet_invasion_of_Iran" title="Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dodecanese_campaign" title="Dodecanese campaign">Dodecanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Dragoon" title="Operation Dragoon">Southern France</a></li></ul> Other campaigns <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Theater_(World_War_II)" class="mw-redirect" title="American Theater (World War II)">Americas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecuadorian%E2%80%93Peruvian_War" title="Ecuadorian–Peruvian War">Ecuador–Peru</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antarctica_during_World_War_II" title="Antarctica during World War II">Antarctica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Atlantic" title="Battle of the Atlantic">Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_naval_operations_of_World_War_II" title="Arctic naval operations of World War II">Arctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_warfare_of_World_War_II" title="Air warfare of World War II">Air Warfare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_bombing_during_World_War_II" title="Strategic bombing during World War II">Strategic bombing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_West_Africa_in_World_War_II" title="French West Africa in World War II">French West Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_in_World_War_II" title="Indian Ocean in World War II">Indian Ocean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Madagascar" title="Battle of Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li></ul></li></ul> Coups <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Planned_Nazi_coup_and_invasion_of_Uruguay" title="Planned Nazi coup and invasion of Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1940_Norwegian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" class="mw-redirect" title="1940 Norwegian coup d'état">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Baltic_states" title="Occupation of the Baltic states">Baltic Nations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="Yugoslav coup d'état">Yugoslavia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legionnaires%27_rebellion_and_Bucharest_pogrom" title="Legionnaires' rebellion and Bucharest pogrom">Romania 1941</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1941_Iraqi_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1941 Iraqi coup d'état">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Fascist_regime_in_Italy" title="Fall of the Fascist regime in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palm_Sunday_Coup" title="Palm Sunday Coup">Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/20_July_plot" title="20 July plot">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lorkovi%C4%87%E2%80%93Voki%C4%87_plot" title="Lorković–Vokić plot">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1944_Romanian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1944 Romanian coup d'état">Romania 1944</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1944_Bulgarian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1944 Bulgarian coup d'état">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Panzerfaust" title="Operation Panzerfaust">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_in_French_Indochina" title="Japanese coup d'état in French Indochina">French Indochina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ky%C5%ABj%C5%8D_incident" title="Kyūjō incident">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matsue_incident" title="Matsue incident">Matsue</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></div> The East African campaign (also known as the Abyssinian campaign) was fought in <a href="/wiki/East_Africa" title="East Africa">East Africa</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</a> by <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allies of World War II</a>, mainly from the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a>, against <a href="/wiki/Fascist_Italy_(1922%E2%80%931943)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fascist Italy (1922–1943)">Italy</a> and its colony of <a href="/wiki/Italian_East_Africa" title="Italian East Africa">Italian East Africa</a>, between June 1940 and November 1941. The British <a href="/wiki/Middle_East_Command" title="Middle East Command">Middle East Command</a> with troops from the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Union_of_South_Africa" title="Union of South Africa">South Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">British India</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uganda_Protectorate" class="mw-redirect" title="Uganda Protectorate">Uganda Protectorate</a>, <a href="/wiki/British_Kenya" class="mw-redirect" title="British Kenya">Kenya</a>, <a href="/wiki/British_Somaliland" title="British Somaliland">Somaliland</a>, <a href="/wiki/British_West_Africa" title="British West Africa">West Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Northern_Rhodesia" title="Northern Rhodesia">Northern</a> and <a href="/wiki/Southern_Rhodesia" title="Southern Rhodesia">Southern Rhodesia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Egyptian_Sudan" title="Anglo-Egyptian Sudan">Sudan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nyasaland" title="Nyasaland">Nyasaland</a> participated in the campaign. These were joined by the Allied <a href="/wiki/Force_Publique" title="Force Publique">Force Publique</a> of <a href="/wiki/Belgian_Congo" title="Belgian Congo">Belgian Congo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Imperial Ethiopian</a> <a href="/wiki/Arbegnoch" title="Arbegnoch">Arbegnoch</a> (resistance forces) and a small unit of <a href="/wiki/Free_French_Forces" class="mw-redirect" title="Free French Forces">Free French Forces</a>. Italian East Africa was defended by the Comando Forze Armate dell'Africa Orientale Italiana (Italian East African Armed Forces Command), with units from the <a href="/wiki/Regio_Esercito" class="mw-redirect" title="Regio Esercito">Regio Esercito</a> (Royal Army), <a href="/wiki/Regia_Aeronautica" title="Regia Aeronautica">Regia Aeronautica</a> (Royal Air Force) and <a href="/wiki/Regia_Marina" title="Regia Marina">Regia Marina</a> (Royal Navy). The Italian forces included about 250,000 soldiers of the <a href="/wiki/Regio_Corpo_Truppe_Coloniali" class="mw-redirect" title="Regio Corpo Truppe Coloniali">Regio Corpo Truppe Coloniali</a> (Royal Corps of Colonial Troops), led by Italian officers and <a href="/wiki/NCOs" class="mw-redirect" title="NCOs">NCOs</a>. With Britain in control of the <a href="/wiki/Suez_Canal" title="Suez Canal">Suez Canal</a>, the Italian forces were cut off from supplies and reinforcement once hostilities began. On 13 June 1940, an Italian air raid took place on the RAF base at <a href="/wiki/Wajir" title="Wajir">Wajir</a> in Kenya and the air war continued until Italian forces had been pushed back from Kenya and Sudan, through Somaliland, <a href="/wiki/Italian_Eritrea" title="Italian Eritrea">Eritrea</a> and Ethiopia in 1940 and early 1941. The remnants of the Italian forces in the region surrendered after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gondar" title="Battle of Gondar">Battle of Gondar</a> in November 1941, except for small groups that fought a <a href="/wiki/Italian_guerrilla_war_in_Ethiopia" title="Italian guerrilla war in Ethiopia">guerrilla war in Ethiopia</a> against the British until the <a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_Cassibile" title="Armistice of Cassibile">Armistice of Cassibile</a> in September 1943, which ended the war between Italy and the Allies. The East African campaign was the first Allied strategic victory in the war; few Italian forces escaped the region to be used in other campaigns and the Italian defeat greatly eased the flow of supplies through the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a> to Egypt. Most of the Commonwealth forces were transferred to North Africa to participate in the <a href="/wiki/Western_Desert_campaign" title="Western Desert campaign">Western Desert campaign</a>. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Italian_East_Africa">Italian East Africa</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Italian East Africa">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Second_Italo-Abyssinian_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Italo-Abyssinian War">Second Italo-Abyssinian War</a> and <a href="/wiki/Order_of_Battle,_East_African_Campaign_(World_War_II)" class="mw-redirect" title="Order of Battle, East African Campaign (World War II)">Order of Battle, East African Campaign (World War II)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Italian_East_Africa.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Italian_East_Africa.png/170px-Italian_East_Africa.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Italian_East_Africa.png/255px-Italian_East_Africa.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Italian_East_Africa.png/340px-Italian_East_Africa.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">The AOI in 1936. British Somaliland <a href="/wiki/Italian_conquest_of_British_Somaliland" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian conquest of British Somaliland">annexed</a>, 1940</div></figcaption></figure> On 9 May 1936, the Italian dictator, <a href="/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini">Benito Mussolini</a>, proclaimed the formation of Italian East Africa (Africa Orientale Italiana, AOI), from <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a> after the <a href="/wiki/Second_Italo-Abyssinian_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Italo-Abyssinian War">Second Italo-Abyssinian War</a> and the colonies of Italian Eritrea and <a href="/wiki/Italian_Somaliland" title="Italian Somaliland">Italian Somaliland</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair19592-7">[6]</a> On 10 June 1940, Mussolini declared war on Britain and <a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">France</a>, which made Italian military forces in <a href="/wiki/Italian_Libya" title="Italian Libya">Libya</a> a threat to Egypt and those in the AOI a danger to the British and French colonies in East Africa. Italian belligerence also closed the Mediterranean to Allied merchant ships and endangered British sea lanes along the coast of East Africa, the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Aden" title="Gulf of Aden">Gulf of Aden</a>, the Red Sea and the Suez Canal. (The <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Kingdom of Egypt">Kingdom of Egypt</a> remained <a href="/wiki/Neutrality_(international_relations)" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutrality (international relations)">neutral</a> during the Second World War but the terms of the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Egyptian_treaty_of_1936" title="Anglo-Egyptian treaty of 1936">Anglo-Egyptian treaty of 1936</a> allowed the British to occupy Egypt and Anglo-Egyptian Sudan.)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair19596–7,_69-8">[7]</a> Egypt, the Suez Canal, <a href="/wiki/French_Somaliland" title="French Somaliland">French Somaliland</a> and British Somaliland were also vulnerable to invasion but the Italian General Staff had planned for a war after 1942; in the summer of 1940 Italy was far from ready for a long war or for the occupation of large areas of <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair195938–40-9">[8]</a> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Regio_Esercito">Regio Esercito</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Regio Esercito">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Italian_East_Africa_(1938%E2%80%931941).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Italian_East_Africa_%281938%E2%80%931941%29.svg/220px-Italian_East_Africa_%281938%E2%80%931941%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Italian_East_Africa_%281938%E2%80%931941%29.svg/330px-Italian_East_Africa_%281938%E2%80%931941%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Italian_East_Africa_%281938%E2%80%931941%29.svg/440px-Italian_East_Africa_%281938%E2%80%931941%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1012" data-file-height="908" /></a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><a href="/wiki/Italian_East_Africa" title="Italian East Africa">Italian East Africa</a>, May 1940, before the conquest of <a href="/wiki/British_Somaliland" title="British Somaliland">British Somaliland</a></div></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Amedeo,_Duke_of_Aosta" class="mw-redirect" title="Amedeo, Duke of Aosta">Amedeo, Duke of Aosta</a>, was appointed <a href="/wiki/Viceroy" title="Viceroy">Viceroy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Governor-General" class="mw-redirect" title="Governor-General">Governor-General</a> of the AOI in November 1937, with a headquarters in <a href="/wiki/Addis_Ababa" title="Addis Ababa">Addis Ababa</a>, the Ethiopian capital. On 1 June 1940, as the commander in chief of Comando Forze Armate dell'Africa Orientale Italiana (Italian East African Armed Forces Command) and Generale d'Armata Aerea (General of the Air Force), Aosta had about 290,476 local and metropolitan troops (including naval and air force personnel). By 1 August, mobilisation had increased the number to 371,053 troops.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair195993-10">[9]</a> On 10 June, the Italian army was organised in three corps and one division commands, <ul><li>Northern Sector, in <a href="/wiki/Asmara" title="Asmara">Asmara</a>, Lieutenant General <a href="/wiki/Luigi_Frusci" title="Luigi Frusci">Luigi Frusci</a> (<a href="/wiki/Italian_Eritrea" title="Italian Eritrea">Italian Eritrea</a>)</li> <li>Southern Sector, in <a href="/wiki/Jimma" title="Jimma">Jimma</a>, General <a href="/wiki/Pietro_Gazzera" title="Pietro Gazzera">Pietro Gazzera</a></li> <li>Eastern Sector, in <a href="/wiki/Addis_Ababa" title="Addis Ababa">Addis Ababa</a>, General <a href="/wiki/Guglielmo_Nasi" title="Guglielmo Nasi">Guglielmo Nasi</a></li> <li>Giuba Sector, in <a href="/wiki/Mogadishu" title="Mogadishu">Mogadishu</a>, Lieutenant General <a href="/wiki/Carlo_De_Simone" title="Carlo De Simone">Carlo De Simone</a> (Southern <a href="/wiki/Italian_Somaliland" title="Italian Somaliland">Italian Somaliland</a>)</li></ul> Aosta had two metropolitan divisions, the <a href="/wiki/40th_Infantry_Division_%22Cacciatori_d%27Africa%22" title="40th Infantry Division "Cacciatori d'Africa"">40th Infantry Division "Cacciatori d'Africa"</a> and the <a href="/wiki/65th_Infantry_Division_%22Granatieri_di_Savoia%22" title="65th Infantry Division "Granatieri di Savoia"">65th Infantry Division "Granatieri di Savoia"</a>, the Alpini Battalion "Uork Amba" of the <a href="/wiki/7th_Alpini_Regiment" title="7th Alpini Regiment">7th Alpini Regiment</a> <a href="/wiki/Alpini" title="Alpini">Alpini</a> (elite mountain troops), a <a href="/wiki/Bersaglieri" title="Bersaglieri">Bersaglieri</a> battalion of motorised infantry, several <a href="/wiki/Blackshirt" class="mw-redirect" title="Blackshirt">Blackshirt</a> <a href="/wiki/Milizia_Coloniale" title="Milizia Coloniale">Milizia Coloniale</a> battalions and smaller units. About 70 per cent of Italian troops were locally recruited <a href="/wiki/Askari" title="Askari">Askari</a>. The regular Eritrean battalions and the Regio Corpo Truppe Coloniali (RCTC <a href="/wiki/Royal_Corps_of_Somali_Colonial_Troops" title="Royal Corps of Somali Colonial Troops">Royal Corps of Somali Colonial Troops</a>) were among the best Italian units in the AOI and included Eritrean cavalry Penne di Falco (Falcon Feathers).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair1959166-11">[10]</a> (On one occasion a squadron of horse charged British and Commonwealth troops, throwing small hand grenades from the saddle.) Most colonial troops were recruited, trained and equipped for colonial repression, although the Somali <a href="/wiki/Dubats" class="mw-redirect" title="Dubats">Dubats</a> from the borderlands were useful light infantry and skirmishers. Irregular <a href="/wiki/Bands_(Italian_Army_irregulars)" title="Bands (Italian Army irregulars)">bande</a> were hardy and mobile, knew the country and were effective scouts and saboteurs, although sometimes confused with Shifta, marauders who plundered and murdered at will.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart201655–56-12">[11]</a> Once Italy entered the war, a 100-strong company was formed from German residents of East Africa and stranded German sailors.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchreiberStegemannVogel2015263-13">[12]</a> Italian forces in East Africa were equipped with about 3,313 heavy machine-guns, 5,313 machine-guns, 24 <a href="/wiki/M11/39" class="mw-redirect" title="M11/39">M11/39</a> medium tanks, 39 <a href="/wiki/L3/35" title="L3/35">L3/35</a> tankettes, 126 armoured cars and 824 guns, twenty-four 20 mm anti-aircraft guns, seventy-one 81 mm mortars and 672,800 rifles.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarino200931-14">[13]</a> The Italians had little opportunity for reinforcement or supply, leading to severe shortages, especially of ammunition.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart201614-15">[14]</a> On occasion, foreign merchant vessels captured by German <a href="/wiki/Merchant_raider" title="Merchant raider">merchant raiders</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a> were brought to Somali ports but their cargoes were not always of much use to the Italian war effort. On 22 November 1940 the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Yugoslavia" title="Kingdom of Yugoslavia">Yugoslav</a> steamer Durmitor, captured by the German auxiliary cruiser <a href="/wiki/German_auxiliary_cruiser_Atlantis" title="German auxiliary cruiser Atlantis">Atlantis</a>, put in at <a href="/wiki/Warsheikh" title="Warsheikh">Warsheikh</a> with a cargo of salt and several hundred prisoners.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMohrSellwood2009126-16">[15]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Regia_Aeronautica">Regia Aeronautica</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Regia Aeronautica">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Savoia-Marchetti_S.M.79_flight_in_formation.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Savoia-Marchetti_S.M.79_flight_in_formation.jpg/220px-Savoia-Marchetti_S.M.79_flight_in_formation.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Savoia-Marchetti_S.M.79_flight_in_formation.jpg/330px-Savoia-Marchetti_S.M.79_flight_in_formation.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Savoia-Marchetti_S.M.79_flight_in_formation.jpg/440px-Savoia-Marchetti_S.M.79_flight_in_formation.jpg 2x" data-file-width="460" data-file-height="321" /></a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Savoia-Marchetti SM.79 formation</div></figcaption></figure> The Comando Aeronautica Africa Orientale Italiana (CAAOI) of the Regia Aeronautica (General Pietro Pinna) based in Addis Ababa, had three sector commands corresponding to the land fronts, <ul><li>Comando Settore Aeronautico Nord (Air Sector Headquarters North)</li> <li>Comando Settore Aeronautico Est (Air Sector Headquarters West)</li> <li>Comando Settore Aeronautico Sud (Air Sector Headquarters South)</li></ul> In June 1940, there were 323 aircraft in the AOI, in 23 bomber squadrons with 138 aircraft, comprising 14 squadrons with six aircraft each, six <a href="/wiki/Caproni_Ca.133" title="Caproni Ca.133">Caproni Ca.133</a> light bomber squadrons, seven <a href="/wiki/Savoia-Marchetti_SM.81" class="mw-redirect" title="Savoia-Marchetti SM.81">Savoia-Marchetti SM.81</a> squadrons and two squadrons of <a href="/wiki/Savoia-Marchetti_SM.79" class="mw-redirect" title="Savoia-Marchetti SM.79">Savoia-Marchetti SM.79s</a>. Four fighter squadrons had 36 aircraft, comprising two nine-aircraft <a href="/wiki/Fiat_CR.32" title="Fiat CR.32">Fiat CR.32</a> squadrons and two nine-aircraft <a href="/wiki/Fiat_CR.42_Falco" title="Fiat CR.42 Falco">Fiat CR.42 Falco</a> squadrons; CAAOI had one reconnaissance squadron with nine <a href="/wiki/IMAM_Ro.37" title="IMAM Ro.37">IMAM Ro.37</a> aircraft. There were 183 first line aircraft and another 140 in reserve, of which 59 were operational and 81 were unserviceable.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESantoro1957146-17">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[b]</a> On the outbreak of war, the CAAOI had 10,700 t (10,500 long tons) of aviation fuel, 5,300 t (5,200 long tons) of bombs and 8,620,000 rounds of ammunition. Aircraft and engine maintenance was conducted at the main air bases and at the Caproni and Piaggio workshops, which could repair about fifteen seriously-damaged aircraft and engines each month, along with some moderately and lightly damaged aircraft and could also recycle scarce materials.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESantoro1957146-17">[16]</a> The Italians had reserves for 75 per cent of their front-line strength but lacked spare parts and many aircraft were cannibalised to keep others operational.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShores19967–8-20">[18]</a> The quality of the units varied. The SM.79 was the only modern bomber and the CR.32 fighter was obsolete but the Regia Aeronautica in East Africa had a cadre of highly experienced <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">Spanish Civil War</a> veterans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShores19968–9-21">[19]</a> There was the nucleus of a transport fleet, with nine <a href="/wiki/Savoia-Marchetti_S.73" title="Savoia-Marchetti S.73">Savoia-Marchetti S.73</a>, nine Ca.133, six Ca.148 (a lengthened version of the Ca.133) and a <a href="/wiki/Fokker_F.VII" title="Fokker F.VII">Fokker F.VII</a>, which maintained internal communications and carried urgent items and personnel between sectors.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESantoro1957146-17">[16]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Regia_Marina">Regia Marina</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Regia Marina">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Un-eritrea.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Un-eritrea.png/220px-Un-eritrea.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Un-eritrea.png/330px-Un-eritrea.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Un-eritrea.png/440px-Un-eritrea.png 2x" data-file-width="3038" data-file-height="2257" /></a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Modern map of Eritrea showing Massawa (now Mitsiwa'e)</div></figcaption></figure> From 1935 to 1940 the Regia Marina (Italian Royal Navy) laid plans for an ocean-going "escape fleet" (Flotta d'evasione) equipped for service in the tropics. The plans varied from three battleships, an aircraft carrier, twelve cruisers, 36 destroyers and 30 submarines to a more realistic two cruisers, eight destroyers and twelve submarines.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Hara2009279,_99-22">[20]</a> Even the lower establishment proved too expensive and in 1940 the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea_Flotilla" title="Red Sea Flotilla">Red Sea Flotilla</a> had seven older fleet <a href="/wiki/Destroyers" class="mw-redirect" title="Destroyers">destroyers</a>, the 5th Destroyer Division with the <a href="/wiki/Leone-class_destroyer" title="Leone-class destroyer">Leone-class destroyers</a> <a href="/wiki/Italian_destroyer_Pantera" title="Italian destroyer Pantera">Pantera</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italian_destroyer_Tigre" title="Italian destroyer Tigre">Tigre</a> and <a href="/wiki/Italian_destroyer_Leone" title="Italian destroyer Leone">Leone</a> and the 3rd Destroyer Division with the Sauro-class <a href="/wiki/Torpedo_boat#Torpedo_boat_destroyers" title="Torpedo boat">torpedo boats</a> (a class of ships between the size of small, fast motor torpedo boats and destroyers, not found in the Royal Navy) <a href="/wiki/Italian_destroyer_Francesco_Nullo_(1925)" title="Italian destroyer Francesco Nullo (1925)">Francesco Nullo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italian_destroyer_Nazario_Sauro" title="Italian destroyer Nazario Sauro">Nazario Sauro</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italian_destroyer_Cesare_Battisti" title="Italian destroyer Cesare Battisti">Cesare Battisti</a> and <a href="/wiki/Italian_destroyer_Daniele_Manin" title="Italian destroyer Daniele Manin">Daniele Manin</a>. There were Orsini and Acerbi two old local defence torpedo boats and a squadron of five first world war <a href="/wiki/MAS_(ships)" class="mw-redirect" title="MAS (ships)">Motoscafo Armato Silurante</a> (MAS, <a href="/wiki/Motor_torpedo_boats" class="mw-redirect" title="Motor torpedo boats">motor torpedo boats</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Hara200999Roskill1957597,_49,_308,_426-23">[21]</a> The Flotilla had eight modern <a href="/wiki/Submarines" class="mw-redirect" title="Submarines">submarines</a> (<a href="/wiki/Italian_submarine_Archimede_(1939)" title="Italian submarine Archimede (1939)">Archimede</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italian_submarine_Galileo_Ferraris_(1934)" title="Italian submarine Galileo Ferraris (1934)">Galileo Ferraris</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italian_submarine_Galileo_Galilei" title="Italian submarine Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brin-class_submarine" title="Brin-class submarine">Torricelli</a>, Galvani, <a href="/wiki/Italian_submarine_Guglielmotti_(1938)" title="Italian submarine Guglielmotti (1938)">Guglielmotti</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italian_submarine_Macall%C3%A9" title="Italian submarine Macallé">Macallé</a> and <a href="/wiki/Italian_submarine_Perla" title="Italian submarine Perla">Perla</a>). The flotilla was based at <a href="/wiki/Massawa" title="Massawa">Massawa</a> in Eritrea on the Red Sea. The port linked <a href="/wiki/German-occupied_Europe" title="German-occupied Europe">Axis-occupied Europe</a> and the naval facilities in the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Italian</a> <a href="/wiki/Concession_(territory)" class="mw-redirect" title="Concession (territory)">concession zone</a> at <a href="/wiki/Tientsin" class="mw-redirect" title="Tientsin">Tientsin</a> in China.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Hara200999Roskill1957597,_49,_308,_426-23">[21]</a> There were limited port facilities at <a href="/wiki/Assab" title="Assab">Assab</a>, in Eritrea and at <a href="/wiki/Mogadishu" title="Mogadishu">Mogadishu</a> in Italian Somaliland. When the Mediterranean route was closed to Allied merchant ships in April 1940, the Italian naval bases in East Africa were well placed for attacks on convoys en route to Suez up the east coast of Africa and through the Red Sea. The finite resources in Italian East Africa were intended to last for a war of about six months' duration, the submarines denying the Red Sea route to the British.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Hara200999-24">[22]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mediterranean_and_Middle_East">Mediterranean and Middle East</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Mediterranean and Middle East">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_and_Middle_East_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="Mediterranean and Middle East theatre of World War II">Mediterranean and Middle East Theatre</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Africa1940.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Africa1940.png/220px-Africa1940.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Africa1940.png/330px-Africa1940.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Africa1940.png/440px-Africa1940.png 2x" data-file-width="4200" data-file-height="2916" /></a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Africa in 1940</div></figcaption></figure> The British had based <a href="/wiki/History_of_Egypt_under_the_British" title="History of Egypt under the British">forces in Egypt</a> since 1882 but these were greatly reduced by the terms of the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Egyptian_Treaty_of_1936" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936">Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936</a>. A small British and <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations" title="Commonwealth of Nations">Commonwealth</a> force garrisoned the Suez Canal and the Red Sea route, which was vital to British communications with its Indian Ocean and Far Eastern territories. In mid-1939, General <a href="/wiki/Archibald_Wavell" class="mw-redirect" title="Archibald Wavell">Archibald Wavell</a> was appointed <a href="/wiki/General_Officer_Commanding-in-Chief" class="mw-redirect" title="General Officer Commanding-in-Chief">General Officer Commanding-in-Chief</a> (GOC-in-C) of the new Middle East Command, over the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean,_Middle_East_and_African_theatres_of_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean, Middle East and African theatres of World War II">Mediterranean and Middle East</a> theatres. Wavell was responsible for the defence of Egypt through the General Officer Commanding-in-Chief, British Troops Egypt, to train the <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Army" title="Egyptian Army">Egyptian Army</a> and co-ordinate military operations with the Commander-in-Chief Mediterranean, Admiral <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Cunningham,_1st_Viscount_Cunningham_of_Hyndhope" title="Andrew Cunningham, 1st Viscount Cunningham of Hyndhope">Andrew Cunningham</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Commander-in-Chief,_East_Indies" class="mw-redirect" title="Commander-in-Chief, East Indies">Commander-in-Chief, East Indies</a>, Vice-Admiral <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Leatham" title="Ralph Leatham">Ralph Leatham</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Commander-in-Chief_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Commander-in-Chief India">Commander-in-Chief India</a>, General <a href="/wiki/Robert_Cassels" title="Robert Cassels">Robert Cassels</a>, the Inspector General, African Colonial Forces, Major-General <a href="/wiki/Douglas_Dickinson" title="Douglas Dickinson">Douglas Dickinson</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Air_Officer_Commanding-in-Chief" class="mw-redirect" title="Air Officer Commanding-in-Chief">Air Officer Commanding-in-Chief</a> <a href="/wiki/RAF_Middle_East_Command" title="RAF Middle East Command">Middle East</a>, Air Chief Marshal <a href="/wiki/William_Mitchell_(RAF_officer)" title="William Mitchell (RAF officer)">William Mitchell</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERaugh199339–40-25">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[c]</a> (French divisions in <a href="/wiki/French_protectorate_of_Tunisia" title="French protectorate of Tunisia">Tunisia</a> faced the Italian <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Army_(Italy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fifth Army (Italy)">5th Army</a> on the western Libyan border, until the Franco-Axis <a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_22_June_1940" title="Armistice of 22 June 1940">Armistice of 22 June 1940</a>.) In Libya, the <a href="/wiki/Regio_Esercito_(World_War_II)" class="mw-redirect" title="Regio Esercito (World War II)">Regio Esercito Italiana</a> (Royal Italian Army) had about 215,000 men and in Egypt, the British had about 36,000 troops, with another 27,500 men training in Palestine.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair195919,_93-28">[25]</a> Wavell had about 86,000 troops at his disposal for Libya, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Iraq" title="Kingdom of Iraq">Iraq</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mandate_for_Syria_and_the_Lebanon" title="Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon">Syria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_Iran" title="Pahlavi Iran">Iran</a> and East Africa.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDear2005245-29">[26]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Middle_East_Command">Middle East Command</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Middle East Command">edit</a>]</div> Middle East Command was established before the war to control land operations and co-ordinate with the naval and air commands in the Mediterranean and Middle East. Wavell was allowed only five staff officers for plans and command of an area of 3,500,000 sq mi (9,100,000 km2).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERaugh199365-30">[27]</a> From 1940 to 1941, operations took place in the <a href="/wiki/Western_Desert_(Egypt)" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Desert (Egypt)">Western Desert</a> of Egypt, East Africa, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Greece" title="Kingdom of Greece">Greece</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>. In July 1939, Wavell devised a strategy to defend and then to dominate the Mediterranean as a base to attack <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Germany</a> through eastern and south-eastern Europe. The conquest of Italian East Africa came second only to the defence of Egypt and the Suez Canal. In August, Wavell ordered for plans to be made quickly to gain control of the Red Sea. He specified a concept of offensive operations from <a href="/wiki/Djibouti_City" title="Djibouti City">Djibouti</a> to <a href="/wiki/Harar" title="Harar">Harar</a> and then Addis Ababa or <a href="/wiki/Kassala" title="Kassala">Kassala</a> to <a href="/wiki/Asmara" title="Asmara">Asmara</a> then Massawa, preferably on both lines simultaneously. Wavell reconnoitred East Africa in January 1940 and the theatre was formally added to his responsibilities. He expected that the Somalilands could be defended with minor reinforcement. If Italy joined the war, Ethiopia would be invaded as soon as there were sufficient troops. Wavell also co-ordinated plans with South Africa in March. On 1 May 1940, Wavell ordered British Troops Egypt to mobilise discreetly for military operations in western Egypt but after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_France" title="Battle of France">June debacle in France</a>, Wavell had to follow a defensive strategy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERaugh1993169–170,_67-31">[28]</a> After Italian operations in Sudan at Kassala and Gallabat in June, <a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a> blamed Wavell for a "static policy". <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Eden" title="Anthony Eden">Anthony Eden</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_War" title="Secretary of State for War">Secretary of State for War</a>, communicated to Wavell that an Italian advance towards <a href="/wiki/Khartoum" title="Khartoum">Khartoum</a> should be destroyed. Wavell replied that the Italian attacks were not serious but went to Sudan and Kenya to see for himself and met Ethiopian Emperor <a href="/wiki/Haile_Selassie" title="Haile Selassie">Haile Selassie</a> at Khartoum.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERaugh199367,_72–73-32">[29]</a> Eden convened a conference in Khartoum at the end of October 1940 with Selassie, South African Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Jan_Smuts" title="Jan Smuts">Jan Smuts</a> (an advisor to Churchill), Wavell, Lieutenant-General <a href="/wiki/William_Platt" title="William Platt">William Platt</a> and Lieutenant-General <a href="/wiki/Alan_Cunningham" title="Alan Cunningham">Alan Cunningham</a>. A plan to attack Ethiopia, including support for Ethiopian irregular forces, was agreed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDear2005245-29">[26]</a> In November 1940, the British gained an intelligence advantage when the <a href="/wiki/Government_Communications_Headquarters" class="mw-redirect" title="Government Communications Headquarters">Government Code and Cypher School</a> (GC & CS) at <a href="/wiki/Bletchley_Park" title="Bletchley Park">Bletchley Park</a> broke the high grade cypher of the Italian Army in East Africa. Later that month, the replacement cypher for the Regia Aeronautica was broken by the Combined Bureau, Middle East (CBME).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDear2005247-33">[30]</a> In September 1940, Wavell ordered the commanders in Sudan and Kenya to make limited attacks once the rainy season had ended. On the northern front, Platt was to attack <a href="/wiki/Gallabat" title="Gallabat">Gallabat</a> and the vicinity; on the southern front, Cunningham was to advance northwards from Kenya through Italian Somaliland into Ethiopia. In early November 1940, Cunningham had taken over the <a href="/wiki/East_Africa_Command" title="East Africa Command">East African Force</a> from Dickinson, who was in poor health. While Platt advanced from the north and Cunningham from the south, Wavell planned for a third force to be landed in British Somaliland by amphibious assault to re-take the colony, prior to advancing into Ethiopia. The three forces were to rendezvous at Addis Ababa. The conquest of the AOI would remove the land threat to supplies and reinforcements coming from Australia, New Zealand, India, South Africa and British East Africa via the Suez Canal for the Western Desert campaign and re-open the land route from <a href="/wiki/Cape_Town" title="Cape Town">Cape Town</a> to <a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERaugh1993168–173-34">[31]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="East_Africa_Force">East Africa Force</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: East Africa Force">edit</a>]</div> On 10 June 1940, East Africa Force (Major-General Douglas Dickinson) was established for North-East Africa, East Africa and <a href="/wiki/British_Central_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="British Central Africa">British Central Africa</a>. In Sudan about 8,500 troops and 80 aircraft guarded a 1,200 mi (1,900 km) frontier with the AOI.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichards1974249–250-35">[32]</a> Platt had 21 companies (4,500 men) of the <a href="/wiki/Sudan_Defence_Force" title="Sudan Defence Force">Sudan Defence Force</a> (SDF) of which five (later six) were organised as motor machine-gun companies. There was no artillery, but the Sudan Horse was converting to a <a href="/wiki/3.7-inch_mountain_howitzer" class="mw-redirect" title="3.7-inch mountain howitzer">3.7-inch mountain howitzer</a> battery. The 1st Battalion <a href="/wiki/Worcestershire_Regiment" title="Worcestershire Regiment">Worcestershire Regiment</a>, 1st Battalion <a href="/wiki/Essex_Regiment" title="Essex Regiment">Essex Regiment</a> and the 2nd Battalion <a href="/wiki/West_Yorkshire_Regiment" title="West Yorkshire Regiment">West Yorkshire Regiment</a>, were, in mid-September, incorporated into the <a href="/wiki/29th_Indian_Infantry_Brigade" title="29th Indian Infantry Brigade">29th Indian Infantry Brigade</a>, <a href="/wiki/10th_Indian_Infantry_Brigade" title="10th Indian Infantry Brigade">10th Indian Infantry Brigade</a> and <a href="/wiki/9th_Indian_Infantry_Brigade" title="9th Indian Infantry Brigade">9th Indian Infantry Brigade</a> respectively of the <a href="/wiki/5th_Indian_Infantry_Division" class="mw-redirect" title="5th Indian Infantry Division">5th Indian Infantry Division</a> (Major-General <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Heath" title="Lewis Heath">Lewis Heath</a>) when it arrived.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackenzie195121,_30-36">[33]</a> The <a href="/wiki/4th_Indian_Infantry_Division" class="mw-redirect" title="4th Indian Infantry Division">4th Indian Infantry Division</a> (Major-General <a href="/wiki/Noel_Beresford-Peirse" title="Noel Beresford-Peirse">Noel Beresford-Peirse</a>) was transferred from Egypt in December.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair1959169,_265-37">[34]</a> The British had an assortment of armoured cars and B Squadron <a href="/wiki/4th_Royal_Tank_Regiment" title="4th Royal Tank Regiment">4th Royal Tank Regiment</a> (4th RTR) with <a href="/wiki/Matilda_II" title="Matilda II">Matilda</a> <a href="/wiki/Infantry_tank" title="Infantry tank">infantry tanks</a> joined the 4th Indian Division in January 1941.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair1959400-38">[35]</a> On the outbreak of hostilities, Lieutenant-Colonel <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Reginald_Chater" title="Arthur Reginald Chater">Arthur Reginald Chater</a> in British Somaliland had about 1,754 troops comprising the <a href="/wiki/Somaliland_Camel_Corps" title="Somaliland Camel Corps">Somaliland Camel Corps</a> (SCC) and a battalion of the 1st Battalion Northern Rhodesia Regiment. By August, the <a href="/wiki/2nd_Punjab_Regiment" title="2nd Punjab Regiment">1/2nd Punjab</a> and 3/5th Punjab regiments had been transferred from Aden and the 2nd Battalion of the <a href="/wiki/King%27s_African_Rifles" title="King's African Rifles">King's African Rifles</a> (KAR) with the 1st East African Light Battery (3.7-inch howitzers) came from Kenya, raising the total to 4,000 troops, in the first week of August. In the <a href="/wiki/Aden_Protectorate" title="Aden Protectorate">Aden Protectorate</a>, <a href="/wiki/British_Forces_Aden" title="British Forces Aden">British Forces Aden</a> (Air Vice-Marshal <a href="/wiki/George_Reid_(RAF_officer)" class="mw-redirect" title="George Reid (RAF officer)">George Reid</a>) had a garrison of the two Indian infantry battalions until they were transferred to British Somaliland in August.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair195994,_172-39">[36]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Ethiopia">edit</a>]</div> In August 1939, Wavell had ordered a covert plan to encourage the rebellion in the western Ethiopian province of <a href="/wiki/Gojjam" title="Gojjam">Gojjam</a>, which the Italians had never been able to repress. In September, Colonel <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Sandford_(soldier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Daniel Sandford (soldier)">Daniel Sandford</a> arrived to run the project, but until the Italian declaration of war, the conspiracy was held back by the government's policy of appeasement.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarker1971155-40">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-42">[d]</a> <a href="/wiki/Gideon_Force" title="Gideon Force">Mission 101</a> was formed to co-ordinate the activities of the Ethiopian resistance. In June 1940, Selassie arrived in Egypt and in July, went to Sudan to meet Platt and discuss plans to recapture Ethiopia, despite Platt's reservations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarker1971155-40">[37]</a> In July, the British recognised Selassie as emperor and in August, Mission 101 entered Gojjam province to reconnoitre. Sandford requested that supply routes be established before the rains ended, to the area north of <a href="/wiki/Lake_Tana" title="Lake Tana">Lake Tana</a> and that Selassie should return in October, as a catalyst for the uprising. Gaining control of Gojjam required the Italian garrisons to be isolated along the main road from <a href="/wiki/Bahir_Dar" title="Bahir Dar">Bahir Dar</a> Giorgis south of Lake Tana, to <a href="/wiki/Dangila" title="Dangila">Dangila</a>, <a href="/wiki/Debre_Markos" title="Debre Markos">Debre Markos</a> and Addis Ababa to prevent them concentrating against the <a href="/wiki/Arbegnoch" title="Arbegnoch">Arbegnoch</a> (<a href="/wiki/Amharic" title="Amharic">Amharic</a> for Patriots).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair1959403-43">[39]</a> Italian reinforcements arrived in October and patrolled more frequently, just as dissensions among local potentates were reconciled by Sandford's diplomacy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair1959403-43">[39]</a> The Frontier Battalion of the Sudan Defence Force, set up in May 1940, was joined at Khartoum by the 2nd Ethiopian and 4th Eritrean battalions, which were raised from émigré volunteers in Kenya. Operational Centres consisting of an officer, five NCOs and several picked Ethiopians were formed and trained in guerrilla warfare to provide leadership cadres and £1 million was set aside to finance operations. Major <a href="/wiki/Orde_Wingate" title="Orde Wingate">Orde Wingate</a> was sent to Khartoum with an assistant to join the headquarters of the SDF. On 20 November, Wingate was flown to Sakhala to meet Sandford, and the RAF managed to bomb Dangila, drop propaganda leaflets and supply Mission 101, which raised Ethiopian morale, which had suffered much from Italian air power since the Second Italo-Abyssinian War. Mission 101 managed to persuade the Arbegnoch north of Lake Tana to spring several ambushes on the Metemma–Gondar road, and the Italian garrison at <a href="/wiki/Wolkait" class="mw-redirect" title="Wolkait">Wolkait</a> was withdrawn in February 1941.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair1959404–405-44">[40]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Northern_front,_1940">Northern front, 1940</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Northern front, 1940">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="British_Somaliland_1940">British Somaliland 1940</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: British Somaliland 1940">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Italian_conquest_of_British_Somaliland" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian conquest of British Somaliland">Italian conquest of British Somaliland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Northern_front,_East_Africa,_1940" title="Northern front, East Africa, 1940">Northern front, East Africa, 1940</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Somaliland_Italian_invasion.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Somaliland_Italian_invasion.png/220px-Somaliland_Italian_invasion.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Somaliland_Italian_invasion.png/330px-Somaliland_Italian_invasion.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Somaliland_Italian_invasion.png/440px-Somaliland_Italian_invasion.png 2x" data-file-width="2965" data-file-height="1872" /></a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Italian invasion of British Somaliland August 1940</div></figcaption></figure> On 3 August 1940, the Italians invaded with two colonial brigades, four cavalry squadrons, 24 M11/39 medium tanks and L3/35 tankettes, several armoured cars, 21 howitzer batteries, pack artillery and air support.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackenzie195123Playfair1959170-45">[41]</a> The British had a garrison of two companies of the Sudan Defence Force, two motor machine-gun companies and a mounted infantry company. Kassala was bombed and then attacked, the British retiring slowly.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair1959170-46">[42]</a> On 4 August, the Italians advanced with a western column towards <a href="/wiki/Zeila" title="Zeila">Zeila</a>, a central column (Lieutenant-General Carlo De Simone) towards <a href="/wiki/Hargeisa" title="Hargeisa">Hargeisa</a> and an eastern column towards <a href="/wiki/Oodweyne" title="Oodweyne">Odweina</a> in the south. The SCC skirmished with the advancing Italians as the main British force slowly retired. On 5 August, the towns of Zeila and Hargeisa were captured, cutting off the British from French Somaliland. Odweina fell the following day and the Italian central and eastern columns joined. On 11 August, Major-General <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Reade_Godwin-Austen" class="mw-redirect" title="Alfred Reade Godwin-Austen">Alfred Reade Godwin-Austen</a> was diverted to <a href="/wiki/Berbera" title="Berbera">Berbera</a>, en route to Kenya to take command as reinforcements increased the British garrison to five battalions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair1959174–175-47">[43]</a> (From 5 to 19 August, RAF squadrons based at <a href="/wiki/Aden" title="Aden">Aden</a> flew 184 sorties, dropped 60 long tons (61 t) of bombs, lost seven aircraft destroyed and ten damaged.)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShores199654-48">[44]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Battle_of_Tug_Argan">Battle of Tug Argan</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Battle of Tug Argan">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Indian_soldiers_at_a_shore_posts_in_Berbera_-_August_1940.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Indian_soldiers_at_a_shore_posts_in_Berbera_-_August_1940.jpg/220px-Indian_soldiers_at_a_shore_posts_in_Berbera_-_August_1940.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Indian_soldiers_at_a_shore_posts_in_Berbera_-_August_1940.jpg/330px-Indian_soldiers_at_a_shore_posts_in_Berbera_-_August_1940.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Indian_soldiers_at_a_shore_posts_in_Berbera_-_August_1940.jpg/440px-Indian_soldiers_at_a_shore_posts_in_Berbera_-_August_1940.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="484" /></a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Indian soldiers at a shore post in <a href="/wiki/Berbera" title="Berbera">Berbera</a>, August 1940.</div></figcaption></figure> On 11 August, the Italians began the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tug_Argan" title="Battle of Tug Argan">Battle of Tug Argan</a> (tug, a dry, sandy riverbed), where the road from Hargeisa crosses the Assa hills and by 14 August, the British were at risk of defeat in detail by the larger Italian force and its greater quantity of artillery. Close to being cut off and with only one battalion left in reserve, Godwin-Austen contacted <a href="/wiki/Henry_Maitland_Wilson" title="Henry Maitland Wilson">Henry Maitland Wilson</a>, commander of the <a href="/wiki/British_Troops_in_Egypt" title="British Troops in Egypt">British Troops in Egypt</a> in Cairo (Wavell was in London) and received permission to withdraw from the colony. The 2nd Battalion, <a href="/wiki/Black_Watch" title="Black Watch">Black Watch</a>, supported by two companies of the 2nd King's African Rifles and parties of the 1st/2nd Punjab Regiment covered the retreat of the British contingent to Berbera.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair1959172–177-49">[45]</a> By 2:00 p.m. on 18 August, most of the contingent had been evacuated to Aden but <a href="/wiki/HMAS_Hobart_(D63)" title="HMAS Hobart (D63)">HMAS Hobart</a> and the HQ stayed behind until morning before sailing and the Italians entered Berbera on the evening of 19 August.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair1959172–177-49">[45]</a> In the final four days, the RAF flew twelve reconnaissance and 19 reconnaissance-bombing sorties, with 72 attacks on Italian transport and troop columns; 36 fighter sorties were flown over Berbera.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShores199654-48">[44]</a> The British suffered casualties of 38 killed and 222 wounded; the Italians suffered 2,052 casualties; fuel and ammunition expenditure and wear and tear on vehicles was difficult to remedy, which forced the Italians to return to the defensive.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERaugh199382-50">[46]</a> Churchill criticised Wavell for abandoning the colony without enough fighting but Wavell called it a textbook withdrawal in the face of superior numbers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair1959178-51">[47]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anglo-Egyptian_Sudan">Anglo-Egyptian Sudan</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Anglo-Egyptian Sudan">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Northern_front,_East_Africa,_1940" title="Northern front, East Africa, 1940">Northern front, East Africa, 1940</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Amadeo_Aosta3rd_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Amadeo_Aosta3rd_01.jpg/170px-Amadeo_Aosta3rd_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="241" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Amadeo_Aosta3rd_01.jpg/255px-Amadeo_Aosta3rd_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/Amadeo_Aosta3rd_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="278" data-file-height="394" /></a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Prince Amedeo Duke of Aosta, Commander in Chief of Italian military forces in Eritrea, Ethiopia and Italian Somaliland</div></figcaption></figure> Anglo-Egyptian Sudan shared a 1,000 mi (1,600 km) border with the AOI and on 4 July 1940, was invaded by an Italian force of about 6,500 men from Eritrea, which advanced on a railway junction at Kassala. The Italians forced the British garrison of 320 men of the SDF and some local police to retire after inflicting casualties of 43 killed and 114 wounded for ten casualties of their own.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchreiberStegemannVogel2015262–263-52">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERaugh199372-53">[49]</a> The Italians also drove a platoon of No 3 Company, <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Arab_Corps" title="Eastern Arab Corps">Eastern Arab Corps</a> (EAC) of the SDF, from the small fort at Gallabat, just over the border from <a href="/wiki/Metemma" title="Metemma">Metemma</a>, about 200 mi (320 km) south of Kassala and took the villages of <a href="/wiki/Qays%C4%81n,_Q%C4%93ssan" title="Qaysān, Qēssan">Qaysān</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kurmuk" title="Kurmuk">Kurmuk</a> and Dumbode on the <a href="/wiki/Blue_Nile" title="Blue Nile">Blue Nile</a>. From there the Italians ventured no further into Sudan owing to a lack of fuel and fortified Kassala with anti-tank defences, machine-gun posts and strongpoints, later establishing a brigade-strong garrison. The Italians were disappointed to find little anti-British sentiment among the Sudanese population.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchreiberStegemannVogel2015295Playfair1959170–171-54">[50]</a> The 5th Indian Division began to arrive in Sudan in early September 1940. The 29th Indian Infantry Brigade were placed on the Red Sea coast to protect <a href="/wiki/Port_Sudan" title="Port Sudan">Port Sudan</a>, the 9th Indian Infantry Brigade was based south-west of Kassala and the 10th Indian Infantry Brigade (<a href="/wiki/William_Slim" class="mw-redirect" title="William Slim">William Slim</a>) were sent to <a href="/wiki/Gedaref" class="mw-redirect" title="Gedaref">Gedaref</a>, with the divisional headquarters, to block an Italian attack on Khartoum from Goz Regeb to Gallabat, on a front of 200 mi (320 km). Gazelle Force (Colonel <a href="/wiki/Frank_Messervy" title="Frank Messervy">Frank Messervy</a>) was formed on 16 October, as a mobile unit to raid Italian territory and delay an Italian advance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrasad1963160Stewart2016151–152-55">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-57">[e]</a> Gallabat fort lay in Sudan and Metemma a short way across the Ethiopian border, beyond the Boundary Khor, a dry riverbed with steep banks covered by long grass. Both places were surrounded by field fortifications and Gallabat was held by a colonial infantry battalion. Metemma had two colonial battalions and a banda formation, all under the command of Lieutenant-Colonel Castagnola. The 10th Indian Infantry Brigade, a field artillery regiment and B Squadron, 6th RTR with seven Cruiser Mk I (A9) tanks and seven <a href="/wiki/Light_Tank_Mk_VI" class="mw-redirect" title="Light Tank Mk VI">Light Tank Mk VI</a>, attacked Gallabat on 6 November at 5:30 a.m.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown201717Hart1959293Lewin199065-58">[53]</a> An RAF contingent of six <a href="/wiki/Vickers_Wellesley" title="Vickers Wellesley">Wellesley</a> bombers and nine <a href="/wiki/Gloster_Gladiator" title="Gloster Gladiator">Gloster Gladiator</a> fighters, were thought sufficient to overcome the 17 Italian fighters and 32 bombers believed to be in range.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair1959398-59">[54]</a> The infantry assembled 1–2 mi (1.6–3.2 km) from Gallabat, whose garrison was unaware that an attack was coming, until the RAF bombed the fort and put the wireless out of action. The field artillery began a simultaneous bombardment; after an hour the gunners changed targets and bombarded Metemma. The previous night, the 4th Battalion <a href="/wiki/10th_Baluch_Regiment" title="10th Baluch Regiment">10th Baluch Regiment</a> occupied a hill overlooking the fort as a flank guard. The troops on the hill covered the advance at 6:40 a.m. of the <a href="/wiki/The_Garhwal_Rifles" class="mw-redirect" title="The Garhwal Rifles">3rd Royal Garwhal Rifles</a> followed by the tanks. The Indians reached Gallabat and fought hand-to-hand with the 65th Infantry Division "Granatieri di Savoia" and some Eritrean troops in the fort. At 8:00 a.m. the 25th and 77th Colonial battalions counter-attacked and were repulsed but three British tanks were knocked out by mines and six by mechanical failure caused by the rocky ground.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackenzie195133-60">[55]</a> The defenders at Boundary Khor were dug in behind fields of barbed wire and Castagnola had contacted Gondar for air support. Italian bombers and fighters attacked all day, shot down seven Gladiators for a loss of five <a href="/wiki/Fiat_CR-42" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiat CR-42">Fiat CR-42s</a> and destroyed the lorry carrying spare parts for the tanks. The ground was so hard and rocky that there were no trenches and when Italian bombers made their biggest attack, the infantry had no cover. An ammunition lorry was set on fire by burning grass and the sound was taken to be an Italian counter-attack from behind. When a platoon advanced towards the sound with fixed bayonets, some troops thought that they were retreating.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrett-James1951ch_2-61">[56]</a> Part of the 1st Battalion, Essex Regiment at the fort broke and ran, taking some of the Gahrwalis with them. Many of the British fugitives mounted their transport and drove off, spreading the panic and some of the runaways reached Doka before being stopped.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackenzie195133-60">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-62">[f]</a> The Italian bombers returned next morning and Slim ordered a withdrawal from Gallabat Ridge 3 mi (4.8 km) west to less exposed ground that evening. Sappers from the 21st Field Company remained behind to demolish the remaining buildings and stores in the fort. The artillery bombarded Gallabat and Metemma and set off Italian ammunition dumps full of pyrotechnics. British casualties since 6 November were 42 men killed and 125 wounded.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair1959399-63">[57]</a> The brigade patrolled to deny the fort to the Italians and on 9 November, two Baluch companies attacked and held the fort during the day and retired in the evening. During the night an Italian counter-attack was repulsed by artillery-fire and next morning the British re-occupied the fort unopposed. Ambushes were laid and prevented Italian reinforcements from occupying the fort or the hills on the flanks, despite frequent bombing by the Regia Aeronautica.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrett-James1951ch_2-61">[56]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Southern_front,_1940">Southern front, 1940</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Southern front, 1940">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="British_East_Africa_(Kenya)">British East Africa (Kenya)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: British East Africa (Kenya)">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Un-kenya.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Un-kenya.png/220px-Un-kenya.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="287" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Un-kenya.png/330px-Un-kenya.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Un-kenya.png/440px-Un-kenya.png 2x" data-file-width="2367" data-file-height="3092" /></a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Modern map of Kenya</div></figcaption></figure> On the Italian declaration of war on 10 June 1940, East Africa Force (Lieutenant-General Douglas Dickinson) comprised two East African brigades of the King's African Rifles organised as a Northern Brigade and a Southern Brigade with a reconnaissance regiment, a light artillery battery and the <a href="/wiki/22nd_Mountain_Battery" class="mw-redirect" title="22nd Mountain Battery">22nd Mountain Battery</a> <a href="/wiki/Royal_Indian_Artillery" title="Royal Indian Artillery">Royal Indian Artillery</a> (RIA). By March 1940, the KAR strength had reached 883 officers, 1,374 non-commissioned officers and 20,026 African other ranks.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMolloMcGregorTurner1981133-64">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-65">[g]</a> Wavell ordered Dickinson to defend <a href="/wiki/Kenya_Colony" title="Kenya Colony">Kenya</a> and to pin down as many Italian troops as possible. Dickinson planned to defend <a href="/wiki/Mombasa" title="Mombasa">Mombasa</a> with the 1st East African Infantry Brigade and to deny a crossing of the <a href="/wiki/Tana_River_(Kenya)" title="Tana River (Kenya)">Tana River</a> and the fresh water at Wajir with the 2nd East African Infantry Brigade.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair1959180-66">[59]</a> Detachments were to be placed at <a href="/wiki/Marsabit" title="Marsabit">Marsabit</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moyale" title="Moyale">Moyale</a> and at <a href="/wiki/Turkana_County" title="Turkana County">Turkana</a> near Lake Rudolf (now <a href="/wiki/Lake_Turkana" title="Lake Turkana">Lake Turkana</a>), an arc 850 mi (1,370 km) long. The Italians were thought to have troops at <a href="/wiki/Kismayo" title="Kismayo">Kismayo</a>, Mogadishu, <a href="/wiki/Dolo,_Ethiopia" title="Dolo, Ethiopia">Dolo</a>, Moyale and <a href="/wiki/Yabelo" title="Yabelo">Yavello</a>, which turned out to be colonial troops and bande, with two brigades at <a href="/wiki/Jimma" title="Jimma">Jimma</a>, ready to reinforce Moyale or attack Lake Rudolf and then invade <a href="/wiki/Protectorate_of_Uganda" title="Protectorate of Uganda">Uganda</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair1959180-66">[59]</a> By the end of July, the 3rd East African Infantry Brigade and the 6th East African Infantry Brigade had been formed. A Coastal Division and a Northern Frontier District Division had been planned but then the <a href="/wiki/11th_(African)_Division" class="mw-redirect" title="11th (African) Division">11th (African) Division</a> and the <a href="/wiki/2nd_(African)_Division_(United_Kingdom)" class="mw-redirect" title="2nd (African) Division (United Kingdom)">12th (African) Division</a> were created instead.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMolloMcGregorTurner1981133-64">[58]</a> On 1 June, the first South African unit arrived at the port of Mombasa in Kenya and by the end of July, the 1st South African Infantry Brigade Group had arrived. On 13 August, the <a href="/wiki/1st_South_African_Division" class="mw-redirect" title="1st South African Division">1st South African Division</a> was formed and by the end of 1940, about 27,000 South Africans were in East Africa, in the 1st South African Division, the 11th (African) Division and the 12th (African) Division. Each South African brigade group consisted of three rifle battalions, an armoured car company and signal, engineer and medical units.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMolloMcGregorTurner1981138–139-67">[60]</a> By July, under the terms of a war contingency plan, the <a href="/wiki/2nd_(West_Africa)_Infantry_Brigade" title="2nd (West Africa) Infantry Brigade">2nd (West Africa) Infantry Brigade</a>, from the <a href="/wiki/Gold_Coast_(British_colony)" title="Gold Coast (British colony)">Gold Coast</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ghana" title="Ghana">Ghana</a>) and the <a href="/wiki/1st_(West_Africa)_Infantry_Brigade" title="1st (West Africa) Infantry Brigade">1st (West Africa) Infantry Brigade</a> from <a href="/wiki/Colonial_Nigeria" title="Colonial Nigeria">Nigeria</a>, were provided for service in Kenya by the <a href="/wiki/Royal_West_African_Frontier_Force" title="Royal West African Frontier Force">Royal West African Frontier Force</a> (RWAFF). The 1st (West African) Brigade, the two KAR brigades and some South African units, formed the 11th (African) Division. The 12th (African) Division had a similar formation with the 2nd (West African) Brigade.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMolloMcGregorTurner1981133-64">[58]</a> At dawn on 17 June, the Rhodesians supported a raid by the SDF on the Italian desert outpost of <a href="/wiki/El_Wak,_Somalia" title="El Wak, Somalia">El Wak</a> in Italian Somaliland about 90 mi (140 km) north-east of Wajir. The Rhodesians bombed and burnt down thatched mud huts and generally harassed Italian troops. Since the main fighting at that time was against Italian advances towards Moyale in Kenya, the Rhodesians concentrated there. On 1 July, an Italian attack on the border town of Moyale, on the edge of the Ethiopian escarpment, where the tracks towards Wajir and Marsabit meet, was repulsed by a company of the 1st KAR and reinforcements were moved up. The Italians carried out a larger attack by about four battalions on 10 July, after a considerable artillery bombardment and after three days the British withdrew unopposed. The Italians eventually advanced to water holes at Dabel and <a href="/wiki/Buna,_Kenya" title="Buna, Kenya">Buna</a>, nearly 62 mi (100 km) inside Kenya but lack of supplies prevented a further advance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair1959180–181-68">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchreiberStegemannVogel2015295-69">[62]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Italian_strategy,_December_1940">Italian strategy, December 1940</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Italian strategy, December 1940">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Impero_italiano.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Impero_italiano.svg/220px-Impero_italiano.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Impero_italiano.svg/330px-Impero_italiano.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Impero_italiano.svg/440px-Impero_italiano.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="501" /></a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Impero italiano (red); the maximum extent of the Italian Empire shown in pink</div></figcaption></figure> After the conquest of British Somaliland the Italians adopted a more defensive posture. In late 1940, Italian forces suffered defeats in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Mediterranean" title="Battle of the Mediterranean">Mediterranean Campaign</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Operation_Compass" title="Operation Compass">Operation Compass</a> in the Western Desert, the <a href="/wiki/Corpo_Aereo_Italiano" title="Corpo Aereo Italiano">Battle of Britain</a> and in the <a href="/wiki/Greco-Italian_War" title="Greco-Italian War">Greco-Italian War</a>. This prompted General <a href="/wiki/Ugo_Cavallero" title="Ugo Cavallero">Ugo Cavallero</a>, the new Italian Chief of the <a href="/wiki/Chief_of_the_Defence_Staff_(Italy)" title="Chief of the Defence Staff (Italy)">Chief of the General Staff</a> in Rome, to adopt a new strategy in East Africa. In December 1940, Cavallero thought that Italian forces in East Africa should abandon offensive actions against the Sudan and the Suez Canal and concentrate on the defence of the AOI.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackenzie195142-70">[63]</a> After Cavallero and Aosta requested permission to withdraw from the Sudanese frontier, the army high command in Rome ordered Italian forces in East Africa to withdraw to better defensive positions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair1959394-71">[64]</a> Frusci was ordered to withdraw from Kassala and Metemma in the lowlands along the <a href="/wiki/Eritrea%E2%80%93Sudan_border" title="Eritrea–Sudan border">Eritrea–Sudan border</a> and hold the mountain passes on the Kassala–<a href="/wiki/Agordat" title="Agordat">Agordat</a> and Metemma–Gondar roads. Frusci chose not to withdraw from the lowlands, because withdrawal would involve too great a loss of prestige and because Kassala was an important railway junction; holding it prevented the British from using the railway to carry supplies from Port Sudan on the Red Sea coast to their base at Gedaref.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackenzie195142-70">[63]</a> Information on the Italian withdrawal plan was quickly decrypted by the British and Platt was able to begin his offensive into Eritrea on 18 January 1941, three weeks ahead of schedule.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDear2005247-33">[30]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="War_in_the_air">War in the air</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: War in the air">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hurricane.r4118.arp.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Hurricane.r4118.arp.jpg/220px-Hurricane.r4118.arp.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Hurricane.r4118.arp.jpg/330px-Hurricane.r4118.arp.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Hurricane.r4118.arp.jpg/440px-Hurricane.r4118.arp.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2200" data-file-height="1598" /></a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">A restored Hawker Hurricane Mk1 (r4118.arp)</div></figcaption></figure> In Sudan, the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Air_Force" title="Royal Air Force">Royal Air Force</a> (RAF) <a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_Headquarters_Sudan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Air Headquarters Sudan (page does not exist)">Air Headquarters Sudan</a> (Headquarters 203 Group from 17 August, <a href="/wiki/Air_Headquarters_East_Africa" title="Air Headquarters East Africa">Air Headquarters East Africa</a> from 19 October), subordinate to the AOC-in-C Middle East, had <a href="/wiki/No._14_Squadron_RAF" title="No. 14 Squadron RAF">14 Squadron</a>, <a href="/wiki/No._47_Squadron_RAF" title="No. 47 Squadron RAF">47 Squadron</a> and <a href="/wiki/No._223_Squadron_RAF" title="No. 223 Squadron RAF">223 Squadron</a> (Wellesley bombers).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichards1974409,_415-72">[65]</a> A flight of <a href="/wiki/Vickers_Vincent" class="mw-redirect" title="Vickers Vincent">Vincent</a> biplanes from 47 Squadron performed Army Co-operation duties and were later reinforced from Egypt by <a href="/wiki/No._45_Squadron_RAF" title="No. 45 Squadron RAF">45 squadron</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bristol_Blenheim" title="Bristol Blenheim">Blenheims</a>). Six Gladiator biplane fighters were based in Port Sudan for trade protection and anti-submarine patrols over the Red Sea, the air defence of Port Sudan, <a href="/wiki/Atbara" title="Atbara">Atbara</a> and Khartoum and for army support.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair195996,_169-73">[66]</a> In May, <a href="/wiki/1_Squadron_SAAF" title="1 Squadron SAAF">1 (Fighter) Squadron</a> <a href="/wiki/South_African_Air_Force" title="South African Air Force">South African Air Force</a> (SAAF) arrived, was transferred to Egypt to convert to Gladiators and returned to Khartoum in August.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair195996,_169-73">[66]</a> The SAAF in Kenya comprised <a href="/wiki/12_Squadron_SAAF" title="12 Squadron SAAF">12 Squadron</a> (<a href="/wiki/Junkers_Ju_86" title="Junkers Ju 86">Junkers Ju 86</a> bombers), <a href="/wiki/11_Squadron_SAAF" title="11 Squadron SAAF">11 Squadron</a> (<a href="/wiki/Fairey_Battle" title="Fairey Battle">Battle</a> bombers), <a href="/wiki/40_Squadron_SAAF" title="40 Squadron SAAF">40 Squadron</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hawker_Hart" title="Hawker Hart">Hart</a> light bombers), <a href="/wiki/2_Squadron_SAAF" title="2 Squadron SAAF">2 Squadron</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hawker_Fury" title="Hawker Fury">Fury</a> fighters) and <a href="/wiki/No._237_Squadron_RAF" title="No. 237 Squadron RAF">237 (Rhodesia) Squadron RAF</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hawker_Hardy" class="mw-redirect" title="Hawker Hardy">Hardy</a> general-purpose aircraft). Better aircraft became available later but the first aircraft were old and slow, the South Africans even pressing an old <a href="/wiki/Vickers_Type_264_Valentia" title="Vickers Type 264 Valentia">Valentia</a> biplane into service as a bomber.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShores199642–54-74">[67]</a> The South Africans faced experienced Italian pilots, including a <a href="/wiki/Cadre_(military)" title="Cadre (military)">cadre</a> of <a href="/wiki/Italian_military_intervention_in_Spain" title="Italian military intervention in Spain">Spanish Civil War</a> veterans. Despite its lack of experience, 1 Squadron claimed 48 enemy aircraft destroyed and 57 damaged in the skies over East Africa. A further 57 were claimed destroyed on the ground. all for the loss of six pilots. It is thought the unit was guilty of severe <a href="/w/index.php?title=Confirmation_and_over-claiming_of_aerial_victories_during_World_War_II&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Confirmation and over-claiming of aerial victories during World War II (page does not exist)">over-claiming</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoeman200231,_66-75">[68]</a> From November 1940 to early January 1941, Platt put pressure on the Italians along the <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia%E2%80%93Sudan_border" title="Ethiopia–Sudan border">Ethiopia–Sudan border</a> with patrols and raids by ground troops and aircraft. <a href="/wiki/Hawker_Hurricane" title="Hawker Hurricane">Hurricanes</a> and more Gladiators began to replace some of the older models. On 6 December, a large concentration of Italian motor transport was bombed and strafed by Commonwealth aircraft a few miles north of Kassala.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair1959169–170-76">[69]</a> The same aircraft then proceeded to machine-gun from low level the nearby positions of the Italian Blackshirts and colonial infantry. A few days later, the aircraft bombed the Italian base at <a href="/wiki/Keru" title="Keru">Keru</a>, fifty miles east of Kassala. The Commonwealth pilots had the satisfaction of seeing supply dumps, stores and transport enveloped in flame and smoke as they flew away. One morning in mid-December, a force of Italian fighters strafed a Rhodesian landing-strip at Wajir near Kassala, where two <a href="/wiki/Hawker_Hart#Hardy" title="Hawker Hart">Hardys</a> were caught on the ground and destroyed; 5,000 US gal (19,000 L; 4,200 imp gal) of fuel were set alight and four Africans were killed and eleven injured fighting the fire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair1959169–170-76">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrpen196820–21-77">[70]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="War_at_sea,_1940">War at sea, 1940</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: War at sea, 1940">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Red_Sea_topographic_map-en.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Red_Sea_topographic_map-en.jpg/220px-Red_Sea_topographic_map-en.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="360" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Red_Sea_topographic_map-en.jpg/330px-Red_Sea_topographic_map-en.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Red_Sea_topographic_map-en.jpg/440px-Red_Sea_topographic_map-en.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1655" data-file-height="2705" /></a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Red Sea topographic map (showing modern land borders)</div></figcaption></figure> The approaches to the Red Sea through the Gulf of Aden and the Bab-el-Mandeb (Gate of Tears Strait) is 15 nmi (28 km; 17 mi) wide. With the Italian declaration of war on 10 June and the loss of French naval support in the Mediterranean after the Armistice of 22 June, the 1,200 nmi (2,200 km; 1,400 mi)-long Red Sea passage to <a href="/wiki/Suez" title="Suez">Suez</a> became the main British sea route to the Middle East. South of Suez the British-held Port Sudan, about halfway down on the Sudan coast and the base at Aden, 100 nmi (190 km; 120 mi) east of <a href="/wiki/Bab-el-Mandeb" title="Bab-el-Mandeb">Bab-el-Mandeb</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabian Peninsula</a>. The principal Italian naval force (Contrammiraglio [Rear-Admiral] <a href="/wiki/Mario_Bonetti" title="Mario Bonetti">Mario Bonetti</a>) was based at Massawa in Eritrea, about 350 nmi (650 km; 400 mi) north of the Bab-el-Mandeb, well placed for the Red Sea Flotilla to attack Allied convoys.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Hara200999–100-78">[71]</a> British code-breakers of the <a href="/wiki/GCHQ" title="GCHQ">Government Code and Cypher School</a> (GC&CS) at Bletchley Park in England, deciphered Italian orders of 19 May, coded using <a href="/wiki/M-209" title="M-209">C38m</a> machines, secretly to mobilise the army and air force in East Africa. Merchant traffic was stopped by the British on 24 May, pending the introduction of a convoy system. The <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea_Force" class="mw-redirect" title="Red Sea Force">Red Sea Force</a> (Senior Naval Officer Red Sea, Rear-Admiral <a href="/w/index.php?title=Arthur_John_Layard_Murray_(Royal_Navy_officer)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arthur John Layard Murray (Royal Navy officer) (page does not exist)">Arthur Murray</a>), operational at Aden since April with the light cruisers <a href="/wiki/HMS_Liverpool_(C11)" title="HMS Liverpool (C11)">HMS Liverpool</a> and HMAS Hobart (Liverpool was replaced by <a href="/wiki/HMS_Leander" title="HMS Leander">HMS Leander</a>), was reinforced by the anti-aircraft cruiser <a href="/wiki/HMS_Carlisle_(D67)" title="HMS Carlisle (D67)">HMS Carlisle</a>, which sailed south with Convoy BS 4, the <a href="/w/index.php?title=28th_Destroyer_Flotilla&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="28th Destroyer Flotilla (page does not exist)">28th Destroyer Flotilla</a> comprising <a href="/wiki/HMS_Khartoum_(F45)" title="HMS Khartoum (F45)">HMS Khartoum</a>, Kimberley, <a href="/wiki/HMS_Kingston_(F64)" title="HMS Kingston (F64)">Kingston</a> and <a href="/wiki/HMS_Kandahar" title="HMS Kandahar">Kandahar</a> and three sloops from the Mediterranean. The force was to conduct a blockade Italian East Africa (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Operation_Begum&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Operation Begum (page does not exist)">Operation Begum</a>), attack the Red Sea Flotilla and protect the sea route from Aden to Suez.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Hara200999–100-78">[71]</a> On 6 June, the <a href="/wiki/Azio-class_minelayer" title="Azio-class minelayer">Azio-class minelayer</a> Ostia used 470 mines to lay eight barrages off Massawa and the destroyer Pantera dropped 110 mines in two barrages off Assab the day after. When Italy declared war on 10 June, Galileo Ferraris sailed for French Somaliland (Djibouti), Galileo Galilei to Aden, Galvani to the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Oman" title="Gulf of Oman">Gulf of Oman</a> and Mecallé to Port Sudan.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERohwerHümmelchen199222–23-79">[72]</a> On 14 June Torricelli put to sea to relieve Galileo Ferraris whose crew had been incapacitated by <a href="/wiki/Chloromethane" title="Chloromethane">chloromethane</a> poisoning from the refrigeration system.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Hara2009100–101-80">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-81">[h]</a> The crew of Macallé was also afflicted; the boat was run aground and lost on 15 June.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Hara2009100–101Waters195686-82">[74]</a> On 18 June, Galileo Galilei boarded and released the neutral Yugoslav steamship Dravo and the next day engaged the <a href="/wiki/Armed_trawler" class="mw-redirect" title="Armed trawler">armed trawler</a> <a href="/wiki/HMS_Moonstone_(T90)" title="HMS Moonstone (T90)">HMS Moonstone</a> off Aden. All but one officer was killed by shell-fire and Galileo Galilei was captured along with many documents including operational orders for four other Italian submarines.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Hara2009101Playfair1959111-83">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-85">[i]</a> Archimede, Perla and Guglielmotti sailed from 19 to 21 June. On 26 June, Guglielmotti ran onto a shoal and suffered severe damage; the wreck was salvaged later.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERohwerHümmelchen199222–23-79">[72]</a> Documents recovered from Galileo Galilei were used to intercept and damage Torricelli on 21 June. The submarine headed for home but was caught off <a href="/wiki/Perim" title="Perim">Perim</a> Island and sunk by Kandahar, Kingston, Khartoum and the <a href="/wiki/Shoreham-class_sloop" title="Shoreham-class sloop">sloop</a> <a href="/wiki/HMS_Shoreham_(L32)" title="HMS Shoreham (L32)">Shoreham</a>. Several hours afterwards, a torpedo on Khartoum, damaged by a shell from Torricelli, exploded and caused an uncontrollable fire. Khartoum tried to reach Perim Harbour about 7 nmi (13 km; 8.1 mi) distant but the crew and prisoners had to abandon ship; later a magazine explosion wrecked the vessel. The sloop Falmouth exploited the document find from Galileo Galilei to sink Galvani in the Gulf of Oman on 24 June.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Hara2009101–102-86">[77]</a> On 13 August, Galileo Ferraris made an abortive attempt to intercept the battleship <a href="/wiki/HMS_Royal_Sovereign_(05)" title="HMS Royal Sovereign (05)">HMS Royal Sovereign</a> en route from Suez to Aden.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoskill1957307–308-87">[78]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_Massawa.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Map_of_Massawa.png/220px-Map_of_Massawa.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Map_of_Massawa.png/330px-Map_of_Massawa.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Map_of_Massawa.png/440px-Map_of_Massawa.png 2x" data-file-width="597" data-file-height="479" /></a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Map of the Italian naval base at Massawa</div></figcaption></figure> From 13 to 19 August Kimberley and the sloop <a href="/wiki/HMS_Auckland_(L61)" title="HMS Auckland (L61)">HMS Auckland</a> bombarded Italian troops advancing west of Berbera in British Somaliland. Italian air raids on Berbera caused splinter damage to Hobart as it participated in the evacuation of Berbera with Carlisle, <a href="/wiki/HMS_Caledon_(D53)" title="HMS Caledon (D53)">Caledon</a> <a href="/wiki/HMS_Ceres_(D59)" title="HMS Ceres (D59)">Ceres</a>, Kandahar, Kimberley and the sloops Shoreham, <a href="/wiki/HMAS_Parramatta_(U44)" title="HMAS Parramatta (U44)">HMAS Parramatta</a>, Auckland, auxiliary cruisers Chakdina, Chantala and Laomédon, the transport <a href="/w/index.php?title=HMIS_Akbar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="HMIS Akbar (page does not exist)">HMIS Akbar</a> and the hospital ship <a href="/w/index.php?title=HMHS_Vita&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="HMHS Vita (page does not exist)">HMHS Vita</a>, lifting 5,960 troops, 1,266 civilians and 184 sick and wounded. On 18 November the cruiser <a href="/wiki/HMS_Dorsetshire_(40)" title="HMS Dorsetshire (40)">HMS Dorsetshire</a> bombarded Zante in Italian Somaliland<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERohwerHümmelchen199230,_42-88">[79]</a> British naval forces supported land operations and blockaded the remnants the Red Sea Flotilla at Massawa. By the end of 1940, the British had gained control of East African coastal routes and the Red Sea; Italian forces in the AOI declined as fuel, spare parts and supplies from Italy ran out. There were six Italian air attacks on convoys in October and none after 4 November.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoskill1957307–308,_248-89">[80]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Red_Sea_convoys">Red Sea convoys</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Red Sea convoys">edit</a>]</div> During 16 June 1940, Galileo Galilei sank the Norwegian tanker James Stove (8,215 <a href="/wiki/Gross_register_tons" class="mw-redirect" title="Gross register tons">gross register tons</a> [GRT]), sailing independently about 12 nmi (22 km; 14 mi) south of Aden. On 2 July the first of the BN convoys (Bombay Northward; Bombay to Suez, then Aden to Suez 1940–1941), comprising six tankers and three freighters, assembled in the Gulf of Aden.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Hara2009101-84">[76]</a> Italian sorties against the BN–BS convoys (Bombay Southward; Suez to Aden, late 1940 to early 1941) were dispiriting failures; from 26 to 31 July, Guglielmotti failed to find two Greek merchantmen and a sortie by the torpedo boats Cesare Battisti and Francesco Nullo was also abortive. Guglielmotti from 21 to 25 August, Galileo Ferraris (25–31 August), Francesco Nullo and Nazario Sauro from 24 to 25 August and the destroyers Pantera and Tigre (28–29 August) failed to find Greek ships in the Red Sea, despite agent reports and sightings by air reconnaissance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERohwerHümmelchen199229,_32-90">[81]</a> Italian aircraft and submarines had little more success.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Hara2009102-91">[82]</a> On the night of 5/6 September, Cesare Battisti, Daniele Manin and Nazario Sauro sailed, followed on 6/7 September by the destroyers Leone and Tigre to attack a northbound convoy (BN 4) found by air reconnaissance but found nothing. Further to the north, Galileo Ferraris and Guglielmotti also failed to find BN 4 but Guglielmotti torpedoed the Greek tanker Atlas (4,008 GRT) south of the <a href="/wiki/Farasan_Islands" title="Farasan Islands">Farasan Islands</a> straggling behind the convoy. Leone, Pantera, Cesare Battisti and Daniele Manin with the submarines Archimede and Gugliemotti failed to find a convoy of 23 ships spotted by air reconnaissance. Bhima (5,280 GRT) in convoy BN 5 was damaged by bombs and one man killed; the ship was towed to Aden and beached.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERohwerHümmelchen199233,_35-92">[83]</a> In August the British ran four convoys in each direction, five in September and seven in October, 86 ships in BN convoys and 72 in BS (southbound) convoys; the Regia Aeronautica managed only six air attacks in October and none after 4 November.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair1959248-93">[84]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Convoy_BN_7" title="Attack on Convoy BN 7">Attack on Convoy BN 7</a>, took place from 20 to 21 October and was the only destroyer attack on a convoy, despite gaining precise information on BN convoys as they passed French Somaliland.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair1959248-93">[84]</a> The 31 ships of BN 7 were escorted by the cruiser Leander, the destroyer <a href="/wiki/HMS_Kimberley_(F50)" title="HMS Kimberley (F50)">HMS Kimberley</a>, the sloops Auckland, <a href="/wiki/HMAS_Yarra_(U77)" title="HMAS Yarra (U77)">HMAS Yarra</a> and <a href="/wiki/HMIS_Indus_(U67)" title="HMIS Indus (U67)">HMIS Indus</a> with the minesweepers <a href="/wiki/HMS_Derby_(J90)" title="HMS Derby (J90)">Derby</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=HMS_Huntley&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="HMS Huntley (page does not exist)">Huntley</a>, with air cover from Aden.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERohwerHümmelchen199239-94">[85]</a> Guglielmo Marconi and Galileo Ferraris, stationed to the north, failed to intercept the convoy but on 21 October the destroyers Nazario Sauro and Francesco Nullo with the destroyers Pantera, Leone attacked the convoy 150 nmi (280 km; 170 mi) east of Massawa; the attackers caused only superficial damage to one ship.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGill1957227–228Playfair1959248-95">[86]</a> Kimberley forced Francesco Nullo aground on an island near Massawa, at the Action off <a href="/wiki/Harmil" title="Harmil">Harmil</a> Island on the morning of 21 October. Kimberley was hit in the engine room by a shore battery and had to be towed to Port Sudan by Leander. The wreck of Francesco Nullo was bombed on 21 October by three Blenheims of 45 Squadron.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGill1957227–228Playfair1959248-95">[86]</a> From 22 to 28 November, Archimede and Galileo Ferraris sailed to investigate reports of a convoy but found nothing, as did Tigre, Leone, Daniele Manin, Nazario Sauro and Galileo Ferraris from 3 to 5 December. From 12 to 22 December Archimede sailed twice after ship sightings but both sorties came to nothing; Galileo Ferraris sortied off Port Sudan.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERohwerHümmelchen199242,_44-96">[87]</a> from June to December the RAF had escorted 54 BN and BS convoys from which one ship was sunk and one damaged by Italian aircraft.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair1959249-97">[88]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="French_Somaliland_1940–1942">French Somaliland 1940–1942</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: French Somaliland 1940–1942">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/French_Somaliland_in_World_War_II" title="French Somaliland in World War II">French Somaliland in World War II</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:French_Somaliland_1922.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/French_Somaliland_1922.jpg/220px-French_Somaliland_1922.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/French_Somaliland_1922.jpg/330px-French_Somaliland_1922.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/French_Somaliland_1922.jpg/440px-French_Somaliland_1922.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1665" data-file-height="1081" /></a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Map of French Somaliland 1922</div></figcaption></figure> The governor of French Somaliland (now <a href="/wiki/Djibouti" title="Djibouti">Djibouti</a>), Brigadier-General <a href="/wiki/Paul_Legentilhomme" title="Paul Legentilhomme">Paul Legentilhomme</a> had a garrison of seven battalions of Senegalese and Somali infantry, three batteries of field guns, four batteries of anti-aircraft guns, a company of light tanks, four companies of militia and irregulars, two platoons of the camel corps and an assortment of aircraft. After visiting from 8 to 13 January 1940, Wavell decided that Legentilhomme would command the military forces in both Somalilands should war with Italy come.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERaugh199375–76-98">[89]</a> In June, an Italian force was assembled to capture the port city of <a href="/wiki/Djibouti_(city)" class="mw-redirect" title="Djibouti (city)">Djibouti</a>, the main military base.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair195989-99">[90]</a> After the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Fall of France">fall of France</a> in June, the neutralisation of <a href="/wiki/Vichy_French" class="mw-redirect" title="Vichy French">Vichy French</a> colonies allowed the Italians to concentrate on the more lightly defended British Somaliland.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMockler1984241-100">[91]</a> On 23 July, Legentilhomme was ousted by the pro-Vichy naval officer <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Nouailhetas" title="Pierre Nouailhetas">Pierre Nouailhetas</a> and left on 5 August for Aden, to join the <a href="/wiki/Free_French" class="mw-redirect" title="Free French">Free French</a>. In March 1941, the British enforcement of a strict contraband regime to prevent supplies being passed on to the Italians, lost its point after the conquest of the AOI. The British changed policy, with encouragement from the Free French, to "rally French Somaliland to the Allied cause without bloodshed". The Free French were to arrange a voluntary ralliement by propaganda (<a href="/wiki/Operation_Marie" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Marie">Operation Marie</a>) and the British were to blockade the colony.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair2004322–323-101">[92]</a> Wavell considered that if British pressure was applied, a rally would appear to have been coerced. Wavell preferred to let the propaganda continue and provided a small amount of supplies under strict control.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair2004323–324-102">[93]</a> When the policy had no effect, Wavell suggested negotiating with the Vichy governor Louis Nouailhetas, to use the port and <a href="/wiki/Ethio-Djibouti_Railways" title="Ethio-Djibouti Railways">railway</a>. The suggestion was accepted by the British government but because of the concessions granted to the Vichy regime in Syria, proposals were made to invade the colony instead. In June, Nouailhetas was given an ultimatum, the blockade was tightened and the Italian garrison at Assab was defeated by an operation from Aden. For six months, Nouailhetas remained willing to grant concessions over the port and railway but would not tolerate Free French interference. In October the blockade was reviewed but the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_War" title="Pacific War">war with Japan</a> in December, led to all but two blockade ships being withdrawn. On 2 January 1942, the Vichy government offered the use of the port and railway, subject to the lifting of the blockade but the British refused and ended the blockade unilaterally in March.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair2004323–324-102">[93]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Northern_front,_1941">Northern front, 1941</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Northern front, 1941">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Operation_Camilla">Operation Camilla</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Operation Camilla">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Indian_Troops_in_East_Africa,_1941_E2182.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Indian_Troops_in_East_Africa%2C_1941_E2182.jpg/220px-Indian_Troops_in_East_Africa%2C_1941_E2182.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Indian_Troops_in_East_Africa%2C_1941_E2182.jpg/330px-Indian_Troops_in_East_Africa%2C_1941_E2182.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Indian_Troops_in_East_Africa%2C_1941_E2182.jpg/440px-Indian_Troops_in_East_Africa%2C_1941_E2182.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="594" /></a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Indian troops clearing a village in <a href="/wiki/Eritrea" title="Eritrea">Eritrea</a>, 1941.</div></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Operation_Camilla" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Camilla">Operation Camilla</a> was a deception concocted by Lieutenant-Colonel <a href="/wiki/Dudley_Clarke" title="Dudley Clarke">Dudley Clarke</a> to deceive the Italians, making them believe that the British planned to re-conquer British Somaliland with the 4th and 5th Indian divisions, transferred from Egypt to Gedaref and Port Sudan. In December 1940, Clarke constructed a model operation for Italian military intelligence to discover and set up administration offices at Aden. Clarke arranged for the Italian defences around Berbera to be softened up by air and sea raids from Aden and distributed maps and pamphlets on the climate, geography and population of British Somaliland.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERankin2009316–317-103">[94]</a> "Sibs" (sibilare, hisses or whistles), were circulated among civilians in Egypt. Bogus information was planted on the Japanese consul at <a href="/wiki/Port_Said" title="Port Said">Port Said</a> and indiscreet wireless messages were transmitted. The operation began on 19 December 1940 to mature early in January 1941. The deception was a success but the plot backfired when the Italians began to evacuate British Somaliland instead of sending reinforcements. Troops were sent north into Eritrea, where the real attack was coming, instead of to the east. Part of the deception, with misleading wireless transmissions, did convince the Italians that two Australian divisions were in Kenya, which led the Italians to reinforce the wrong area.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERankin2009316–317-103">[94]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eritrea">Eritrea</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Eritrea">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_Eritrean_Campaign_1941-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Map_Eritrean_Campaign_1941-en.svg/220px-Map_Eritrean_Campaign_1941-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="303" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Map_Eritrean_Campaign_1941-en.svg/330px-Map_Eritrean_Campaign_1941-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Map_Eritrean_Campaign_1941-en.svg/440px-Map_Eritrean_Campaign_1941-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="674" data-file-height="929" /></a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Northern front: Allied advances in 1941</div></figcaption></figure> In November 1940, Gazelle Force operated from the <a href="/wiki/Mareb_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Mareb River">Gash river</a> delta against Italian advanced posts around Kassala on the Ethiopian plateau, where hill ranges from 2,000–3,000 ft (610–910 m) bound wide valleys and the rainfall makes the area <a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">malarial</a> from July to October.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERaugh1993172–174-104">[95]</a> On 11 December, Wavell ordered the 4th Indian Division to withdraw from Operation Compass in the Western Desert and move to Sudan. The transfer took until early January 1941 and Platt intended to begin the offensive on the northern front on 8 February, with a pincer attack on Kassala, by the 4th and 5th Indian divisions, less a brigade each.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair1959399–400-105">[96]</a> News of the Italian disaster in Egypt, the harassment by Gazelle Force and the activities of Mission 101 in Ethiopia, led to the Italians withdrawing their northern flank to Keru and Wachai and then on 18 January to retreat hurriedly from Kassala and <a href="/wiki/Tessenei" class="mw-redirect" title="Tessenei">Tessenei</a>, the triangle of Keru, <a href="/wiki/Giamal_Biscia" title="Giamal Biscia">Biscia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Haykota" title="Haykota">Aicota</a>. Wavell had ordered Platt to advance the offensive from March to 9 February and then to 19 January, when it seemed that Italian morale was crumbling.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERaugh1993172–174,_175-106">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-108">[j]</a> The withdrawal led Wavell to order a pursuit and the troops arriving at Port Sudan (Briggs Force) to attack at Karora and advance parallel to the coast, to meet the forces coming from the west.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERaugh1993172–174,_175Playfair1959399–400-109">[99]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Battle_of_Agordat,_Barentu">Battle of Agordat, Barentu</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Battle of Agordat, Barentu">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Agordat_(1941)" title="Battle of Agordat (1941)">Battle of Agordat</a></div> Two roads joined at Agordat and went through to <a href="/wiki/Keren,_Eritrea" title="Keren, Eritrea">Keren</a>, the only route to Asmara. The 4th Indian Division was sent 40 mi (64 km) along the road to Sabderat and Wachai, thence as far towards Keru as supplies allowed, with the Matilda Infantry tanks of B Squadron, 4th RTR to join from Egypt. The 5th Indian Division was to capture Aicota, ready to move east to <a href="/wiki/Barentu,_Eritrea" title="Barentu, Eritrea">Barentu</a> or north-east to Biscia. Apart from air attacks the pursuit was not opposed until Keru Gorge, held by a rearguard of the 41st Colonial Brigade. The brigade retreated on the night of 22/23 January, leaving General Ugo Fongoli, his staff and 800 men behind as prisoners.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair1959400–401-110">[100]</a> On 28 January, the 3/<a href="/wiki/14th_Punjab_Regiment" title="14th Punjab Regiment">14th Punjab Regiment</a> made a flanking move to Mt Cochen to the south and on 30 January, five Italian colonial battalions counter-attacked with mountain artillery support, forcing back the Indians.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair1959400–401-110">[100]</a> On the morning of 31 January the Indians attacked again and advanced towards the main road. The 5th Indian Brigade on the plain attacked with the Matildas, overran the Italians, knocked out several Italian tanks and cut the road to Keren. The 2nd Colonial Division retreated having lost 1,500 to 2,000 infantry, 28 field guns and several medium and light tanks. Barentu, held by nine battalions of the 2nd Colonial Division (about 8,000 men), 32 guns and about thirty-six dug in M11/39 tanks and armoured cars was attacked by 10th Indian Infantry Brigade from the north against a determined Italian defence, as the 29th Indian Infantry Brigade advanced from the west, slowed by demolitions and rearguards. On the night of 31 January/1 February, the Italians retreated along a track towards Tole and <a href="/wiki/Areza" title="Areza">Arresa</a> and on 8 February, abandoned vehicles were found by the pursuers. The Italians had taken to the hills, leaving the Tessenei–Agordat road open.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair1959400–401-110">[100]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Battle_of_Keren">Battle of Keren</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Battle of Keren">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Keren" title="Battle of Keren">Battle of Keren</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Keren_Battlefield_023.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Keren_Battlefield_023.jpg/220px-Keren_Battlefield_023.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Keren_Battlefield_023.jpg/330px-Keren_Battlefield_023.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Keren_Battlefield_023.jpg/440px-Keren_Battlefield_023.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="682" /></a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Modern photograph of the <a href="/wiki/Keren,_Eritrea" title="Keren, Eritrea">Keren</a> battlefield</div></figcaption></figure> On 12 January, Aosta had sent a regiment of the 65th Infantry Division "Granatieri di Savoia" (General Amedeo Liberati) and three colonial brigades to Keren.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair1959431-111">[101]</a> The 4th and 5th Indian Infantry Divisions advanced eastwards from Agordat into the rolling countryside, which gradually increased in elevation towards the Keren Plateau, through the Ascidira Valley. There was an escarpment on the left and a spur rising to 6,000 ft (1,800 m) on the right of the road and the Italians were dug in on heights which dominated the massifs, ravines and mountains. The defensive positions had been surveyed before the war and chosen as the main defensive position to guard Asmara and the Eritrean highlands from an invasion from Sudan. On 15 March, after several days of bombing, the 4th Indian Division attacked on the north and west side of the road to capture ground on the left flank, ready for the 5th Indian Division to attack on the east side.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair1959439-112">[102]</a> The Indians met a determined defence and made limited progress but during the night the 5th Indian Division captured Fort Dologorodoc, 1,475 ft (450 m) above the valley. The "Granatieri di Savoia" and "Alpini" counter-attacked Dologorodoc seven times from 18 to 22 March but the attacks were costly failures. Wavell flew to Keren to assess the situation and on 15 March, watched with Platt as the Indians made a frontal attack up the road, ignoring the high ground on either side and breaking through. Early on 27 March, Keren was captured after a battle lasting 53 days, for a British and Commonwealth loss of 536 men killed and 3,229 wounded; Italian losses were 3,000 Italian and 9,000 Ascari killed and about 21,000 wounded.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair1959439-112">[102]</a> The Italians conducted a fighting withdrawal under air attack to <a href="/wiki/Ad_Teclesan" class="mw-redirect" title="Ad Teclesan">Ad Teclesan</a>, in a narrow valley on the Keren–Asmara road, the last defensible position before Asmara. The defeat at Keren had shattered the morale of the Italian forces and when the British attacked early on 31 March, the position fell and 460 Italian prisoners and 67 guns were taken; Asmara was declared an open town the next day and the British entered unopposed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair1959441–442-113">[103]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Massawa">Massawa</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Massawa">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Italians_repairing_an_amoured_vehicle_in_East_Africa.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Italians_repairing_an_amoured_vehicle_in_East_Africa.jpg/220px-Italians_repairing_an_amoured_vehicle_in_East_Africa.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Italians_repairing_an_amoured_vehicle_in_East_Africa.jpg/330px-Italians_repairing_an_amoured_vehicle_in_East_Africa.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Italians_repairing_an_amoured_vehicle_in_East_Africa.jpg/440px-Italians_repairing_an_amoured_vehicle_in_East_Africa.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1254" data-file-height="1254" /></a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Italians in East Africa repairing an armoured car</div></figcaption></figure> Admiral Mario Bonetti, the commander of the Italian Red Sea Flotilla and the garrison at Massawa, had 10,000 troops and about 100 tanks to defend the port.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackenzie195166-114">[104]</a> During the evening of 31 March, three of the last six destroyers at Massawa put to sea to raid the Gulf of Suez and then scuttle themselves. Leone ran aground and sank the next morning; the sortie was postponed and on 2 April the last five destroyers left to attack Port Sudan and then sink themselves.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair1959441-115">[105]</a> Heath telephoned Bonetti with an ultimatum to surrender and not block the harbour by scuttling ships. If this was refused, the British would leave Italian citizens in Eritrea and Ethiopia to fend for themselves. The 7th Indian Infantry Brigade Group sent small forces towards <a href="/wiki/Adowa" class="mw-redirect" title="Adowa">Adowa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Adigrat" title="Adigrat">Adigrat</a> and the rest advanced down the Massawa road, which declined by 7,000 ft (2,100 m) in 50 mi (80 km). The Indians rendezvoused at Massawa with Briggs Force by 5 April, after it had cut across country.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair1959441–442-113">[103]</a> Bonetti was once again called upon to surrender but refused and on 8 April, an attack by the 7th Indian Infantry Brigade Group was repulsed by the Massawa garrison. A simultaneous attack on the west side by the 10th Indian Infantry Brigade and the tanks of B Squadron, 4th RTR, broke through. The Free French overran the defences in the south-west as the RAF bombed Italian artillery positions. In the afternoon, Bonetti surrendered and the Allied force took 9,590 prisoners and 127 guns. The harbour was found to have been blocked by the <a href="/wiki/Scuttling#Blockade_of_Massawa_(1941)" title="Scuttling">scuttling</a> of two large <a href="/wiki/Drydock#Floating" class="mw-redirect" title="Drydock">floating dry docks</a>, 16 large ships and a floating crane in the mouths of the north Naval Harbour, the central Commercial Harbour and the main South Harbour. The Italians had also dumped as much of their equipment as possible in the water. The British re-opened the <a href="/wiki/Eritrean_Railway" title="Eritrean Railway">Massawa–Asmara railway</a> on 27 April and by 1 May, the port had come into use to supply the 5th Indian Infantry Division.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair1959441–442-113">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-117">[k]</a> The Italian surrender ended organised resistance in Eritrea and fulfilled the British strategic objective of ending the threat to shipping in the Red Sea. On 11 April, the US President, <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a>, rescinded the status, under the <a href="/wiki/Neutrality_Acts_of_1930s" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutrality Acts of 1930s">Neutrality Acts</a>, of the Red Sea as a combat zone, freeing US ships to use the route to carry supplies to the Middle East.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERaugh1993181–182-118">[107]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Western_Ethiopia,_1941">Western Ethiopia, 1941</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Western Ethiopia, 1941">edit</a>]</div> Gideon Force was a small British and African special forces unit, which acted as a Corps d'Elite amongst the Sudan Defence Force, Ethiopian regular forces and Arbegnoch (Patriots). At its peak, Orde Wingate led fifty officers, twenty British NCOs, 800 trained Sudanese troops and 800 partially trained Ethiopian regulars. He had a few mortars, no artillery and no air support, only intermittent bombing sorties. The force operated in the difficult country of Gojjam Province at the end of a long and tenuous supply-line, on which nearly all of its 15,000 camels perished. Gideon Force and the Arbegnoch (Ethiopian Patriots) ejected the Italian forces under General <a href="/wiki/Guglielmo_Nasi" title="Guglielmo Nasi">Guglielmo Nasi</a>, the conqueror of British Somaliland in six weeks and captured 1,100 Italian and 14,500 Ethiopian troops, twelve guns, many machine-guns, rifles and ammunition and over 200 pack animals. Gideon Force was disbanded on 1 June 1941, Wingate was returned to his substantive rank of Major and returned to Egypt, as did many of the troops of Gideon Force, who joined the <a href="/wiki/Long_Range_Desert_Group" title="Long Range Desert Group">Long Range Desert Group</a> (LRDG) of the <a href="/wiki/Eighth_Army_(United_Kingdom)" title="Eighth Army (United Kingdom)">Eighth Army</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair1959406,_424–428,_449Rooney199472–73-119">[108]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Addis_Ababa">Addis Ababa</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Addis Ababa">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ethiopian_men_gather_in_Addis_Ababa,_heavily_armed_with_captured_Italian_weapons,_to_hear_the_proclamation_announcing_the_return_to_the_capital_of_the_Emperor_Haile_Selassie_in_May_1941._K325.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Ethiopian_men_gather_in_Addis_Ababa%2C_heavily_armed_with_captured_Italian_weapons%2C_to_hear_the_proclamation_announcing_the_return_to_the_capital_of_the_Emperor_Haile_Selassie_in_May_1941._K325.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Ethiopian_men_gather_in_Addis_Ababa%2C_heavily_armed_with_captured_Italian_weapons%2C_to_hear_the_proclamation_announcing_the_return_to_the_capital_of_the_Emperor_Haile_Selassie_in_May_1941._K325.jpg/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Ethiopian_men_gather_in_Addis_Ababa%2C_heavily_armed_with_captured_Italian_weapons%2C_to_hear_the_proclamation_announcing_the_return_to_the_capital_of_the_Emperor_Haile_Selassie_in_May_1941._K325.jpg/440px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2480" data-file-height="1568" /></a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Ethiopian men gather in Addis Ababa, heavily armed with captured Italian weapons, to hear the proclamation announcing the return to the capital of the Emperor <a href="/wiki/Haile_Selassie" title="Haile Selassie">Haile Selassie</a> in May 1941.</div></figcaption></figure> While Debre Markos and Addis Derra were being captured, other Ethiopian Patriots under Ras <a href="/wiki/Abebe_Aregai" title="Abebe Aregai">Abebe Aregai</a> consolidated themselves around Addis Ababa in preparation for Emperor Selassie's return. In response to the rapidly advancing British and Commonwealth forces and to the general uprising of Ethiopian Patriots, the Italians in Ethiopia retreated to the mountain fortresses of <a href="/wiki/Gondar" title="Gondar">Gondar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amba_Alagi" title="Amba Alagi">Amba Alagi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dessie" title="Dessie">Dessie</a> and Gimma.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarker1971156-120">[109]</a> After negotiations prompted by Wavell, Aosta ordered the governor, <a href="/wiki/Agenore_Frangipani" title="Agenore Frangipani">Agenore Frangipani</a>, to surrender the city to forestall a massacre of Italian civilians, as had occurred in <a href="/wiki/Dire_Dawa" title="Dire Dawa">Dire Dawa</a>. Ashamed of not being allowed by his superior to fight to the death in the old style, Frangipani killed himself with poison the next day.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair1959421–422-121">[110]</a> On 6 April 1941, Addis Ababa was occupied by <a href="/wiki/Harry_Wetherall" class="mw-redirect" title="Harry Wetherall">Harry Wetherall</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dan_Pienaar" title="Dan Pienaar">Dan Pienaar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Christopher_Fowkes" title="Charles Christopher Fowkes">Charles Christopher Fowkes</a> escorted by East African armoured cars, who received the surrender of the city.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair1959421–422-121">[110]</a> The Polizia dell'Africa Italiana (<a href="/wiki/Italian_Africa_Police" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Africa Police">Police of Italian Africa</a>) stayed in the city to maintain order. Selassie made a formal entry to the city on 5 May.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHammerton194186-122">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-123">[l]</a> On 13 April, Cunningham sent a force led by Pienaar comprising 1st South African Brigade and Campbell's Scouts (Ethiopian irregulars led by a British officer), to continue the northward advance and join with Platt's forces advancing south.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWavell1946a3,530-124">[112]</a> On 20 April, the South Africans captured Dessie on the main road north from Addis Ababa to Asmara, about 200 mi (320 km) south of Amba Alagi.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackenzie195168-125">[113]</a> In eight weeks the British had advanced 1,700 mi (2,700 km) from Tana to Mogadishu at a cost of 501 casualties and eight aircraft and had destroyed the bulk of the Italian air and land forces.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair1959422–423-126">[114]</a> From Debra Marqos, Wingate pursued the Italians and undertook a series of harrying actions. (In early May most of Gideon Force had to break off to provide a suitable escort for Hailie Selassie's formal entry into Addis Ababa.) By 18 May, Maraventano was dug in at Agibor, against a force of about 2,000 men, including only 160 trained soldiers (100 from the Frontier Battalion and 60 of the re-formed 2nd Ethiopian Battalion).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETAC194266-127">[115]</a> Both sides were short of food, ammunition, water and medical supplies; Wingate attempted a ruse by sending a message to Maraventano telling of reinforcements due to arrive and that the imminent withdrawal of British troops would leave the Italian column at the mercy of the Patriots. Maraventano discussed the situation with the Italian headquarters in Gondar on 21 May and was given discretion to surrender, which took place on 23 May by 1,100 Italian and 5,000 local troops, 2,000 women and children and 1,000 mule men and camp followers. Gideon Force was down to 36 regular soldiers to make the formal guard of honour at the surrender, the rest being Patriots.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERooney199470–71-128">[116]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Southern_front,_1941">Southern front, 1941</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Southern front, 1941">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Italian_Somaliland">Italian Somaliland</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Italian Somaliland">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Haile_Selassie,_Emperor_of_Abyssinia,_with_Brigadier_Daniel_Arthur_Sandford_(left)_and_Colonel_Wingate_(right)_in_Dambacha_Fort,_after_it_had_been_captured,_15_April_1941._E2462.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Haile_Selassie%2C_Emperor_of_Abyssinia%2C_with_Brigadier_Daniel_Arthur_Sandford_%28left%29_and_Colonel_Wingate_%28right%29_in_Dambacha_Fort%2C_after_it_had_been_captured%2C_15_April_1941._E2462.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="226" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Haile_Selassie%2C_Emperor_of_Abyssinia%2C_with_Brigadier_Daniel_Arthur_Sandford_%28left%29_and_Colonel_Wingate_%28right%29_in_Dambacha_Fort%2C_after_it_had_been_captured%2C_15_April_1941._E2462.jpg/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Haile_Selassie%2C_Emperor_of_Abyssinia%2C_with_Brigadier_Daniel_Arthur_Sandford_%28left%29_and_Colonel_Wingate_%28right%29_in_Dambacha_Fort%2C_after_it_had_been_captured%2C_15_April_1941._E2462.jpg/440px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="778" data-file-height="799" /></a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Haile Selassie (seated), with Brigadier Daniel Arthur Sandford (left) and Colonel Wingate (right) in Dambacha Fort, after its capture, 15 April 1941.</div></figcaption></figure> In January 1941, the Italians decided that the plains of Italian Somalia could not be defended. The <a href="/wiki/Italian_Somali_Divisions_(101_and_102)" title="Italian Somali Divisions (101 and 102)">102nd Divisione Somala</a> (General Adriano Santini) and bande (about 14,000 men) retired to the lower <a href="/wiki/Jubba_River" title="Jubba River">Jubba River</a> and the 101st Divisione Somala (General Italo Carnevali) and bande (about 6,000 men) to the upper Juba on the better defensive terrain of the mountains of Ethiopia. Cunningham encountered few Italians west of the Juba, only bande and a colonial battalion at <a href="/wiki/Afmadow" title="Afmadow">Afmadu</a> and troops at Kismayo, where the Juba River empties into the Indian Ocean.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair1959411-129">[117]</a> Against an expected six brigades and "six groups of native levies" holding the Juba for the Italians, Cunningham began Operation Canvas on 24 January, with four <a href="/wiki/Brigade_group" title="Brigade group">brigade groups</a> from the 11th (African) Division and the 12th (African) Division. Afmadu was captured on 11 February and three days later, the port of Kismayo the first objective was captured. North of Kismayo and beyond the river was the main Italian position at <a href="/wiki/Jilib" title="Jilib">Jelib</a>. On 22 February, Jelib was attacked on both flanks and from the rear. The Italians were routed and 30,000 were killed, captured or dispersed in the bush. There was nothing to hinder a British advance of 200 mi (320 km) to <a href="/wiki/Mogadishu_under_Italian_rule" class="mw-redirect" title="Mogadishu under Italian rule">Mogadishu</a>, the capital and main port of Italian Somaliland.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChurchill198575Playfair1959411–417-130">[118]</a> On 25 February 1941, the motorised <a href="/wiki/23rd_(Nigerian)_Brigade" class="mw-redirect" title="23rd (Nigerian) Brigade">23rd (Nigerian) Brigade</a> (11th (African) Division), which had advanced 235 mi (378 km) up the coast in three days, occupied the Somali capital of Mogadishu unopposed. The 12th (African) Division was ordered to advance on <a href="/wiki/Bardera" class="mw-redirect" title="Bardera">Bardera</a> and Isha <a href="/wiki/Baidoa" title="Baidoa">Baidoa</a> but was held up because of the difficulty in using Kismayo as a supply base. The division pushed up the Juba River in Italian Somaliland towards the Ethiopian border town of Dolo. After a pause, caused by the lack of equipment to sweep Mogadishu harbour of British magnetic mines dropped earlier, the 11th (African) Division began a fighting pursuit of the retreating Italian forces north from Mogadishu on 1 March. The division pursued the Italians towards the <a href="/wiki/Ogaden" title="Ogaden">Ogaden</a> Plateau. By 17 March, the 11th (African) Division completed a 17-day dash along the Italian Strada Imperiale (Imperial Road) from Mogadishu to <a href="/wiki/Jijiga" title="Jijiga">Jijiga</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Somali_Region" title="Somali Region">Somali Region</a> of Ethiopia. By early March Cunningham's forces had captured most of Italian Somaliland and were advancing through Ethiopia towards the ultimate objective, Addis Ababa. On 26 March, Harar was captured and 572 prisoners taken, with 13 guns, the 23rd (Nigerian) Brigade having advanced nearly 1,000 mi (1,600 km) in 32 days. (On 29 March, Dire Dawa was occupied by South African troops, after Italian colonists appealed for help against deserters, who were committing atrocities.)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair1959417–419-131">[119]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="British_Somaliland_1941">British Somaliland 1941</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: British Somaliland 1941">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Operation_Appearance" title="Operation Appearance">Operation Appearance</a></div> The operation to recapture British Somaliland began on 16 March 1941 from Aden, in the first successful Allied landing on a defended shore of the war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERohwerHümmelchen199254-132">[120]</a> The Aden Striking Force of about 3,000 men was to be carried about 140 mi (230 km) from Aden by eight navy ships and civilian transports carrying heavy equipment. The troops were to be put ashore onto beaches inside reefs to the east and west of Berbera to secure the town and re-conquer the territory. Some doubts were expressed as to the feasibility of negotiating offshore reefs in the dark, when the town behind was blacked out but the risk was taken. On 16 March about 10 mi (16 km) north of the town and 1,000 yd (910 m) off shore, the force prepared to land as advanced parties searched for landing places.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart2016138-133">[121]</a> The 1/2nd Punjab Regiment and <a href="/wiki/15th_Punjab_Regiment" title="15th Punjab Regiment">3/15th Punjab Regiment</a> <a href="/wiki/Indian_Army" title="Indian Army">Indian Army</a> (which had been evacuated from the port in August 1940) and a Somali commando detachment, landed at Berbera from Force D (the cruisers <a href="/wiki/HMS_Glasgow_(C21)" title="HMS Glasgow (C21)">HMS Glasgow</a> and Caledon, the destroyers Kandahar and Kipling, auxiliary cruisers Chakdina and Chantala, Indian trawlers Netavati and Parvati, two transports and ML 109).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERohwerHümmelchen199254-132">[120]</a> When the Sikhs landed, the 70th Colonial Brigade "melted away".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair1959417-134">[122]</a> On 20 March, Hargeisa was captured and the next few months were spent mopping up. The Somaliland Camel Corps was re-founded in mid-April, to resume operations against local bandits. British forces advanced westwards into eastern Ethiopia and in late March, linked with forces from the Southern Front around Harar and Dire Dawa. Cunningham's forces could now be supplied efficiently through Berbera.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair1959418–420-135">[123]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Amba_Alagi">Amba Alagi</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Amba Alagi">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Amba_Alagi_(1941)" title="Battle of Amba Alagi (1941)">Battle of Amba Alagi (1941)</a></div> After the fall of Keren, Aosta retreated to Amba Alagi, an 11,186 ft (3,409 m) mountain that had been tunnelled for strong points, artillery positions and stores, inside a ring of similarly fortified peaks. British troops advancing from the south had captured Addis Ababa on 6 April. Wavell imposed a policy of avoiding big operations in Eritrea and northern Ethiopia, that would impede the withdrawal of troops to Egypt. The remaining Italian troops were no threat to Sudan or Eritrea but could trouble the British hold on the AOI. The 1st South African Division was needed in Egypt and Cunningham was ordered to send it north to capture the main road to Massawa and Port Sudan so the ports could be used for embarkation. Amba Alagi obstructed the road north and the 5th Indian Division advanced from southwards as the South Africans moved northwards in a pincer movement. The main attack by the 5th Indian Division began on 4 May and made slow progress. On 10 May, the 1st South African Brigade arrived and completed the encirclement of the mountain. The Indian division attacked again on 13 May, with the South Africans attacking next day and forcing the Italians out of several defensive positions. Concerned about the care of his wounded and rumours of atrocities committed by the Arbegnoch, Aosta offered to surrender, provided that the Italians were granted the <a href="/wiki/Honours_of_war" title="Honours of war">honours of war</a>. On 19 May, Aosta and 5,000 Italian troops, marched past a guard of honour into captivity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERaugh1993182–183-136">[124]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Southern_Ethiopia">Southern Ethiopia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Southern Ethiopia">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HobokEastAfrica1941.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/HobokEastAfrica1941.JPG/220px-HobokEastAfrica1941.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/HobokEastAfrica1941.JPG/330px-HobokEastAfrica1941.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/HobokEastAfrica1941.JPG/440px-HobokEastAfrica1941.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2821" data-file-height="1828" /></a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Hobok Fort captured by 1st South African Infantry Division, February 1941.</div></figcaption></figure> The East Africa Force on the southern front included the 1st South African Division, the 11th (African) Division and the <a href="/wiki/2nd_(African)_Division" title="2nd (African) Division">12th (African) Division</a> (Major-General <a href="/wiki/Reade_Godwin-Austen" title="Reade Godwin-Austen">Reade Godwin-Austen</a>) (The African divisions were composed of East African, South African, Nigerian and Ghanaian troops with British, Rhodesian and South African officers.)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair1959181-137">[125]</a> In January 1941, Cunningham decided to launch his first attacks across the Kenyan border directly into southern Ethiopia. Although he realised that the approaching wet season would preclude a direct advance this way to Addis Ababa, he hoped that this action would cause the Ethiopians in the south of the country to rise up in rebellion against the Italians (the plot proved abortive).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair1959409-138">[126]</a> Cunningham sent the 1st South African Division (composed of the 2nd and 5th South African and 21st East African brigades) and an independent East African brigade into the <a href="/wiki/Galla-Sidamo_Governorate" title="Galla-Sidamo Governorate">Galla-Sidamo Governorate</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETAC194276–77-139">[127]</a> From 16 to 18 January 1941, they captured El Yibo and on 19 February, an advance force of the South African Division captured Jumbo.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair1959415-140">[128]</a> From 24 to 25 January, Cunningham's troops fought on the Turbi Road.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDear2005247-33">[30]</a> The southern Ethiopia attack was stopped in mid-February by heavy rain, which made movement and maintenance of the force very difficult. From 1 February, they captured Gorai and El Gumu. On 2 February, they took Hobok. From 8 to 9 February, Banno was captured. On 15 February, the fighting was on the Yavello Road. The two South African Brigades then launched a double flanking movement on <a href="/wiki/Mega,_Ethiopia" title="Mega, Ethiopia">Mega</a>. After a three-day battle in which many of the South Africans, equipped for tropical conditions, suffered from exposure because of the heavy rain and near freezing temperatures, they captured Mega on 18 February. Moyale, 70 mi (110 km) south-east of Mega on the border with Kenya, was occupied on 22 February by a patrol of Abyssinian irregular troops which had been attached to the South African Division.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair1959409-138">[126]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="War_at_sea,_1941">War at sea, 1941</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: War at sea, 1941">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Action_of_27_February_1941" title="Action of 27 February 1941">Action of 27 February 1941</a> and <a href="/wiki/Action_of_8_May_1941" title="Action of 8 May 1941">Action of 8 May 1941</a></div> The success of Operation Begum in gaining control of the seas off East Africa eased the supply of the British land forces; ships on passage to and from the Mediterranean supplemented the Red Sea Force ships in offshore operations. The German ship <a href="/wiki/MS_Tannenfels" title="MS Tannenfels">MS Tannenfels</a> sailed from Kismayo in Italian Somaliland on 31 January and rendezvoused from 14 to 17 February with the heavy cruiser <a href="/wiki/German_cruiser_Admiral_Scheer" title="German cruiser Admiral Scheer">Admiral Scheer</a>, the auxiliary cruiser Atlantis and three British ships taken as <a href="/wiki/Prize_(law)" title="Prize (law)">prizes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERohwerHümmelchen199251-141">[129]</a> The carrier <a href="/wiki/HMS_Formidable_(67)" title="HMS Formidable (67)">HMS Formidable</a>, en route to the Mediterranean to replace <a href="/wiki/HMS_Illustrious_(87)" title="HMS Illustrious (87)">HMS Illustrious</a>, formed Force K with the cruiser <a href="/wiki/HMS_Hawkins_(D86)" title="HMS Hawkins (D86)">Hawkins</a> and in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Operation_Breach&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Operation Breach (page does not exist)">Operation Breach</a> on 2 February 1941, dispatched <a href="/wiki/Fairey_Albacore" title="Fairey Albacore">Fairey Albacores</a> to mine Mogadishu harbour, bomb the ordnance depot, airfield, the railway station, petrol tanks at Ras Sip and the customs shed. The cruisers <a href="/wiki/HMS_Shropshire" title="HMS Shropshire">HMS Shropshire</a>, Ceres and <a href="/wiki/HMS_Colombo_(D89)" title="HMS Colombo (D89)">Colombo</a> blockaded Kismayo and in the Red Sea, Pantera, Tigre and Leone based at Massawa in Eritrea made another fruitless sortie.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollins196442Shores1996105RohwerHümmelchen199250–51-142">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-144">[m]</a> Leatham formed Force T with the carrier <a href="/wiki/HMS_Hermes_(95)" title="HMS Hermes (95)">HMS Hermes</a>, the cruisers Shropshire, Hawkins, <a href="/wiki/HMS_Capetown_(D88)" title="HMS Capetown (D88)">Capetown</a> and Ceres, with the destroyer Kandahar to support Operation Canvas, the invasion of Italian Somaliland from Kenya.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERohwerHümmelchen199251-141">[129]</a> About fifty Italian and German merchant ships had been stranded at Massawa and Kismayo on the outbreak of war and few were seaworthy by the time of the British invasion of the AOI but about twelve ships made the attempt.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBragadinFioravanzo195774-145">[132]</a> On the night of 10/11 February, eight Italian and two German ships sailed from Kismayo for Mogadishu or Diego Suarez (now <a href="/wiki/Antsiranana" title="Antsiranana">Antsiranana</a>) in Madagascar. Three Italian ships were scuttled in Kismayo on 12 February as British troops reached the vicinity of the port which was captured with the support of Shropshire two days later. Five of the Italian ships were spotted by aircraft from Hermes and captured by Hawkins, the German ship Uckermark was scuttled. The German Askari and Italian ship Pensilvania were seen off Mogadishu and destroyed by bombs and gunfire; two of the Italian ships reached Madagascar.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERohwerHümmelchen199251-141">[129]</a> While delayed by mines in the Suez canal, Formidable conducted <a href="/w/index.php?title=Operation_Composition&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Operation Composition (page does not exist)">Operation Composition</a> on the night of 12/13 February, sending 14 Albacores to attack Massawa, half with bombs, half with torpedoes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShores1996112-146">[133]</a> The attack was disorganised by low cloud, SS Monacalieri (5,723 GRT) was sunk but little more was achieved.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShores1996112-146">[133]</a> On 13 February, Hermes attacked Kismayo with <a href="/wiki/Fairey_Swordfish" title="Fairey Swordfish">Fairey Swordfish</a> aircraft and the cruiser Shropshire bombarded coastal defences, supply dumps and Italian troops. The Walrus aircraft on Shropshire attacked Brava and Italian bombers claimed a near miss on one of the British ships. When Kismayo was captured on 14 February, fifteen of the sixteen Axis merchant ships in the harbour were captured. In the Red Sea, the carrier Formidable conducted Composition while en route to Suez; its 14 FAA Albacores attacked Massawa on 13 February and sank the merchant ship Moncaliere (5,723 GRT) and inflicted slight damage on other ships<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShores1996113Roskill1957426RohwerHümmelchen199251-147">[134]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ramb1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Ramb1.jpg/220px-Ramb1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Ramb1.jpg/330px-Ramb1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Ramb1.jpg/440px-Ramb1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="595" data-file-height="424" /></a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><a href="/wiki/Italian_ship_Ramb_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian ship Ramb I">Italian ship Ramb I</a> sinking, 1941</div></figcaption></figure> The colonial ship <a href="/wiki/Italian_sloop_Eritrea" title="Italian sloop Eritrea">Eritrea</a> escaped from Massawa on 18 February and on 21 February, Formidable sent seven Albacores to dive-bomb the harbour; four were hit by anti-aircraft fire but all returned.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShores1996117-148">[135]</a> During the night the auxiliary cruiser <a href="/wiki/Italian_auxiliary_cruiser_Ramb_I" title="Italian auxiliary cruiser Ramb I">Ramb I</a> (3,667 GRT) and the German Coburg (7,400 GRT) departed, followed by <a href="/wiki/Italian_auxiliary_cruiser_Ramb_II" title="Italian auxiliary cruiser Ramb II">Ramb II</a> on 22 February. On 27 February, Ramb I was caught by Leander sunk north of the <a href="/wiki/Maldive_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Maldive Islands">Maldive Islands</a>; Eritrea and Ramb II escaped and reached <a href="/wiki/Kobe" title="Kobe">Kobe</a>, Japan.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoskill1957387Waters195698,_96-149">[136]</a><a href="#cite_note-151">[n]</a> On 25 February, Mogadishu fell and British merchant sailors, taken prisoner by German commerce-raiders, were liberated.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoskill1957426-152">[138]</a> On 1 March, five Albacores from Formidable flying from a landing ground at Mersa Taclai raided Massawa again but caused little damage.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShores1996120-153">[139]</a> MS Himalaya (6,240 GRT) departed on 1 March and reached <a href="/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro" title="Rio de Janeiro">Rio de Janeiro</a> on 4 April. On 4 March Coburg, with a captured tanker, Ketty Brovig (7,031 GRT) were spotted by an aircraft flown from Canberra south-east of the Seychelles; when Canberra and Leander approached, the Axis crews scuttled their ships.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERohwerHümmelchen199251-141">[129]</a> From 1 to 4 March, the submarines Guglielmo Marconi, Galileo Ferraris, Perla and Archimede sailed from Massawa for <a href="/wiki/BETASOM" title="BETASOM">BETASOM</a>, an Italian submarine flotilla operating in the Atlantic at <a href="/wiki/Bordeaux" title="Bordeaux">Bordeaux</a>. The boats arrived from 7 to 20 May, after taking on supplies from German commerce raiders in the South Atlantic. On 16 March Force D from Aden conducted Operation Appearance, a landing at Berbera, the beginning of the re-conquest of British Somaliland. The Axis ships Oder (8,516 GRT) and India (6,366 GRT) sailed from Massawa on 23 March but Shoreham caught up with Oder at the <a href="/wiki/Straits_of_Perim" class="mw-redirect" title="Straits of Perim">Straits of Perim</a>, the western channel of the Bab-el-Mandeb and the crew scuttled the ship; India took refuge in Assab. Bertrand Rickmers (4,188 GRT) tried to break out on 29 March but was intercepted by Kandahar and scuttled; Piave set out on 30 March but only got as far as Assab.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERohwerHümmelchen199251,_53,_55-154">[140]</a> On 31 March, three of the Italian destroyers at Massawa sortied against shipping in the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Suez" title="Gulf of Suez">Gulf of Suez</a>. Leone ran aground outside Massawa and had to be sunk, after which the sortie was abandoned. <a href="/wiki/SS_Lichtenfels" title="SS Lichtenfels">SS Lichtenfels</a> departed on 1 April but was forced to turn back. On 2 April, the five remaining Italian destroyers were due to attack the fuel tanks at Port Sudan and then scuttle themselves but RAF reconnaissance aircraft from Aden spotted the ships.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShores1996138–139-155">[141]</a> While <a href="/wiki/HMS_Eagle_(1918)" title="HMS Eagle (1918)">HMS Eagle</a> was waiting to pass from the Mediterranean to the Indian Ocean, <a href="/wiki/813_Naval_Air_Squadron" title="813 Naval Air Squadron">813 Naval Air Squadron</a> and <a href="/wiki/824_Naval_Air_Squadron" title="824 Naval Air Squadron">824 Naval Air Squadron</a>, with 17 Swordfish torpedo bombers, were flown to Port Sudan.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShores1996138–139-155">[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-157">[o]</a> On 2 April two Swordfish bombed a freighter at <a href="/wiki/Merca" title="Merca">Merca</a> and at dawn on 3 April, Operation Atmosphere began with a search by six of the Swordfish at 4:30 a.m. At 5:11 a.m. another Swordfish spotted four Italian destroyers 20 nmi (23 mi; 37 km) east of Port Sudan. Three of the Swordfish on patrol were called in and the four aircraft bombed, achieving several near misses with 250 lb (110 kg) bombs. One Swordfish remained to shadow the ships as the others returned to rearm and at 8:13 a.m. seven Swordfish attacked, one aircraft from the rear and one from each side of each target. Nazario Sauro was hit by all six bombs from one Swordfish and quickly sank; casualties were caused to the other three ships by near-misses.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShores1996138–139-155">[141]</a> Five Blenheims of 14 Squadron RAF arrived in time to see Nazario Sauro hit and attacked a stationary destroyer and reported that its crew abandoned ship, that it was set on fire, exploded and sank but Cesare Battisti was later found beached on the Arabian coast.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShores1996139-158">[143]</a> At 10:10 a.m. another four Swordfish found the Italian destroyers 100 nmi (120 mi; 190 km) distant. Daniele Manin was hit amidships by two bombs and the crew abandoned ship; three Swordfish obtained near misses. The last two destroyers were shadowed until they were out of range. Pantera and Tigre were found 12 nmi (14 mi; 22 km) south of <a href="/wiki/Jeddah" title="Jeddah">Jeddah</a> where they were being abandoned. Blenheims of 14 Squadron and Wellesleys of 223 Squadron from Port Sudan claimed hits on both ships, one catching fire but hit nothing; the destroyer Kingston destroyed the ships.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith200997-159">[144]</a><a href="#cite_note-160">[p]</a> Vincenzo Orsini which had run aground at Massawa managed to refloat and was scuttled in the harbour on 8 April after being bombed by the Swordfish of 813 NAS; the torpedo boat Giovanni Acerbi was also sunk by aircraft. On 7 April, before being scuttled, the antiquated <a href="/wiki/MAS_(motorboat)" title="MAS (motorboat)">MAS-213</a> (MAS, motor torpedo boat) a survivor of the Great War, torpedoed the cruiser Capetown as it escorted minesweepers off Massawa. Capetown was towed to Port Sudan, eventually to sail for Bombay where it was under repair for a year, then relegated to an accommodation ship.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShores1996140Playfair1959441-161">[145]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Hara2009111–112-162">[146]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Operations,_May–November_1941">Operations, May–November 1941</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Operations, May–November 1941">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Assab">Assab</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Assab">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Assab" title="Assab">Assab</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Force_Publique_trek_1941.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Force_Publique_trek_1941.jpg/220px-Force_Publique_trek_1941.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Force_Publique_trek_1941.jpg/330px-Force_Publique_trek_1941.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Force_Publique_trek_1941.jpg/440px-Force_Publique_trek_1941.jpg 2x" data-file-width="524" data-file-height="374" /></a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Map showing journey of Belgian forces from the Congo to Ethiopia</div></figcaption></figure> After the surrender by Aosta at Amba Alagi on 18 May 1941, some Italian forces held out at Assab, the last Italian harbour on the Red Sea.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJowett20017-163">[147]</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Operation_Chronometer&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Operation Chronometer (page does not exist)">Operation Chronometer</a> took place from 10 to 11 June, with a surprise landing at Assab by the 3/15th Punjab Regiment from Aden, carried by a flotilla comprising <a href="/wiki/HMS_Dido_(37)" title="HMS Dido (37)">HMS Dido</a>, Indus, <a href="/wiki/HMIS_Clive" title="HMIS Clive">Clive</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=HMS_Chakdina&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="HMS Chakdina (page does not exist)">Chakdina</a> and SS Tuna.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollins196463Roskill1957517-164">[148]</a> Dido bombarded the shore from 5:05–5:12 a.m.; aircraft flew overhead and bombed the port to drown the sound of two motor-boats carrying thirty soldiers each. At 5:19 a.m. the troops disembarked on the pier unopposed; two Italian generals, one being Generale di Brigata Area <a href="/wiki/Pietro_Piacentini" title="Pietro Piacentini">Pietro Piacentini</a>, the commander of Settore Nord, were taken prisoner in their beds and the success signal was fired at 6:00 a.m.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollins196464–65,_58–59Shores1996154-165">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-167">[q]</a> The flotilla entered the harbour behind a minesweeper and landed the rest of the Punjabis, who sent parties to search the islands nearby and found them to be unoccupied. At 7:00 a.m. the Civil Governor was taken to Dido and surrendered Assab to the Senior Officer Red Sea Force (Rear-Admiral <a href="/w/index.php?title=R._H._C._Halifax&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="R. H. C. Halifax (page does not exist)">Ronald Halifax</a>) and the army commander, Brigadier <a href="/wiki/Harry_Dimoline" title="Harry Dimoline">Harry Dimoline</a>. During the evening, Captain Bolla, the Senior Naval Officer at Assab, was captured. Bolla disclosed the positions of three minefields in the approaches to the harbour and told the British that the channel to the east, north of Ras Fatma, was clear. The 3/15th Punjabis took 547 prisoners in the operation along with the two generals and 35 Germans. On 13 June, the Indian trawler Parvati struck a magnetic mine near Assab and became the last naval casualty of the campaign.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollins196464–65,_58–59-168">[151]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kulkaber_(Culqualber)">Kulkaber (Culqualber)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Kulkaber (Culqualber)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Culqualber" title="Battle of Culqualber">Battle of Culqualber</a> and <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Sa%C3%AFo" title="Siege of Saïo">Siege of Saïo</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Force_Publique_leaving_for_Ethiopia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Force_Publique_leaving_for_Ethiopia.jpg/220px-Force_Publique_leaving_for_Ethiopia.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="97" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Force_Publique_leaving_for_Ethiopia.jpg/330px-Force_Publique_leaving_for_Ethiopia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Force_Publique_leaving_for_Ethiopia.jpg/440px-Force_Publique_leaving_for_Ethiopia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="635" data-file-height="279" /></a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><a href="/wiki/Force_Publique" title="Force Publique">Force Publique</a> soldiers leaving the Congo to participate in the East African campaign</div></figcaption></figure> A force under General <a href="/wiki/Pietro_Gazzera" title="Pietro Gazzera">Pietro Gazzera</a>, the Governor of Galla-Sidama and the new acting Viceroy and Governor-General of the AOI was faced with a growing irregular force of Arbegnoch and many local units melted away. On 21 June 1941, Gazzera abandoned Jimma and about 15,000 men surrendered. On 3 July, the Italians were cut off by the <a href="/wiki/Free_Belgian_forces" title="Free Belgian forces">Free Belgian forces</a> (Major-General <a href="/wiki/Auguste_Gilliaert" title="Auguste Gilliaert">Auguste Gilliaert</a>) who had defeated the Italians at <a href="/wiki/Asosa" title="Asosa">Asosa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sa%C3%AFo" class="mw-redirect" title="Saïo">Saïo</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeller2010117-169">[152]</a> On 6 July, Gazzera and 2,944 Italian, 1,535 African and 2,000 bande formally surrendered; the 79th Colonial Battalion changed sides and was renamed the 79th Foot as did a company of banda as the Wollo Banda.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair2004309–314Stewart2016217–219-170">[153]</a> <a href="/wiki/Uolchefit" title="Uolchefit">Uolchefit</a> Pass was a position whose control was needed to launch the final attack on Gondar, was defended by a garrison of about 4,000 men (Colonel Mario Gonella) in localities distributed in depth for about 3 mi (4.8 km). The stronghold had been besieged by irregular Ethiopian forces, led by Major B. J. Ringrose, since May and on 5 May the Italians retreated from Amba Giorgis. The besieging force was later augmented by the arrival of the 3/14th Punjab Battalion from the Indian Army and part of the 12th African Division. Several attacks, counter-attacks and sorties were launched between May and August 1941. On 28 September 1941, after losing 950 casualties and running out of provisions, Gonella surrendered with 1,629 Italian and 1,450 Ethiopian soldiers to the 25th East African Brigade (Brigadier W. A. L. James). Work began to repair the road to Gondar during the autumn rains.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair2004314–317-171">[154]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Battle_of_Gondar">Battle of Gondar</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Battle of Gondar">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gondar" title="Battle of Gondar">Battle of Gondar</a></div> Gondar, the capital of <a href="/wiki/Begemder" title="Begemder">Begemder</a> Province in north-west Ethiopia, was about 120 mi (190 km) west of Amba Alagi. After Gazzera surrendered, Nasi, the acting Governor of Amhara, became the new acting Viceroy and Governor-General of the AOI. At Gondar, Nasi faced the British and a growing number of Ethiopian Patriots but held out for almost seven months. While the Regia Aeronautica in East Africa had been worn down quickly by attrition, the Italian pilots fought on to the end.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMolloMcGregorTurner198191-172">[155]</a> After the death of his commander Tenente Malavolti on 31 October, Sergente Giuseppe Mottet became the last Italian fighter pilot in the AOI and on 20 November, flew the last Regia Aeronautica sortie, a ground-attack operation in the last CR.42 (MM4033) against British artillery positions at Culqualber. Mottet fired one burst and killed Lieutenant-Colonel Ormsby, the CRA.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair2004319-173">[156]</a> On landing, Mottet destroyed the CR.42, joined the Italian troops and fought on until the surrender.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGustavsson2014-174">[157]</a> On 27 November, Nasi surrendered with 10,000 Italian and 12,000 African troops, British losses being 32 men killed, 182 wounded, six men missing and 15 aircraft shot down since 7 April.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair2004321-175">[158]</a> In 1949, Maravigna recorded Italian casualties of 4,000 killed and 8,400 sick and wounded.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaravigna1949191-5">[5]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aftermath">Aftermath</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Aftermath">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Analysis">Analysis</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Analysis">edit</a>]</div> In 2016, Andrew Stewart wrote that due to the British defeats in <a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_Greece" title="German invasion of Greece">Greece</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Crete" title="Battle of Crete">Crete</a>, the East African campaign has been overshadowed, although it was the first victory for the Allies in the Second World War.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart2016ix-176">[159]</a> In 2004, the American historian <a href="/wiki/Douglas_Porch" title="Douglas Porch">Douglas Porch</a> wrote that the "pearl of the fascist regime" had lasted only five years, the performance of the Italian army exceeded that in North Africa but there had still been a high ratio of prisoners to casualties. Mass defections by local forces suggested that Fascist imperialism had made little impression on the East African public. The Italian navy at Massawa had shown a "stunning" lack of energy and failed to challenge British access to Mombasa and Port Sudan or the landing at Berbera. The army had failed to exploit British supply difficulties and had left stores behind for the British to use. The British had withdrawn the 4th Indian Division and RAF squadrons for North Africa in February 1941, despite the Italian forces remaining at Amba Alagi, which from 20 April to 15 May, were steadily pressed back until they surrendered on 19 May.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPorch2005137–138-177">[160]</a> Ethiopia, the Somalilands and Eritrea had been conquered by the British and the end of organised Italian resistance, led to the East Africa Force and Air Headquarters East Africa being reduced by the transfer of the South African and the two Indian divisions to Egypt, along with three fighter, three bomber and a reconnaissance squadron, followed by two more in late May. The 11th and 12th (African) divisions remained, supported by six RAF and SAAF squadrons.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair1959449–450-178">[161]</a> The Italians at Galla-Sidom and Gondar were mopped up and the final surrender was taken by the Belgian contingent from Congo. Mussolini blamed the disaster on the "deficiency of the Italian race" but the Fascist regime survived and the British victory had little influence on Japanese strategy in the Far East.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPorch2005137–138-177">[160]</a> With the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden cleared of <a href="/wiki/Axis_powers_of_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Axis powers of World War II">Axis</a> forces, President <a href="/wiki/Franklin_Roosevelt" class="mw-redirect" title="Franklin Roosevelt">Franklin Roosevelt</a> declared that the areas were no longer combat zones on 11 April 1941. Ships of the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> were able to proceed to the Suez Canal, which helped to relieve the strain on British shipping resources.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDear2005247-33">[30]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Signals_intelligence">Signals intelligence</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Signals intelligence">edit</a>]</div> The Italians had replaced their ciphers in the AOI in November 1940 but by the end of the month, the GC&CS in England and the Cipher Bureau Middle East (CBME) in Cairo had broken the new Regio Esercito and Regia Aeronautica ciphers. Sufficient low-grade ciphers had been broken to reveal the Italian order of battle and the supply situation when the British offensive began on 19 January 1941. Italian dependence on wireless communication, using frequencies which the British easily eavesdropped, led to a flood of information from the daily report from the Viceroy, to the operational plans of the Regia Aeronautica and Regia Esercito on the retreat from Keren.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinsley199464–65-107">[98]</a> On occasion, British commanders had messages before the recipients and it was reported later by the Deputy Director Military Intelligence in Cairo, that <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">...he could not believe that any army commander in the field had [ever] been better served by his intelligence....<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>DDMI (ME)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinsley199464–65-107">[98]</a></cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Casualties">Casualties</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Casualties">edit</a>]</div> On 16 April 1941, the authorities in the AOI signalled to Rome that 426 officers had been killed, 703 wounded and 315 captured, during military operations before the surrender. Casualties among NCOs and other ranks were 4,785 killed, 6,244 wounded and 15,871 captured (inclusive). Casualties among locally recruited soldiers were 11,755 dead, 18,151 wounded and 3,076 captured before the surrender; the Truppi coloniale figures did not include forces on the Giuba and eastern fronts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERovighi1988476-179">[162]</a> By May 1941, of the <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 350,000 men in the AOI available for military operations in June 1940, only the <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 80,000 men in the garrisons near Gondar and the seven colonial divisions in Galla-Sidamo remained to be taken prisoner.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair1959423,_447-180">[163]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair2004303-181">[164]</a> More casualties among the Italian and colonial troops occurred after April 1941, in the operations against Amba Alagi (3,500 casualties), Kulkaber/Culqualber (1,003 killed and 804 wounded) and Gondar (4,000 killed and 8,400 sick and wounded).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart2016187-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaravigna1949191-5">[5]</a> In 1959, I. S. O. Playfair, the British official historian, recorded that from June 1940 to May 1941, the East African Force had 1,154 battle casualties and 74,550 sickness or accident cases, including 10,000 dysentery and 10,000 malaria cases of which 744 were fatal. The RAF lost 138 aircraft and the Regia Aeronautica lost 250 of the 325 aeroplanes in the AOI when the war began and the 75 flown to the region during the campaign. The Belgian Force Publique suffered 462 fatalities from all causes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBIC194122-182">[165]</a> The South African contingent suffered 1,756 casualties from all causes in 1941.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaag2023616-183">[166]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Subsequent_operations">Subsequent operations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Subsequent operations">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Guerrilla_warfare">Guerrilla warfare</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Guerrilla warfare">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Italian_guerrilla_war_in_Ethiopia" title="Italian guerrilla war in Ethiopia">Italian guerrilla war in Ethiopia</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cartolina_Ritorneremo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Cartolina_Ritorneremo.jpg/170px-Cartolina_Ritorneremo.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="245" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Cartolina_Ritorneremo.jpg/255px-Cartolina_Ritorneremo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Cartolina_Ritorneremo.jpg/340px-Cartolina_Ritorneremo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="617" data-file-height="889" /></a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">1941 propaganda poster calling on Italians to avenge the defeat in East Africa</div></figcaption></figure> Until 27 November 1941, two African divisions mopped up pockets of resistance until the last formed Italian units surrendered.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERaugh1993183-184">[167]</a> From the end of 1941 to September 1943, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 7,000 men in scattered Italian units fought a guerrilla war from the deserts of Eritrea and Somalia to the forests and mountains of Ethiopia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECernuschi19945,_36-185">[168]</a> They supposedly did so in the hope of holding out until the Germans and Italians in Egypt (or even possibly the Japanese in India) intervened. <a href="/wiki/Amedeo_Guillet" title="Amedeo Guillet">Amedeo Guillet</a> was one of the Italian officers who fought with the Italian guerrillas in Ethiopia. Another notable guerrilla leader was <a href="/wiki/Hamid_Idris_Awate" title="Hamid Idris Awate">Hamid Idris Awate</a>, a father of the <a href="/wiki/Eritrean_Liberation_Front" title="Eritrean Liberation Front">Eritrean Liberation Front</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoselli200758-186">[169]</a> Other Italian officers were Captain <a href="/wiki/Francesco_De_Martini" title="Francesco De Martini">Francesco De Martini</a> in Eritrea, Colonel Calderari in western Ethiopia/Somalia, Colonel Di Marco in Ogaden/British Somaliland "blackshirt centurion" De Varda in Somalia/Ethiopia and Major Lucchetti in Ethiopia. Civilians participated and in August 1942, forces led by <a href="/wiki/Rosa_Dainelli" title="Rosa Dainelli">Rosa Dainelli</a> sabotaged the main British ammunition dump in Addis Ababa.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoselli200758-186">[169]</a> Hostilities in East Africa officially ceased on 9 September 1943, when the Italian government signed the Armistice of Cassibile. About 3,000 Italian soldiers remained at war until October 1943, unaware of the Armistice.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECernuschi199474-187">[170]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Woyane_rebellion" title="Woyane rebellion">Woyane Rebellion</a> was promoted by the Italian guerrillas, in early 1943 in <a href="/wiki/Tigray" class="mw-redirect" title="Tigray">Tigray</a> province, there were 20,000–30,000 rebels, hostile to Haile Selassie, against about 5,000 Ethiopian regulars, led by Blatta Haile Mariam Redda, a former Italian-appointed chika shum.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBerhe201188–92-188">[171]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Post-war">Post-war</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Post-war">edit</a>]</div> In January 1942, with the final official surrender of the Italians, the British, under American pressure, signed an interim <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Ethiopian_Agreement" title="Anglo-Ethiopian Agreement">Anglo-Ethiopian Agreement</a> with Selassie, acknowledging Ethiopian sovereignty. <a href="/wiki/Makonnen_Endelkachew" title="Makonnen Endelkachew">Makonnen Endelkachew</a> was named as Prime Minister and on 19 December 1944, the final Anglo-Ethiopian Agreement was signed. Eritrea was placed under British military administration for the duration and in 1952, it became part of Ethiopia. After 1945, Britain controlled both Somalilands, as <a href="/wiki/Protectorate" title="Protectorate">protectorates</a>. In November 1949, the United Nations granted Italy <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_trust_territories" title="United Nations trust territories">trusteeship</a> of Italian Somaliland under close supervision, on condition that Somalia achieve independence within ten years.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZolbergAguayoSuhrke1992106-189">[172]</a> British Somaliland became independent on 26 June 1960 as the <a href="/wiki/State_of_Somaliland" title="State of Somaliland">State of Somaliland</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Trust_Territory_of_Somalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Trust Territory of Somalia">Trust Territory of Somalia</a> (ex-Italian Somaliland) became independent on 1 July 1960 and the territories united as the <a href="/wiki/Somali_Republic" title="Somali Republic">Somali Republic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENEB2002835-190">[173]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Victoria_Cross">Victoria Cross</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Victoria Cross">edit</a>]</div> The following is a list of recipients of the Victoria Cross during this campaign: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Charles_Twelves_Wilson" title="Eric Charles Twelves Wilson">Eric Charles Twelves Wilson</a> (captain, Somaliland Camel Corps) – Received during the Italian invasion of British Somaliland.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair1959177-191">[174]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Premindra_Singh_Bhagat" title="Premindra Singh Bhagat">Premindra Singh Bhagat</a> (second lieutenant, Royal Bombay Sappers and Miners) – Received during fighting on the Northern Front.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair1959401-192">[175]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richhpal_Ram" title="Richhpal Ram">Richhpal Ram</a> (Subedar in 6th Rajputana Rifles) – Received posthumously during fighting on the Northern Front.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair1959435-193">[176]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigel_Leakey" title="Nigel Leakey">Nigel Leakey</a> (sergeant in the 1/6 Battalion King's African Rifles and cousin of the paleoanthropologist <a href="/wiki/Louis_Leakey" title="Louis Leakey">Louis Leakey</a>) – Received posthumously during fighting on the Southern Front.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair2004308-194">[177]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_British_military_equipment_of_World_War_II" title="List of British military equipment of World War II">List of British military equipment of World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Second_Italo-Ethiopian_War_weapons_of_Ethiopia" title="List of Second Italo-Ethiopian War weapons of Ethiopia">List of Second Italo-Ethiopian War weapons of Ethiopia</a> - Arbegnoch used Ethiopian and captured Italian weapons</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Belgian_military_equipment_of_World_War_II" title="List of Belgian military equipment of World War II">List of Belgian military equipment of World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_French_military_equipment_of_World_War_II" title="List of French military equipment of World War II">List of French military equipment of World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Italian_Army_equipment_in_World_War_II" title="List of Italian Army equipment in World War II">List of Italian Army equipment in World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_guerrilla_war_in_Ethiopia" title="Italian guerrilla war in Ethiopia">Italian guerrilla war in Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woyane_rebellion" title="Woyane rebellion">Woyane rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Empire" title="Italian Empire">Italian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_heads_of_Italian_East_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Colonial heads of Italian East Africa">Colonial heads of Italian East Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Ethiopia" title="Military history of Ethiopia">Military history of Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_production_during_World_War_II" title="Military production during World War II">Military production during World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Italy_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Italy during World War II">Military history of Italy during World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_African_campaign" title="North African campaign">North African campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Desert_campaign" title="Western Desert campaign">Western Desert campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syria-Lebanon_campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Syria-Lebanon campaign">Syria-Lebanon campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Africa_campaign_(World_War_II)" class="mw-redirect" title="West Africa campaign (World War II)">West Africa campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Madagascar" title="Battle of Madagascar">Battle of Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Motorized_Company" title="German Motorized Company">German Motorized Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MVSN_Colonial_Militia" class="mw-redirect" title="MVSN Colonial Militia">MVSN Colonial Militia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Irish_Regiment" class="mw-redirect" title="South African Irish Regiment">South African Irish Regiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/81st_(West_Africa)_Division" title="81st (West Africa) Division">81st (West Africa) Division</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/82nd_(West_Africa)_Division" title="82nd (West Africa) Division">82nd (West Africa) Division</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Corps_of_Colonial_Troops" title="Royal Corps of Colonial Troops">Royal Corps of Colonial Troops</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dubats" class="mw-redirect" title="Dubats">Dubats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zapti%C3%A9" title="Zaptié">Zaptié</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armoured_car_regiment" title="Armoured car regiment">Armoured car regiment</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-lower-alpha"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> 1,756 South African[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> Serviceable: thirty-five Ca.133, one SM.81, four SM.79, five CR.32, twelve CR.42 and two Ro.37, unserviceable: forty-eight Ca.133, sixteen SM.81, two SM.79, eleven CR.32, two CR.42 and two Ro.37.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESantoro1957146-17">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShores199611-18">[17]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> Wavell also had to liaise with the ambassadors to Egypt and Iraq, the Governor-General of Sudan, the High Commissioner for Palestine and Transjordan, the governors of Cyprus, Aden and British Somaliland and the <a href="/wiki/Political_Resident" title="Political Resident">Political Resident</a> in the Persian Gulf.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERaugh199339-26">[24]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> Sandford had 25 years' experience of Ethiopia and was a friend of Selassie.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERaugh1993170-41">[38]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <a href="/wiki/1st_Duke_of_York%27s_Own_Skinner%27s_Horse" class="mw-redirect" title="1st Duke of York's Own Skinner's Horse">1st Duke of York's Own Skinner's Horse</a> (the 5th Indian Division reconnaissance regiment), One Troop 'P' Battery RHA, One Troop 28 Field Regiment RA (<a href="/wiki/18-pounder" class="mw-redirect" title="18-pounder">18-pounder</a> field guns), 4 Ordnance Workshop Section, 170 Cavalry Field Ambulance (less detachment), 1 Motor Machine-Gun Group SDF (2, 4 and 6 Coys).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrasad1963160-56">[52]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> The battalion was eventually replaced by the 2nd <a href="/wiki/Highland_Light_Infantry" title="Highland Light Infantry">Highland Light Infantry</a> and fought in Syria and Iraq.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackenzie195133-60">[55]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> In 1938, the combined strength of both units had been 94 officers, 60 <a href="/wiki/Non-commissioned_officer" title="Non-commissioned officer">Non-commissioned officers</a> (NCOs) and 2,821 African other ranks. After the outbreak of the war in Europe, the units provided the nucleus for the rapid expansion of the KAR, the size of a KAR battalion was established at 36 officers, 44 NCOs and men, with 1,050 African other ranks.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMolloMcGregorTurner1981133-64">[58]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> Chloromethane was a cheaper substitute for <a href="/wiki/Freon" title="Freon">freon</a> which was tested under conditions found to be unrealistic once hostilities began.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Hara2009100–101-80">[73]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> Galileo Galilei was taken into British service as <a href="/wiki/Italian_submarine_Galileo_Galilei" title="Italian submarine Galileo Galilei">HMS X2</a> and used as a recharging unit for British submarine batteries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Hara2009101-84">[76]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> Wireless decrypts greatly aided British preparations and the decision to attack ahead of schedule.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinsley199464–65-107">[98]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> Edward Ellsberg later wrote that after arriving in April, with a salvage crew and specialist equipment, the United States Naval Repair Base, Massawa, opened on 8 May for repairs and maintenance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllsberg1946160-116">[106]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> Five years after fleeing on 5 May 1936 during the Second Italo-Abyssinian War. Since 1951, 5 May has been observed in Ethiopia as <a href="/wiki/Liberation_Day" title="Liberation Day">Liberation Day</a> - a national holiday.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHammerton194186-122">[111]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> Formidable carried 826 and 829 Naval Air Squadrons with 21 Albacores and 803 NAS with 12 Fairey Fulmar fighters. Apart from killing many Somali civilians, the bombers caused little damage; the mines dropped into the harbour caused a considerable nuisance after the port was captured.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShores1996105-143">[131]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> Ramb was an abbreviation of Roma Azienda Monopolio Banane (Rome Banana Monopoly Company).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrice198189-150">[137]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> A ship had exploded a mine and a channel had to be dredged around it for Eagle to pass.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith200985-156">[142]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a> A Wellesley made an emergency landing nearby and another landed to rescue the crew but could not take off. The rest of the Wellesleys landed and rescued both crews, the damaged aircraft being burned; Italian sailors from the ships were nearby but did not interfere.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShores1996139-158">[143]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a> Piacentini had flown a SM 79 on several sorties to guide CR 42s of 412° Squadriglia on strafing raids on British airfields.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShores1996154-166">[150]</a> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Footnotes">Footnotes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Footnotes">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrock_Katz201734-1"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrock_Katz201734_1-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrock_Katz2017">Brock Katz 2017</a>, p. 34. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMilkias201158–59_Better_source_needed-2"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMilkias201158–59_Better_source_needed_2-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMilkias2011">Milkias 2011</a>, pp. 58–59 Better source needed. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReybrouck2014132-3"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReybrouck2014132_3-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFReybrouck2014">Reybrouck 2014</a>, p. 132. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart2016187-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart2016187_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart2016187_4-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFStewart2016">Stewart 2016</a>, p. 187. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaravigna1949191-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaravigna1949191_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaravigna1949191_5-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaravigna1949191_5-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFMaravigna1949">Maravigna 1949</a>, p. 191. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair19592-7"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPlayfair19592_7-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPlayfair1959">Playfair 1959</a>, p. 2. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair19596–7,_69-8"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPlayfair19596–7,_69_8-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPlayfair1959">Playfair 1959</a>, pp. 6–7, 69. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair195938–40-9"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPlayfair195938–40_9-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPlayfair1959">Playfair 1959</a>, pp. 38–40. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair195993-10"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPlayfair195993_10-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPlayfair1959">Playfair 1959</a>, p. 93. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair1959166-11"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPlayfair1959166_11-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPlayfair1959">Playfair 1959</a>, p. 166. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart201655–56-12"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart201655–56_12-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStewart2016">Stewart 2016</a>, pp. 55–56. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchreiberStegemannVogel2015263-13"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchreiberStegemannVogel2015263_13-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchreiberStegemannVogel2015">Schreiber, Stegemann & Vogel 2015</a>, p. 263. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarino200931-14"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarino200931_14-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMarino2009">Marino 2009</a>, p. 31. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart201614-15"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart201614_15-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStewart2016">Stewart 2016</a>, p. 14. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMohrSellwood2009126-16"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMohrSellwood2009126_16-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMohrSellwood2009">Mohr & Sellwood 2009</a>, p. 126. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESantoro1957146-17">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESantoro1957146_17-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESantoro1957146_17-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESantoro1957146_17-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESantoro1957146_17-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFSantoro1957">Santoro 1957</a>, p. 146. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShores199611-18"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShores199611_18-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFShores1996">Shores 1996</a>, p. 11. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShores19967–8-20"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShores19967–8_20-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFShores1996">Shores 1996</a>, pp. 7–8. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShores19968–9-21"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShores19968–9_21-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFShores1996">Shores 1996</a>, pp. 8–9. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Hara2009279,_99-22"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Hara2009279,_99_22-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFO'Hara2009">O'Hara 2009</a>, pp. 279, 99. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Hara200999Roskill1957597,_49,_308,_426-23">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Hara200999Roskill1957597,_49,_308,_426_23-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Hara200999Roskill1957597,_49,_308,_426_23-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFO'Hara2009">O'Hara 2009</a>, p. 99; <a 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p. 140; <a href="#CITEREFPlayfair1959">Playfair 1959</a>, p. 441. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Hara2009111–112-162"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Hara2009111–112_162-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFO'Hara2009">O'Hara 2009</a>, pp. 111–112. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJowett20017-163"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJowett20017_163-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJowett2001">Jowett 2001</a>, p. 7. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECollins196463Roskill1957517-164"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECollins196463Roskill1957517_164-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCollins1964">Collins 1964</a>, p. 63; <a href="#CITEREFRoskill1957">Roskill 1957</a>, p. 517. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECollins196464–65,_58–59Shores1996154-165"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECollins196464–65,_58–59Shores1996154_165-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCollins1964">Collins 1964</a>, pp. 64–65, 58–59; <a href="#CITEREFShores1996">Shores 1996</a>, p. 154. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShores1996154-166"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShores1996154_166-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFShores1996">Shores 1996</a>, p. 154. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECollins196464–65,_58–59-168"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECollins196464–65,_58–59_168-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCollins1964">Collins 1964</a>, pp. 64–65, 58–59. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeller2010117-169"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeller2010117_169-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWeller2010">Weller 2010</a>, p. 117. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair2004309–314Stewart2016217–219-170"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPlayfair2004309–314Stewart2016217–219_170-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPlayfair2004">Playfair 2004</a>, pp. 309–314; <a href="#CITEREFStewart2016">Stewart 2016</a>, pp. 217–219. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair2004314–317-171"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPlayfair2004314–317_171-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPlayfair2004">Playfair 2004</a>, pp. 314–317. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMolloMcGregorTurner198191-172"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMolloMcGregorTurner198191_172-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMolloMcGregorTurner1981">Mollo, McGregor & Turner 1981</a>, p. 91. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair2004319-173"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPlayfair2004319_173-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPlayfair2004">Playfair 2004</a>, p. 319. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGustavsson2014-174"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGustavsson2014_174-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGustavsson2014">Gustavsson 2014</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlayfair2004321-175"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPlayfair2004321_175-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPlayfair2004">Playfair 2004</a>, p. 321. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart2016ix-176"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart2016ix_176-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStewart2016">Stewart 2016</a>, p. ix. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPorch2005137–138-177">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPorch2005137–138_177-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPorch2005137–138_177-1">b</a> <a 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class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Books">Books</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Books">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBarker1971" class="citation book cs1">Barker, A. J. (1971). Rape of Ethiopia, 1936. London: Ballantine Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-345-02462-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-345-02462-6"><bdi>978-0-345-02462-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rape+of+Ethiopia%2C+1936&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Ballantine+Books&rft.date=1971&rft.isbn=978-0-345-02462-6&rft.aulast=Barker&rft.aufirst=A.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBragadinFioravanzo1957" class="citation book cs1">Bragadin, M'A.; Fioravanzo, G. (1957). The Italian Navy in World War II. Translated by Hoffman, G. Annapolis, MD: United States Naval Institute. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/836272007">836272007</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Italian+Navy+in+World+War+II&rft.place=Annapolis%2C+MD&rft.pub=United+States+Naval+Institute&rft.date=1957&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F836272007&rft.aulast=Bragadin&rft.aufirst=M%27A.&rft.au=Fioravanzo%2C+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrett-James1951" class="citation book cs1">Brett-James, Antony (1951). Ball of Fire – The Fifth Indian Division in the Second World War. Aldershot: <a href="/wiki/Gale_%26_Polden" title="Gale & Polden">Gale & Polden</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/4275700">4275700</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ball+of+Fire+%E2%80%93+The+Fifth+Indian+Division+in+the+Second+World+War&rft.place=Aldershot&rft.pub=Gale+%26+Polden&rft.date=1951&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F4275700&rft.aulast=Brett-James&rft.aufirst=Antony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrice1981" class="citation book cs1">Brice, Martin (1981). Axis Blockade Runners of World War II. London: B. T. Batsford. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7134-2686-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-7134-2686-1"><bdi>0-7134-2686-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Axis+Blockade+Runners+of+World+War+II&rft.place=London&rft.pub=B.+T.+Batsford&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=0-7134-2686-1&rft.aulast=Brice&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrock_Katz2017" class="citation book cs1">Brock Katz, David (2017). South Africans Versus Rommel: The Untold Story of the Desert War in World War II. Lanham, MD: Stackpole Books (Globe Pequot). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8117-1781-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8117-1781-6"><bdi>978-0-8117-1781-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=South+Africans+Versus+Rommel%3A+The+Untold+Story+of+the+Desert+War+in+World+War+II&rft.place=Lanham%2C+MD&rft.pub=Stackpole+Books+%28Globe+Pequot%29&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-8117-1781-6&rft.aulast=Brock+Katz&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown2017" class="citation book cs1">Brown, Peter (2017). British Cruiser Tanks A9 & A10 (1st ed.). Warsaw: Model Centrum Progres. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-83-60672-28-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-83-60672-28-0"><bdi>978-83-60672-28-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=British+Cruiser+Tanks+A9+%26+A10&rft.place=Warsaw&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Model+Centrum+Progres&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-83-60672-28-0&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChurchill1985" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Churchill, Winston S.</a> (1985) [1950]. The Second World War: The Grand Alliance. Vol. III. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-395-41057-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-395-41057-8"><bdi>978-0-395-41057-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Second+World+War%3A+The+Grand+Alliance&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-395-41057-8&rft.aulast=Churchill&rft.aufirst=Winston+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCollins1964" class="citation book cs1">Collins, D. J. E. (1964). Prasad, B. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/UN/India/RIN/index.html">The Royal Indian Navy 1939–1945</a>. Official History of the Indian Armed Forces in the Second World War (online scan ed.). Delhi: Combined Inter-Services Historical Section (India & Pakistan). <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/4079794">4079794</a>. Retrieved 9 March 2016 – via Hyperwar.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Royal+Indian+Navy+1939%E2%80%931945&rft.place=Delhi&rft.series=Official+History+of+the+Indian+Armed+Forces+in+the+Second+World+War&rft.edition=online+scan&rft.pub=Combined+Inter-Services+Historical+Section+%28India+%26+Pakistan%29&rft.date=1964&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F4079794&rft.aulast=Collins&rft.aufirst=D.+J.+E.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ibiblio.org%2Fhyperwar%2FUN%2FIndia%2FRIN%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDear2005" class="citation book cs1">Dear, I. C. B. (2005) [1995]. Foot, M. R. D. (ed.). Oxford Companion to World War II. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-280670-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-280670-3"><bdi>978-0-19-280670-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Oxford+Companion+to+World+War+II&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-19-280670-3&rft.aulast=Dear&rft.aufirst=I.+C.+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEllsberg1946" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Ellsberg" title="Edward Ellsberg">Ellsberg, Edward</a> (1946). <a href="/wiki/Under_the_Red_Sea_Sun" title="Under the Red Sea Sun">Under the Red Sea Sun</a>. New York: Dodd, Mead. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8371-7264-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8371-7264-4"><bdi>978-0-8371-7264-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1311913">1311913</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Under+the+Red+Sea+Sun&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Dodd%2C+Mead&rft.date=1946&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1311913&rft.isbn=978-0-8371-7264-4&rft.aulast=Ellsberg&rft.aufirst=Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGill1957" class="citation book cs1">Gill, G. Hermon (1957). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.awm.gov.au/images/collection/pdf/RCDIG1070340--1-.pdf">"Chapter 5, R. A. N. Ships Overseas June–December 1940"</a> (PDF). Royal Australian Navy, 1939–1942. <a href="/wiki/Australia_in_the_War_of_1939%E2%80%931945" title="Australia in the War of 1939–1945">Australia in the War of 1939–1945</a>, Series 2. Vol. I (online scan ed.). Canberra, ACT: <a href="/wiki/Australian_War_Memorial" title="Australian War Memorial">Australian War Memorial</a>. pp. 140–246. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/848228">848228</a>. Retrieved 20 February 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+5%2C+R.+A.+N.+Ships+Overseas+June%E2%80%93December+1940&rft.btitle=Royal+Australian+Navy%2C+1939%E2%80%931942&rft.place=Canberra%2C+ACT&rft.series=Australia+in+the+War+of+1939%E2%80%931945%2C+Series+2&rft.pages=140-246&rft.edition=online+scan&rft.pub=Australian+War+Memorial&rft.date=1957&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F848228&rft.aulast=Gill&rft.aufirst=G.+Hermon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.awm.gov.au%2Fimages%2Fcollection%2Fpdf%2FRCDIG1070340--1-.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHart1959" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Basil_Liddell_Hart" class="mw-redirect" title="Basil Liddell Hart">Hart, Basil Liddell</a> (1959). The Tanks: The History Of The Royal Tank Regiment And Its Predecessors, Heavy Branch Machine-Gun Corps, Tank Corps And Royal Tank Corps, 1914–1945. Vol. II (1st ed.). London: Cassell. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/278606626">278606626</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Tanks%3A+The+History+Of+The+Royal+Tank+Regiment+And+Its+Predecessors%2C+Heavy+Branch+Machine-Gun+Corps%2C+Tank+Corps+And+Royal+Tank+Corps%2C+1914%E2%80%931945&rft.place=London&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Cassell&rft.date=1959&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F278606626&rft.aulast=Hart&rft.aufirst=Basil+Liddell&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHinsley1994" class="citation book cs1">Hinsley, F. H. (1994) [1993]. British Intelligence in the Second World War: Its Influence on Strategy and Operations (abridged edition). History of the Second World War (2nd rev. ed.). London: <a href="/wiki/HMSO" class="mw-redirect" title="HMSO">HMSO</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-11-630961-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-11-630961-7"><bdi>978-0-11-630961-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=British+Intelligence+in+the+Second+World+War%3A+Its+Influence+on+Strategy+and+Operations+%28abridged+edition%29&rft.place=London&rft.series=History+of+the+Second+World+War&rft.edition=2nd+rev.&rft.pub=HMSO&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-11-630961-7&rft.aulast=Hinsley&rft.aufirst=F.+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJowett2001" class="citation book cs1">Jowett, Philip (2001). The Italian Army 1940–45: Africa 1940–43. Vol. II. Oxford: Osprey. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85532-865-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85532-865-5"><bdi>978-1-85532-865-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Italian+Army+1940%E2%80%9345%3A+Africa+1940%E2%80%9343&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Osprey&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1-85532-865-5&rft.aulast=Jowett&rft.aufirst=Philip&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewin1990" class="citation book cs1">Lewin, Ronald (1990) [1976]. Slim: The Standard Bearer (2nd pbk. repr. ed.). London: Leo Cooper. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85052-446-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-85052-446-6"><bdi>0-85052-446-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slim%3A+The+Standard+Bearer&rft.place=London&rft.edition=2nd+pbk.+repr.&rft.pub=Leo+Cooper&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=0-85052-446-6&rft.aulast=Lewin&rft.aufirst=Ronald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMackenzie1951" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Compton_Mackenzie" title="Compton Mackenzie">Mackenzie, Compton</a> (1951). Eastern Epic: September 1939 – March 1943 Defence. Vol. I. London: Chatto & Windus. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/59637091">59637091</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eastern+Epic%3A+September+1939+%E2%80%93+March+1943+Defence&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Chatto+%26+Windus&rft.date=1951&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F59637091&rft.aulast=Mackenzie&rft.aufirst=Compton&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaravigna1949" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Maravigna, P. (1949). Come abbiamo perduto la guerra in Africa [How We Lost the War in Africa] (in Italian). Roma: Tosi. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/22043823">22043823</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Come+abbiamo+perduto+la+guerra+in+Africa&rft.place=Roma&rft.pub=Tosi&rft.date=1949&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F22043823&rft.aulast=Maravigna&rft.aufirst=P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMilkias2011" class="citation book cs1">Milkias, Paulos (2011). Ethiopia. Africa in Focus. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-Clio. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59884-257-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59884-257-9"><bdi>978-1-59884-257-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ethiopia&rft.place=Santa+Barbara%2C+CA&rft.series=Africa+in+Focus&rft.pub=ABC-Clio&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-59884-257-9&rft.aulast=Milkias&rft.aufirst=Paulos&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMockler1984" class="citation book cs1">Mockler, Anthony (1984). Haile Selassie's War: The Italian−Ethiopian Campaign, 1935–1941. New York: Random House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-394-54222-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-394-54222-5"><bdi>978-0-394-54222-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Haile+Selassie%27s+War%3A+The+Italian%E2%88%92Ethiopian+Campaign%2C+1935%E2%80%931941&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-394-54222-5&rft.aulast=Mockler&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMohrSellwood2009" class="citation book cs1">Mohr, Ulrich; Sellwood, Arthur V. (2009). Ship 16: The Story of a German Surface Raider. Stroud: Amberley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84868-115-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84868-115-6"><bdi>978-1-84868-115-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ship+16%3A+The+Story+of+a+German+Surface+Raider&rft.place=Stroud&rft.pub=Amberley&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-84868-115-6&rft.aulast=Mohr&rft.aufirst=Ulrich&rft.au=Sellwood%2C+Arthur+V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMolloMcGregorTurner1981" class="citation book cs1">Mollo, Andrew; McGregor, Malcolm; Turner, Pierre (1981). The Armed Forces of World War II: Uniforms, Insignia and Organization. New York: Crown Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-517-54478-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-517-54478-5"><bdi>978-0-517-54478-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Armed+Forces+of+World+War+II%3A+Uniforms%2C+Insignia+and+Organization&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Crown+Publishers&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-0-517-54478-5&rft.aulast=Mollo&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft.au=McGregor%2C+Malcolm&rft.au=Turner%2C+Pierre&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Hara2009" class="citation book cs1">O'Hara, Vincent P. (2009). "Ch 6: The Red Sea, 1940–41". Struggle for the Middle Sea: The Great Navies at War in the Mediterranean Theater, 1940–1945. London: Conway. pp. 99–107. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84486-102-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84486-102-6"><bdi>978-1-84486-102-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ch+6%3A+The+Red+Sea%2C+1940%E2%80%9341&rft.btitle=Struggle+for+the+Middle+Sea%3A+The+Great+Navies+at+War+in+the+Mediterranean+Theater%2C+1940%E2%80%931945&rft.place=London&rft.pages=99-107&rft.pub=Conway&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-84486-102-6&rft.aulast=O%27Hara&rft.aufirst=Vincent+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOrpen1968" class="citation book cs1">Orpen, N. (1968). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/UN/SouthAfrica/EAfrica/EAfrica-1.html">East African and Abyssinian Campaigns</a>. South African Forces, World War II. Vol. I (online scan ed.). Cape Town, SA: Purnell. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/499914466">499914466</a>. Retrieved 7 March 2017 – via Hyperwar.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=East+African+and+Abyssinian+Campaigns&rft.place=Cape+Town%2C+SA&rft.series=South+African+Forces%2C+World+War+II&rft.edition=online+scan&rft.pub=Purnell&rft.date=1968&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F499914466&rft.aulast=Orpen&rft.aufirst=N.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ibiblio.org%2Fhyperwar%2FUN%2FSouthAfrica%2FEAfrica%2FEAfrica-1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlayfair1959" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ian_Stanley_Ord_Playfair" class="mw-redirect" title="Ian Stanley Ord Playfair">Playfair, I. S. O.</a>; et al. (1959) [1954]. <a href="/wiki/James_Ramsay_Montagu_Butler" class="mw-redirect" title="James Ramsay Montagu Butler">Butler, J. R. M.</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/UN/UK/UK-Med-I/index.html">The Mediterranean and Middle East: The Early Successes Against Italy (to May 1941)</a>. History of the Second World War, United Kingdom Military Series. Vol. I (4th impr. ed.). <a href="/wiki/HMSO" class="mw-redirect" title="HMSO">HMSO</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/494123451">494123451</a>. Retrieved 3 September 2015 – via Hyperwar.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Mediterranean+and+Middle+East%3A+The+Early+Successes+Against+Italy+%28to+May+1941%29&rft.series=History+of+the+Second+World+War%2C+United+Kingdom+Military+Series&rft.edition=4th+impr.&rft.pub=HMSO&rft.date=1959&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F494123451&rft.aulast=Playfair&rft.aufirst=I.+S.+O.&rft.au=with+Stitt%2C+G.+M.+S.&rft.au=Molony%2C+C.+J.+C.&rft.au=Toomer%2C+S.+E.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ibiblio.org%2Fhyperwar%2FUN%2FUK%2FUK-Med-I%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlayfair2004" class="citation book cs1">Playfair, I. S. O.; et al. (2004) [1956]. Butler, J. R. M. (ed.). The Mediterranean and Middle East: The Germans Come to the Help of their Ally (1941). History of the Second World War, United Kingdom Military Series. Vol. II (pbk. repr. Naval & Military Press, Uckfield ed.). London: HMSO. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84574-066-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84574-066-5"><bdi>978-1-84574-066-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Mediterranean+and+Middle+East%3A+The+Germans+Come+to+the+Help+of+their+Ally+%281941%29&rft.place=London&rft.series=History+of+the+Second+World+War%2C+United+Kingdom+Military+Series&rft.edition=pbk.+repr.+Naval+%26+Military+Press%2C+Uckfield&rft.pub=HMSO&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-84574-066-5&rft.aulast=Playfair&rft.aufirst=I.+S.+O.&rft.au=Flynn%2C+F.+C.&rft.au=Molony%2C+C.+J.+C.&rft.au=Toomer%2C+S.+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPorch2005" class="citation book cs1">Porch, Douglas (2005) [2004]. The Path to Victory: The Mediterranean Theater in World War II (Cassell Military Paperbacks ed.). London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-304-36705-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-304-36705-4"><bdi>978-0-304-36705-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Path+to+Victory%3A+The+Mediterranean+Theater+in+World+War+II&rft.place=London&rft.edition=Cassell+Military+Paperbacks&rft.pub=Weidenfeld+%26+Nicolson&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-304-36705-4&rft.aulast=Porch&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrasad1963" class="citation book cs1">Qureshi, N. A.; et al. (1963). Prasad, Bisheshwar (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ibiblio.org/hyperwar/UN/India/EAfrica/index.html">East African Campaign, 1940–41</a>. Official History of the Indian Armed Forces in the Second World War (1939–1945) (online scan ed.). Delhi: Combined Inter-Services Historical Section (India & Pakistan). <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/480344871">480344871</a>. Retrieved 23 February 2016 – via Hyperwar.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=East+African+Campaign%2C+1940%E2%80%9341&rft.place=Delhi&rft.series=Official+History+of+the+Indian+Armed+Forces+in+the+Second+World+War+%281939%E2%80%931945%29&rft.edition=online+scan&rft.pub=Combined+Inter-Services+Historical+Section+%28India+%26+Pakistan%29&rft.date=1963&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F480344871&rft.aulast=Qureshi&rft.aufirst=N.+A.&rft.au=Pal%2C+D.&rft.au=Pandey%2C+K.+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fibiblio.org%2Fhyperwar%2FUN%2FIndia%2FEAfrica%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRankin2009" class="citation book cs1">Rankin, N. (2009) [2008]. Churchill's Wizards: The British Genius for Deception, 1914–1945. US title: A Genius for Deception: How Cunning Helped the British Win Two World Wars, Oxford University Press, New York. London: Faber & Faber. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-538704-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-538704-9"><bdi>978-0-19-538704-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Churchill%27s+Wizards%3A+The+British+Genius+for+Deception%2C+1914%E2%80%931945&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Faber+%26+Faber&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-19-538704-9&rft.aulast=Rankin&rft.aufirst=N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRaugh1993" class="citation book cs1">Raugh, H. E. (1993). Wavell in the Middle East, 1939–1941: A Study in Generalship. London: Brassey's. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-040983-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-040983-2"><bdi>978-0-08-040983-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wavell+in+the+Middle+East%2C+1939%E2%80%931941%3A+A+Study+in+Generalship&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Brassey%27s&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-08-040983-2&rft.aulast=Raugh&rft.aufirst=H.+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReybrouck2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_van_Reybrouck" class="mw-redirect" title="David van Reybrouck">Reybrouck, David van</a> (2014). <a href="/wiki/Congo:_The_Epic_History_of_a_People" title="Congo: The Epic History of a People">Congo: The Epic History of a People</a>. Translated by Garrett, Sam. New York, NY: <a href="/wiki/HarperCollins" title="HarperCollins">HarperCollins</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-00-756290-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-00-756290-9"><bdi>978-0-00-756290-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Congo%3A+The+Epic+History+of+a+People&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-00-756290-9&rft.aulast=Reybrouck&rft.aufirst=David+van&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichards1974" class="citation book cs1">Richards, Denis (1974) [1953]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/UN/UK/UK-RAF-I/UK-RAF-I-5.html">Royal Air Force 1939–1945: The Fight At Odds</a>. Vol. I (pbk. ed.). London: <a href="/wiki/HMSO" class="mw-redirect" title="HMSO">HMSO</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-11-771592-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-11-771592-9"><bdi>978-0-11-771592-9</bdi></a>. Retrieved 23 February 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Royal+Air+Force+1939%E2%80%931945%3A+The+Fight+At+Odds&rft.place=London&rft.edition=pbk.&rft.pub=HMSO&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=978-0-11-771592-9&rft.aulast=Richards&rft.aufirst=Denis&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ibiblio.org%2Fhyperwar%2FUN%2FUK%2FUK-RAF-I%2FUK-RAF-I-5.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRohwerHümmelchen1992" class="citation book cs1">Rohwer, Jürgen; Hümmelchen, Gerhard (1992) [1972]. Chronology of the War at Sea, 1939–1945: The Naval History of World War Two (2nd rev. ed.). Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55750-105-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55750-105-9"><bdi>978-1-55750-105-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chronology+of+the+War+at+Sea%2C+1939%E2%80%931945%3A+The+Naval+History+of+World+War+Two&rft.place=Annapolis%2C+MD&rft.edition=2nd+rev.&rft.pub=Naval+Institute+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-1-55750-105-9&rft.aulast=Rohwer&rft.aufirst=J%C3%BCrgen&rft.au=H%C3%BCmmelchen%2C+Gerhard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoselli2007" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Roselli, A. (2007). Storie segrete: operazioni sconosciute o dimenticate della seconda guerra mondiale [Secret History: Unknown or Forgotten Operations of World War II]. Biblioteca universale (in Italian). Pavia: Iuculano. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-7072-766-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-88-7072-766-1"><bdi>978-88-7072-766-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Storie+segrete%3A+operazioni+sconosciute+o+dimenticate+della+seconda+guerra+mondiale&rft.place=Pavia&rft.series=Biblioteca+universale&rft.pub=Iuculano&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-88-7072-766-1&rft.aulast=Roselli&rft.aufirst=A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoskill1957" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Roskill" title="Stephen Roskill">Roskill, S. W.</a> (1957) [1954]. <a href="/wiki/James_Ramsay_Montagu_Butler" class="mw-redirect" title="James Ramsay Montagu Butler">Butler, J. R. M.</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/UN/UK/UK-RN-I/index.html">The Defensive</a>. History of the Second World War United Kingdom Military Series: The War at Sea 1939–1945. Vol. I (4th impr. ed.). London: HMSO. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/881709135">881709135</a>. Retrieved 19 February 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Defensive&rft.place=London&rft.series=History+of+the+Second+World+War+United+Kingdom+Military+Series%3A+The+War+at+Sea+1939%E2%80%931945&rft.edition=4th+impr.&rft.pub=HMSO&rft.date=1957&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F881709135&rft.aulast=Roskill&rft.aufirst=S.+W.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ibiblio.org%2Fhyperwar%2FUN%2FUK%2FUK-RN-I%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRooney1994" class="citation book cs1">Rooney, David (1994). Wingate and the Chindits. London: Cassell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-304-35452-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-304-35452-X"><bdi>0-304-35452-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wingate+and+the+Chindits&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Cassell&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-304-35452-X&rft.aulast=Rooney&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRovighi1988" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Rovighi, Alberto (1988) [1952]. Le Operazioni in Africa Orientale: (giugno 1940 – novembre 1941) [Operations in East Africa: (June 1940 – November 1941)] (in Italian). Roma: Stato Maggiore Esercito, Ufficio storico. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/848471066">848471066</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Le+Operazioni+in+Africa+Orientale%3A+%28giugno+1940+%E2%80%93+novembre+1941%29&rft.place=Roma&rft.pub=Stato+Maggiore+Esercito%2C+Ufficio+storico&rft.date=1988&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F848471066&rft.aulast=Rovighi&rft.aufirst=Alberto&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSantoro1957" class="citation book cs1">Santoro, G. (1957). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160119220444/http://www.avia-it.com/act/biblioteca/libri/PDF_Libri_By_AVIA/Aeronautica%20Italiana%20nella%20Seconda%20G.M.%20vol.%202%20%20-%20Santoro%20G..pdf">L'aeronautica italiana nella seconda guerra mondiale</a> [The Italian Air Force in WWII] (PDF). Vol. II (1st ed.). Milano-Roma: Edizione Esse. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/60102091">60102091</a>. Archived from the original on 19 January 2016. Retrieved 7 March 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=L%27aeronautica+italiana+nella+seconda+guerra+mondiale&rft.place=Milano-Roma&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Edizione+Esse&rft.date=1957&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F60102091&rft.aulast=Santoro&rft.aufirst=G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.avia-it.com%2Fact%2Fbiblioteca%2Flibri%2FPDF_Libri_By_AVIA%2FAeronautica%2520Italiana%2520nella%2520Seconda%2520G.M.%2520vol.%25202%2520%2520-%2520Santoro%2520G..pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: unfit URL (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_unfit_URL" title="Category:CS1 maint: unfit URL">link</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchoeman2002" class="citation book cs1">Schoeman, Michael (2002). Springbok Fighter Victory: SAAF Fighter Operations 1939–1945: East Africa 1940–1941. Vol. I. Cape Town: Freeworld Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-95843-885-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-95843-885-8"><bdi>978-0-95843-885-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Springbok+Fighter+Victory%3A+SAAF+Fighter+Operations+1939%E2%80%931945%3A+East+Africa+1940%E2%80%931941&rft.place=Cape+Town&rft.pub=Freeworld+Publications&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-95843-885-8&rft.aulast=Schoeman&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchreiberStegemannVogel2015" class="citation book cs1">Schreiber, G.; et al. (2015) [1995]. Falla, P. S. (ed.). The Mediterranean, South-East Europe and North Africa, 1939–1941: From Italy's Declaration of non-Belligerence to the Entry of the United States into the War. <a href="/wiki/Germany_and_the_Second_World_War" title="Germany and the Second World War">Germany and the Second World War</a>. Vol. III. Translated by McMurry, D. S.; Osers, E.; Willmot, L. (2nd pbk. trans. Oxford University Press, Oxford ed.). Freiburg im Breisgau: Militärgeschichtliches Forschungsamt. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-873832-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-873832-9"><bdi>978-0-19-873832-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Mediterranean%2C+South-East+Europe+and+North+Africa%2C+1939%E2%80%931941%3A+From+Italy%27s+Declaration+of+non-Belligerence+to+the+Entry+of+the+United+States+into+the+War&rft.place=Freiburg+im+Breisgau&rft.series=Germany+and+the+Second+World+War&rft.edition=2nd+pbk.+trans.+Oxford+University+Press%2C+Oxford&rft.pub=Milit%C3%A4rgeschichtliches+Forschungsamt&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-19-873832-9&rft.aulast=Schreiber&rft.aufirst=G.&rft.au=Stegemann%2C+B.&rft.au=Vogel%2C+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShores1996" class="citation book cs1">Shores, C. (1996). Dust Clouds in the Middle East: The Air War for East Africa, Iran, Syria, Iran and Madagascar, 1940–42. London: Grub Street. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-898697-37-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-898697-37-4"><bdi>978-1-898697-37-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dust+Clouds+in+the+Middle+East%3A+The+Air+War+for+East+Africa%2C+Iran%2C+Syria%2C+Iran+and+Madagascar%2C+1940%E2%80%9342&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Grub+Street&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-1-898697-37-4&rft.aulast=Shores&rft.aufirst=C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2009" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Peter C. (2009) [1995]. Eagle's War: Aircraft Carrier HMS Eagle 1939–1942 (2nd pbk. ed.). Manchester: Crécy Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9075795-3-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9075795-3-3"><bdi>978-0-9075795-3-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eagle%27s+War%3A+Aircraft+Carrier+HMS+Eagle+1939%E2%80%931942&rft.place=Manchester&rft.edition=2nd+pbk.&rft.pub=Cr%C3%A9cy+Publishing&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-9075795-3-3&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Peter+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStewart2016" class="citation book cs1">Stewart, A. (2016). The First Victory: The Second World War and the East Africa Campaign (1st ed.). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-20855-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-20855-9"><bdi>978-0-300-20855-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+First+Victory%3A+The+Second+World+War+and+the+East+Africa+Campaign&rft.place=New+Haven%2C+CT&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-300-20855-9&rft.aulast=Stewart&rft.aufirst=A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTAC1942" class="citation book cs1">The Abyssinian Campaigns; The Official Story of the Conquest of Italian East Africa. London: HMSO for <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Information_(United_Kingdom)" title="Ministry of Information (United Kingdom)">Ministry of Information</a>. 1942. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/184818818">184818818</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Abyssinian+Campaigns%3B+The+Official+Story+of+the+Conquest+of+Italian+East+Africa&rft.place=London&rft.pub=HMSO+for+Ministry+of+Information&rft.date=1942&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F184818818&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNEB2002" class="citation book cs1">The New Encyclopædia Britannica (15th ed.). Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica. 2002. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85229-787-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85229-787-2"><bdi>978-0-85229-787-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.place=Chicago&rft.edition=15th&rft.pub=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-85229-787-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/record?catid=1519532&catln=6">War Diary HQ Somaliforce Jul–Aug 1940</a>. The National Archives (Ref WO 169/2870). Retrieved 1 January 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=War+Diary+HQ+Somaliforce+Jul%E2%80%93Aug+1940&rft.pub=The+National+Archives+%28Ref+WO+169%2F2870%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdiscovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk%2Fdetails%2Frecord%3Fcatid%3D1519532%26catln%3D6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaters1956" class="citation book cs1">Waters, S. D. (1956). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WH2Navy.html">The Royal New Zealand Navy</a>. Official History of New Zealand in the Second World War 1939–45 (online scan ed.). Wellington, NZ: War History Branch, Dept. of Internal Affairs. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/11085179">11085179</a>. Retrieved 23 February 2016 – via New Zealand Electronic Text Centre.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Royal+New+Zealand+Navy&rft.place=Wellington%2C+NZ&rft.series=Official+History+of+New+Zealand+in+the+Second+World+War+1939%E2%80%9345&rft.edition=online+scan&rft.pub=War+History+Branch%2C+Dept.+of+Internal+Affairs&rft.date=1956&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F11085179&rft.aulast=Waters&rft.aufirst=S.+D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnzetc.victoria.ac.nz%2Ftm%2Fscholarly%2Ftei-WH2Navy.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWavell1946a" class="citation book cs1">Wavell, A. (10 July 1946). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/UN/UK/LondonGazette/37645.pdf">Official Despatch: Operations in East Africa November 1940 – July 1941</a> (PDF). The London Gazette. pp. 3527–3599. Retrieved 27 June 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Official+Despatch%3A+Operations+in+East+Africa+November+1940+%E2%80%93+July+1941&rft.pages=3527-3599&rft.pub=The+London+Gazette&rft.date=1946-07-10&rft.aulast=Wavell&rft.aufirst=A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ibiblio.org%2Fhyperwar%2FUN%2FUK%2FLondonGazette%2F37645.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBIC1941" class="citation book cs1">Weller, G. (1942). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/UN/Belgium/Ethiopia/index.html">The Belgian Campaign in Ethiopia: A Trek of 2,500 Miles Through Jungle Swamps and Desert Wastes</a> (online ed.). New York: Belgian Information Center. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1452395">1452395</a>. Retrieved 3 March 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Belgian+Campaign+in+Ethiopia%3A+A+Trek+of+2%2C500+Miles+Through+Jungle+Swamps+and+Desert+Wastes&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=online&rft.pub=Belgian+Information+Center&rft.date=1942&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1452395&rft.aulast=Weller&rft.aufirst=G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ibiblio.org%2Fhyperwar%2FUN%2FBelgium%2FEthiopia%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeller2010" class="citation book cs1">Weller, George (2010). Weller's War: A Legendary Foreign Correspondent's Saga of World War II on Five Continents. New York: Three Rivers Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-307-34203-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-307-34203-4"><bdi>978-0-307-34203-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Weller%27s+War%3A+A+Legendary+Foreign+Correspondent%27s+Saga+of+World+War+II+on+Five+Continents&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Three+Rivers+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-307-34203-4&rft.aulast=Weller&rft.aufirst=George&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZolbergAguayoSuhrke1992" class="citation book cs1">Zolberg, Aristide R.; Aguayo, Sergio; Suhrke, Astri (1992). Escape from Violence: Conflict and the Refugee Crisis in the Developing World. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-507916-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-507916-6"><bdi>978-0-19-507916-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Escape+from+Violence%3A+Conflict+and+the+Refugee+Crisis+in+the+Developing+World&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-19-507916-6&rft.aulast=Zolberg&rft.aufirst=Aristide+R.&rft.au=Aguayo%2C+Sergio&rft.au=Suhrke%2C+Astri&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Journals">Journals</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Journals">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerhe2011" class="citation journal cs1">Berhe, Fisseha (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ityopis.org/Issues-1_files/ITYOPIS-I-Berhe.pdf">"Studies on the Biography of Blatta Hayle Mariam Redda (1909–1995)"</a> (PDF). Ityopis. I. Tigray, Ethiopia: Mekelle University. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2223-7178">2223-7178</a>. Retrieved 3 July 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ityopis&rft.atitle=Studies+on+the+Biography+of+Blatta+Hayle+Mariam+Redda+%281909%E2%80%931995%29&rft.volume=I&rft.date=2011&rft.issn=2223-7178&rft.aulast=Berhe&rft.aufirst=Fisseha&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ityopis.org%2FIssues-1_files%2FITYOPIS-I-Berhe.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCernuschi1994" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Cernuschi, Enrico (1994). "La resistenza sconosciuta in Africa Orientale" [The Unknown Resistance in East Africa]. Rivista storica (in Italian). Roma: Coop. giornalisti storici. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/30747124">30747124</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Rivista+storica&rft.atitle=La+resistenza+sconosciuta+in+Africa+Orientale&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F30747124&rft.aulast=Cernuschi&rft.aufirst=Enrico&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHammerton1941" class="citation journal cs1">Hammerton, John, ed. (25 April 1941). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090116035323/http://www.thewarillustrated.info/86/south-africans-won-the-race-to-addis-ababa.asp">"South Africans Won the Race to Addis Ababa"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_War_Illustrated" title="The War Illustrated">The War Illustrated</a>. 4 (86). London: <a href="/wiki/William_Berry,_1st_Viscount_Camrose" title="William Berry, 1st Viscount Camrose">William Berry</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/220168380">220168380</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thewarillustrated.info/86/south-africans-won-the-race-to-addis-ababa.asp">the original</a> on 16 January 2009. Retrieved 18 October 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+War+Illustrated&rft.atitle=South+Africans+Won+the+Race+to+Addis+Ababa&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=86&rft.date=1941-04-25&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F220168380&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thewarillustrated.info%2F86%2Fsouth-africans-won-the-race-to-addis-ababa.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaag2023" class="citation journal cs1">Waag, Ian van der (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brill.com/view/journals/ijmh/43/3/article-p582_008.xml">""Almost Entirely a Medical War": The South African Medical Corps in East Africa, 1940–1941"</a>. International Journal of Military History and Historiography. 43 (3). Leiden, Netherlands: Brill: 582–626. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F24683302-bja10052">10.1163/24683302-bja10052</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2468-3302">2468-3302</a>. Retrieved 2 September 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Military+History+and+Historiography&rft.atitle=%22Almost+Entirely+a+Medical+War%22%3A+The+South+African+Medical+Corps+in+East+Africa%2C+1940%E2%80%931941&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=582-626&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F24683302-bja10052&rft.issn=2468-3302&rft.aulast=Waag&rft.aufirst=Ian+van+der&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbrill.com%2Fview%2Fjournals%2Fijmh%2F43%2F3%2Farticle-p582_008.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Theses">Theses</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Theses">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarino2009" class="citation thesis cs1">Marino, F. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303131641/http://oai.dtic.mil/oai/oai?verb=getRecord&metadataPrefix=html&identifier=ADA519298">Military Operations in the Italian East Africa, 1935–1941: Conquest and Defeat</a> (MMS). Quantico, VA: USMC Command and Staff College. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/832080928">832080928</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oai.dtic.mil/oai/oai?verb=getRecord&metadataPrefix=html&identifier=ADA519298">the original</a> on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 22 February 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Military+Operations+in+the+Italian+East+Africa%2C+1935%E2%80%931941%3A+Conquest+and+Defeat&rft.inst=USMC+Command+and+Staff+College&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F832080928&rft.aulast=Marino&rft.aufirst=F.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foai.dtic.mil%2Foai%2Foai%3Fverb%3DgetRecord%26metadataPrefix%3Dhtml%26identifier%3DADA519298&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Websites">Websites</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: Websites">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1">Barclay, Brigadier C. N. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/19970121012937/http://gi.grolier.com/wwii/wwii_8.html">"Mediterranean Operations: Campaigns in Africa"</a>. GI WWII Commemoration. para 6. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gi.grolier.com/wwii/wwii_8.html">the original</a> on 21 January 1997. Retrieved 23 October 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=GI+WWII+Commemoration&rft.atitle=Mediterranean+Operations%3A+Campaigns+in+Africa&rft.aulast=Barclay&rft.aufirst=Brigadier+C.+N.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgi.grolier.com%2Fwwii%2Fwwii_8.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGustavsson2014" class="citation web cs1">Gustavsson, H. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://surfcity.kund.dalnet.se/italy_mottet.htm">"Maresciallo Giuseppe Mottet"</a>. Håkans Aviation Page: Biplane Fighter Aces from the Second World War. Retrieved 2 September 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=H%C3%A5kans+Aviation+Page%3A+Biplane+Fighter+Aces+from+the+Second+World+War&rft.atitle=Maresciallo+Giuseppe+Mottet&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Gustavsson&rft.aufirst=H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsurfcity.kund.dalnet.se%2Fitaly_mottet.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Books_2">Books</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: Books">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Antonicelli, Franco (1961). Dall'antifascismo alla resistenza: Trent'anni di storia italiana 1915–1945 [From Antifascism to Resistance: Thirty Years of Italian History 1915–1945]. Saggi (in Italian) (Mondadori ed.). Torino: Einaudi. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/859627877">859627877</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dall%27antifascismo+alla+resistenza%3A+Trent%27anni+di+storia+italiana+1915%E2%80%931945&rft.place=Torino&rft.series=Saggi&rft.edition=Mondadori&rft.pub=Einaudi&rft.date=1961&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F859627877&rft.aulast=Antonicelli&rft.aufirst=Franco&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Barker, A. J. (1966). Eritrea. London: Faber. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1658053">1658053</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eritrea&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Faber&rft.date=1966&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1658053&rft.aulast=Barker&rft.aufirst=A.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Barker, A. J. (1968). The Civilising Mission: The Italo-Ethiopian War 1935–6. London: Cassell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-304-93201-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-304-93201-6"><bdi>978-0-304-93201-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Civilising+Mission%3A+The+Italo-Ethiopian+War+1935%E2%80%936&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Cassell&rft.date=1968&rft.isbn=978-0-304-93201-6&rft.aulast=Barker&rft.aufirst=A.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Bragadin, Marc'Antonio (1957). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/italiannavyinwor00brag">Italian Navy in World War II</a> (1st ed.). Annapolis, Maryland: US Naval Institute. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87021-327-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87021-327-4"><bdi>978-0-87021-327-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Italian+Navy+in+World+War+II&rft.place=Annapolis%2C+Maryland&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=US+Naval+Institute&rft.date=1957&rft.isbn=978-0-87021-327-4&rft.aulast=Bragadin&rft.aufirst=Marc%27Antonio&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fitaliannavyinwor00brag&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Brown, J. A. (1990). The War of a Hundred Days: Springboks in Somalia and Abyssinia, 1940–41. South Africans at War. Vol. I. Johannesburg, SA: Ashanti. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-874800-10-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-874800-10-1"><bdi>978-1-874800-10-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+War+of+a+Hundred+Days%3A+Springboks+in+Somalia+and+Abyssinia%2C+1940%E2%80%9341&rft.place=Johannesburg%2C+SA&rft.series=South+Africans+at+War&rft.pub=Ashanti&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-1-874800-10-1&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=J.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Churchill, Winston S.</a> (1986) [1949]. The Second World War: Their Finest Hour. Vol. II. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-395-41056-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-395-41056-1"><bdi>978-0-395-41056-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Second+World+War%3A+Their+Finest+Hour&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-395-41056-1&rft.aulast=Churchill&rft.aufirst=Winston+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Cocchia, A. (1958). La Marina italiana nella seconda guerra mondiale [The Italian Navy in the Second World War]. Roma: Ufficio storico della marina militare. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/859874678">859874678</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+Marina+italiana+nella+seconda+guerra+mondiale&rft.place=Roma&rft.pub=Ufficio+storico+della+marina+militare&rft.date=1958&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F859874678&rft.aulast=Cocchia&rft.aufirst=A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Corvaja, Santi (2001). Hitler and Mussolini: The Secret Meetings. New York: Enigma Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-929631-00-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-929631-00-1"><bdi>978-1-929631-00-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hitler+and+Mussolini%3A+The+Secret+Meetings&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Enigma+Books&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1-929631-00-1&rft.aulast=Corvaja&rft.aufirst=Santi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Crosskill, W. E. (1980). The Two Thousand Mile War. London: Robert Hale. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/490879527">490879527</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Two+Thousand+Mile+War&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Robert+Hale&rft.date=1980&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F490879527&rft.aulast=Crosskill&rft.aufirst=W.+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Del Boca, Angelo (1986). Italiani in Africa Orientale: La caduta dell'Impero [Italians in East Africa: The Fall of the Empire] (in Italian). Roma-Bari: Laterza. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-420-2810-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-88-420-2810-9"><bdi>978-88-420-2810-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Italiani+in+Africa+Orientale%3A+La+caduta+dell%27Impero&rft.place=Roma-Bari&rft.pub=Laterza&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-88-420-2810-9&rft.aulast=Del+Boca&rft.aufirst=Angelo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Glover, M. (1987). An Improvised War: The Ethiopian Campaign 1940–1941. London: Leo Cooper. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85052-241-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85052-241-9"><bdi>978-0-85052-241-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Improvised+War%3A+The+Ethiopian+Campaign+1940%E2%80%931941&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Leo+Cooper&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-85052-241-9&rft.aulast=Glover&rft.aufirst=M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Knox, MacGregor (1986). Mussolini Unleashed, 1939–194: Politics and Strategy in Fascist Italy's Last War. London: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-33835-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-33835-6"><bdi>978-0-521-33835-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mussolini+Unleashed%2C+1939%E2%80%93194%3A+Politics+and+Strategy+in+Fascist+Italy%27s+Last+War&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-521-33835-6&rft.aulast=Knox&rft.aufirst=MacGregor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Laitin, D. D. (1977). Politics, Language and Thought: The Somali Experience. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-46791-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-46791-7"><bdi>978-0-226-46791-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Politics%2C+Language+and+Thought%3A+The+Somali+Experience&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-0-226-46791-7&rft.aulast=Laitin&rft.aufirst=D.+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiebenberg2013" class="citation conference cs1">Liebenberg, Elri (25–30 August 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://icaci.org/files/documents/ICC_proceedings/ICC2013/_extendedAbstract/116_proceeding.pdf">"The Springboks in East Africa: The role of 1 SA Survey Company (SAEC) in the East African Campaign of World War II, 1940–1941"</a> (PDF). Proceedings of the 26th International Cartographic Conference. Dresden: ICA. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-907075-06-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-907075-06-3"><bdi>978-1-907075-06-3</bdi></a>. Retrieved 8 October 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.atitle=The+Springboks+in+East+Africa%3A+The+role+of+1+SA+Survey+Company+%28SAEC%29+in+the+East+African+Campaign+of+World+War+II%2C+1940%E2%80%931941&rft.btitle=Proceedings+of+the+26th+International+Cartographic+Conference&rft.place=Dresden&rft.pub=ICA&rft.date=2013-08-25%2F2013-08-30&rft.isbn=978-1-907075-06-3&rft.aulast=Liebenberg&rft.aufirst=Elri&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ficaci.org%2Ffiles%2Fdocuments%2FICC_proceedings%2FICC2013%2F_extendedAbstract%2F116_proceeding.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Lupinacci, Pier Filippo; Cocchia, Aldo (1961). La Marina italiana nella seconda guerra mondiale: Le operazioni in Africa Orientale [The Italian Navy in the Second World War: Operations in East Africa] (in Italian). Vol. X (1st ed.). Rome: Ufficio Storico della Marina Militare Italiana. pp. 187–197. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/955801310">955801310</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+Marina+italiana+nella+seconda+guerra+mondiale%3A+Le+operazioni+in+Africa+Orientale&rft.place=Rome&rft.pages=187-197&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Ufficio+Storico+della+Marina+Militare+Italiana&rft.date=1961&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F955801310&rft.aulast=Lupinacci&rft.aufirst=Pier+Filippo&rft.au=Cocchia%2C+Aldo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Helen_Chapin_Metz" title="Helen Chapin Metz">Metz, Helen Chapin</a> (2004) [1993]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/somaliacountryst00metz">Somalia: A Country Study</a>. Area Handbook (Kessinger ed.). Federal Research Division. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8444-0775-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8444-0775-3"><bdi>978-0-8444-0775-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Somalia%3A+A+Country+Study&rft.series=Area+Handbook&rft.edition=Kessinger&rft.pub=Federal+Research+Division&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-8444-0775-3&rft.aulast=Metz&rft.aufirst=Helen+Chapin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsomaliacountryst00metz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Nafziger, G. (2012) [2011]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160310131356/http://cgsc.cdmhost.com/cdm/singleitem/collection/p4013coll11/id/1277/rec/7">Nafziger Orders of Battle Collection: Finding Aid</a> (online ed.). Fort Leavenworth, KS: Combined Arms Research Library (US Army Command and General Staff College). <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/528648446">528648446</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cgsc.cdmhost.com/cdm/singleitem/collection/p4013coll11/id/1277/rec/7">the original</a> on 10 March 2016. Retrieved 10 March 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nafziger+Orders+of+Battle+Collection%3A+Finding+Aid&rft.place=Fort+Leavenworth%2C+KS&rft.edition=online&rft.pub=Combined+Arms+Research+Library+%28US+Army+Command+and+General+Staff+College%29&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F528648446&rft.aulast=Nafziger&rft.aufirst=G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcgsc.cdmhost.com%2Fcdm%2Fsingleitem%2Fcollection%2Fp4013coll11%2Fid%2F1277%2Frec%2F7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_Platt" title="William Platt">Platt, W.</a> (17 July 1946). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/UN/UK/LondonGazette/37655.pdf">Operations of the East African Command 12 July 1941 to 8 January 1943</a> (PDF). London: The London Gazette. pp. 3711–3720. Retrieved 27 June 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Operations+of+the+East+African+Command+12+July+1941+to+8+January+1943&rft.place=London&rft.pages=3711-3720&rft.pub=The+London+Gazette&rft.date=1946-07-17&rft.aulast=Platt&rft.aufirst=W.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ibiblio.org%2Fhyperwar%2FUN%2FUK%2FLondonGazette%2F37655.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Revised Notes on the Italian Army (with amendments 1–3 incorporated). London: <a href="/wiki/War_Office" title="War Office">War Office</a>. 1942. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/41977582">41977582</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Revised+Notes+on+the+Italian+Army+%28with+amendments+1%E2%80%933+incorporated%29&rft.place=London&rft.pub=War+Office&rft.date=1942&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F41977582&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Shirreff, David (2009) [1995]. Bare Feet and Bandoliers: Wingate, Sandford, the Patriots and the Liberation of Ethiopia. Barnsley: Pen & Sword Military. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84884-029-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84884-029-4"><bdi>978-1-84884-029-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bare+Feet+and+Bandoliers%3A+Wingate%2C+Sandford%2C+the+Patriots+and+the+Liberation+of+Ethiopia&rft.place=Barnsley&rft.pub=Pen+%26+Sword+Military&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-84884-029-4&rft.aulast=Shirreff&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSobski2020" class="citation book cs1">Sobski, Marek (2020). East Africa 1940–1941 (land campaign): The Italian Army Defends the Empire in the Horn of Africa. Mussolini's War. Vol. I. Translated by Basarabowicz, Tomasz. Zielona Gora. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/979-8-57-786912-0" title="Special:BookSources/979-8-57-786912-0"><bdi>979-8-57-786912-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=East+Africa+1940%E2%80%931941+%28land+campaign%29%3A+The+Italian+Army+Defends+the+Empire+in+the+Horn+of+Africa&rft.series=Mussolini%27s+War&rft.pub=Zielona+Gora&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=979-8-57-786912-0&rft.aulast=Sobski&rft.aufirst=Marek&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Sutherland, J.; Canwell, D. (2009). Air War East Africa 1940–41: The RAF Versus the Italian Air Force. Barnsley: Pen & Sword Aviation. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84415-816-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84415-816-4"><bdi>978-1-84415-816-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Air+War+East+Africa+1940%E2%80%9341%3A+The+RAF+Versus+the+Italian+Air+Force&rft.place=Barnsley&rft.pub=Pen+%26+Sword+Aviation&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-84415-816-4&rft.aulast=Sutherland&rft.aufirst=J.&rft.au=Canwell%2C+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Vincent, J-N.; Spivak, M.; Léoni, A. Les forces françaises dans la lutte contre l'Axe en Afrique [French Forces in the Fight against the Axis in Africa] (in French). 1983–1985. Paris: Ministère de la défense, Etat-major de l'Armée de terre, Service historique. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-86323-017-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-86323-017-6"><bdi>978-2-86323-017-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Les+forces+fran%C3%A7aises+dans+la+lutte+contre+l%27Axe+en+Afrique&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Minist%C3%A8re+de+la+d%C3%A9fense%2C+Etat-major+de+l%27Arm%C3%A9e+de+terre%2C+Service+historique&rft.isbn=978-2-86323-017-6&rft.aulast=Vincent&rft.aufirst=J-N.&rft.au=Spivak%2C+M.&rft.au=L%C3%A9oni%2C+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Archibald_Wavell" class="mw-redirect" title="Archibald Wavell">Wavell, A.</a> (4 June 1946). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/UN/UK/LondonGazette/37594.pdf">Operations in the Somaliland Protectorate, 1939–1940 (Appendix A – G. M. R. Reid and A. R. Godwin-Austen)</a> (PDF). The London Gazette. pp. 2719–2727. Retrieved 27 June 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Operations+in+the+Somaliland+Protectorate%2C+1939%E2%80%931940+%28Appendix+A+%E2%80%93+G.+M.+R.+Reid+and+A.+R.+Godwin-Austen%29&rft.pages=2719-2727&rft.pub=The+London+Gazette&rft.date=1946-06-04&rft.aulast=Wavell&rft.aufirst=A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ibiblio.org%2Fhyperwar%2FUN%2FUK%2FLondonGazette%2F37594.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Journal">Journal</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)&action=edit&section=57" title="Edit section: Journal">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiebenberg2016" class="citation journal cs1">Liebenberg, Elri (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.co.za/doi/pdf/10.5787/44-2-1177">"The Springboks in East Africa: the role of 1 SA survey company (SAEC) in the East African campaign of World War II, 1940–1941"</a>. Scientia Militaria: South African Journal of Military Studies. 44 (2). University of Stellenbosch: 87–112. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5787%2F44-2-1177">10.5787/44-2-1177</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1022-8136">1022-8136</a>. Retrieved 8 October 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientia+Militaria%3A+South+African+Journal+of+Military+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Springboks+in+East+Africa%3A+the+role+of+1+SA+survey+company+%28SAEC%29+in+the+East+African+campaign+of+World+War+II%2C+1940%E2%80%931941&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=87-112&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5787%2F44-2-1177&rft.issn=1022-8136&rft.aulast=Liebenberg&rft.aufirst=Elri&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.co.za%2Fdoi%2Fpdf%2F10.5787%2F44-2-1177&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Theses_2">Theses</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)&action=edit&section=58" title="Edit section: Theses">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation thesis cs1">Anglim, S. J. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.489485">Orde Wingate and the British Army 1922–1944: Military Thought and Practice Compared and Contrasted</a> (PhD). ISNI 0000 0001 3424 7296. University of Wales, Aberystwyth. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/828579432">828579432</a>. Retrieved 25 February 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Orde+Wingate+and+the+British+Army+1922%E2%80%931944%3A+Military+Thought+and+Practice+Compared+and+Contrasted&rft.inst=University+of+Wales%2C+Aberystwyth&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F828579432&rft.aulast=Anglim&rft.aufirst=S.+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fethos.bl.uk%2FOrderDetails.do%3Fuin%3Duk.bl.ethos.489485&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation thesis cs1">Snead, L. R. (6 May 1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304062551/http://cgsc.cdmhost.com/cdm/singleitem/collection/p4013coll3/id/1328/rec/2">Wavell's Campaigns in the Middle East: An Analysis of Operational Art and the Implications for Today</a> (Monograph). Command and General Staff College, School of Advanced Military Studies. Fort Leavenworth, KS: School of Advanced Military Studies, United States Army Command and General Staff College. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/831935679">831935679</a>. Docket ADA 284720. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cgsc.cdmhost.com/cdm/singleitem/collection/p4013coll3/id/1328/rec/2">the original</a> on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 5 March 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Wavell%27s+Campaigns+in+the+Middle+East%3A+An+Analysis+of+Operational+Art+and+the+Implications+for+Today&rft.inst=School+of+Advanced+Military+Studies%2C+United+States+Army+Command+and+General+Staff+College&rft.date=1994-05-06&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F831935679&rft.aulast=Snead&rft.aufirst=L.+R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcgsc.cdmhost.com%2Fcdm%2Fsingleitem%2Fcollection%2Fp4013coll3%2Fid%2F1328%2Frec%2F2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Website">Website</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)&action=edit&section=59" title="Edit section: Website">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1">Kostecka, D. J. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Making+do:+the+air+war+in+East+Africa,+1940-1941.-a0295551098">"Making Do: the Air War in East Africa, 1940–1941"</a>. The Free Library. Retrieved 28 June 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Free+Library&rft.atitle=Making+Do%3A+the+Air+War+in+East+Africa%2C+1940%E2%80%931941&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Kostecka&rft.aufirst=D.+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thefreelibrary.com%2FMaking%2Bdo%3A%2Bthe%2Bair%2Bwar%2Bin%2BEast%2BAfrica%2C%2B1940-1941.-a0295551098&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEast+African+campaign+%28World+War+II%29" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)&action=edit&section=60" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media 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class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:East_African_campaign" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:East African campaign">East African campaign</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.centrorsi.it/notizie/images/stories/casssa/cassa%20nastro%20azzurro117.jpg">Italian campaign map</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://defenceindepth.co/2016/10/21/the-first-victory/#_top">Short talk on the campaign by Andrew Stewart (2016)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iwm.org.uk/history/how-italy-was-defeated-in-east-africa-in-1941">Imperial War Museum talk</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Making+do:+the+air+war+in+East+Africa,+1940-1941.-a0295551098">Air War in East Africa</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://niehorster.org/019_italy/40-06-10_army/army_aoi.html">Italian East African Armed Forces, 10 June 1940</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://niehorster.org/019_italy/40_organ/brig_aoi_40.html">1940 Colonial Brigade, 10 June 1940</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.togdheer.com/history/worldwar.shtml">Somalihome Online: The Invasion of British Somaliland</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110717065610/http://www.togdheer.com/history/worldwar.shtml">Archived</a> 17 July 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.regiamarina.it/eng_index.htm">Regia Marina The Italian Royal Navy</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110911064517/http://www.britishmilitaryhistory.co.uk/documents.php?aid=80&nid=11&start=0">British Military History: East Africa 1940–1947</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="World_War_II" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:World_War_II" title="Template:World War II"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:World_War_II" title="Template talk:World War II"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:World_War_II" title="Special:EditPage/Template:World War II"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="World_War_II" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_World_War_II" title="Outline of World War II">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_War_II_battles" title="List of World War II battles">Battles</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_War_II_military_operations" title="List of World War II military operations">Operations</a></li></ul></li> <li>Leaders <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allied_leaders_of_World_War_II" title="Allied leaders of World War II">Allied</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axis_leaders_of_World_War_II" title="Axis leaders of World War II">Axis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commanders_of_World_War_II" title="Commanders of World War II">Commanders</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_casualties" title="World War II casualties">Casualties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Allied_World_War_II_conferences" title="List of Allied World War II conferences">Conferences</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_World_War_II_topics" title="Lists of World War II topics">Topics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_warfare_of_World_War_II" title="Air warfare of World War II">Air warfare of World War II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_air_operations_during_the_Battle_of_Europe" title="List of air operations during the Battle of Europe">In Europe</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blitzkrieg" title="Blitzkrieg">Blitzkrieg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_officer_ranks_of_World_War_II" title="Comparative officer ranks of World War II">Comparative military ranks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_cryptography" title="World War II cryptography">Cryptography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declarations_of_war_during_World_War_II" title="Declarations of war during World War II">Declarations of war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_history_of_World_War_II" title="Diplomatic history of World War II">Diplomacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_governments_in_exile_during_World_War_II" title="List of governments in exile during World War II">Governments in exile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_front_during_World_War_II" title="Home front during World War II">Home front</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="Australian home front during World War II">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="United Kingdom home front during World War II">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="United States home front during World War II">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lend-Lease" title="Lend-Lease">Lend-Lease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_contribution_to_the_Manhattan_Project" title="British contribution to the Manhattan Project">British contribution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_awards_and_decorations_of_World_War_II" title="List of military awards and decorations of World War II">Military awards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_World_War_II_military_equipment" title="Lists of World War II military equipment">Military equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_production_during_World_War_II" title="Military production during World War II">Military production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_history_of_World_War_II" title="Naval history of World War II">Naval history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_plunder" title="Nazi plunder">Nazi plunder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_World_War_II" title="Opposition to World War II">Opposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_during_World_War_II" title="Technology during World War II">Technology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allied_technological_cooperation_during_World_War_II" title="Allied technological cooperation during World War II">Allied cooperation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mulberry_harbour" class="mw-redirect" title="Mulberry harbour">Mulberry harbour</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Total_war#World_War_II" title="Total war">Total war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_bombing_during_World_War_II" title="Strategic bombing during World War II">Strategic bombing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_War_II_puppet_states" title="List of World War II puppet states">Puppet states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_World_War_II" title="Women in World War II">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_and_World_War_II" title="Art and World War II">Art and World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_in_World_War_II" title="Music in World War II">Music in World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weather_events_during_wars#World_War_II" title="Weather events during wars">Weather events during World War II</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_theaters_and_campaigns_of_World_War_II" title="List of theaters and campaigns of World War II">Theaters</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asiatic-Pacific_theater" title="Asiatic-Pacific theater">Asia and Pacific</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South-East_Asian_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="South-East Asian theatre of World War II">South-East Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_War" title="Pacific War">Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean_theater_of_World_War_II" title="Pacific Ocean theater of World War II">North and Central Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_West_Pacific_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="South West Pacific theatre of World War II">South-West Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_in_World_War_II" title="Indian Ocean in World War II">Indian Ocean</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="European theatre of World War II">Europe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Western Front (World War II)">Western Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">Eastern Front</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_and_Middle_East_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="Mediterranean and Middle East theatre of World War II">Mediterranean and Middle East</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_African_campaign" title="North African campaign">North Africa</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">East Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_campaign_(World_War_II)" title="Italian campaign (World War II)">Italy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_West_Africa_in_World_War_II" title="French West Africa in World War II">West Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Atlantic" title="Battle of the Atlantic">Atlantic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Battle_of_the_Atlantic" title="Timeline of the Battle of the Atlantic">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Theater_(World_War_II)" class="mw-redirect" title="American Theater (World War II)">Americas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_World_War_II" title="Aftermath of World War II">Aftermath</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decolonization" title="Decolonization">Decolonization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Division_of_Korea" title="Division of Korea">Division of Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Indochina_War" title="First Indochina War">First Indochina War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flight_and_expulsion_of_Germans_(1944%E2%80%931950)" title="Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1950)">Expulsion of Germans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Civil_War" title="Greek Civil War">Greek Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_National_Revolution" title="Indonesian National Revolution">Indonesian National Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Keelhaul" title="Operation Keelhaul">Keelhaul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Plan" title="Marshall Plan">Marshall Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied-occupied_Germany" title="Allied-occupied Germany">Occupation of Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Japan" title="Occupation of Japan">Occupation of Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Osoaviakhim" title="Operation Osoaviakhim">Osoaviakhim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Paperclip" title="Operation Paperclip">Paperclip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_occupations_by_the_Soviet_Union" title="Military occupations by the Soviet Union">Soviet occupations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Baltic_states" title="Occupation of the Baltic states">Baltic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungary%E2%80%93Soviet_Union_relations" title="Hungary–Soviet Union relations">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_People%27s_Republic" title="Polish People's Republic">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_occupation_of_Romania" title="Soviet occupation of Romania">Romania</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oder%E2%80%93Neisse_line" title="Oder–Neisse line">Territorial changes of Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Final_Settlement_with_Respect_to_Germany" title="Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany">Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_World_War_II" title="War crimes in World War II">War crimes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allied_war_crimes_during_World_War_II" title="Allied war crimes during World War II">Allied war crimes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_war_crimes#World_War_II" title="Soviet war crimes">Soviet war crimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_war_crimes#World_War_II" title="British war crimes">British war crimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_war_crimes#World_War_II" title="United States war crimes">United States war crimes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_war_crimes#World_War_II" title="German war crimes">German war crimes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forced_labour_under_German_rule_during_World_War_II" title="Forced labour under German rule during World War II">forced labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_of_the_Wehrmacht" title="War crimes of the Wehrmacht">Wehrmacht war crimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">The Holocaust</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_the_Holocaust" title="Aftermath of the Holocaust">Aftermath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_response_to_the_Holocaust" title="International response to the Holocaust">Response</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_trials" title="Nuremberg trials">Nuremberg trials</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_war_crimes" title="Italian war crimes">Italian war crimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_war_crimes" title="Japanese war crimes">Japanese war crimes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nanjing_Massacre" title="Nanjing Massacre">Nanjing Massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unit_731" title="Unit 731">Unit 731</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Military_Tribunal_for_the_Far_East" title="International Military Tribunal for the Far East">Prosecution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usta%C5%A1e" title="Ustaše">Croatian war crimes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_of_Serbs_in_the_Independent_State_of_Croatia" title="Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia">Genocide of Serbs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_the_Independent_State_of_Croatia" title="The Holocaust in the Independent State of Croatia">Persecution of Jews</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Romania#The_Holocaust" title="History of the Jews in Romania">Romanian war crimes</a></li> <li>Sexual violence <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_military_brothels_in_World_War_II" title="German military brothels in World War II">German military brothels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_camp_brothels_in_World_War_II" title="German camp brothels in World War II">Camp brothels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rape_during_the_occupation_of_Germany" title="Rape during the occupation of Germany">Rape during the occupation of Germany</a>  / <a href="/wiki/Rape_during_the_occupation_of_Japan" title="Rape during the occupation of Japan">Japan</a>  / <a href="/wiki/Rape_during_the_Soviet_occupation_of_Poland" title="Rape during the Soviet occupation of Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rape_during_the_liberation_of_France" title="Rape during the liberation of France">Rape during the liberation of France</a>  / <a href="/wiki/Rape_during_the_liberation_of_Serbia" title="Rape during the liberation of Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sook_Ching" title="Sook Ching">Sook Ching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comfort_women" title="Comfort women">Comfort women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manila_massacre#Mass_rapes" title="Manila massacre">Rape of Manila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marocchinate" title="Marocchinate">Marocchinate</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_by_country" title="World War II by country">Participants</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algeria_in_World_War_II" title="Algeria in World War II">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Australia_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Australia during World War II">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgium_in_World_War_II" title="Belgium in World War II">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brazil_in_World_War_II" title="Brazil in World War II">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgaria_during_World_War_II" title="Bulgaria during World War II">Bulgaria</a> (<a href="/wiki/1944_Bulgarian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1944 Bulgarian coup d'état">from September 1944</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canada_in_World_War_II" title="Canada in World War II">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuba_during_World_War_II" title="Cuba during World War II">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Czechoslovakia_(1938%E2%80%931945)" title="Occupation of Czechoslovakia (1938–1945)">Czechoslovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denmark_in_World_War_II" title="Denmark in World War II">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Italo-Ethiopian_War" title="Second Italo-Ethiopian War">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eswatini_in_World_War_II" title="Eswatini in World War II">Eswatini</a> (formerly Swaziland)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finland_in_World_War_II" title="Finland in World War II">Finland</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lapland_War" title="Lapland War">from September 1944</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/France_during_World_War_II" title="France during World War II">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_France" title="Free France">Free France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Greece_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Greece during World War II">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/India_in_World_War_II" title="India in World War II">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Co-belligerent_Army" title="Italian Co-belligerent Army">Italy</a> (<a href="/wiki/Italian_Civil_War" title="Italian Civil War">from September 1943</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luxembourg_in_World_War_II" title="Luxembourg in World War II">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexico_during_World_War_II" title="Mexico during World War II">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Netherlands_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the Netherlands during World War II">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Newfoundland_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Newfoundland during World War II">Newfoundland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_New_Zealand_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of New Zealand during World War II">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_campaign" title="Norwegian campaign">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Philippines_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the Philippines during World War II">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_(1939%E2%80%931945)" title="History of Poland (1939–1945)">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romania_in_World_War_II" title="Romania in World War II">Romania</a> (<a href="/wiki/1944_Romanian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1944 Romanian coup d'état">from August 1944</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_in_World_War_II" title="Sierra Leone in World War II">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_South_Africa_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of South Africa during World War II">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Rhodesia_in_World_War_II" title="Southern Rhodesia in World War II">Southern Rhodesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union_in_World_War_II" title="Soviet Union in World War II">Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuva_in_World_War_II" title="Tuva in World War II">Tuva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United Kingdom during World War II">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire_in_World_War_II" title="British Empire in World War II">British Empire</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United States during World War II">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Puerto_Ricans_in_World_War_II" title="Puerto Ricans in World War II">Puerto Rico</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_in_Yugoslavia" title="World War II in Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Axis_powers" title="Axis powers">Axis</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_protectorate_of_Albania_(1939%E2%80%931943)" title="Italian protectorate of Albania (1939–1943)">Albania protectorate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgaria_during_World_War_II" title="Bulgaria during World War II">Bulgaria</a> (until September 1944)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Jingwei_regime" title="Wang Jingwei regime">Wang Jingwei regime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_State_of_Croatia" title="Independent State of Croatia">Independent State of Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finland_in_World_War_II" title="Finland in World War II">Finland</a> (until September 1944)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">German Reich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungary_in_World_War_II" title="Hungary in World War II">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azad_Hind" title="Azad Hind">Azad Hind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Indochina_in_World_War_II" title="French Indochina in World War II">French Indochina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Iraqi_War" title="Anglo-Iraqi War">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Italy_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Italy during World War II">Italy</a> (until September 1943) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Social_Republic" title="Italian Social Republic">Italian Social Republic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Empire of Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Philippine_Republic" title="Second Philippine Republic">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romania_in_World_War_II" title="Romania in World War II">Romania</a> (until August 1944)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovak_Republic_(1939%E2%80%931945)" title="Slovak Republic (1939–1945)">Slovak Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thailand_in_World_War_II" title="Thailand in World War II">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vichy_France" title="Vichy France">Vichy France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Collaboration_with_Axis_Powers" title="Template:Collaboration with Axis Powers">Collaboration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Neutral_powers_during_World_War_II" title="Neutral powers during World War II">Neutral</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Afghanistan" title="Kingdom of Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Andorra#20th_and_21st_centuries" title="History of Andorra">Andorra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhutan" title="Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_neutrality_during_World_War_II" title="Irish neutrality during World War II">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liechtenstein_in_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Liechtenstein in World War II">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portugal_during_World_War_II" title="Portugal during World War II">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spain_during_World_War_II" title="Spain during World War II">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sweden_during_World_War_II" title="Sweden during World War II">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Switzerland_during_the_World_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Switzerland during the World Wars">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibet_(1912%E2%80%931951)" title="Tibet (1912–1951)">Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vatican_City_during_World_War_II" title="Vatican City during World War II">Vatican City</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Resistance_during_World_War_II" title="Resistance during World War II">Resistance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II_in_Albania" title="World War II in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_resistance" title="Austrian resistance">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_Resistance" title="Belgian Resistance">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_resistance_movement_during_World_War_II" title="Bulgarian resistance movement during World War II">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistance_in_the_Protectorate_of_Bohemia_and_Moravia" title="Resistance in the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia">Czech lands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_resistance_movement" title="Danish resistance movement">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_the_Dutch_East_Indies#Underground_resistance" title="Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies">Dutch East Indies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estonian_anti-German_resistance_movement_1941%E2%80%931944" title="Estonian anti-German resistance movement 1941–1944">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arbegnoch" title="Arbegnoch">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Resistance" title="French Resistance">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_resistance_to_Nazism" title="German resistance to Nazism">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_resistance" title="Greek resistance">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Hong_Kong#Anti-Japanese_resistance" title="Japanese occupation of Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_resistance_movement" title="Italian resistance movement">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_dissidence_in_the_Empire_of_Japan#Dissidence_during_World_War_II" title="Political dissidence in the Empire of Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_resistance_in_German-occupied_Europe" title="Jewish resistance in German-occupied Europe">Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korea" title="Korea">Korea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Liberation_Army" title="Korean Liberation Army">Korean Liberation Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Volunteer_Army" title="Korean Volunteer Army">Korean Volunteer Army</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latvian_anti-Nazi_resistance_movement_1941%E2%80%931945" title="Latvian anti-Nazi resistance movement 1941–1945">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistance_in_Lithuania_during_World_War_II" title="Resistance in Lithuania during World War II">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luxembourg_Resistance" title="Luxembourg Resistance">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayan_Peoples%27_Anti-Japanese_Army" title="Malayan Peoples' Anti-Japanese Army">Malaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_resistance" title="Dutch resistance">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_Anti-Japanese_United_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army">Northeast China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_resistance_movement" title="Norwegian resistance movement">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_resistance_against_Japan" title="Philippine resistance against Japan">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_resistance_movement_in_World_War_II" title="Polish resistance movement in World War II">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_anti-communist_resistance_movement" title="Romanian anti-communist resistance movement">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Thai_Movement" title="Free Thai Movement">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_partisans" title="Soviet partisans">Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovak_National_Uprising" title="Slovak National Uprising">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Insurgent_Army" title="Ukrainian Insurgent Army">Western Ukraine</a></li> <li>Vietnam <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vi%E1%BB%87t_Nam_Qu%E1%BB%91c_D%C3%A2n_%C4%90%E1%BA%A3ng" title="Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng">Quốc dân Đảng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viet_Minh" title="Viet Minh">Viet Minh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_Partisans" title="Yugoslav Partisans">Yugoslavia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_war" title="Prisoner of war">POWs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_prisoners_of_war_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Finnish prisoners of war in the Soviet Union">Finnish prisoners in the Soviet Union</a></li> <li>German prisoners <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_prisoners_of_war_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="German prisoners of war in the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_prisoners_of_war_in_Azerbaijan" title="German prisoners of war in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_prisoners_of_war_in_the_United_States" title="German prisoners of war in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_prisoners_of_war_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="German prisoners of war in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_prisoners_of_war_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Italian prisoners of war in the Soviet Union">Italian prisoners in the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_prisoners_of_war_in_World_War_II" title="Japanese prisoners of war in World War II">Japanese prisoners</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_prisoners_of_war_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Japanese prisoners of war in the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_atrocities_committed_against_Polish_prisoners_of_war" title="German atrocities committed against Polish prisoners of war">German atrocities against Polish POWs</a></li> <li>Soviet prisoners <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_prisoners_of_war_in_Finland" title="Soviet prisoners of war in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_atrocities_committed_against_Soviet_prisoners_of_war" title="German atrocities committed against Soviet prisoners of war">atrocities by Germans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_prisoners-of-war_in_the_Soviet_Union_after_1939" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish prisoners-of-war in the Soviet Union after 1939">Polish prisoners in the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_prisoners_of_war_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Romanian prisoners of war in the Soviet Union">Romanian prisoners in the Soviet Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_timelines_of_World_War_II" title="List of timelines of World War II">Timeline</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th id="Prelude" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_World_War_II" title="Causes of World War II">Prelude</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abyssinia_Crisis" title="Abyssinia Crisis">Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Italo-Ethiopian_War" title="Second Italo-Ethiopian War">Second Italo-Ethiopian War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Events_preceding_World_War_II_in_Asia" title="Events preceding World War II in Asia">Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Second Sino-Japanese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battles_of_Khalkhin_Gol" title="Battles of Khalkhin Gol">Battles of Khalkhin Gol</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Events_preceding_World_War_II_in_Europe" title="Events preceding World War II in Europe">Europe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anschluss" title="Anschluss">Anschluss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Munich_Agreement" title="Munich Agreement">Munich Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Czechoslovakia_(1938%E2%80%931945)" title="Occupation of Czechoslovakia (1938–1945)">Occupation of Czechoslovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Himmler" title="Operation Himmler">Operation Himmler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_invasion_of_Albania" title="Italian invasion of Albania">Italian invasion of Albania</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1939)" title="Timeline of World War II (1939)">1939</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland" title="Invasion of Poland">Invasion of Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Atlantic" title="Battle of the Atlantic">Battle of the Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoney_War" title="Phoney War">Phoney War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Changsha_(1939)" title="Battle of Changsha (1939)">First Battle of Changsha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_South_Guangxi" title="Battle of South Guangxi">Battle of South Guangxi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winter_War" title="Winter War">Winter War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1939%E2%80%931940_Winter_Offensive" title="1939–1940 Winter Offensive">1939–1940 Winter Offensive</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1940)" title="Timeline of World War II (1940)">1940</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_campaign" title="Norwegian campaign">Norwegian campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_Denmark_(1940)" title="German invasion of Denmark (1940)">German invasion of Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Zaoyang%E2%80%93Yichang" title="Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang">Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_Luxembourg" title="German invasion of Luxembourg">German invasion of Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_the_Netherlands" title="German invasion of the Netherlands">German invasion of the Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_Belgium_(1940)" title="German invasion of Belgium (1940)">German invasion of Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_France" title="Battle of France">Battle of France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dunkirk_evacuation" title="Dunkirk evacuation">Dunkirk evacuation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Britain" title="Battle of Britain">Battle of Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Mediterranean" title="Battle of the Mediterranean">Battle of the Mediterranean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Desert_campaign" title="Western Desert campaign">North Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_West_Africa_in_World_War_II" title="French West Africa in World War II">West Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_invasion_of_British_Somaliland" title="Italian invasion of British Somaliland">British Somaliland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Regiments_Offensive" title="Hundred Regiments Offensive">Hundred Regiments Offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Baltic_states" title="Occupation of the Baltic states">Baltic states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_occupation_of_Bessarabia_and_Northern_Bukovina" title="Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina">Eastern Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_French_Indochina" title="Japanese invasion of French Indochina">Japanese invasion of French Indochina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Italian_War" title="Greco-Italian War">Italian invasion of Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Compass" title="Operation Compass">Compass</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1941)" title="Timeline of World War II (1941)">1941</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_South_Henan" title="Battle of South Henan">Battle of South Henan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shanggao" title="Battle of Shanggao">Battle of Shanggao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Yugoslavia" title="Invasion of Yugoslavia">Invasion of Yugoslavia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_Greece" title="German invasion of Greece">German invasion of Greece</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Crete" title="Battle of Crete">Battle of Crete</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Iraqi_War" title="Anglo-Iraqi War">Anglo-Iraqi War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_South_Shanxi" title="Battle of South Shanxi">Battle of South Shanxi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syria%E2%80%93Lebanon_campaign" title="Syria–Lebanon campaign">Syria–Lebanon campaign</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">East African campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">Invasion of the Soviet Union</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Summer_War" title="Summer War">Summer War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuation_War" title="Continuation War">Finland</a> (<a href="/wiki/Operation_Silver_Fox" title="Operation Silver Fox">Silver Fox</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/June_Uprising_in_Lithuania" title="June Uprising in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kiev_(1941)" title="Battle of Kiev (1941)">Battle of Kiev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Soviet_invasion_of_Iran" title="Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran">Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Changsha_(1941)" title="Battle of Changsha (1941)">Second Battle of Changsha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Leningrad" title="Siege of Leningrad">Siege of Leningrad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Moscow" title="Battle of Moscow">Battle of Moscow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Gorky_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Gorky in World War II">Bombing of Gorky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Sevastopol_(1941%E2%80%931942)" title="Siege of Sevastopol (1941–1942)">Siege of Sevastopol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">Attack on Pearl Harbor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Thailand" title="Japanese invasion of Thailand">Japanese invasion of Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hong_Kong" title="Battle of Hong Kong">Fall of Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippines_campaign_(1941%E2%80%931942)" title="Philippines campaign (1941–1942)">Fall of the Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Guam_(1941)" title="Battle of Guam (1941)">Battle of Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wake_Island" title="Battle of Wake Island">Battle of Wake Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayan_campaign" title="Malayan campaign">Malayan campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Borneo_(1941%E2%80%931942)" title="Battle of Borneo (1941–1942)">Battle of Borneo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Burma" title="Japanese invasion of Burma">Japanese invasion of Burma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Changsha_(1941%E2%80%931942)" title="Battle of Changsha (1941–1942)">Third Battle of Changsha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_(Greece)" title="Great Famine (Greece)">Greek famine of 1941–1944</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1942)" title="Timeline of World War II (1942)">1942</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Singapore" title="Fall of Singapore">Fall of Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Java_Sea" title="Battle of the Java Sea">Battle of the Java Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St_Nazaire_Raid" title="St Nazaire Raid">St Nazaire Raid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Christmas_Island" title="Battle of Christmas Island">Battle of Christmas Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Coral_Sea" title="Battle of the Coral Sea">Battle of the Coral Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Madagascar" title="Battle of Madagascar">Battle of Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhejiang-Jiangxi_campaign" title="Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign">Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gazala" title="Battle of Gazala">Battle of Gazala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dutch_Harbor" title="Battle of Dutch Harbor">Battle of Dutch Harbor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Midway" title="Battle of Midway">Battle of Midway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleutian_Islands_campaign" title="Aleutian Islands campaign">Aleutian Islands campaign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Kiska" title="Japanese occupation of Kiska">Kiska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Attu" title="Japanese occupation of Attu"> Attu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case_Blue" title="Case Blue">Blue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_El_Alamein" title="First Battle of El Alamein">First Battle of El Alamein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stalingrad" title="Battle of Stalingrad">Battle of Stalingrad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokoda_Track_campaign" title="Kokoda Track campaign">Kokoda Track campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rzhev,_summer_1942" title="Battle of Rzhev, summer 1942">Rzhev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dieppe_Raid" title="Dieppe Raid">Jubilee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_El_Alamein" title="Second Battle of El Alamein">Second Battle of El Alamein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guadalcanal_campaign" title="Guadalcanal campaign">Guadalcanal campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Torch" title="Operation Torch">Torch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_famine_of_1942%E2%80%931943" title="Chinese famine of 1942–1943">Chinese famine of 1942–1943</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1943)" title="Timeline of World War II (1943)">1943</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_May_(1943)" title="Black May (1943)">Black May</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_campaign" title="Tunisian campaign">Tunisian campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_West_Hubei" title="Battle of West Hubei">Battle of West Hubei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Attu" title="Battle of Attu">Battle of Attu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Gorky_in_World_War_II#June_1943" title="Bombing of Gorky in World War II">Bombing of Gorky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kursk" title="Battle of Kursk">Battle of Kursk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Sicily" title="Allied invasion of Sicily">Allied invasion of Sicily</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smolensk_operation" title="Smolensk operation">Smolensk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solomon_Islands_campaign" title="Solomon Islands campaign">Solomon Islands campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Cottage" title="Operation Cottage">Cottage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Dnieper" title="Battle of the Dnieper">Battle of the Dnieper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Italy" title="Allied invasion of Italy">Allied invasion of Italy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_Cassibile" title="Armistice of Cassibile">Armistice of Cassibile</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burma_campaign" title="Burma campaign">Burma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Northern_Burma_and_Western_Yunnan" title="Battle of Northern Burma and Western Yunnan">Northern Burma and Western Yunnan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Changde" title="Battle of Changde">Changde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kiev_(1943)" title="Battle of Kiev (1943)">Second Battle of Kiev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_and_Marshall_Islands_campaign" title="Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign">Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tarawa" title="Battle of Tarawa">Tarawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Makin" title="Battle of Makin">Makin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengal_famine_of_1943" title="Bengal famine of 1943">Bengal famine of 1943</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1944)" title="Timeline of World War II (1944)">1944</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Tempest" title="Operation Tempest">Tempest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Monte_Cassino" title="Battle of Monte Cassino">Monte Cassino</a> / <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Anzio" title="Battle of Anzio">Anzio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Korsun%E2%80%93Cherkassy" title="Battle of Korsun–Cherkassy">Korsun–Cherkassy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Narva_(1944)" title="Battle of Narva (1944)">Narva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Ichi-Go" title="Operation Ichi-Go">Ichi-Go</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Overlord" title="Operation Overlord">Overlord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normandy_landings" title="Normandy landings">Neptune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mariana_and_Palau_Islands_campaign" title="Mariana and Palau Islands campaign">Mariana and Palau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Bagration" title="Operation Bagration">Bagration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lvov%E2%80%93Sandomierz_offensive" class="mw-redirect" title="Lvov–Sandomierz offensive">Western Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Guam_(1944)" title="Battle of Guam (1944)">Second Battle of Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tannenberg_Line" title="Battle of Tannenberg Line">Tannenberg Line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Uprising" title="Warsaw Uprising">Warsaw Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Jassy%E2%80%93Kishinev_offensive" title="Second Jassy–Kishinev offensive">Eastern Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberation_of_Paris" title="Liberation of Paris">Liberation of Paris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Dragoon" title="Operation Dragoon">Dragoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_Line" title="Gothic Line">Gothic Line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgrade_offensive" title="Belgrade offensive">Belgrade offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lapland_War" title="Lapland War">Lapland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Market_Garden" title="Operation Market Garden">Market Garden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tallinn_offensive" title="Tallinn offensive">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Crossbow" title="Operation Crossbow">Crossbow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combined_Bomber_Offensive" title="Combined Bomber Offensive">Pointblank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_famine_of_1944%E2%80%931945" title="Vietnamese famine of 1944–1945">Vietnamese famine of 1944–1945</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippines_campaign_(1944%E2%80%931945)" title="Philippines campaign (1944–1945)">Philippines (1944–1945)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Leyte_Gulf" title="Battle of Leyte Gulf">Leyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrmian_Front" title="Syrmian Front">Syrmian Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Budapest_offensive" title="Budapest offensive">Hungary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Budapest" title="Siege of Budapest">Budapest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burma_campaign_(1944%E2%80%931945)" title="Burma campaign (1944–1945)">Burma (1944–1945)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Bulge" title="Battle of the Bulge">Ardennes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Bodenplatte" title="Operation Bodenplatte">Bodenplatte</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_famine_of_1944%E2%80%931945" title="Dutch famine of 1944–1945">Dutch famine of 1944–1945</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1945%E2%80%931991)" title="Timeline of World War II (1945–1991)">1945</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vistula%E2%80%93Oder_offensive" title="Vistula–Oder offensive">Vistula–Oder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Manila_(1945)" title="Battle of Manila (1945)">Battle of Manila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Iwo_Jima" title="Battle of Iwo Jima">Battle of Iwo Jima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_in_French_Indochina" title="Japanese coup d'état in French Indochina">Indochina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_offensive" title="Vienna offensive">Vienna offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Hula" title="Project Hula">Project Hula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Allied_invasion_of_Germany" title="Western Allied invasion of Germany">Western invasion of Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bratislava%E2%80%93Brno_offensive" title="Bratislava–Brno offensive">Bratislava–Brno offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Okinawa" title="Battle of Okinawa">Battle of Okinawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Guangxi_campaign" title="Second Guangxi campaign">Second Guangxi campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_West_Hunan" title="Battle of West Hunan">West Hunan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spring_1945_offensive_in_Italy" title="Spring 1945 offensive in Italy">Italy (Spring 1945)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Berlin" title="Battle of Berlin">Battle of Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prague_offensive" title="Prague offensive">Prague offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/End_of_World_War_II_in_Europe" title="End of World War II in Europe">Surrender of Germany</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_Instrument_of_Surrender" title="German Instrument of Surrender">document</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borneo_campaign" title="Borneo campaign">Borneo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raid_on_Taipei" title="Raid on Taipei">Taipei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied_naval_bombardments_of_Japan_during_World_War_II" title="Allied naval bombardments of Japan during World War II">Naval bombardment of Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Soviet invasion of Manchuria">Manchuria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Atomic bombings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Debate_over_the_atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Debate over the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Debate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_South_Sakhalin" title="Soviet invasion of South Sakhalin">South Sakhalin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_the_Kuril_Islands" title="Invasion of the Kuril Islands">Kuril Islands</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shumshu" title="Battle of Shumshu">Shumshu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan" title="Surrender of Japan">Surrender of Japan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Potsdam_Declaration" title="Potsdam Declaration">Potsdam Declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Instrument_of_Surrender" title="Japanese Instrument of Surrender">document</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/End_of_World_War_II_in_Asia" title="End of World War II in Asia">End of World War II in Asia</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/16px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/24px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 1.5x, 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States</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)&oldid=1258208929">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)&oldid=1258208929</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)" title="Category:East African campaign (World War II)">East African campaign (World War II)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:African_theatres_of_World_War_II" title="Category:African theatres of World War II">African theatres of World War II</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Campaigns_of_World_War_II" title="Category:Campaigns of World War II">Campaigns of World War II</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_the_Horn_of_Africa" title="Category:History of the Horn of Africa">History of the Horn of Africa</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Conflicts_in_1940" title="Category:Conflicts in 1940">Conflicts in 1940</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Conflicts_in_1941" title="Category:Conflicts in 1941">Conflicts in 1941</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Kenya_Colony" title="Category:Kenya Colony">Kenya Colony</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:British_Somaliland" title="Category:British Somaliland">British Somaliland</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Italian_East_Africa" title="Category:Italian East Africa">Italian East Africa</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Belgian_Congo_in_World_War_II" title="Category:Belgian Congo in World War II">Belgian Congo in World War II</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Eritrea_in_World_War_II" title="Category:Eritrea in World War II">Eritrea in World War II</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ethiopia_in_World_War_II" title="Category:Ethiopia in World War II">Ethiopia in World War II</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Kenya_in_World_War_II" title="Category:Kenya in World War II">Kenya in World War II</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Somaliland_in_World_War_II" title="Category:Somaliland in World War II">Somaliland in World War II</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Southern_Rhodesia_in_World_War_II" title="Category:Southern Rhodesia in World War II">Southern Rhodesia in World War II</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1940s_in_Eritrea" title="Category:1940s in Eritrea">1940s in Eritrea</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1940s_in_Ethiopia" title="Category:1940s in Ethiopia">1940s in Ethiopia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1940s_in_Kenya" title="Category:1940s in Kenya">1940s in Kenya</a></li><li><a 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and operations of World War II involving India">Battles and operations of World War II involving India</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Battles_and_operations_of_World_War_II_involving_Italy" title="Category:Battles and operations of World War II involving Italy">Battles and operations of World War II involving Italy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Battles_and_operations_of_World_War_II_involving_South_Africa" title="Category:Battles and operations of World War II involving South Africa">Battles and operations of World War II involving South Africa</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Battles_involving_the_Force_Publique" title="Category:Battles involving the Force Publique">Battles involving the Force Publique</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Campaigns,_operations_and_battles_of_World_War_II_involving_the_United_Kingdom" title="Category:Campaigns, operations and battles of World War II involving the United Kingdom">Campaigns, operations and battles of World War II involving the United Kingdom</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_history_of_British_Somaliland_during_World_War_II" title="Category:Military history of British Somaliland during World War II">Military history of British Somaliland during World War II</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_history_of_the_British_Empire_and_Commonwealth_in_World_War_II" title="Category:Military history of the British Empire and Commonwealth in World War II">Military history of the British Empire and Commonwealth in World War II</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_history_of_Italy_during_World_War_II" title="Category:Military history of Italy during World War II">Military history of Italy during World War II</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_history_of_India_during_World_War_II" title="Category:Military history of India during World War II">Military history of India during World War II</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_history_of_South_Africa_during_World_War_II" title="Category:Military history of South Africa during World War II">Military history of South Africa during World War II</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wars_involving_British_India" title="Category:Wars involving British India">Wars involving British India</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wars_involving_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Category:Wars involving the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Wars involving the Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wars_involving_Ghana" title="Category:Wars involving Ghana">Wars involving Ghana</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wars_involving_Nigeria" title="Category:Wars involving Nigeria">Wars involving Nigeria</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wars_involving_Rhodesia" title="Category:Wars involving Rhodesia">Wars involving Rhodesia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wars_involving_Sudan" title="Category:Wars involving Sudan">Wars involving Sudan</a></li><li><a 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