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$dismissible.click(function(ev) { $dismissible.hide(); }); });</script> <script async="" src="//cdn.jsdelivr.net/npm/mathjax@3/es5/tex-mml-chtml.js"></script><script src="//a.academia-assets.com/assets/webpack_bundles/journals_article.wjs-bundle-83f7a6dac4ee774d714c7a52d608966f23296cd59d002d733d1d8d7c5158d39d.js"></script><div id="article-metadata"><style type="text/css">html{font-size:16px !important}.ds2-5-article-card__metadata{font-family:var(--type-font-family-sans-serif, "Roboto"),Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-style:normal;font-weight:400;font-size:var(--type-body-sm-size, 14px);line-height:var(--type-body-sm-line-height, 20px);font-weight:var(--type-body-sm-font-weight, 400);display:flex;flex-direction:row}.ds2-5-article-card__metadata__article-type,.ds2-5-article-card__metadata__publication_date{width:50%}@media(min-width: 568px)and (max-width: 1279px){.ds2-5-article-card__metadata__article-type,.ds2-5-article-card__metadata__publication_date{width:33%}}@media(min-width: 1280px){.ds2-5-article-card__metadata__article-type,.ds2-5-article-card__metadata__publication_date{width:33%}}.ds2-5-article-card__metadata__article-type{display:flex;align-items:center}.ds2-5-article-card__metadata__article-type .color-indicator{display:inline-block;margin-right:8px;height:16px;width:16px;border:2px solid var(--stroke-gray, #676e7b);border-radius:50%;background:var(--accent-yellow, #f7ffcc)}.ds2-5-article-card__metadata__article-type .color-indicator.research_article{background:var(--accent-green, #ccffd4)}.ds2-5-article-card__metadata__article-type .color-indicator.review_article{background:var(--accent-turquoise, #ccf7ff)}.ds2-5-article-card__metadata__article-type .color-indicator.communications{background:var(--accent-peach, #ffd4cc)}.ds2-5-article-card__metadata__article-type .color-indicator.clinical_trial{background:var(--accent-violet, #ccffd4)}.ds2-5-article-card__metadata__article-type .color-indicator.case_study{background:var(--accent-yellow, #f7ffcc)}</style><div class="ds2-5-article-card__metadata"><div class="ds2-5-article-card__metadata__article-type"><span class="color-indicator review_article"></span><span>Review article</span></div><div class="ds2-5-article-card__metadata__publication_date">September 12, 2024</div></div></div><div id="article-header"><div class="sap__header-grid-container"><div id="article-metadata-mobile"><div class="sap__metadata-section"><div class="sap__sidebar-sub-section"><div class="sap__title">Academia Environmental Sciences and Sustainability</div><div class="sap__sidebar-content">Volume 1; Issue 2</div></div><div class="sap__metadata-section"><div class="sap__title" id="article-metadata-show-more"><div class="show-more"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 20px" translate="no">add</span>Show more</div><div class="show-less"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 20px" translate="no">remove</span>Show less</div></div><div id="article-metadata-extra"><div class="sap__sidebar-section"><div class="sap__sidebar-sub-section-row"><div class="sap__sidebar-dates-graphic"><svg fill="none" height="131" viewBox="0 0 5 131" width="5" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><line stroke="black" x1="2.5" x2="2.50001" y1="131" y2="4"></line><circle cx="2.5" cy="2.5" fill="black" r="2.5"></circle><circle cx="2.5" cy="65.5" fill="black" r="2.5"></circle><circle cx="2.5" cy="128.5" fill="black" r="2.5"></circle></svg></div><div class="sap__sidebar-sub-section-dates"><div class="sap__sidebar-sub-section"><div class="sap__title">Received</div><div class="sap__sidebar-content">June 22, 2024</div></div><div class="sap__sidebar-sub-section"><div class="sap__title">Accepted</div><div class="sap__sidebar-content">August 25, 2024</div></div><div class="sap__sidebar-sub-section"><div class="sap__title">Published</div><div class="sap__sidebar-content">September 12, 2024</div></div></div></div></div><div class="sap__sidebar-section"><div class="sap__sidebar-sub-section"><div class="sap__title_bold">Academic editors</div></div><style type="text/css">html{font-size:16px !important}.ds2-5-person-metadata{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.ds2-5-person-metadata__title{font-family:var(--type-font-family-sans-serif, "Roboto"),Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-style:normal;font-weight:400;font-size:var(--type-body-md-size, 16px);line-height:var(--type-body-md-line-height, 24px);font-weight:var(--type-body-md-font-weight, 400);color:var(--text-primary, #070A15)}.ds2-5-person-metadata__content{font-family:var(--type-font-family-sans-serif, "Roboto"),Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-style:normal;font-weight:400;font-size:var(--type-body-md-size, 16px);line-height:var(--type-body-md-line-height, 24px);font-weight:var(--type-body-md-font-weight, 400);color:var(--text-secondary, #676E7B);overflow-wrap:break-word;word-break:break-word}.ds2-5-person-metadata__links-container{display:flex;gap:var(--spacing-xs-16, 16px);padding-top:var(--spacing-xs-4, 4px)}.ds2-5-person-metadata__link{font-family:var(--type-font-family-sans-serif, "Roboto"),Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-style:normal;font-weight:400;font-size:var(--type-body-md-size, 16px);line-height:var(--type-body-md-line-height, 24px);font-weight:var(--type-body-md-font-weight, 400);text-decoration-line:underline;color:var(--text-primary, #070A15)}</style><div class="ds2-5-person-metadata"><div class="ds2-5-person-metadata__title">Dr. Gareth Neighbour</div><div class="ds2-5-person-metadata__content">Editorial Board Member</div><div class="ds2-5-person-metadata__links-container"><a class="ds2-5-person-metadata__link" href="https://open.academia.edu/GarethNeighbour" target="_blank">Profile</a><a class="ds2-5-person-metadata__link" href="https://www.open.ac.uk/people/gbn9" target="_blank">Institution</a></div></div></div></div></div></div></div><div class="sap__header-grid-contents"><div class="sap__header-mobile-top-row"><div class="js-react-on-rails-component" style="display:none" data-component-name="DownloadButton" data-props="{"author":{"id":48995468,"first_name":"Kuok Ho Daniel","middle_initials":null,"last_name":"Tang","page_name":"KuokHoDanielTang","domain_name":"universityofarizona","created_at":"2016-05-20T00:24:38.400-07:00","display_name":"Kuok Ho Daniel Tang","url":"https://universityofarizona.academia.edu/KuokHoDanielTang","photo":"https://0.academia-photos.com/48995468/120509280/109835169/s200_kuok_ho_daniel.tang.jpg"},"downloadUrl":"https://www.academia.edu/attachments/118156742/download_file?s=sap","reactionPrompt":null,"work":{"id":123810600,"title":"Urban Solutions to Climate Change: An Overview of Latest Progress","translatedTitle":"","metadata":{"doi":"10.20935/AcadEnvSci7342","issn":"2997-6006","abstract":"Urban centers are bearing the brunt of climate change. Meanwhile, they are important sources of greenhouse gases, particularly due to burgeoning transportation and high power demand for heating and electricity. This worsens the urban impacts of climate change. Urban solutions have emerged as feasible approaches to mitigate or adapt to climate change. This review aims to present an overview of the latest progress in various urban solutions to climate change. Urban solutions can generally be categorized into nature-based, technological, social, and integrated solutions. Nature-based solutions use natural ecosystems and processes, such as urban greening, green space, ecosystem restoration, and sustainable drainage systems, to address climate change problems. They could be vulnerable to the very climate challenges they address. Technological solutions encompass sustainable heating and cooling, innovative and green building materials, retro-reflective materials, cleaner modes of transportation, as well as big data and IoT devices for city planning. These solutions could be costly and resource-intensive. Social solutions involve promoting changes in behaviors and habits, which may require government and community intervention and engagement. They rely on political representation and social integration, which are sometimes lacking. Urban solutions are often integrated, combining two or all categories of solutions. Nature-based and technological solutions have been supported through urban greening and transportation plans that aim to encourage behaviors such as community-led greening and using of public transport. Techno-ecological approaches are evident in urban greening that embeds technology. Social elements are incorporated to garner inclusiveness and engagement. However, integration is inherently complex as it involves multiple stakeholders. Potential suggestions are community engagement, policymaking, government support, awareness-raising, and continuous research.","publisher":"Academia.edu","publicationDate":{"day":12,"month":9,"year":2024,"errors":{}},"publicationName":"Academia Environmental Sciences and Sustainability"},"translatedAbstract":"Urban centers are bearing the brunt of climate change. Meanwhile, they are important sources of greenhouse gases, particularly due to burgeoning transportation and high power demand for heating and electricity. This worsens the urban impacts of climate change. Urban solutions have emerged as feasible approaches to mitigate or adapt to climate change. This review aims to present an overview of the latest progress in various urban solutions to climate change. Urban solutions can generally be categorized into nature-based, technological, social, and integrated solutions. Nature-based solutions use natural ecosystems and processes, such as urban greening, green space, ecosystem restoration, and sustainable drainage systems, to address climate change problems. They could be vulnerable to the very climate challenges they address. Technological solutions encompass sustainable heating and cooling, innovative and green building materials, retro-reflective materials, cleaner modes of transportation, as well as big data and IoT devices for city planning. These solutions could be costly and resource-intensive. Social solutions involve promoting changes in behaviors and habits, which may require government and community intervention and engagement. They rely on political representation and social integration, which are sometimes lacking. Urban solutions are often integrated, combining two or all categories of solutions. Nature-based and technological solutions have been supported through urban greening and transportation plans that aim to encourage behaviors such as community-led greening and using of public transport. Techno-ecological approaches are evident in urban greening that embeds technology. Social elements are incorporated to garner inclusiveness and engagement. However, integration is inherently complex as it involves multiple stakeholders. 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Urban Solutions to Climate Change: an Overview of the Latest Progress. Vol. 1, no. 2, Academia Environmental Sciences and Sustainability, 2024. https://doi.org/10.20935/AcadEnvSci7342</div></div><div class="sap__citation-container"><div class="sap__title">APA</div><div class="sap__content">Tang, K. H. D. (2024). Urban solutions to climate change: an overview of the latest progress, 1(2). https://doi.org/10.20935/AcadEnvSci7342</div></div><div class="sap__citation-container"><div class="sap__title">Chicago</div><div class="sap__content">Tang, Kuok Ho Daniel. “Urban Solutions to Climate Change: an Overview of the Latest Progress” 1, no. 2 (2024). doi:10.20935/AcadEnvSci7342.</div></div><div class="sap__citation-container"><div class="sap__title">Vancouver</div><div class="sap__content">Tang KHD. Urban solutions to climate change: an overview of the latest progress. 2024;1(2). https://doi.org/10.20935/AcadEnvSci7342</div></div><div class="sap__citation-container"><div class="sap__title">Harvard</div><div class="sap__content">Tang, K. H. D. (2024) “Urban solutions to climate change: an overview of the latest progress.” Academia Environmental Sciences and Sustainability, 1(2). doi: 10.20935/AcadEnvSci7342.</div></div></div></div><div class="sap__sub-section"><h3 class="sap__section-title">Publication dates & DOI</h3><div class="sap__publication-section-row"><div class="sap__content-container"><div class="sap__title">Received</div><div class="sap__content">June 22, 2024</div></div><div class="sap__content-container"><div class="sap__title">Accepted</div><div class="sap__content">August 25, 2024</div></div><div class="sap__content-container"><div class="sap__title">Published</div><div class="sap__content">September 12, 2024</div></div></div></div><div class="sap__sub-section"><div class="sap__title">DOI</div><a class="sap__content" href="https://www.doi.org/10.20935/AcadEnvSci7342">doi.org/10.20935/AcadEnvSci7342</a></div></div><div id="article-download-container"><div class="js-react-on-rails-component" style="display:none" data-component-name="DownloadButton" data-props="{"author":{"id":48995468,"first_name":"Kuok Ho Daniel","middle_initials":null,"last_name":"Tang","page_name":"KuokHoDanielTang","domain_name":"universityofarizona","created_at":"2016-05-20T00:24:38.400-07:00","display_name":"Kuok Ho Daniel Tang","url":"https://universityofarizona.academia.edu/KuokHoDanielTang","photo":"https://0.academia-photos.com/48995468/120509280/109835169/s200_kuok_ho_daniel.tang.jpg"},"downloadUrl":"https://www.academia.edu/attachments/118156742/download_file?s=sap","reactionPrompt":null,"work":{"id":123810600,"title":"Urban Solutions to Climate Change: An Overview of Latest Progress","translatedTitle":"","metadata":{"doi":"10.20935/AcadEnvSci7342","issn":"2997-6006","abstract":"Urban centers are bearing the brunt of climate change. Meanwhile, they are important sources of greenhouse gases, particularly due to burgeoning transportation and high power demand for heating and electricity. This worsens the urban impacts of climate change. Urban solutions have emerged as feasible approaches to mitigate or adapt to climate change. This review aims to present an overview of the latest progress in various urban solutions to climate change. Urban solutions can generally be categorized into nature-based, technological, social, and integrated solutions. Nature-based solutions use natural ecosystems and processes, such as urban greening, green space, ecosystem restoration, and sustainable drainage systems, to address climate change problems. They could be vulnerable to the very climate challenges they address. Technological solutions encompass sustainable heating and cooling, innovative and green building materials, retro-reflective materials, cleaner modes of transportation, as well as big data and IoT devices for city planning. These solutions could be costly and resource-intensive. Social solutions involve promoting changes in behaviors and habits, which may require government and community intervention and engagement. They rely on political representation and social integration, which are sometimes lacking. Urban solutions are often integrated, combining two or all categories of solutions. Nature-based and technological solutions have been supported through urban greening and transportation plans that aim to encourage behaviors such as community-led greening and using of public transport. Techno-ecological approaches are evident in urban greening that embeds technology. Social elements are incorporated to garner inclusiveness and engagement. However, integration is inherently complex as it involves multiple stakeholders. Potential suggestions are community engagement, policymaking, government support, awareness-raising, and continuous research.","publisher":"Academia.edu","publicationDate":{"day":12,"month":9,"year":2024,"errors":{}},"publicationName":"Academia Environmental Sciences and Sustainability"},"translatedAbstract":"Urban centers are bearing the brunt of climate change. Meanwhile, they are important sources of greenhouse gases, particularly due to burgeoning transportation and high power demand for heating and electricity. This worsens the urban impacts of climate change. Urban solutions have emerged as feasible approaches to mitigate or adapt to climate change. This review aims to present an overview of the latest progress in various urban solutions to climate change. Urban solutions can generally be categorized into nature-based, technological, social, and integrated solutions. Nature-based solutions use natural ecosystems and processes, such as urban greening, green space, ecosystem restoration, and sustainable drainage systems, to address climate change problems. They could be vulnerable to the very climate challenges they address. Technological solutions encompass sustainable heating and cooling, innovative and green building materials, retro-reflective materials, cleaner modes of transportation, as well as big data and IoT devices for city planning. These solutions could be costly and resource-intensive. Social solutions involve promoting changes in behaviors and habits, which may require government and community intervention and engagement. They rely on political representation and social integration, which are sometimes lacking. Urban solutions are often integrated, combining two or all categories of solutions. Nature-based and technological solutions have been supported through urban greening and transportation plans that aim to encourage behaviors such as community-led greening and using of public transport. Techno-ecological approaches are evident in urban greening that embeds technology. Social elements are incorporated to garner inclusiveness and engagement. However, integration is inherently complex as it involves multiple stakeholders. Potential suggestions are community engagement, policymaking, government support, awareness-raising, and continuous 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inertization of asbestos waste—an Italian case study</a><a class="ds2-5-article-card__figure-highlight__small-image-link" href="/articles/10.20935/AcadEnvSci7398?source=academia-environmental-sciences-and-sustainability-sap-page-highlight"><img src="https://journals.academia-photos.com/6/7398/image9.png" /></a></div><div class="ds2-5-article-card__authors">Silvia Ferrini, Filippo Pampaloni, Francesco Delogu, Giulia Goffetti, Cecilia Viti, Giancarlo Capitani</div><div class="ds2-5-article-card__stat-group"><div class="ds2-5-article-card__stat-group__stat"><div class="ds2-5-stat--basic-small"><div class="ds2-5-stat--basic-small__label">downloads</div><div class="ds2-5-stat--basic-small__value">497</div></div></div><div class="ds2-5-article-card__stat-group__stat"><div class="ds2-5-stat--basic-small"><div class="ds2-5-stat--basic-small__label">views</div><div class="ds2-5-stat--basic-small__value">1,395</div></div></div></div></div><a class="ds2-5-article-card__figure-highlight__big-image-link" href="/articles/10.20935/AcadEnvSci7398?source=academia-environmental-sciences-and-sustainability-sap-page-highlight"><img src="https://journals.academia-photos.com/6/7398/image9.png" /></a></div></div></div></div><div><!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/loose.dtd"> <html> <head> <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=UTF-8"> <title>Daniel Tang and Neighbour: Urban solutions to climate change: an overview of the latest progress</title> </head> <body><div id="article-root"> <div id="article-front-container" class="sap__front-container"> <div id="article-front-column" class="sap__front"> <div id="article-front" class="sap__front"> <div class="sap__metadata sap__centered"><h1 class="sap__document-title">Urban solutions to climate change: an overview of the latest progress</h1></div> <div class="sap__metadata sap__author-list"><div class="sap__metadata sap__author"> <div class="sap__author-names"><div class="sap__metadata-group"><p class="sap__metadata-entry"><a id="id1"></a>Kuok Ho Daniel Tang<a href="#anote-1">*</a><span class="sap__generated"> [</span><a href="#aff1">1</a><span class="sap__generated">]</span></p></div></div> <div class="sap__author-info"><div class="sap__metadata-group"></div></div> </div></div> <div class="affiliation-list-link-area"><a id="affiliation-list-link" data-target="#affiliation-list" data-toggle="collapse" href="javascript:void(0)"><span>Author Affiliations</span><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" id="chevron" class="" width="16px" height="16px" viewbox="0 0 24 24" style="vertical-align: middle;"><path d="m12 15.375-6-6 1.4-1.4 4.6 4.6 4.6-4.6 1.4 1.4Z" class="expand-more" fill="#222233"></path></svg></a></div> <div id="affiliation-list" class="sap__metadata sap__two-column sap__table collapse"><div class="affiliation-list-items"><div class="sap__row"> <div class="sap__cell sap__empty"></div> <div class="sap__cell"><div class="sap__metadata-group"> <p class="sap__metadata-entry"><a id="aff1"></a><sup>1</sup>Department of Environmental Science, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85821, USA.</p> <a id="anote-1"></a><p class="sap__metadata-entry">*Correspondence to daniel.tangkh@yahoo.com<span class="sap__generated">, </span>danielkhtang@arizona.edu</p> </div></div> </div></div></div> <div class="sap__dates-and-open-access"><div class="sap__metadata-area"> <p class="sap__metadata-entry"><span class="sap__generated"><a id="open-access-link" data-target="#sap__Open-Access" data-toggle="collapse" href="javascript:void(0)"><span>Open Access</span><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" id="chevron-open-access" class="" width="16px" height="16px" viewbox="0 0 24 24" style="vertical-align: middle;"><path d="m12 15.375-6-6 1.4-1.4 4.6 4.6 4.6-4.6 1.4 1.4Z" class="expand-more" fill="#222233"></path></svg></a></span></p> <div class="sap__metadata-chunk"><div id="sap__Open-Access" class="collapse"><div class="sap__metadata-chunk-content"><p>© 2024 copyright by the authors. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). <a target="xrefwindow" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/</a></p></div></div></div> </div></div> </div> <div class="sap__section"> <a id="id2"></a><h2 class="sap__main-title"><span class="sap__generated">Abstract</span></h2> <p class="first" id="id3">Urban centers are bearing the brunt of climate change. Meanwhile, they are important sources of greenhouse gases. This worsens the urban impacts of climate change. Urban solutions have emerged as feasible approaches to mitigate or adapt to climate change. This review provides an overview of the latest progress in various urban solutions to climate change. Urban solutions can generally be categorized into nature-based, technological, social, and integrated solutions. Nature-based solutions use natural ecosystems and processes, such as urban greening, green space, ecosystem restoration, and sustainable drainage systems, to address climate change problems. They could be vulnerable to the very climate challenges they address. Technological solutions encompass sustainable heating and cooling, innovative and green building materials, retro-reflective materials, cleaner modes of transportation, and big data and IoT devices for city planning. These solutions could be costly and resource-intensive. Social solutions involve promoting changes in behaviors and habits, which may require government and community intervention and engagement. They rely on political representation and social integration, which are sometimes lacking. Urban solutions are often integrated, combining two or more categories of solutions. Nature-based and technological solutions have been supported through urban greening and transportation plans aiming to encourage behaviors such as community-led greening and using public transport. Techno-ecological approaches are evident in urban greening that embeds technology. Social elements are incorporated to garner inclusiveness and engagement. However, integration is inherently complex as it involves multiple stakeholders. Potential suggestions for better integration of urban solutions are community engagement, policymaking, government support, and awareness-raising.</p> </div> </div> <div class="sap__spacer"></div> </div> <div id="article-container"> <div id="article-text"> <div id="article-body" class="sap__body"> <div class="sap__section"> <a id="sec1"></a><h2 class="sap__main-title">1. Introduction</h2> <p id="id4">According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report, global warming, caused by human activities, has led to a temperature increase of 1.1°C globally, triggering alterations in the earth’s climate that have not been seen in the recent human history. With the global temperature already 1.1°C higher, the world is witnessing changes in the climate system that are unmatched over hundreds to thousands of years. These changes are evident in every corner of the globe, from the escalating sea levels and the intensification of weather extremes to the swift vanishing of sea ice [<a href="#ref1">1</a>]. Further increases in global temperatures will amplify the severity of these climate changes. For instance, every rise of 0.5°C in global temperature will lead to noticeable increases in the occurrence and intensity of extreme heat events, heavy rainfall, and regional droughts. Heatwaves that used to occur once every decade in a climate with minimal human influence are likely to occur 4.1 times more frequently with a warming of 1.5°C, 5.6 times with 2°C, and 9.4 times with 4°C. They are foreseen to get more intense with the rising temperature. A 1.5°C warming would increase the temperature of the heatwaves by 1.9°C [<a href="#ref1">1</a>].</p> <p id="id5">The rise in global temperatures also increases the risk of reaching perilous tipping points in the climate system. Once these points are crossed, they can trigger self-reinforcing feedback loops that further escalate global warming, such as the thawing of permafrost or extensive forest dieback. The activation of these feedback loops can also lead to other significant, sudden, and irreversible changes to the climate system [<a href="#ref2">2</a>]. For instance, if warming reaches 2–3°C, the Greenland and West Antarctic ice sheets are projected to melt almost entirely over the span of several thousand years, leading to a several-meter rise in sea levels [<a href="#ref1">1</a>]. The negative effects of climate change are already more widespread and severe than expected. Approximately half of the world’s population currently faces severe water shortages for at least one month each year, while rising temperatures are facilitating the spread of diseases transmitted by vectors, such as malaria, West Nile virus, and Lyme disease [<a href="#ref3">3</a>]. Climate change has also hindered advancements in agricultural productivity in the middle and lower latitudes, with a third reduction in crop productivity growth in Africa since 1961. Furthermore, since 2008, extreme floods and storms have displaced over 20 million people annually [<a href="#ref4">4</a>].</p> <p id="id6">Each incremental increase in temperature will exacerbate these threats, and limiting global warming to 1.5°C may not be sufficient. A 1.5°C rise in global temperature will cause desertification, water stress, and heat stress to 950 million individuals in the world’s drylands and increase the risk of flooding to an additional 24% of the global population [<a href="#ref5">5</a>]. In urban areas, intensifying heatwaves associated with global warming can increase power demand since more power is needed to cool down. This is met with a higher power supply, leading to an increase in greenhouse gas emissions if the power is derived from non-renewable energy sources and there is not enough time for a successful transition to renewable energy [<a href="#ref6">6</a>]. In fact, urban areas are responsible for 70% of global CO<sub>2</sub> emissions, with transport and buildings being among the largest contributors, and these contributors are invariably associated with power generation for electricity and heating. This contributes to the vicious cycle of climate change [<a href="#ref7">7</a>]. A study found that merely 25 large cities account for 52% of the greenhouse gas emissions from the cities examined. Cities in Asia are the leading emitters of greenhouse gases, and the per capita greenhouse gas emissions in most cities of developed countries are significantly higher than those in developing countries [<a href="#ref8">8</a>].</p> <p id="id7">Therefore, urban solutions have caught attention in the quest to mitigate and adapt to climate change. Urban solutions are fundamentally approaches taken by cities to become climate-friendly. These approaches can be mitigations focusing on reducing greenhouse gas emissions or adaptations aiming to increase the resilience of cities and their dwellers in coping with the changing climate [<a href="#ref9">9</a>]. These approaches, either as mitigations or as adaptations, usually take the form of nature-based solutions, technological solutions, social solutions, and a combination or integration of these solutions [<a href="#ref1">1</a>, <a href="#ref10">10</a>, <a href="#ref11">11</a>]. These solutions are discussed in the subsequent sections, with reference to recent cases or examples in different regions. Urban solutions have been mentioned or emphasized in multiple climate events, thus accentuating their prospect of spurring cities toward being climate-friendly. For instance, the COP27 Presidency and the United Nations Human Settlements Programme co-developed the Sustainable Urban Resilience for the Next Generation (SURGe) Initiative, aiming to establish sustainable and resilient urban systems. This is achieved by enhancing the execution of the climate agenda in collaboration with cities, thus facilitating access to urban climate finance, building capacity, and promoting fairness [<a href="#ref12">12</a>]. In the Ecocity World Summit held in London in 2023, the vital role of cities in climate action was emphasized. The summit highlighted the need for a new climate governance architecture that includes civil society, the private sector, and sub-national governments such as cities and regions [<a href="#ref13">13</a>]. Earlier, the COP26 Glasgow Climate Pact encouraged participants to incorporate adaptation measures more thoroughly into their local planning strategies [<a href="#ref14">14</a>]. Despite these calls, few reviews have been dedicated to presenting the latest progress in urban solutions to climate change. Sharifi reviewed the means of integrating adaptation and mitigation strategies of urban solutions. The review focused on the integration methods and the resulting benefits rather than the latest progress of these solutions [<a href="#ref15">15</a>]. The review of Hobbie and Grimm focused on the nature-based approaches alone. They were interested in demand-side mitigations, which are essentially mitigations that focus on consumption, such as consumers’ choice for more energy-efficient appliances, reducing consumption of goods and services with high carbon footprints, and changes in behaviors and lifestyles [<a href="#ref16">16</a>]. Similarly, Pour et al. narrowed down on low-impact development without an overview of the overarching urban solutions to climate change [<a href="#ref17">17</a>].</p> <p id="id8">This review, therefore, aims to provide an overview of the latest progress in urban solutions to climate change, encompassing nature-based, technological, social, and integrated solutions. It focuses on different types of urban solutions without delving deep into each of them due to the vastitude of the subject matter. It also recommends to facilitate the implementation of these solutions particularly in integrated forms, since they are more effective when combined, for instance, integration of nature-based and technological solutions. It contributes to informed decision-making by providing suggestions to policymakers, urban planners, and citizens in implementing sustainable practices. It shares the best practices in urban solutions to climate change that can be used in other relevant contexts. Additionally, it contributes to increasing public awareness about climate change and the importance of urban solutions in the hope of garnering greater public engagement and support for climate action.</p> <p id="id9">To achieve the aims, the paper reviews peer-reviewed scholarly articles published primarily in the past five years to capture the progress in urban solutions to climate change. It also includes websites of authorities or agencies with crucial roles in promulgating urban solutions, as well as technical reports, particularly the IPCC 6 Assessment Report. Major scholarly databases, including Scopus, Web of Science, and ScienceDirect, were used for literature searches. Keywords or terms such as urban solutions, mitigation, adaptation, cities, urban, climate change, global warming, and extreme climate events were used for the literature searches. To refine the searches, combinations of the keywords or terms, such as urban solutions to climate change, cities mitigation to global warming, and urban adaption to climate change, were used. The articles retrieved were then screened with the following criteria: (1) the articles must be peer-reviewed; (2) they must have been published in the past ten years, with priority given to those published in the past five years; (3) they must be related to urban solutions, not the suburban ones; and (4) they must cover cases, examples, or the progress related to mitigation or adaptation to urban climate change. For websites and technical reports, the same keywords or terms were used, and the selection criteria were as follows: (1) they must be associated with governments, government-related agencies, or international agencies; (2) they are regularly updated as indicated by the dates of update on the webpage or the version of the technical report; and (3) they are related to urban solutions of climate change, as with literature search. The classifications of urban solutions began to emerge upon searching with the keywords or terms, especially with the phrase “urban solutions to climate change”. Most of the literature shows specific terms like nature-based solutions, technical solutions, social solutions, and integrated solutions. These classifications also appear in several relevant papers [<a href="#ref10">10</a>, <a href="#ref11">11</a>, <a href="#ref18">18</a>]. They were, therefore, adopted in this review to guide the organization of its content.</p> </div> <div class="sap__section"> <a id="sec2"></a><h2 class="sap__main-title">2. Nature-based solutions</h2> <p id="id10">Nature-based solutions refer to the strategic use of natural ecosystems and processes to address climate change problems. They aim to enhance the resilience of urban areas, improve the quality of life of urban dwellers, and enhance urban biodiversity through measures such as the utilization of vegetation and blue-green infrastructure. They can offer a wide range of ecosystem services, including improving the environment as well as people’s health and well-being [<a href="#ref19">19</a>]. These solutions are increasingly being used to mitigate issues like extreme heat, drought, and flooding.</p> <div class="sap__sub-section"> <a id="sec2_1"></a><h3 class="sap__section-title">2.1. Urban greening</h3> <p id="id11">A typical strategy of nature-based solutions is urban greening, which involves increasing vegetation cover in cities through the planting of trees, the creation of parks, and the development of green roofs and walls (<b><a href="#fig001">Figure 1</a></b>). Urban greening helps to cool the environment, sequester carbon, and provide recreational spaces [<a href="#ref20">20</a>]. Over the years, urban greening has seen innovations from planning to the adoption of smart technologies, the latter of which underscores the integration of technology with nature-based solutions to optimize the results and will be discussed further under integrated solutions in Section 5.</p> <div class="sap__fig sap__figure_panel"> <a id="fig001"></a><h5 class="sap__label">Figure 1</h5> <div class="sap__caption"><h3 class="sap__title">Various nature-based solutions including green roofs and walls, urban greening and green space, and sustainable urban drainage.</h3></div> <img alt="media/image2.png" src="https://journals.academia-photos.com/6/7342/image2.png"> </div> <p id="id12">In terms of planning, in 2020, the European Commission advanced the “Biodiversity Strategy” for 2030 as a continuation of the European Green Deal. This strategy presents a framework and measures to avert the collapse of ecosystems and the loss of biodiversity, which was projected to cost between EUR 3.5 and 18.5 trillion annually due to changes in land use, particularly the conversion from rural to urban settings, and around EUR 5.5–10.5 trillion each year globally due to land degradation [<a href="#ref21">21</a>]. Urban zones are a primary focus, with the goal of incorporating green initiatives and nature-based solutions into urban planning. The strategy emphasizes the crucial role that cities play in creating Urban Greening Plans, which are seen as proactive tools for enhancing green areas and steering urban development toward climate neutrality and sustainability [<a href="#ref22">22</a>]. These plans are designed to incorporate nature-based solutions that boost biodiversity, such as urban woodlands, parks, and trees, thereby improving biodiversity and diminishing the effects of climate change in urban settings [<a href="#ref22">22</a>]. Regional urban greening initiatives, spurred by the relevant plans and policies, have been successfully implemented. For instance, Liverpool, England has transformed the barren concrete exterior of the St John’s Shopping Centre into a 65 m long living wall. Installed in 2020, the wall has been planted with 14,000 evergreens, which are strategically located to help trap pollution from the nearby bus station [<a href="#ref23">23</a>]. In 2021, the project was expanded to include the installation of two beehives on the rooftop, each housing 20,000 bees. These bees not only pollinate the living wall but also support the ecology within a 5 km radius of their hives, contributing to the wider community’s environment [<a href="#ref23">23</a>].</p> <p id="id13">Another example is Curitiba, Brazil, where tree planting is part of the city’s efforts to ensure it remains as green as possible. Curitiba has been pursuing a sustainable model since the 1970s, and the government’s afforestation plan has led to the planting of many trees along roads, in parks, in squares, and in other public areas. Between 2013 and 2016 alone, 139,000 trees were planted [<a href="#ref24">24</a>]. The city also established ten “mini-forests” and implemented environmentally friendly ways to manage high precipitation and flooding, replacing concrete canals with public parkland [<a href="#ref24">24</a>]. Singapore is on a mission to transform into “a city within nature”. In February 2021, it unveiled the “Green Plan 2030”, a comprehensive initiative aimed at fostering a sustainable and nature-friendly urban environment [<a href="#ref25">25</a>]. The city-state boasts more than 400 parks and four nature reserves, with plans to expand green spaces to 300 ha and add 200 ha of vertical gardens by 2030 [<a href="#ref25">25</a>]. By the end of this decade, Singapore has committed to planting one million trees and increasing its parklands by 50% compared to 2020 levels. The goal is to ensure that by 2030, every household will be within a ten-minute walk from a green area that enhances the health and well-being of its citizens [<a href="#ref26">26</a>]. Among the early examples of these green spaces is Jurong Lake Gardens, home to Clusia Cove, a three-hectare aquatic play area that replicates the ebb and flow of the sea and coastal environments [<a href="#ref27">27</a>]. Here, visitors have the opportunity to observe the natural processes of water purification and recycling through a system of water plants, including the native <i>Hanguana malayanum</i> [<a href="#ref27">27</a>]. Invariably, these successful examples of urban greening are tied to greening policies or plans that the respective governments have been committed to. Therefore, the incorporation of urban greening into urban development plans is vital to ensure effective urban greening. In the context of the European Urban Greening Plans, they serve as the foundational framework for urban planning and regulatory alignment essential to achieve robust integration with current urban planning tools [<a href="#ref21">21</a>]. It can provide an example for countries endeavoring in urban greening to formulate their plans and translate them into actions.</p> <p id="id14">Urban greening has made use of green roofs and green walls extensively (<b><a href="#fig001">Figure 1</a></b>). Green roofs and walls are innovative concepts that transform urban spaces by enabling green spaces to be established in unconventional places, particularly rooftops and walls [<a href="#ref28">28</a>, <a href="#ref29">29</a>]. These concepts have been increasingly executed through innovations such as modular green roof systems, which are easy to install, often pre-vegetated in nurseries, and come in a wide variety of styles with different performance characteristics. They incorporate drainage systems and are designed for maximum wind uplift resistance [<a href="#ref29">29</a>]. Recycled plastics, especially high-density polyethylene, have found their uses in these systems in the continuous effort to reduce and valorize plastic waste [<a href="#ref30">30</a>, <a href="#ref31">31</a>]. Since the first living wall systems were created more than 15 years ago, a tremendous amount of innovation has occurred. Modularity has emerged in green/living wall systems, with opportunities to grow plants in various containers housing growing media, which are tightly held by frames affixed to the wall [<a href="#ref29">29</a>]. There are also movable indoor living walls that recycle water and nutrients while purifying and humidifying the air. Green walls and roofs help regulate building temperatures, thus reducing the need for air conditioning in summer and heating in winter. This contributes to less power consumption for cooling and heating [<a href="#ref32">32</a>].</p> </div> <div class="sap__sub-section"> <a id="sec2_2"></a><h3 class="sap__section-title">2.2. Wetland and urban ecosystem restoration</h3> <p id="id15">Wetlands restoration centers on restoring and creating urban wetlands to help manage stormwater, reduce flooding, and improve water quality, thus facilitating adaption and enhancing resilience to urban climate change [<a href="#ref33">33</a>] <b>(<a href="#fig001">Figure 1</a>)</b>. Wetlands act as natural sponges, absorbing and filtering water. Wetland restoration is a subset of urban ecosystem restoration targeting the restoration of rivers, forests, and coastal ecosystems within and around urban areas to enhance the services of these ecosystems, for instance, in flood protection, air and water purification, and recreation [<a href="#ref34">34</a>]. Therefore, urban ecosystem restoration is not only limited to wetland habitats such as mangroves and tidal marshes. It also covers other urban coastal and inland habitats, such as seagrass meadows and riparian vegetation [<a href="#ref35">35</a>]. Additionally, urban ecosystem restoration plays a significant role in mitigating urban climate change by capturing carbon. Wetlands, mangroves, and seagrasses act as highly efficient carbon storage areas, holding larger amounts of carbon per unit area compared to forests. Rejuvenating degraded urban ecosystems can help stop the release of stored carbon [<a href="#ref36">36</a>, <a href="#ref37">37</a>]. The reason for this is that drainage or degradation of wetlands results in the release of carbon stored in their soils into the atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide and methane. It is noteworthy that numerous urban ecosystem restoration projects may involve the local communities. The integrated aspects are further discussed in Section 5 [<a href="#ref38">38</a>].</p> <p id="id16">The United Nations Decade on Ecosystem Restoration is an important initiative in urban ecosystem restoration involving 19 cities. Under the project, eight of these cities are set to launch pilot projects for ecosystem restoration, backed by financial support from the United Nations Environment Programme [<a href="#ref39">39</a>]. In Cameroon, Douala plans to rejuvenate mangroves and establish governance structures involving local communities to ensure their active participation in ecosystem restoration and conservation. In Senegal, Dakar-Plateau and Thies aim to form a greenbelt and blue-green wedges around the metropolitan area to facilitate species movement between protected areas on the city’s periphery [<a href="#ref40">40</a>]. Quezon City in Metro Manila, Philippines, will collaborate with local communities and students to pinpoint urban areas requiring restoration, revamp them, and plan green spaces, pollinator gardens, and ecological corridors [<a href="#ref41">41</a>]. In India, Kochi City plans to carry out canal restoration to enhance the water quality of the Vembanad Lake ecosystem, benefiting both the local population and the entire basin [<a href="#ref42">42</a>].</p> </div> <div class="sap__sub-section"> <a id="sec2_3"></a><h3 class="sap__section-title">2.3. Sustainable urban drainage systems</h3> <p id="id17">Sustainable urban drainage systems are another nature-based solution that mimics natural water management processes to manage runoff and improve water quality (<b><a href="#fig001">Figure 1</a></b>). They aim to improve urban resilience to increased precipitation. They are implemented as rain gardens, swales, and permeable pavements. These systems can be integrated into urban greening and ecosystem restoration [<a href="#ref43">43</a>]. For instance, rain gardens are designed as shallow, landscaped basins vegetated with native plants that capture, retain, and filter stormwater, allowing it to percolate back into the ground (<b><a href="#fig001">Figure 1</a></b>). Their design aims to prevent stormwater from flowing off and eventually reaching nearby waterbodies such as streams, rivers, and ponds [<a href="#ref44">44</a>]. These gardens gather rainwater from hard surfaces like driveways, parking lots, pavements, and yards, enabling the water to gradually infiltrate back into the ground, thus preventing the runoff from reaching local waterbodies. They are efficient in eliminating up to 90% of nutrients and chemicals and up to 80% of sediments from rainwater runoff. When compared to a traditional lawn, rain gardens facilitate a 30% greater absorption of water into the ground [<a href="#ref45">45</a>].</p> <p id="id18">However, urban nature-based solutions are vulnerable to the very climate challenges they aim to address, as changes in temperature and rainfall will impact the green infrastructure itself. For instance, a decrease in water supply for trees and their canopy could result in a swift reduction in shade cover, transpiration, and evaporative cooling. Therefore, these solutions need proper management to maintain their intended functions and performances as the environment evolves [<a href="#ref46">46</a>]. The resilience of urban vegetation must be planned considering different future climate change scenarios to ensure the continued delivery of benefits. Besides, implementing nature-based solutions on a large scale can present significant financial and governance challenges.</p> </div> </div> <div class="sap__section"> <a id="sec3"></a><h2 class="sap__main-title">3. Technological solutions</h2> <p id="id19">Technological solutions are diverse and innovative, often involving the use of new technologies, inventions, and systems to address both adaptation and mitigation of urban climate change [<a href="#ref47">47</a>]. They range from renewable energy and innovative building materials to artificial intelligence.</p> <div class="sap__sub-section"> <a id="sec3_1"></a><h3 class="sap__section-title">3.1. Heating and cooling</h3> <p id="id20">Cities are actively exploring technological adaptations to combat the impacts of climate change, with ongoing research and the introduction of new technologies assessing their effectiveness [<a href="#ref48">48</a>]. Air conditioning, for instance, is recognized as a health safeguard during heatwaves. However, a shift to system-wide heating and cooling utilizing cooling towers or district distribution networks can conserve energy and lessen the release of heat into the environment [<a href="#ref49">49</a>]. Since a large proportion of energy generated is used for heating and cooling, innovations in these systems could help reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Researchers have been working on dynamic dual-mode systems that combine both cooling and heating functions. These systems transition between cooling and heating states based on various mechanisms, such as electrical responsiveness, mechanical responsiveness, and temperature responsiveness [<a href="#ref50">50</a>]. These technologies aim to achieve low-energy or even zero-energy thermal management using renewable and clean energy sources. They play a crucial role in waste heat treatment and conversion, contributing to sustainability. Radiative cooling technology, in particular, stands out due to its eco-friendliness, passive operation, and zero-energy consumption. It has significant global energy-saving potential and can help reduce carbon emissions [<a href="#ref51">51</a>]. Radiative cooling achieves cooling without active mechanical systems or electricity (<b><a href="#fig002">Figure 2</a></b>). It utilizes selective radiators that efficiently emit thermal radiation in the infrared spectrum while reflecting sunlight. In radiative cooling, the earth’s atmosphere acts as a “heat sink” by allowing thermal radiation to escape into the space. During clear nights, the sky serves as an effective cooling reservoir [<a href="#ref52">52</a>].</p> <p id="id21">Utilizing combined heat and power generation offers a significant opportunity to minimize energy loss through direct heating. Additionally, linking heating and cooling with electricity production permits the overall energy efficiency of an energy system to be improved [<a href="#ref53">53</a>]. Large-scale heat pumps could potentially replace some of the energy supplied by boilers and support the effective integration of varying intermittent renewable energy sources [<a href="#ref54">54</a>]. Studies indicate that integrating heat pumps into energy systems with 25% wind power could result in a decrease in overall fuel consumption. Furthermore, the inclusion of heat pumps could effectively handle up to 40% of intermittent renewable energy sources without undermining the overall fuel efficiency of the energy system [<a href="#ref53">53</a>]. It is desirable to integrate large combined heat and power systems and heat pumps with thermal storage. This is especially beneficial when dealing with a substantial amount of intermittent renewable energy resources. The approach involves merging the electricity and heating sectors [<a href="#ref55">55</a>, <a href="#ref56">56</a>]. Abu-Rayash and Dincer suggested a multi-generation system incorporating various renewable energy technologies to meet the energy demand of a small urban center, particularly for electricity and heating. The system has the advantage of integrating the heating networks and electricity grids with improved efficiency, hence reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Specifically, the system, utilizing geothermal and solar energy, could supply 70 MW of heating demand in Ontario, Canada, which would otherwise be met by natural gas combustion equivalent to 12.7 million tons of CO<sub>2</sub> [<a href="#ref57">57</a>].</p> <div class="sap__fig sap__figure_panel"> <a id="fig002"></a><h5 class="sap__label">Figure 2</h5> <div class="sap__caption"><h3 class="sap__title">Various technological solutions encompassing water-filled glass windows, radiative cooling, self-healing bricks, electric vehicles, and fuel cell vehicles.</h3></div> <img alt="media/image3.png" src="https://journals.academia-photos.com/6/7342/image3.png"> </div> </div> <div class="sap__sub-section"> <a id="sec3_2"></a><h3 class="sap__section-title">3.2. Building materials</h3> <p id="id22">Furthermore, cities have embraced straightforward technological strategies to bolster their resilience. For example, using light-reflective building materials, like pale paint, can decrease summer heat absorption by buildings, and replacing asphalt with porous pavement can help cool cities and manage rainwater by reflecting heat, enabling evaporation, and allowing the ground to soak up water [<a href="#ref50">50</a>] <b>(<a href="#fig002">Figure 2</a>)</b>. The advances in this area include water-filled glass, green building materials, and retro-reflective materials. Water-filled glass windows consist of a thin layer of water sandwiched between two panes of glass (<b><a href="#fig002">Figure 2</a></b>). These windows can lower the energy consumption of a building by approximately 25% compared to regular glazing. They absorb both sunlight and interior heat, contributing to building warmth while minimizing the heat from sunlight during hotter months [<a href="#ref58">58</a>]. Researchers at the University of Chicago created a building material that acts like a chameleon. It adjusts its infrared color and heat absorption based on external temperatures (<b><a href="#fig001">Figure 2</a></b>). On hot days, it reflects up to 92% of its infrared heat, cooling the building interior. Conversely, on colder days, it emits only 7% of its infrared, helping maintain warmth. The material achieves this through a minute electrical signal that either causes copper to be deposited onto or removed from a thin film [<a href="#ref59">59</a>]. Masonry blocks using a low-carbon cement-like material grown from micro-algae have been created. These blocks meet the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) standards. Unlike traditional concrete made with polluting Portland cement, which contributes to about 8% of global greenhouse gas emissions, this innovative material relies on organic cement-like substances grown in bioreactors, mimicking coral’s self-replicating properties [<a href="#ref60">60</a>]. The various applications for these sustainable blocks have been explored, and if successfully commercialized, they are expected to mitigate urban greenhouse gas emissions.</p> <p id="id23">Self-healing bricks have caught much attention recently. They are innovative building materials that incorporate living microorganisms (<b><a href="#fig001">Figure 2</a></b>). These bricks can transform from a gooey sand mixture into solid structures and even replicate themselves to create more bricks. They typically consist of sand, gelatin, and bacteria, with the bacteria playing a crucial role in the self-healing properties of the bricks [<a href="#ref61">61</a>]. To produce the bricks, cyanobacteria of <i>Synechococcus</i> sp. are grown in a bath of artificial seawater and nutrients, and are subsequently blended into a gelatin and sand mixture. The bacteria absorb sunlight, nutrients, and carbon dioxide through photosynthesis. They produce calcium carbonate, which mineralizes the structure and hardens the mixture. Gelatin acts as a scaffold to support bacterial growth and sand particles [<a href="#ref62">62</a>]. Unlike traditional cement production, which emits greenhouse gases, self-healing bricks use photosynthetic bacteria and carbon dioxide to create the material, thus contributing to the reduction of carbon dioxide in the environment. Another type of self-healing bricks has come close to commercialization. They resemble the ancient Roman concrete, which incorporated quicklime into the concrete mixture instead of slaked lime. Quicklime triggers a super-hot chemical reaction, resulting in calcium deposits throughout the concrete. When rainwater interacts with these quicklime clasts, it forms a calcium-saturated solution that recrystallizes, effectively “healing” any fissures in the material [<a href="#ref63">63</a>].</p> <p id="id24">A retro-reflective material is designed to reflect light back toward its source, making it highly visible even in low-light conditions. It works by using tiny glass beads or prisms that bounce light directly back to the viewer. Retro-reflective coatings on windows and facades reflect sunlight back outside, reducing the need for air conditioning. This lowers energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions associated with cooling buildings [<a href="#ref64">64</a>]. Cool roofs use retro-reflective roofing materials to reflect sunlight, keeping the building cooler. Retro-reflective pavements reflect sunlight, reducing the urban heat island effect [<a href="#ref64">64</a>]. Porous pavement, also known as permeable pavement, is an engineered hardscaping surface that allows water to flow through it. Unlike traditional impermeable pavement, which converts most rainfall to runoff, porous pavement helps manage stormwater more effectively [<a href="#ref65">65</a>]. This is crucial as climate change causes higher and more intense precipitation in certain places. There are three main types of porous pavement, namely porous asphalt, pervious concrete, and permeable interlocking concrete pavers. Porous asphalt is a modified asphalt with void spaces that allow water to percolate through [<a href="#ref66">66</a>]. It reduces runoff volume, improves water quality, and enhances road safety and durability. Pervious concrete has voids that enable water infiltration. It is used for sidewalks, driveways, and parking lots [<a href="#ref67">67</a>]. Permeable interlocking concrete pavers have joints filled with small aggregates, allowing water passage. While not porous themselves, they contribute to sustainable urban surfaces [<a href="#ref68">68</a>].</p> </div> <div class="sap__sub-section"> <a id="sec3_3"></a><h3 class="sap__section-title">3.3. Transportation</h3> <p id="id25">In terms of transportation, governments have provided incentives for adopting sustainable transportation and implemented “polluter pays” mechanisms to discourage environmentally harmful practices. This leads to the rising popularity of electric vehicles and greater investment in green infrastructure, such as electric vehicle charging stations, to promote the adoption of these vehicles [<a href="#ref69">69</a>]. While controversies exist around the sustainability of electric vehicles, particularly the battery waste they produce, electric vehicles generally emit 97% less CO<sub>2</sub> equivalent emissions compared to petrol vehicles and 70% less compared to diesel counterparts [<a href="#ref70">70</a>]. Innovations in recycling and battery technologies can enhance the environmental feasibility of electric vehicles. Hydrogen vehicles, especially hydrogen trucks and buses, have come to attention as another urban transportation solution to climate change. Hydrogen vehicles operate using fuel cells that combine hydrogen with oxygen to produce electricity, emitting only water vapor as a byproduct [<a href="#ref71">71</a>]. Unlike electric trucks, which face limitations in long-haul applications due to battery weight and charging infrastructure, hydrogen trucks offer greater range and faster refueling. Hydrogen can be produced through electrolysis or by reforming natural gas (with CO<sub>2</sub> capture). The flexibility in hydrogen production methods contributes to its adoption [<a href="#ref72">72</a>]. By 2035, Europe could see up to 850,000 hydrogen-fueled medium- and heavy-duty trucks on the road, consuming significant hydrogen volumes [<a href="#ref73">73</a>]. Furthermore, efforts have been made to accommodate solar arrays and transmission lines in transportation rights-of-way to promote renewable energy [<a href="#ref74">74</a>].</p> </div> <div class="sap__sub-section"> <a id="sec3_4"></a><h3 class="sap__section-title">3.4. Renewable energy</h3> <p id="id26">The energy system plays a crucial role in transitioning to sustainable urban living and mitigating urban climate change. Using renewable energy sources significantly reduces pollutant emissions and improves the quality of the living environment. Creating energy systems based on clean and renewable criteria is seen as a sustainable solution for smart cities [<a href="#ref47">47</a>]. Smart cities are an example of urban technological solutions to climate change. The widespread adoption of renewable energy-based technologies is believed to be well suited for smart cities of various sizes, providing a stable foundation for a modern society with a low-carbon economy [<a href="#ref75">75</a>]. Solar energy, as a renewable source, can be used to generate electricity and heat through the photovoltaic effect. This process occurs when a photovoltaic cell exposed to sunlight generates voltage and electricity current [<a href="#ref76">76</a>]. Various approaches can be employed to harness solar energy efficiently without needing large land areas. Integrating solar photovoltaics into buildings, such as Building Added Photovoltaic and Building Integrated Photovoltaic, can fulfill the energy demand of buildings partially or entirely. Solar photovoltaic shingles, more popularly called solar panels, attached to buildings can provide electricity for charging, cooling, heating, and lighting [<a href="#ref77">77</a>]. Concentrated solar power on a large scale is an effective way to generate heat and thermal energy. Estimations suggest that solar photovoltaic systems can reach a power density of around 10 W/m<sup>2</sup>, along with a photovoltaic efficiency of 10% [<a href="#ref78">78</a>]. Solar panels can be integrated into green roofs to form “biosolar roofs”, which offer the benefits of improving biodiversity, stormwater management, energy savings, and enhancing aesthetic values [<a href="#ref79">79</a>]. Green roofs can help cool the surrounding environment, which in turn can improve the efficiency of solar panels. This is supported by a study reporting that solar panels surrounded by foliage had their performance increased by up to 20%, compared to a conventional photovoltaic solar system [<a href="#ref79">79</a>].</p> <p id="id27">Electricity can be produced using modern wind turbines, which can be installed on tall buildings, skyscrapers, land, and sea [<a href="#ref80">80</a>]. Two types of wind turbines are commonly employed. Horizontal-axis wind turbines, usually seen on wind farms, are capable of producing around 2–3 W/m<sup>2</sup> of power [<a href="#ref81">81</a>]. Conversely, counter-rotating vertical-axis wind turbines can produce up to 30 W/m<sup>2</sup>, which is roughly 10 times the power density of horizontal-axis wind turbines. In urban areas, vertical-axis wind turbines perform better than horizontal-axis wind turbines due to their decreased reliance on wind direction, ability to handle increased turbulence and fluctuating wind speeds, lower manufacturing costs, and reduced impacts on birds and aircraft [<a href="#ref82">82</a>]. Geothermal power, derived from stable temperatures in groundwater and shallow ground, offers potential for use in heating and cooling buildings [<a href="#ref83">83</a>]. It can be employed for both generating electricity and producing heat. However, while geothermal plants can be situated on multi-use lands, their construction and operation may have adverse effects on the surrounding land and its geology [<a href="#ref84">84</a>]. The average electrical power density of a typical geothermal power plant ranges from 50 to 80 W/m². Geothermal energy is particularly effective as a heat source. For example, the Hellisheidi Geothermal Power Plant in Reykjavik, Iceland, is capable of producing hot water at a rate of 25,000 W/m² in its combined heat and power station [<a href="#ref84">84</a>].</p> <p id="id28">Biomass is a form of renewable energy that can be burned to produce electricity and heat in combined heat and power plants. However, the combustion of biomass releases carbon dioxide, so it is important to use it carefully to avoid greenhouse gas emissions [<a href="#ref85">85</a>]. The power densities of biomass can vary based on regional climate and plant types. The power density of biomass from traditional food crops typically ranges between 0.05 and 1.7 W/m<sup>2</sup>. In light of the ongoing controversy between food and fuel, it may not be sustainable to use food crops as a source of biomass energy, given the resulting implications on social and environmental justice. Therefore, there is a strong motivation to identify alternative biomass sources that are more suitable for energy generation [<a href="#ref86">86</a>].</p> </div> <div class="sap__sub-section"> <a id="sec3_5"></a><h3 class="sap__section-title">3.5. Passive houses and zero-carbon cities</h3> <p id="id29">Passive house is an energy efficiency standard for buildings that applies to all types of climates. In cold climates, it focuses on reducing heat loss and maximizing solar gain. In mild climates, improved windows and moderate insulation are sufficient for regulating heat, though greater attention should be given to the summer performance of the buildings. In hot climates, the focus shifts to increasing insulation and limiting solar loads of buildings. In hot and humid climates, efforts are made to minimize humidity loads. Every passive house is subjected to unique conditions, necessitating distinct construction and technical approaches in order to comply with the standard’s specifications [<a href="#ref87">87</a>].</p> <p id="id30">An example of a passive house project is the ARA Passive House in Veracruz, Mexico. Veracruz is in a hot-climate zone, making cooling the primary focus of the passive house design [<a href="#ref88">88</a>]. The houses are two stories high with no basement. They were built with concrete floor and roof slabs, which were insulated on the exterior. Instead of using traditional concrete blocks for the walls, lightweight clay bricks with an exterior insulation and finish system and extruded polystyrene were used to meet the standard for a passive house. As the area is highly humid, the 2.5 cm thick exterior plaster was designed to be airtight. The extruded polystyrene layer in the walls and roof serves to intercept vapor to address the humid climate [<a href="#ref88">88</a>]. Due to the high cooling requirements, the primary goal was to minimize the amount of solar heat entering the building. This was accomplished by using a reflective paint on the walls and roof, installing glazing with very high solar control, reducing the window surface, and adding interior shading during the summer months [<a href="#ref88">88</a>]. A ventilation system of high efficiency with heat recovery was installed to reduce sensible cooling demand. Placing the system in one of the bathrooms minimized the length of the exhaust and outdoor air ductwork. The distribution ducts were planned to be situated in a false ceiling on the upper floor, removing the need for ducts on the ground floor. Besides two air conditioners, a small dehumidifier was added to maintain the humidity at the recommended level [<a href="#ref88">88</a>]. Passive houses are fundamentally houses that utilize technological solutions, particularly building materials as well as heating and cooling systems, to achieve the designated standards that permit a house to be called a passive house. They contribute to mitigating urban climate change by reducing greenhouse gas emissions through decreased power consumption.</p> <p id="id31">By the end of 2020, over 800 cities worldwide had pledged to transform into net-zero carbon cities. These cities are also referred to as carbon-neutral cities, climate-neutral cities, or net-zero energy cities. They all share the common goal of deep decarbonization through significantly reducing urban greenhouse gas emissions and eliminating greenhouse gases from the atmosphere [<a href="#ref89">89</a>]. Achieving deep decarbonization requires substantial systemic changes, which is a departure from the more common actions taken by cities for low-carbon development [<a href="#ref90">90</a>]. While low-carbon strategies may have systemic elements, they do not typically include specific targets, as seen in deep decarbonization. Low-carbon strategies are normally characterized by compact development offering transit and non-motorized options to reduce road traffic flow, design of buildings with energy efficiency, adoption of fuel-efficient and clean vehicles, conversion of waste into energy, ecological conservation, and promotion of behavioral changes [<a href="#ref91">91</a>]. These strategies can serve as tools for deep decarbonization if they are tied to specific quantitative outcomes that contribute to achieving net-zero emissions. Reaching net zero, therefore, involves making significant changes across all systems that provide for our needs. It relies on a net-zero electricity grid fueled by increasingly affordable renewable energy. This transformation requires overhauling complex sociotechnical systems and revolutionizing the entrenched behavioral, infrastructural, institutional, and technological patterns [<a href="#ref89">89</a>, <a href="#ref90">90</a>]. Like passive houses, net-zero cities focus on an extensive systemic change with quantitative objectives to mitigate urban climate change. As such, materializing net zero requires an integrated approach instead of technological solutions alone.</p> </div> <div class="sap__sub-section"> <a id="sec3_6"></a><h3 class="sap__section-title">3.6. Artificial intelligence</h3> <p id="id32">The growing use of big data and IoT devices provides real-time insights to city planners for optimizing resource allocation and management. Big data helps locate harmful emissions and pressure points along supply chains [<a href="#ref92">92</a>]. Satellites have enabled the detection of climate pollutants with unprecedented precision. Smart city initiatives are increasingly adopting sensors and autonomous systems, such as responsive irrigation, to conserve, reuse, and repurpose water, especially during the periods of scarcity or excess. In smart cities, traffic lights adjust signals to reduce congestion, thus improving air quality [<a href="#ref47">47</a>]. Smart waste management incorporates sensors in smart bins to monitor fill levels, temperature, and other parameters. The real-time data helps optimize collection routes, thus reducing fuel consumption and emissions. Algorithms are employed to analyze data to create efficient waste collection schedules. Smart facilities use automation and artificial intelligence to sort recyclables from general waste [<a href="#ref93">93</a>]. Despite the thorough investigation and continuous enhancement of these technologies, many cities lack the means for their adoption and ongoing operation. Often, the deployment of such technologies necessitates societal and governmental supports to navigate the hurdles of implementation.</p> </div> </div> <div class="sap__section"> <a id="sec4"></a><h2 class="sap__main-title">4. Social solutions</h2> <p id="id33">Addressing climate change through social strategies involves reevaluating societal norms to inspire personal changes in behaviors and habits [<a href="#ref94">94</a>]. These approaches can foster wider acceptance and implementation of innovative or previously challenging actions. Initiatives that mobilize society, ranging from official government planning to community-driven projects, can reduce the perceived obstacles to adopting eco-friendly practices and spur participation through involvement, education, and direct action [<a href="#ref18">18</a>]. For instance, encouraging walking, cycling, and the use of public transportation through government and community initiatives can reduce traffic congestion and urban greenhouse gas emissions. Governments can develop dedicated bus and bicycle lanes to improve accessibility. By improving the feasibility and accessibility of cleaner options, the public is more likely to engage in these initiatives [<a href="#ref95">95</a>]. Having said that, imparting awareness to the public through education and multimedia to encourage sustainable behaviors is crucial [<a href="#ref96">96</a>]. When residents are informed about climate issues and the measures taken against those issues, they can respond more effectively. Informed citizens can advocate for climate-friendly policies at local and national levels. Community engagement strengthens the push for effective regulations [<a href="#ref97">97</a>].</p> <div class="sap__sub-section"> <a id="sec4_1"></a><h3 class="sap__section-title">4.1. Addressing social equity and differential vulnerability</h3> <p id="id34">Social strategies often focus on diminishing disparities and their effects on disadvantaged populations who may lack the means for tech-based solutions like air conditioning, access to cool green areas, or information on how to adapt to climate changes [<a href="#ref98">98</a>]. Therefore, equity and inclusivity play important roles in social solutions. Green spaces and infrastructure should be accessible to all residents. Climate-resilient infrastructure should be designed to benefit marginalized communities, while vulnerable neighborhoods should be prioritized for flood protection, cooling centers, and energy-efficient housing [<a href="#ref99">99</a>]. Collaborative governance involves citizens, local governments, and businesses in decision-making to foster inclusivity and promote diverse perspectives. Diverse perspectives often lead to more comprehensive solutions that consider different needs and interests [<a href="#ref100">100</a>]. Furthermore, collective governance distributes responsibility among multiple actors, thus garnering collective ownership and commitment to successful outcomes. Collaborative processes facilitate dialogue and negotiation, enabling conflicts to be addressed constructively [<a href="#ref100">100</a>].</p> <p id="id35">In urban areas with significant low-income populations, there may be a high awareness of climate threats, yet self-protection capabilities are often inadequate. These communities often inhabit regions that are particularly vulnerable to climate-related impacts, including floodplains, coastal areas, and urban heat islands [<a href="#ref101">101</a>]. They typically have limited resources to ready themselves for, respond to, and bounce back from climate-related calamities. They are particularly vulnerable to the impacts of urban climate change due to inadequate access to resources that enable them to adapt to urban climate change [<a href="#ref101">101</a>]. The lack of political representation or societal integration can intensify climate risks if these communities are excluded from the decision-making on adaptation and mitigation strategies [<a href="#ref102">102</a>]. The current state of vulnerability underscores the importance of addressing systemic inequalities when creating incentives, public engagement initiatives, and emergency protocols to avoid worsening or reinforcing existing disparities [<a href="#ref103">103</a>]. Forming partnerships between city and local entities may be essential to encourage cooperation across broader infrastructures, such as transit systems, water management, and zoning regulations [<a href="#ref97">97</a>]. Key roles like network facilitators are crucial in connecting isolated or marginalized groups, ensuring that all voices are considered, and fostering the collective development and exchange of knowledge [<a href="#ref104">104</a>].</p> </div> <div class="sap__sub-section"> <a id="sec4_2"></a><h3 class="sap__section-title">4.2. Behavioral change</h3> <p id="id36">Behavioral change programs have gained traction over the years, targeting at promoting sustainable behaviors such as reduced energy consumption, waste reduction, and the use of public transport [<a href="#ref94">94</a>]. To address climate change, understanding effective interventions and changeable behaviors is crucial. Real-world field experiments provide valuable insights. In a recent meta-analysis of 430 studies on enhancing climate change mitigation behaviors, mitigation interventions showed an average effect size of about 12% points. Social comparison and financial incentives were particularly effective [<a href="#ref105">105</a>]. Additionally, the study revealed that conservation behaviors, such as lowering electricity consumption, were more effectively altered through interventions compared to changing transportation habits. Strategic decisions should consider high-impact but harder-to-influence behaviors versus easier-to-influence ones [<a href="#ref105">105</a>].</p> <p id="id37">Social solutions to urban climate change, such as community engagement, inclusive planning, and education, offer several advantages and disadvantages. On the positive side, these solutions foster community resilience by involving residents in decision-making processes, ensuring that adaptation measures are tailored to local needs and knowledge. This inclusivity can enhance social cohesion and empower marginalized groups, leading to more equitable and sustainable outcomes (<b><a href="#table001">Table 1</a></b>) [<a href="#ref99">99</a>]. Additionally, raising awareness and educating the public about climate change can drive behavioral changes that reduce emissions and promote sustainable practices [<a href="#ref99">99</a>]. However, there are challenges as well. Implementing social solutions can be time-consuming and require significant resources to build trust and facilitate meaningful participation. There may also be resistance to change from certain community members, and the effectiveness of these solutions can be limited by existing social and economic inequalities (<b><a href="#table001">Table 1</a></b>) [<a href="#ref102">102</a>]. Balancing these factors is crucial for the successful integration of social solutions into urban climate strategies.</p> <div class="sap__table-wrap sap__figure_panel"> <a id="table001"></a><h5 class="sap__label">Table 1</h5> <div class="sap__caption"><h3 class="sap__title">Advantages and disadvantages of urban solutions to climate change</h3></div> <table frame="box" rules="all" cellpadding="3"> <a id="id38"></a><thead> <a id="id39"></a><tr> <a id="id40"></a><th align="left"> <a id="id41"></a>Urban solution</th> <th align="left"> <a id="id42"></a>Advantage</th> <th align="left"> <a id="id43"></a>Disadvantage</th> </tr> </thead> <tbody> <a id="id44"></a><tr> <a id="id45"></a><td valign="top"> <a id="id46"></a>Nature-based</td> <td> <a id="id47"></a> <div class="sap__list"> <a id="id48"></a><ul> <li><p id="id49">Increase carbon sink through greening.</p></li> <li><p id="id50">Provide local climate regulation and recreation.</p></li> <li><p id="id51">Improve air quality.</p></li> <li><p id="id52">Contribute to water purification and flood attenuation.</p></li> </ul> </div> </td> <td> <a id="id53"></a> <div class="sap__list"> <a id="id54"></a><ul> <li><p id="id55">Limited effectiveness in addressing climate change.</p></li> <li><p id="id56">Affected by climate change itself.</p></li> <li><p id="id57">Can be costly to implement.</p></li> <li><p id="id58">Require extensive planning and governance.</p></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr> <a id="id59"></a><td valign="top"> <a id="id60"></a>Technological</td> <td> <a id="id61"></a> <div class="sap__list"> <a id="id62"></a><ul> <li><p id="id63">Facilitate a better understanding of climate challenges and solutions.</p></li> <li><p id="id64">Enable effective monitoring and quantification of greenhouse gas emissions.</p></li> <li><p id="id65">Reduce energy consumption.</p></li> <li><p id="id66">Provide cleaner transportation.</p></li> </ul> </div> </td> <td valign="top"> <a id="id67"></a> <div class="sap__list"> <a id="id68"></a><ul> <li><p id="id69">Lack of social and ecological considerations.</p></li> <li><p id="id70">Significant disconnects between the target set by these solutions and the actual emissions.</p></li> <li><p id="id71">Lack of technical support and financing.</p></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr> <a id="id72"></a><td valign="top"> <a id="id73"></a>Social</td> <td> <a id="id74"></a> <div class="sap__list"> <a id="id75"></a><ul> <li><p id="id76">Enhance social cohesion, equity, human health, and life quality.</p></li> <li><p id="id77">Identify and mitigate risks for the most vulnerable.</p></li> <li><p id="id78">Garner community support.</p></li> <li><p id="id79">Promote decentralized, community-led solutions.</p></li> <li><p id="id80">Impart a better understanding of climate problems to the public.</p></li> <li><p id="id81">Raise awareness and facilitate behavioral changes.</p></li> </ul> </div> </td> <td valign="top"> <a id="id82"></a> <div class="sap__list"> <a id="id83"></a><ul> <li><p id="id84">Risk enlarging social gaps and undermining social cohesion, particularly in places where political representation or social integration is lacking.</p></li> <li><p id="id85">The link between environmental crises and social disadvantage is often not clearly highlighted within urban policies and planning.</p></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr> <a id="id86"></a><td valign="top"> <a id="id87"></a>Integrated</td> <td> <a id="id88"></a> <div class="sap__list"> <a id="id89"></a><ul> <li><p id="id90">Offer synergistic benefits through combining actions to combat climate change.</p></li> <li><p id="id91">Address interconnected of the climate change and biodiversity loss crises.</p></li> <li><p id="id92">Based on inclusive decision-making that recognizes the land rights of indigenous peoples and local communities.</p></li> </ul> </div> </td> <td valign="top"> <a id="id93"></a> <div class="sap__list"> <a id="id94"></a><ul> <li><p id="id95">Complex due to the need to balance and coordinate all three solutions.</p></li> <li><p id="id96">The broad and somewhat vague nature of integrated solutions can leave them open to misuse or misinterpretation.</p></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> </tbody> </table> </div> <p id="id97">A summary of the advantages and disadvantages of each urban solution is shown in <b><a href="#table001">Table 1</a></b>.</p> </div> </div> <div class="sap__section"> <a id="sec5"></a><h2 class="sap__main-title">5. Integrated solutions</h2> <p id="id98">While this review attempts to classify urban solutions to climate change into three major groups of nature-based, technological, and social solutions, they are often not clear-cut. Solutions such as green walls and roofs are, in fact, techno-ecological rather than purely nature-based as they involve the technology development of modules, frames, and growth media to support the plants [<a href="#ref106">106</a>]. A smart green roof, for instance, is an innovative roofing system that combines technological advancements with nature-based solutions to enhance energy efficiency and urban resilience. It uses sensors to monitor weather conditions, moisture levels, and other environmental factors. Analyzing data from sensors helps optimize its performance and resource utilization. It may also incorporate solar panels to collect solar energy and convert it into electricity [<a href="#ref107">107</a>]. The innovative road safety programs in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, is another example of a techno-ecological solution, with tram corridors built with grassed, pervious surfaces as part of water-sensitive urban design and for stormwater drainage. The programs also incorporate a social solution where public transport costs are subsidized to discourage car use [<a href="#ref108">108</a>].</p> <p id="id99">The overlapping of urban solutions to climate change gives rise to integrated solutions, which combine two or more solutions to enhance resilience and address complex socioecological issues in mitigating or adapting to climate change. Therefore, the integrated solutions can be techno-ecological, socioecological, socio-technological, or a blend of all three solutions [<a href="#ref109">109</a>]. Integrating these solutions can provide multiple co-benefits. For instance, utilizing technological advancement in green spaces not only enables more effective greening but also improves heat mitigation, air quality, and mental well-being [<a href="#ref110">110</a>]. Engaging communities in greening imparts a sense of ownership to urban greening projects while extending greening to private or community grounds. It could also foster community cohesion through promoting interaction and creating vibrant and inclusive neighborhoods. Participating communities could enjoy the green space they collaboratively create for relaxation and recreation, thus positively impacting the residents’ mental health and overall well-being [<a href="#ref111">111</a>]. For example, the Nature4Cities Project is a comprehensive initiative aimed at integrating nature-based solutions into urban planning to address climate change and enhance urban resilience. Funded by the Green Climate Fund and Euroclima+, the project operates in 13 cities across Latin America, focusing on creating green spaces, restoring wetlands, and enhancing biodiversity [<a href="#ref112">112</a>]. It provides tools for urban adaptation, supports policy and institutional frameworks, fosters public–private partnerships, and defines strategies for climate financing. By protecting and restoring ecosystem services, the project aims to reduce climate vulnerability, manage water resources, and improve urban living conditions [<a href="#ref113">113</a>]. The Nature4Cities Project exemplifies how natural solutions can be effectively incorporated into urban environments to create sustainable and resilient cities [<a href="#ref113">113</a>]. While labeled as nature-based solutions, the project incorporates social approaches to ensure the government and private sectors, as well as vulnerable communities, are engaged. It is, therefore, an integrated solution.</p> <p id="id100">Living seawalls are another example of integrated solutions. Unlike traditional concrete seawalls, which hinder plant and animal growth, living seawalls use natural materials like plants, sand, or rock to stabilize coastal edges. These materials allow coastal habitats to flourish over time, providing refuge for marine creatures and seaweeds to colonize and grow. Living seawalls mimic natural shorelines by recreating pits, crevices, and pools using modular concrete panels [<a href="#ref114">114</a>]. A living seawall can be observed in eastern North Carolina, USA, along the beach on Pivers Island. The marsh (living seawall) was cultivated with cordgrass (<i>Spartina alterniflora</i>) supported by an oyster sill, as opposed to using a granite sill or a conventional concrete seawall [<a href="#ref115">115</a>]. The oyster shells, some of which were salvaged from existing bulkheads, were strategically placed beneath the lowest point of the marsh and along the periphery of the mudflats to prevent sinking into softer ground. The marsh and adjacent oyster reef have become important ecosystems for fisheries and avian species. Moreover, the ability of the marsh to capture sediment has led to improved water clarity, and it has been successful in capturing and storing carbon effectively (58–283 g carbon m<sup>−2</sup> yr<sup>−1</sup>) [<a href="#ref116">116</a>].</p> <p id="id101">In Freiburg, Germany, green roofs, urban forests, and permeable surfaces have been employed to manage stormwater and reduce heat island effects. The residents participated in decision-making processes, fostering social cohesion and sustainable practices. This project includes all the solutions to mitigate urban climate problems [<a href="#ref117">117</a>]. In Rotterdam, the Netherlands, an innovative project called Green Tramways integrates tram systems with green infrastructure. This initiative not only reduces emissions from transportation but also enhances carbon removal. Additionally, the presence of greenery along tram corridors helps mitigate the urban heat island effect, reducing the need for cooling [<a href="#ref118">118</a>]. Moreover, when combined with nature conservation efforts, greening transportation corridors can address adaptation challenges by minimizing ecosystem fragmentation and supporting biodiversity conservation. This techno-ecological approach can be linked to the social solution of transit-oriented development, which is essentially a planning strategy that concentrates jobs, housing, and services around public transport stations. Transit-oriented development (TOD) strategically locates residential, commercial, and entertainment areas near transit stations [<a href="#ref119">119</a>]. The goal is to improve public transport accessibility, encourage sustainable urban growth, and create a harmonious connection between compact urban design and transit usage, ultimately reducing dependence on private vehicles and enhancing overall quality of life [<a href="#ref120">120</a>]. Techno-ecological and social elements are also evident in the Smart Green ASEAN Cities (SGAC) program. The SGAC program, financed by the European Union and carried out by the United Nations Capital Development Fund in collaboration with the ASEAN Secretariat, aims to advance sustainable urban development in Southeast Asia [<a href="#ref121">121</a>]. It is dedicated to creating and implementing environmentally friendly and innovative city solutions to combat the impact of climate change. The program works with local governments to attract private-sector investment and establish new financing methods. Additionally, it facilitates knowledge exchange between the European Union and ASEAN, and promotes the sharing of successful strategies for managing smart and environmentally conscious cities [<a href="#ref121">121</a>].</p> <p id="id102">While sustainable urban drainage systems were discussed under nature-based solutions, they are more precisely integrated solutions, especially their more sophisticated variants, such as low-impact development. Low-impact development is, in fact, a broader urban development concept that aims to manage stormwater as close to its source as possible. It seeks to minimize disruptions to natural water flow by mimicking natural processes [<a href="#ref17">17</a>]. Its core principle lies in handling rainwater where it falls using decentralized, small-scale management practices to maintain pre-development hydrologic conditions, thereby reducing the impact of urbanization on water quality and quantity [<a href="#ref17">17</a>]. It encompasses not only drainage systems but also other solutions such as conserving natural features, on-site stormwater management through rain gardens, green roofs, and permeable pavements, as well as facilitating infiltration and groundwater recharge [<a href="#ref122">122</a>]. Water-sensitive urban design is an even broader, integrated approach encompassing low-impact development. It integrates the entire urban water cycle, including stormwater, wastewater, and potable water management, into the urban design process to create urban environments that are more sustainable, resilient, and livable [<a href="#ref123">123</a>].</p> <p id="id103">While integrated solutions provide a more holistic approach to adapt to and mitigate urban climate change, they are inherently complex. These solutions often involve multiple stakeholders and complex systems, making implementation challenging [<a href="#ref124">124</a>]. The initial investment for technologies and infrastructure can be high, potentially limiting adoption, especially in resource-constrained settings [<a href="#ref125">125</a>]. These solutions require ongoing maintenance, which can be resource-intensive. Moreover, without supportive policies and incentives, it can be difficult to implement large-scale integrated solutions. There is a need for more research to fully understand the efficacy and long-term benefits of such solutions [<a href="#ref11">11</a>].</p> </div> <div class="sap__section"> <a id="sec6"></a><h2 class="sap__main-title">6. Conclusions</h2> <p id="id104">Unprecedented climate events are diminishing the quality of life in cities, exacerbating inequality, and posing risks to infrastructure. While urban solutions to the climate dilemma are generally classified into three categories, namely nature-based, technological, and social, they are rarely mutually exclusive. These categories of solutions are often combined, forming integrated approaches that contain any two or all categories, with the techno-ecological approach being more common than other combinations. A combination of technological, nature-oriented, and societal adaptation and mitigation approaches can offer numerous mutual benefits. It addresses intricate urban socioecological problems related to climate change, such as urban ecosystem restoration, drainage, and social equity, and also enhances resilience to potential impacts. Nevertheless, the development and execution of these integrated solutions face numerous obstacles. Climate change is set to introduce further complications to the intricate environmental and socioeconomic systems, where deliberate changes to the systems might be compromised, especially in regions where the complexity is inadequately understood. Moreover, when deploying any set of solutions tailored to a specific city, attention should be given to the order and timing of the implementation of individual solutions. This is because not all solutions would yield an immediately noticeable impact. Some solutions may only be effective after a period of latency. For instance, nature-based solutions, including urban greening, green infrastructure, and ecosystem restoration, require time since vegetations need to grow and mature before they can deliver significant cooling and carbon sequestration benefits. A shift to clean energy and transportation also requires proper planning to gradually phase out conventional energy and vehicles. In terms of order, extensive infrastructural development and education are often necessary prior to the popularization of a cleaner practice, such as the use of clean transportation.</p> <p id="id105">The following recommendations are therefore made to promote integrated urban solutions to climate change: (1) encourage interdisciplinary collaboration as it can lead to the development of comprehensive solutions that consider all aspects of urban living; (2) involve local communities in the planning and implementation process, so that the solutions are tailored to the specific needs and characteristics of the community while garnering public support for climate initiatives; (3) integrate climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies into urban planning and policymaking processes to ensure that climate considerations are taken into account in all aspects of urban development; (4) set budget for green infrastructure at different levels of governance; (5) promote sustainable transportation through the development of clean public transport, advocating for cycling, walking and car-sharing, and the use of sustainable fuels and energy; (6) implement energy-efficient technologies in buildings and infrastructure; (7) increase public awareness and understanding of climate change and the importance of mitigation and adaptation through education programs, public campaigns, and community events; and (8) support research and innovation in integrated urban solutions.</p> </div> </div> <div id="article-back" class="sap__back"> <div class="sap__back-section"> <a id="id107"></a><h2 class="sap__main-title">Acknowledgments</h2> <p id="id106">The author wishes to thank the University of Arizona for the administrative support provided.</p> </div> <div class="sap__back-section"> <a id="sec7"></a><h2 class="sap__main-title">Funding</h2> <p id="id108">The author declares no financial support for the research, authorship, or publication of this article.</p> </div> <div class="sap__back-section"> <a id="sec8"></a><h2 class="sap__main-title">Author contributions</h2> <p id="id109">The author confirms sole responsibility for this work. The author approves of this work and takes responsibility for its integrity.</p> </div> <div class="sap__back-section"> <a id="id111"></a><h2 class="sap__main-title">Conflict of interest</h2> <p id="id110">The author declares no conflict of interest.</p> </div> <div class="sap__back-section"> <a id="sec10"></a><h2 class="sap__main-title">Data availability statement</h2> <p id="id112">Data supporting these findings are available within the article, at <a target="xrefwindow" href="https://doi.org/10.20935/AcadEnvSci7342" id="id113">https://doi.org/10.20935/AcadEnvSci7342</a>, or upon request.</p> </div> <div class="sap__back-section"> <a id="sec11"></a><h2 class="sap__main-title">Institutional review board statement</h2> <p id="id114">Not applicable.</p> </div> <div class="sap__back-section"> <a id="sec12"></a><h2 class="sap__main-title">Informed consent statement</h2> <p id="id115">Not applicable.</p> </div> <div class="sap__back-section"> <a id="sec13"></a><h2 class="sap__main-title">Sample availability</h2> <p id="id116">The author declares no physical samples were used in the study.</p> </div> <div class="sap__back-section"> <a id="sec15"></a><h2 class="sap__main-title">Publisher’s note</h2> <p id="id117">Academia.edu Journals stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. 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